Lab Manual

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(03192101)
B. Tech. 1st year

Applied Science and Humanity
Laboratory Manual
ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101)
B. Tech. 1st year
Instructions to students
1. The main objective of the Engineering Physics laboratory is: Learning Engineering Physics
through the Experimentation. All the experiments are designed to illustrate various phenomena
in different areas of Engineering Physics and also to expose the students to various
instruments and their uses.
2. Be prompt in arriving to the laboratory and always come well prepared for the experiment.
3. Be careful while working on the equipment’s operated with high voltage power supply.
4. Work quietly and carefully. Give equal opportunity to all your fellow students to work on the
instruments.
5. Every student should have his/her individual copy of the Engineering Physics Practical Book.
6. Every student has to prepare the notebooks specifically reserved for the Engineering Physics
practical work:” Engineering Physics Practical Book”
7. Every student has to necessarily bring his/her Engineering Physics Practical Book, Engineering
Physics Practical Class Notebook and Engineering Physics Practical Final Notebook, when
he/she comes to the Practical to perform the experiment.
8. Record your observations honestly. Never makeup reading or doctor them either to get a better fit
on the graph or to produce the correct result. Display all your observations on the graph (if
applicable)
9. All the observations have to be neatly recorded in the Engineering Physics Practical Class
Notebook (as explained in the Engineering Physics Practical Book) and verified by the instructor
before leaving the laboratory.
10. If some of the readings appear to be wrong then repeat the set of observations carefully.
11. Do not share your readings with your fellow student. Every student has to produce his/her own set
of readings by performing the experiment separately.
12. After verification of the recorded observations, do the calculation in the Engineering Physics
Practical Class Notebook (as explained in the Engineering Physics Practical Book) and produce
the desired results and get them verified by the instructor.
13. Never forget to mention the units of the observed quantities in the observation table. After
calculations, represent the results with appropriate units.
14. Calculate the percentage error in the results obtained by you if the standard results are available and
also try to point out the sources of errors in the experiment.
15. Find the answers of all the questions mentioned under the section ‘Find the Answers’ at the end of
each experiment in the Engineering Physics Practical Book.
16. Finally record the verified observations along with the calculation and results in the Engineering
Physics Practical Notebook.
17. Do not forget to get the information of your next allotment (the experiment which is to be
performed by you in the next laboratory session) before leaving the laboratory from the Technical
Assistant.
18. The grades for the Engineering Physics practical course work will be awarded based on your
performance in the laboratory, regularity, recording of experiments in the Engineering Physics
Practical Final Notebook, lab quiz, regular viva-voce and end-term examination.
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that

Mr./Ms.…………………………………………………
with enrolment no. …………………………has successfully
completed his/her laboratory experiments
In Engineering Physics laboratory during the academic
year………….
Date:
Signature of HOD: Signature of lab teacher:
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INDEX
Page No. Date Date Marks

SR.
TITLE of of (out of Sign
NO. From To
Performance Assessment 10)
To study the I-V
characteristic of LED
1 and determine Knee
voltage and dynamic
resistance of LED.
To study the reverse
bias characteristics of
2 a ZENER diode and
determine its Break
down voltage and
dynamic resistance.
To measure the
velocity of ultrasonic
3 waves in water and
determine the
Compressibility of
water.
To determine
4 Dielectric Constants
of given dielectric
samples.
To determine material
5 constant of
semiconductor.
6 To determine band
gap of semiconductor.
To determine the Hall
7 coefficient and charge
carrier density of
Semiconductor crystal
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8 To determine Planck’s
constant using LED.
To determine the
9 wavelength of
LASER using
diffraction of light.
To Determine the
10 Numerical Aperture
of an Optical Fiber.
To determine the size
of lycopodium powder
11 particle using the
phenomena of
Diffraction of light
To study various types
of losses that occur in
Optical Fibers
12 (PMMA) and measure
the loss in dB of two
optical fiber patch-
cords.
To trace the B-H
curve for an iron core
13 and to study the effect
of varying the voltage
and frequency of
hysteresis loop.
14 Virtual Lab -1
15 Virtual Lab-2
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EXPERIMENT NO. 1
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
OBJECTIVE: To study the I-V characteristic of LED and determine Knee voltage and
dynamic resistance of LED.
APPARATUS: Circuit board comprises 0-10 V D.C. at 10 mA, continuously variable

regulated power supply, integral current limiting resistor, Digital voltmeter,
digital current meter, LED, Patch chords.
THEORY: Light Emitting Diodes
Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s are among the most widely used of all the different types of
semiconductor diodes available today. They are the most visible type of diode that emit a fairly
narrow bandwidth of either visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red
light for remote controls or laser type light when a forward current is passed through them. A
"Light Emitting Diode" or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialized
type of PN junction diode, made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor
material.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band
recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons
which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable
number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light
output. Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting
Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
LED Construction
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The construction of a light emitting diode is very different from that of a normal signal diode.
The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin
hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both vibration and shock.
By mixing together a variety of semiconductor, metal and gas compounds the following
list of LEDs can be produced
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - infra-red
• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAs P) - red to infra-red, orange
• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (Al Ga As P) – high-brightness red, orange-red,

orange, and yellow
• Gallium Phosphide (Ga P) - red, yellow and green
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (Al Ga P) - green
• Gallium Nitride (Ga N) - green, emerald green
• Gallium Indium Nitride (Ga In N) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
• Silicon Carbide (Si C) - blue as a substrate
• Zinc Selenide (Zn Se) - blue
• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (Al Ga N) – ultraviolet
SIMPLE DIODE:
A simple diode is a two terminal electrode device consisting of p – n junction, formed either
from germanium (Ge) or silicon (Si) crystal. The circuit symbol of a p – n junction diode or
semiconductor diode is shown in Fig.
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LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:
The operation of light emitting diode (LED) is based on the phenomenon of

electroluminescence, which is the emission of light from a semiconductor material under the
influence of an electric field. LEDs are the best known optoelectronic devices which emit a
fairly narrow bandwidth of visible light; usually red, orange, yellow, blue or green. A light
emitting diode is a simply a p – n junction diode. It is usually made from semiconductor
materials such as aluminium gallium arsenide (Al Ga As) or gallium arsenide phosphide (Ga
As P).
FORWARD BIASING:
When the positive end of the battery is connected to the anode of the diode and negative to
cathode of the diode, the connection is called forward biasing.
When the p – n junction diode is forward biased and if the applied voltage is gradually
increased in steps, at some forward voltage, 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si, the potential barrier
is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing. This voltage is known as threshold voltage
(Vth) or knee voltage or cut in voltage. The mill ammeter readings are noted at various steps of
applied voltage and a graph is plotted between voltage and current, as shown in Fig(ii). From
the graph it is seen that practically no current flows until the barrier voltage (VB) is overcome.
When the external voltage exceeds the barrier potential or the threshold value, the current
increases exponentially. This portion is known as linear operating region of the diode. If the
forward voltage is increased beyond a safe limit, damage is likely to occur to the diode due to
overheating.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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PROCEDURE:
• Set – up the circuit as shown in figure.

• Set the current limiter suitably, e.g. 100 mA for rectifiers and 20 mA for LED, Zener diode
and small signal diodes.
• Vary the voltage in small steps and measures the current in terms of the voltage drop across
the resistance. The current in mA is obtained by dividing it by the value of resistance. Also,
the actual voltage across the diode should be corrected for by taking into account the drop
across the current measuring resistance, i.e., VD = VM – VR where VD is the voltage across
diode; VM is the measured voltage; VR is the voltage across current measuring resistance.
Tabulate the readings.
• Sketch the V – I characteristics with voltage on X-axis and current on Y-axis and extend
the linear portion of the curve downward to obtain the cut-in voltage Vc. The slope of the
linear portion gives the dynamic resistance rd of the diode.
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OBSERATION TABLE:
(Value of series resistance R=_____________ ohm)
Sr. Applied Resistive Voltage Current Voltage across

No. Voltage (VR) (mA) Diode
Vin(volt) (mV) I=VR /R VL= Vin- (VR*10-3)
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CALCULATION:
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PRECAUTIONS:
• Set the current limit switch properly. An incorrect setting may damage the device under
test.
• To sketch the characteristics accurately near the sharp bends (around the cut-in and
breakdown points) a larger number of readings may be necessary. Choose suitable
resistances, as suggested, for current measurements in these portions
RESULT: The forward biased characteristics curve is plotted in the graph.
The knee voltage of given LED is found as________ volt.
The dynamic resistance of LED is found as ___________ ohm.
QUESTIONS: -
1] What do u mean by knee voltage?
Ans: -
2] What is depletion region in PN junction?
Ans: -
3] What is barrier potential?
Ans: -
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE
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EXPERIMENT NO.2
ZENER DIODE
OBJECTIVE: To study the reverse bias characteristics of a ZENER diode and determine its
Break down voltage and dynamic resistance.
APPARATUS: Circuit board comprises 0-10 V D.C. at 10 mA, continuously variable

regulated power supply, integral current limiting resistor, Digital voltmeter,
digital current meter ZENER diode, Patch chords.
THEORY: The circuit diagram to plot the VI characteristics of a Zener diode is shown. Zener
diode is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to compensate for the
damage that occurs in the case of a p-n junction diode when the reverse bias exceeds the
breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid rate.
Applying a positive potential to the anode and a negative potential to the cathode of the
Zener diode establishes a forward bias condition. The forward characteristic of the Zener diode
is same as that of a p-n junction diode i.e. as the applied potential increases the current
increases exponentially. Applying a negative potential to the anode and positive potential to the
cathode reverse biases the Zener diode.
As the reverse bias increases, the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that
of the positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs. It occurs
because there is a strong electric filed in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding
forces within the atom and generate carriers. The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount
of doping. For a heavily doped diode depletion layer will be thin and breakdown occurs at low
reverse voltage and the breakdown voltage is sharp where as a lightly doped diode has a higher
breakdown voltage. This explains the Zener diode characteristics in the reverse bias region.
The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the Zener
region is called the Peak Inverse Voltage referred to as PIV rating or the Peak Reverse Voltage
Rating (PRV rating).
REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE.
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The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the
diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can
see that the Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant
negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains
nearly constant even with large changes in current as long as the Zener diodes current remains
between the breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).The fact that the
voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an
important application of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
If the reverse bias applied to a p-n junction diode is increased, a point will be reached at
which the junction breaks down and the current flowing in the reverse voltage at which this
occurs and the breakdown mechanism involved, depends on the construction of the diode. In a
conventional rectifier diode, reverse breakdown should not occur within the voltage rating of
the diode (which may be several hundred volts). When reverse breakdown occurs in rectifier it
destroys the diode. Such breakdown is also known as “AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN’. The
“avalanche breakdown” mechanism predominates in diodes having reverse breakdown
voltages above about 8V.
Devices can be made with reverse breakdown voltages below about 3 V. This type of
breakdown is known as “ZENER BREAKDOWN”. When reverse breakdown occurs at
voltages in the range 3 to 8, then both Zener and avalanche breakdown mechanism are
involved. It is customary to describe diodes that are continuously operated in the reverse
breakdown mode as ZENER diode, even though the actual breakdown mechanism may be of
the avalanche type. Breakdown voltages of commercially available diodes range from about 1
to 1000. Zener diodes are used in the reverse biased mode to give stable fixed voltage
references in practical circuits.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit for reverse bias of Zener diode as shown in the figure Fig.
2. Switch ON the board. Slowly increase the 0-10 V supply and note down the readings of
voltmeter for the supply voltage and voltage across the diode.
3. Plot the voltage and current readings on a graph paper by taking voltage on the negative X-
axis and current on the negative Y-axis. The plot will look like the reverse bias
characteristics shown in Fig.
4. We observe that negligible current flows through the Zener diode till the Zener voltage i.e.
6V is reached. Thereafter on increasing the applied voltage there is almost no variation in
the voltage across the Zener diode.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Value of series resistance R= _____________ ohm
Sr. Applied Resistive Voltage Current Voltage across

No. Voltage (VR) (mA) Diode
Vin(volt) (mV) I=VR /R VZ = Vin - (VR*10-3)
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CALCULATION:
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RESULT: The revere biased characteristics of Zener diode has been plotted in the graph.
The breakdown voltage of Zener diode is found as ________ volt
The dynamic resistance of Zener diode is found as __________ohm.
QUESTIONS: -
1] What is meant by biasing a PN junction?
Ans: -
2] What is Reverse saturation current?
Ans: -
3] What is avalanche break down?
Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT NO. 3
ULTRASONIC INTERFERROMETER
OBJECTIVE: To measure the velocity of ultrasonic waves in water and determine the
Compressibility of water
APPARATUS: Frequency Generator 1 & 3 MHz, Co-axial cable, Ultrasonic interferometer

with micrometer screw and Measuring Cell, Base to hold the Cell & the
given liquid.
THEORY: An ultrasonic interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the

ultrasonic velocity in liquids with a high degree of accuracy.
The principle employed in the measurement of velocity (v) is based on the accurate
determination of the wavelength (l) in the medium. Ultrasonic waves of known frequency (f)
are produced by a quartz crystal fixed at the bottom of the cell. These waves are reflected by a
movable metallic plate kept parallel to the quartz crystal. If the separation between these two
plates is exactly a whole acoustic resonance gives rise to an electrical reaction on the generator
driving the quartz crystal and the anode current of the generator becomes a maximum. If the
distance is now increased or decreased and the variation is exactly half the wavelength (λ/2) or
multiple of it, anode current becomes maximum. Using the value of λ, the velocity (v) can be
obtained by the relation
Velocity = wavelength x frequency
v = λ× f
Where,
V is the velocity of the ultrasonic waves,
λ is the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves &
f is the frequency of the ultrasonic waves.
Compressibility is given as,
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𝟏
Compressibility (β) = 𝛒𝐯𝟐
Where,
β is compressibility of the liquid,
ρ is the density of the liquid &
v is the velocity of the liquid.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:
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PROCEDURE:
• Unscrew the knurled cap of the cell and lift it away from double walled construction of the
cell. In the middle portion of it pour experimental liquid and screw the knurled cap.
• Wipe out excess liquid overflowing from the cell. Insert the cell in the socket and clamp it
with the help of a screw provided on its side.
• High frequency generator is connected to the cell using co-axial cables.
• Move the micrometer slowly in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction till the anode
current on the ammeter on the high frequency generator shows a maximum or a minimum.
Note the readings of micrometer.
• Take readings of a few consecutive maximum or minimum.
• The difference between two consecutive readings will give λ/2. Take the average of all the
differences.
• Once the wavelength (λ) is known the velocity of ultrasonic wave in the liquid can be
calculated.
• From the value of velocity, we can calculate the compressibility of liquid.
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Least count of Micro meter screw = pitch/Total no. of divisions on circular scale
= ________mm
Micro meter Reading(in mm)

Difference
Vernier
Coinciding Reading between
Main Scale Average
Sr. mark on Corresponding consecutive
Scale reading (λ/2)
No. Vernier to maxima/ maxima/minima
reading C=BX (mm)
scale minima (λ/2)
[A] mm LC
[B] [A+C] (mm)
mm
CALCULATIONS:
Density of the given liquid (water) = 996.458 kg/m3.
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PRECAUTIONS:
• Do not switch on the generator without filling the experimental liquid in the cell.
• Do not tilt the cell after filling the liquid to avoid flow of liquid towards micrometer which
may rust/jam the threads of the micrometer heads.
• Remove experimental liquid out of cell after use. Keep it clean and dry.
• Keep micrometer open at 25mm after use.
• Avoid sudden rise or fall in temperature of circulated liquid to prevent thermal shock to the
quartz crystal.
• While cleaning the cell, care should be taken not to spoil or scratch the gold plating on the
quartz crystal.
• Give your generator 15seconds warming up time before the observation.
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RESULT:
The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid is found as …………………….. m/s.
The compressibility of the liquid is measured as …...................... m2/N.
QUESTIONS: -
1] Explain the term ultrasonic waves?
Ans: -
2] What is least count and write the formula?
Ans: -
3] Write methods for production of ultrasonic waves?
Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT NO.4
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
OBJECTIVE: To determine Dielectric Constants of given dielectric samples.
APPARATUS: Dielectric Constant Measurement Trainer kit with inbuilt standard
Capacitors, Dielectric samples (Glass, Bakelite, PZT, Plywood), gold plated
Brass plates
THEORY: The dielectric constant (ε) of a dielectric material can be defined as the ratio of the
capacitance using that material as the dielectric in a capacitor to the capacitance using a
vacuum as the dielectric. Typical values of ε for dielectrics are:
Material DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (ε)
Vacuum 1.000
Dry Air 1.0059
Barium Titanate 100-1250
Glass 3.8-14.5
Quartz 5
Mica 4-9
Water distilled 34-78
Soil dry 2.4-2.9
Titanium dioxide 100
If C = capacitance using the material as the dielectric in the capacitor,

C0 = capacitance using vacuum as the dielectric
ε0 = Permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)
A = Area of the plate/ sample cross section area
t = Thickness of the sample
Then,
Dielectric constant is given by
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C 0 A
 Where C0 
C0 t
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the dielectric cell assembly to the main unit and insert the sample in between
plates(SS PLATES)
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B. Tech. 1st year
2) Switch ON the unit.

3) Choose the standard capacitor (with the help of the switch S2) SC1 for the material having
low dielectric constants (like Bakelite, glass, plywood) and SC2 for the material having
high dielectric constant (like PZT sample)
4) Shift S1 TOWARDS DC to measure the voltage across dielectric cell say VDC and towards
SC to measure voltage across standard capacitor, say VSC. Calculate capacitance C using
the formula
C= (VSC/VDC)*CSC
5) Calculate the capacitance of an air capacitor considering the thickness of air between the
plates exactly equal to the thickness of dielectric sample using the formula given.
6) Take the ratio of capacitance of capacitor with dielectric to the capacitance of capacitor
without dielectric.
NOTE:
For sample, other than provided with the kit, measure the capacitance of the sample placed in
between the SS disc with the help of any capacitance meter available. If measured capacitance
value is not comparable to either of SC1 or SC2, connect the capacitor having value near to that
measured value between the plugs provided at SC3 and shift S2 to SC3 and repeat the step 4.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Radius of brass plates (for PZT) = 12.5  10 3 m
2. Radius of brass plates (for Glass, Plywood, Bakelite) = 3.75  10 2 m
3. Thickness of PZT sample = 1.08  10 3 m
4. Thickness of Glass sample = 4.66  10 3 m
5. Thickness of Bakelite sample = 4.66  10 3 m
6. Thickness of Plywood sample = 2.8  10 3 m
OBSERVATION TABLE:
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Voltage across
Capacitance Capacitance Dielectric
Standard Dielectri
Sr. Dielectric Standard with dielectric without constant
No Capacitor c cell
Sample Capacitor C=(VSC/VDC)*CSC dielectric ε = C/CO
Vsc VDC
SC (F) 𝒓𝟐
CO=
(volt) (volt) 𝟑𝟔𝒅
(nF)
1 Glass 48 pf
2 Bakelite 48 pf
3 Plywood 48 pf
4 PZT 15 nf
CALCULATION:
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RESULT: The dielectric constants measured from this experiment
For Glass =___________________.
For Bakelite =_________________.
For Plywood =_________________.
For PZT =___________________.
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QUESTIONS: -
1] Define dielectric constant?
Ans: -
2] Define capacitor?
Ans: -
3] Write full form of PZT?
Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5 -6
BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR
OBJECTIVE: To determine material constant and energy band gap of a semiconductor.
APPARATUS: P-N junction set up, oven, diodes (IN 5402 and IN 5408), connecting leads,
transistor (BC 109)
THEORY: The current I in the P-N junction is given by
 eVKT 

I  I0 e  1
 
 
Where, I 0 = leakage current
e= charge of electron= 1.6  1019 coulomb
V= junction voltage
 = material constant = 1 for Ge
= 2 for Si
K= Boltzmann constant= 1.38  10 23 J / K
T= temperature in Kelvin
eV
KT
For e >>1,
eV
 ln I  ln I 0 
KT
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The above equation represents a straight line obtained when ln I is plotted on Y-axis & V is
e
plotted on X-axis whose slope is which gives value of  .
KT
The intercept of this graph on Y-axis gives the value of reverse saturation current.
Now, the reverse saturation current is also written as
  V  VG 0 
I 0  KT m expe 
  KT 

For Si: m=1.5,  =2

For Ge: m=2,  =1
 
 ln I 0  ln K  m ln T  e V  VG 0 
 KT 
At I=constant, differentiating w.r.t T,
m d  V  VG 0 

0=0+  e
T dT  KT 

m  e  dV V  VG 0  1
0  . e . 2
T  KT  dT K T
dV mKT
VG 0  V  T . 
dT e
dV
The slope of the graph V vs T gives value of & hence VG 0 can be calculated which gives
dT
the band gap at temperature T=300 K.
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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect P-N junction set up to the AC mains.

2. Insert the oven knob to the oven socket provided on set up.
3. Connect the junction transistor lead to the terminals provided on set up as polarity indicated
on it.
4. Switch on the set up
5. Vary the voltage & measure the current.
e
6. Plot the graph of lnI vs V & find out the slope from which  can be calculated.
KT
7. The intercept of this graph on Y-axis gives the value of reverse saturation current.
8. Now insert the transistor in oven and set the forward current to a low value I f  2mA
9. Switch the display to TEMP mode & vary the oven temperature from ambient to about 360
K & measure the junction voltage.
10. Plot the graph of V vs T.
dV
11. The slope of the graph V vs T gives value of & hence VG 0 can be calculated which
dT
gives the band gap at temperature T=300 K
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Room Temperature, T = ____________ k
Sr. Applied Voltage Forward current

ln I
No. (V) volt I (μA)
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I f  2mA
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Sr.
Voltage (V) Temperature (K)
No.
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CALCULATION:
e
Slope = (for graph lnI vs V)
KT
 =_______________
dV mKT
NOW, VG 0  V  T . 
dT e
=_________________
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RESULT:
(1) Material constant  =________________
(2) Energy band gap =_______________ eV.
QUESTIONS: -
1] Define band-gap?
Ans: -
2] What is material constant and what does it suggest?

Ans: -
3] Which of the two-semiconductor materials Si or Ge has larger conductivity at room

temperature? Why?
Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT NO. 7
HALL EFFECT
OBJECTIVE: To determine the Hall coefficient and charge carrier density of a

Semiconductor crystal
APPARATUS: Electromagnet, Electromagnet constant power supply, Hall probe, Gauss

Meter, Semiconductor crystal mounted on PCB, multi meter.
THEORY: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to

the direction of current then an electro motive force is developed perpendicular to both the
current and magnetic field applied. This effect is known as Hall Effect and the voltage
developed is known as Hall voltage.
Suppose an electric current (Ix) flows in the x direction and the magnetic field (Bz) is
applied normal to this electric field in the z direction. Each electron is then subjected to a
force called Lorentz force perpendicular to the direction of flow of electron as well as
perpendicular to the magnetic field. It causes the accumulation of electrons on one side of the
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B. Tech. 1st year
crystal and is deficient on the other side. Thus an electric field is developed in Y direction,
which is called Hall field (EH).Under the equilibrium the Lorentz force on the electrons and
hall force (the force on the electron due to hall field) balance each other.
i.e. q EH = q vx Bz
Where vx is the velocity of electrons in x direction
EH = vx Bz
The magnitude of current density Jx= n q vx, where n is the number of charge carriers per
unit volume.
𝐽𝑥
𝑣𝑥 = = 𝐽𝑥 𝑅𝐻
𝑛𝑞
1
Here 𝑅𝐻 = is known as hall coefficient.
𝑛𝑞
𝑉𝐻 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑥
EH = Jx RH Bz but 𝐸𝐻 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽𝑥 = =
𝑡 𝐴 𝑏𝑡
Substitute the value of EH and Jx

𝑉𝐻 𝑏
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝑥 𝐵𝑧
Here t is the dimension of the crystal in y direction and ‘b’ is the dimension of the crystal in z
direction. The number of charge carriers per unit volume i.e., charge carrier density is given
1
by n =
𝑒𝑅𝐻
If the conduction is primarily due to one type of charge carriers, then conductivity is related
to mobility as 𝜇𝑚 = 𝜎𝑅𝐻
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PROCEDURE:
1. Mount PCB (with crystal) and hall probe on pillars and complete all the connections.
2. Switch on the Gauss meter and place hall probe away from the electromagnet. Adjust the
reading of the Gauss meter as zero (do not switch on the electromagnet power supply at
this moment).
3. Switch on the constant current source and set the current, say 5 mA. Keep the magnetic
field at zero as recorded by Gauss meter (do not switch on the electromagnet power
supply at this moment).
4. Set the voltage range of the multi meter at 0-200 mV. When a current of 5mA is passed
through the crystal without application of magnetic field the hall voltage recorded by the
multi meter should be zero (do not switch on the electromagnet power supply at this
moment).
5. Bring the current reading of the constant current source to zero by adjusting the knob of
the constant current source.
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6. Now switch on the electromagnet and select the range of the Gauss meter as ×10 and
measure the magnetic flux density at the center between the pole pieces. The tip of Hall
probe and the crystal should be placed between the centers of the pole pieces. For
carrying out the experiment the magnetic flux density should be maximum i.e. between
2000 to 3500 Gauss.
7. Vary the current through the constant current source in small increments. Note the value
of current passing through the sample and the Hall voltage as recorded by the multi meter
(do not change the current in the electromagnet).
8. Reverse the direction of magnetic field by interchanging the ‘+’ and ‘-‘connections of the
coils and repeat the step 1 to 7.
9. PRECAUTIONS:
1 The Hall probe should be placed between the pole pieces such that maximum Hall
voltage is generated.
2 Current through the Hall probe should be strictly within the limits.
3 Hall voltage developed should be measured very accurately.
OBSERVATIONS:
Thickness of the specimen, b= …………….mm

Magnetic flux density, Bz = ……………….. Gauss =………………. Tesla
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Hall coefficient
SR. CURRENT VOLTAGE
𝑽𝑯 𝒃
NO I (mA) VH (volt) 𝑹𝑯 =
𝑰𝒙 𝑩𝒛
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CALCULATION:
1. Draw a graph between VH and Ix and Find the slope of the curve
b
Now RH  slope
B
2. Calculate the value of Hall coefficient using the formula
3. Calculate the carrier charge density using the formula
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RESULT:
The value of Hall coefficient for the given semiconductor crystal is________________
The obtained value of carrier charge density is________________
QUESTIONS: -
1] Define hall-effect?
Ans: -
2] What does the value of hall-coefficient suggest?

Ans: -
3]What is the effect of temperature on hall-coefficient? What is mobility?

Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT NO. 8
PLANCK’S CONSTANT
OBJECTIVE: To determine Planck’s constant using LED.
APPARATUS: Planck’s constant kit with inbuilt voltage source (0-2 V DC), current meter
(0-2000 μ A), temperature controlled oven (ambient to 60 0C), LED (red &
yellow).
THEORY: : The basic idea in this experiment is measurement of energy corresponding to

potential barrier which electrons have to overcome to go from N-type region
to P-type region of the diode when no external voltage V is applied to the
diode. This can be related to the bandgap energy of the material from the
relation,
Eg = eV0……………..…..…....… (1)
In case of LED, when electrons from N-region combine with holes of P-region
within junction area, electromagnetic radiation with wavelength λ is emitted in
such a way that
hc
Eg = …………….…………. (2)

From (1) & (2),
hc
 eV0

eV0 
h  ……………...…….... (3)
c
In present method, height of potential barrier ( V0 ) is obtained by directly
measuring the dependence of diode current on the temperature, keeping the

applied voltage fixed at a value lower than the barrier so that the disturbance to
the barrier potential is minimum. The equation for diode current is
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B. Tech. 1st year
 eV  V0  
I  exp   …….....…......…… (4)
 KT 
Where, V: applied voltage
V0: barrier potential
 : Material constant
K: Boltzmann constant
T: temperature of diode
eV eV0
 ln I   ……………..…… (5)
KT KT
The above equation represents a straight line obtained when ln I is plotted on Y-axis & V is
e
plotted on X-axis whose slope is which gives value of  .
KT
From equation (5),
 eV  V0   1
ln I   
 K  T
ln I  K 
    V  V0
1  e 
T
 
 ln I  K 
V0  V     …………………... (6)
 1  e 
 T 
Where, V is applied voltage below bandgap of LED (1.8 V for yellow/red)
ln I 1
can be calculated as a slope of the graph plotted as ln I vs .
1 T
T
Now, from equation (3), Planck’s constant can be calculated as
eV0 
h …….…….………….. (7)
c
Here,  is the wavelength of LED.
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PROCEDURE:
(A) Determination of material constant (  ):
1. Connect LED in socket on setup & switch on power.

2. Switch the two way switch to V-I position. In this position, first DPM would read voltage
across LED & second DPM would read current passing through LED.
3. Increase the voltage gradually & record the readings of voltage & current.
Applied voltage should not exceed 1.8 V.
e
4. Plot the graph of ln I vs V whose slope is which gives value of  .
KT
(B) Determination of Planck’s constant (h):
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1. Keep the mode switch to V-I position and adjust the voltage across the LED (up to 1.8 V
for both yellow and red LED and 1.95 V for green LED).
2. Change the mode of two-way switch to T-I position.
3. Insert LED in the oven & connect the other end of LED in the socket provided on setup.
Before connecting the oven check that oven switch is in OFF position & SET temperature
knob is at minimum position. Now first DPM would read ambient temperature.
4. Set the different temperatures with the help of SET temperature knob. Allow about 5
minutes on each setting for the temperature to stabilize and take the readings of
temperature and current.
1
5. Plot the graph of ln I vs and find out the slope.
T
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Room Temperature, T = ____________ k
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Sr. Applied Voltage Forward current

ln I
No. (V) volt I (μA)
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Voltage, V = ________ Volt
1
Sr. Temperature Temperature Current  10 3
T ln I
No. ( 0 C) ( 0 K) ( mA )
( K 1 )
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CALCULATION:
e  e  1 
Slope=     
KT  KT  slope 
= ____________
  K  
V0  V  slope 
  e 
= __________ volt
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eV0 
Now, h 
c
= ______________ joule-sec.
RESULT: From this experiment, the value of Planck’s constant is found to be

h= __________ joule-sec.
QUESTIONS: -
1] What is planck’s law?

Ans: -
2] What is the relation between energy and wave-length?

Ans: -
3]What is energy of quanta?

Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT NO.9
WAVELENGTH OF LASER
OBJECTIVE: To determine the wavelength of LASER using diffraction of light.
APPARATUS: Diode Laser Source, Screen, Scale, Holders and Bases, Diffraction Grating
(100/ 300/600-Lines/meter)
THEORY: When waves pass through apertures or around obstacles, they spread out into
regions which would be in shadow if they travelled in straight lines. This property is called
diffraction and can be described in terms of Huygens Principle. Huygens proposed that every
point on a wave front may be regarded as a source of secondary spherical wavelets. Where
these waves cross, they constructively and destructively add (fig i). Diffraction is regarded as
being due to the addition (superposition) of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. Imagine that a slit
consists of strips of equal width, parallel to the length of the slit. The total effect in a
particular direction is then found by adding the wavelets emitted in that direction by all the
strips.
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When parallel waves of light are obstructed by a very small object (i.e. sharp edge, slit, wire,
etc.), the waves spread around the edges of the obstruction and interfere, resulting in a pattern
of dark and light fringes. When light diffracts off of the edge of an object, it creates a pattern
of light referred to as a diffraction pattern. If a monochromatic light source, such as a laser, is
used to observe diffraction, a diffraction pattern is created by a slit (as shown in fig iii).
Diffraction is the tendency of a wave emitted from a finite source or passing through a finite
aperture to spread out as it propagates. Diffraction results from the interference of an
infinite number of waves emitted by a continuous distribution of source points.
According to Huygens’s Principle every point on a wave front of light can be considered
to be a secondary source of spherical wavelets. These wavelets propagate outward with the
characteristic speed of the wave. The wavelets emitted by all points on the wave front
interfere with each other to produce the traveling wave. Huygens ‘Principle also holds for
electromagnetic waves. When studying the propagation of light, we can replace any wave
front by a collection of sources distributed uniformly over the wave front, radiating in
phase.
When light passes through a small opening, comparable in size to the wavelength λ of the
light, in an otherwise opaque obstacle, the wave front on the other side of the opening
resembles the wave front shown on the right.
The light spreads around the edges of the obstacle. This is the phenomenon of diffraction.
Diffraction is a wave phenomenon and is also observed with water waves in a ripple tank.
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DIFFRACTION GRATING:
We have seen that diffraction patterns can be produced by a single slit or by two slits. When
light encounters an entire array of identical, equally-spaced slits, called a diffraction
grating, the bright fringes, which come from constructive interference of the light waves
from different slits, are found at the same angles they are found if there are only two slits.
But the pattern is much sharper. The figure on the right shows the interference pattern for
various numbers of slits. The width of all slits is 50 micro meters and the spacing between
all slits is 150 micro meters. The location of the maxima for two slits is also the location of
the maxima for multiple slits. The single slit pattern acts as an envelope for the multiple slit
patterns. Diffraction gratings contain a large number of parallel, closely spaced slits or
grooves. They produce interference maxima at angles θ given by
𝒎𝝀 = 𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 .
Because the spacing between the slits is generally very small, the angles θ are generally
quite large. We cannot use the small angle approximation for relating wavelength and the
position of the maxima on a screen for gratings, but have to use
Sin θ = z/ (L2 + z2)1/2.
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EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
PROCEDURE:
• Place the LASER source on holder and mount on the heavy base.
• Hold the grating and screen in their respective holders and bases.
• Place the grating between LASER source and screen as shown is Fig.l.
• The LASER beam after passing through the grating will split into zero order, first order,
and second order beam as shown in fig.2.
• Mark zero order, first order and second order spots on screen and measure the distance
between first order spot & zeroth order spot & half of this distance. i.e
𝑋𝑚𝑟+𝑋𝑚𝑙
𝑥𝑚 = | |
2
𝑋𝑚
sin 𝜃𝑚 =
√𝑋𝑚2 + 𝑓2
Put sin 𝜃𝑚 in formula 𝑚𝜆 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚
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𝑑𝑥𝑚
𝜆=
𝑚√𝑥𝑚 2 + 𝑓 2
Where, 𝑚 = Order of spots,
𝜆 = Wavelength of LASER beam (nm)
𝑑 = Resolution of a grating (= 1/grating element)
(i.e. 1 × 10-3/100 or 1 × 10-3/300 or 1 × 10-3/600) meter/lines
𝑥𝑚 = Distance between zero order spot & first/second order spot (meter)
𝑓 = Distance between screen & grating element (meter)
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Distance Distance between pattern Wavelength

Resolution Order
Grating between and direct spot 𝑿𝒎 (m) of laser beam
of grating of spot Mean
sample 𝝀(nm)
𝑿𝒎 (m)
element and screen L.H.S (𝑿𝒎 𝒍) R.H.S (𝑿𝒎 𝒓)
𝒅 (m) 𝒎
𝒇 (m)
1
100
2
1
300
2
1
600
2
CALCULATION:
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RESULT:
Using Diffraction of light, the wavelength of given semiconductor laser is measured

as______________ A0
QUESTIONS: -
1] Explain constructive and destructive interference?
Ans: -
2] What is diffraction of light and what is the condition to occur?
Ans: -
3] Define wavelength and mention the range for wavelength of seven colours?
Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT 10
NUMERICAL APERTURE
OBJECTIVE: To Determine the Numerical Aperture of an Optical Fiber.
APPARATUS: The trainer consists of the following built in parts:
1. IC integrated DC power supply.

2. Fiber-optic Analogue Transmitter @ 660nm.
4. Fiber-Optic receiver.
5. One-meter PMMA Fiber patch cord.
6. Five-meter PMMA Fiber patch cord.
7. In-line SMA adaptor.
8. To potentiometer to vary forward current of LED in transmitter & current of
phototransistor in receiver.
9. SPDT switch for selecting wavelengths 660nm and 850nm.
10. NA JIG with scale marked on it to measure length.
11. Mains On/OFF Switch, Fuse and jewel light.
12. The unit is operative on 230V±10% AT 50Hz A.C. Mains.
13. Adequate no of patch cords stackable 4mm spring loaded plug length ½ Meter.
THEORY: Optical Fiber:

Optical Fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of very pure glass (silica) not much
bigger than a human hair that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between
the two ends of the fiber. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which
permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other
forms of communication.
Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transparent
cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal
reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation
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B. Tech. 1st year
paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those that only support
a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF).
Principle of operation
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non conducting waveguide) that
transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a
core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To
confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that
of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-
index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.
Numerical Aperture (NA):

The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that
characterizes the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light. Fiber with a
larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA.
Single-mode fiber has a small NA.
Fig: (1) Numerical Aperture of thin films
The Numerical Aperture of an optical system such as an objective lens is defined by
NA= ni × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 ni is 1 for air
Hence NA = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙
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For a step-index fiber the Numerical aperture is given by
𝑁𝐴 = √(𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 2 − 𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 )
For very small differences in refractive indices the equation reduces to

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 √(2𝛥),where Δ is the fractional difference in refractive indices.
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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect one end of the cable 1 (1-meter FO cable) to LED port of the trainer and the
other end to the NA JIG as shown in fig: 4.
2. Put the wavelength selector switch to 660 meter position.
3. Plug the AC mains to ON position; neon light will come ON indicating that instrument is
ready for use. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA JIG, Turn the LED
CURRENT ADJUST knob clockwise to set to maximum Po. The light intensity should
increase.
4. Hold the white screen with the 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 and 25mm diameter)
vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the emitting fiber with the
10mm circle (The circumference of the outermost) must coincide with the circle.
5. Record the distance “L” of screen from the fiber end and note the diameter (D) of the
spot.
6. Compute NA from the formula. Tabulate the reading and repeat the experiment for 15,
20, 25mm diameters too.
7. In case of under filled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly distributed. To
ensure even distribution of light in the fiber, first remove twists on the fiber and then
wind 5 turns of the fiber on to the mandrel as shown in fig (5). Use an adhesive tape to
hold the winding in position. Now view the spot. The intensity will be more evenly
distributed within the core.
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Distance of Diameter of Acceptance

No. spot from the spot angle
screen D(mm)  D NA  sin 
  tan 1  
L (mm)  2L 
(degree)
1
CALCULATION:
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RESULT:
From this experiment,
The Numerical aperture of given optical fiber is measured as __________________
And the acceptance angle of given optical fiber is measured as_________________
QUESTIONS: -
1] What is NA and acceptance angle?
Ans: -
2] What is snell’s law?
Ans: -
3] Which type of optical fiber is used in this experiment?
Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT 11
PARTICLE SIZE
OBJECTIVE: To determine the size of lycopodium powder particle using the phenomena of
Diffraction of light
APPARATUS: Diode Laser Source, screen, scale, holder and Base, sample slide
(Lycopodium powder for particle size determination)
THEORY:
When waves pass through apertures or around obstacles, they spread out into regions which
would be in shadow if they travelled in straight lines. This property is called diffraction and
can be described in terms of Huygens Principle. Huygens proposed that every point on a
wave front may be regarded as a source of secondary spherical wavelets. Where these waves
cross, they constructively and destructively add. Diffraction is regarded as being due to the
addition (superposition) of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. Imagine that a slit consists of strips
of equal width, parallel to the length of the slit. The total effect in a particular direction is
then found by adding the wavelets emitted in that direction by all the strips.
In lycopodium slide containing the spherical powder particle, the diffraction takes place at all
the angles round the spherical particles of powder and produces the annular rings.
The first disc is known as the array’s disc whose diameter can be used to calculate the size of
powder particle using the formula given by
1.22λd
𝐷=
𝜌
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EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
PROCEDURE:
• Place the LASER source on holder and mount on the heavy base .Hold the sample slide
(mounted on the holder and base) between LASER source and screen (as shown in figure)
so as to obtain the good pattern on the screen.
• Measure the diameter of inner most circular disc in the pattern obtained on the screen.
• Calculate the particle size using the formula
1.22λd
𝐷=
𝜌
Where, 𝜆 = Wavelength of LASER beam (630 nm)
𝑑 = distance between screen & sample slide (in meter)
𝜌 = Diameter of the first circle (in meter)
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Distance between Screen Diameter of First Circle The Particle Size
No. & Sample Slide 𝝆 in meter (D in meter)
(d in meter)
1
2
3
4
5
CALCULATIONS:
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PRECAUTIONS:
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• Mounting and coupling should be done carefully.

• Care should be taken so that the laser light will not directly fall into the eyes.
• As far as possible, experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
RESULT: The particle size of lycopodium powder using LASER source is measured as
___________ µm.
QUESTIONS: -
1] Which kind of laser is used in this experiment?
Ans: -
2] What is Huygens Principle?
Ans: -
3] What is the grating constant?
Ans: -
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EXPERIMENT 12
POWER LOSS IN OPTICAL FIBER
OBJECTIVE: To study various types of losses that occur in Optical Fibers (PMMA) and
measure the loss in dB of two optical fiber patch-cords.
APPARATUS: The trainer consists of the following built in parts:
1. IC integrated DC power supply.

4. Fiber-Optic receiver.
5. One-meter PMMA Fiber patch cord.
6. Five-meter PMMA Fiber patch cord.
7. In-line SMA adaptor.
8. To potentiometer to vary forward current of LED in transmitter & current of
phototransistor in receiver.
9. SPDT switch for selecting wavelengths 660nm and 850nm.
10. NA JIG with scale marked on it to measure length.
11. Mandrel.
12. Adequate no of other electronic components.
13. Mains On/OFF Switch, Fuse and jewel light.
14. The unit is operative on 230V±10% AT 50Hz A.C. Mains.
15. Adequate no of patch cords stackable 4mm spring loaded plug length ½ Meter.
16. Digital Fiber-optic power OMEGA TYPE DFPM-021.
17. Digital Multi meter OMEGA TYPE DMM-201.
THEORY:
Loss or Attenuation (gradual loss in intensity of any kind of flux through a medium) in
optical fibers occur at fiber-fiber joints or splices due to axial displacement angular
displacement, separation (air-core), mismatch of cores diameters, mismatch of Numerical
Apertures, improper cleaving and cleaning at the ends.
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B. Tech. 1st year
−𝛼𝐿⁄ )
The optical power at a distance L, in an optical fiber is given by PL=P010( 10
Where
𝛼 is attenuation coefficient in decibels (db) per unit length
P0 is the launched power & PL is the power after covering distance L in the fibre.
Propagation loss:
Bending loss:
To NA JIG
MANDREL
To LED
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B. Tech. 1st year
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the one end of 1 m cable to the LED port of the trainer and the other end to the
power meter.
2. A digital multi meter is connected to measure the power in dBm unit directly, keeping the
voltage range of 200 mV or 2000 mV.
3. Put the wavelength selector switch to particular wavelength (as 660nm) position.
4. Plug the AC mains. Neon light will glow indicating that instrument is ready for use.
5. Make sure that the optical fiber patch cord is connected securely, as shown after relieving
all twists and strains on the fiber. Adjust the LED CURRENT ADJUST knob to set P 0 of
the LED to a suitable value (around 15 or 20 dBm) and note this as P01. (voltmeter
reading of 150 mV corresponds to 15 dBm)
6. Now remove the other end of 1 m cable from power meter slots and connect it to another
cable of 5 m length through in line adapter. And connect the other end of the 5 m cable to
power meter and measure the volt meter reading. Divide the volt meter reading by 10 to
get the power at the end of the combination of 1 m and 5 m cable as P02.
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7. P01- P02- (loss in adapter) gives power loss in 5 m cable. Generally the loss in in- line
adapter is up to maximum 1 dBm.
8. Now connect one end of the 5 m cable to LED port and other end to power meter and
measure P01 (power at the end of 5 m cable)
9. Connect one end of 1 m cable with 5 m cable through adapter and other end to power
meter to measure power at the end of combination as P02.
10. P01- P02- (loss in adapter) gives power loss in 1 m cable.
11. To measure the bending loss, first measure the power (P01) at the end of the fiber without
any twist and turns.
12. Wind one turn of the fiber on the mandrel and note the new reading of the power as P02.
Now the loss due to bending and strain on the plastic fiber is P01- P02 dB. For more
accurate readout set the power meter to the -20dB to -10dB range and take the
measurement.
13. Wind second turn of the fiber on the mandrel and note the new reading of the power as
P03.
14. Find the difference P02- P03. This also gives loss per turn of the fiber.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
(For propagation loss)
Sr. Loss in Loss in cable Loss in Propagation
P01 P02 P03
No cable 1 2 6 m Fiber loss
(dBm) (dBm) (dBm)
. (dB) (dB) (dB) (dB/m)
1
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B. Tech. 1st year
OBSERVATION TABLE:
(For bending loss)
Sr. No. of Loss in Loss in cable Loss in
P01 P02 Bending loss
No turns cable 1 2 6 m Fiber
(dBm) (dBm) (dB/m)
. (dB) (dB) (dB)
1 0
2 1
3 2
CALCULATION:
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B. Tech. 1st year
RESULT:
From this experiment,
Propagation loss in the fiber is measured as _________________ dB/km
Bending loss in the fiber is measured as_______________ dB/turn
QUESTIONS: -
1] Mention the types of loses occurring in optical fiber?
Ans: -
2] Which type of optical fiber has least loss?
Ans: -
3] What is TIR and mention it’s conditions?
Ans: -
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B. Tech. 1st year
EXPERIMENT 13
B-H CURVE
OBJECTIVE: To trace the B-H curve for an iron core and to study the effect of varying
the voltage and frequency on hysteresis loop.
APPARATUS: Power supply, U and I core, coils with 300 turns, BNC connector cable,
50 cm lead, CRO.
THEORY:
In a ferromagnetic material the magnetic induction field B is not a linear function of the
magnetic field H. The magnetic induction field, for a given H, depends on the previous
history of the specimen. The curve of B vs. H is shown in the following figure.
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B. Tech. 1st year
When the magnetic field H is very large in the positive or negative direction, the magnetic
induction field B saturates at a value ±BS, called the saturation magnetic field. At any given
value of the magnetic field H, there are two values for B, one when the magnetic field H is
decreasing and another while the magnetic field H is increasing. Thus B depends on the
history and the phenomenon is called hysteresis. If the magnetic field is reduced from a
maximum value to zero, the magnetic induction field does not go to zero. It has a value  Br
depending on whether the magnetic field H is brought to zero from a positive value or from a
negative value. The value of Br is called the residual magnetic induction field. To make the
magnetic induction field B zero one has to apply a magnetic field  Hc (+ when the magnetic
field is increasing and – when it is decreasing). This field Hc is called the coercive field. The
values of Br and Hc are characteristics of a ferromagnetic material. A material with a small
Hc is called a soft ferromagnetic material while one with a large Hc is called a hard
ferromagnetic material. If the ferromagnetic material is subjected to an AC magnetic field H,
the area enclosed by the B-H curve gives the amount of heat generated per cycle per unit
volume in the material. So hysteresis leads to wastage of electrical energy as heat.
Examples of ferromagnetic materials are Fe, Ni and Co at room temperature and ceramic
materials which are oxides of iron or Ni and other elements like Zn. One can use materials
with properties suited for a particular application. For example if one wants a ferromagnetic
core material for winding a transformer, one should reduce the hysteresis loss i.e. one should
have a soft magnetic material like soft iron with low coercive field. On the other hand if one
would like to make a permanent magnet, the material must have a large residual
magnetization and a large coercive field. Such a material is hard iron. If one wants to use a
ferrite material for computer memories then it should have a square hysteresis loop (i.e. Br
nearly equal to Bs) with a small coercive field. The state +Br will be called the state 1 and the
state –Br will be called the state 0. A large variety of magnetic materials tailor-made for a
number of applications are now commercially available.
Page I 87
B. Tech. 1st year
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
A Magnetic field is generated in a U & I shape iron core by continuous (Sin or Triangular)
wave to primary coil which generates the magnetic field strength H as
H= (N1/L).I1
Where L: Effective length of iron core, N1: Number of turn.
The corresponding magnetic induction B is obtained through integration of the voltage V

induced in second coil as:
B= (1/N2.A). ∫V.dt
Where A: Cross-section of iron core, N2: Number of turns.

In the present setup, the magnetization curve and Hysteresis curve as function of the
magnetic field strength H is plotted.
Page I 88
B. Tech. 1st year
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the CRO to A.C mains and switch it on. Adjust the intensity and focusing
controls so that fine and bright spot is observed on the screen when it is used in X-Y
mode by setting it to the external input.
2. Supply the voltages from the power supply to the X-plates and Y-plates of CRO and
switch on the supply connected to the primary of the U core.
3. Adjust the horizontal and vertical gain controls of CRO to get B-H curve of proper shape
and size on the screen of CRO.
4. The closed curve represents the cyclic variations of B which is called magnetic hysteresis
or B-H curve or hysteresis loop.
5. Trace the curve on tracing paper after making it symmetrical with respect to X-axis and
Y-axis marked on the screen of CRO. Mark these two axis on trace paper along the B-H
curve.
6. Trace the curves for different voltages keeping frequency constant and for various
frequencies keeping the voltage constant.
Page I 89
B. Tech. 1st year
OBSERVATION TABLE:
At frequency f = ______________ Hz
SR.
NO.
Voltage Area enclosed in B-H curve B max
At Voltage V = ______________ volt
SR.
NO.
frequency Area enclosed in B-H curve B max
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B. Tech. 1st year
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CONCLUSION:
QUESTIONS: -
1] What is hysteresis loss?
Ans: -
2] Difference between soft and hard magnetic materials.
Ans: -
3] Types of magnetic materials and explain them with the help of its dipole arrangement?
Ans: -
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B. Tech. 1st year
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B. Tech. 1st year
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B. Tech. 1st year
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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

B. Tech. 1st year

This is to certify that

Page No. Date Date Marks

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

APPARATUS: Circuit board comprises 0-10 V D.C. at 10 mA, continuously variable

THEORY: Light Emitting Diodes

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - infra-red

• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAs P) - red to infra-red, orange

• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (Al Ga As P) – high-brightness red, orange-red,

• Gallium Phosphide (Ga P) - red, yellow and green

• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (Al Ga P) - green

• Gallium Nitride (Ga N) - green, emerald green

• Gallium Indium Nitride (Ga In N) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue

• Silicon Carbide (Si C) - blue as a substrate

• Zinc Selenide (Zn Se) - blue

• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (Al Ga N) – ultraviolet

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

The operation of light emitting diode (LED) is based on the phenomenon of

• Set – up the circuit as shown in figure.

(Value of series resistance R=_____________ ohm)

Sr. Applied Resistive Voltage Current Voltage across

RESULT: The forward biased characteristics curve is plotted in the graph.

The knee voltage of given LED is found as________ volt.

The dynamic resistance of LED is found as ___________ ohm.

1] What do u mean by knee voltage?

2] What is depletion region in PN junction?

3] What is barrier potential?

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

APPARATUS: Circuit board comprises 0-10 V D.C. at 10 mA, continuously variable

REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE.

Value of series resistance R= _____________ ohm

Sr. Applied Resistive Voltage Current Voltage across

The breakdown voltage of Zener diode is found as ________ volt

The dynamic resistance of Zener diode is found as __________ohm.

1] What is meant by biasing a PN junction?

2] What is Reverse saturation current?

3] What is avalanche break down?

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

APPARATUS: Frequency Generator 1 & 3 MHz, Co-axial cable, Ultrasonic interferometer

THEORY: An ultrasonic interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the

Velocity = wavelength x frequency

β is compressibility of the liquid,

ρ is the density of the liquid &

v is the velocity of the liquid.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:

Micro meter Reading(in mm)

Density of the given liquid (water) = 996.458 kg/m3.

The compressibility of the liquid is measured as …...................... m2/N.

1] Explain the term ultrasonic waves?

2] What is least count and write the formula?

3] Write methods for production of ultrasonic waves?

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

OBJECTIVE: To determine Dielectric Constants of given dielectric samples.

Material DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (ε)

If C = capacitance using the material as the dielectric in the capacitor,

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:

2) Switch ON the unit.

1. Radius of brass plates (for PZT) = 12.5  10 3 m

2. Radius of brass plates (for Glass, Plywood, Bakelite) = 3.75  10 2 m