Niobium

Niobium is a chemical element; it has symbol Nb (formerly columbium, Cb) and atomic number 41. It is
a light grey, crystalline, and ductile transition metal. Pure niobium has a Mohs hardness rating similar to Niobium, 41Nb
pure titanium,[3] and it has similar ductility to iron. Niobium oxidizes in Earth's atmosphere very slowly,
hence its application in jewelry as a hypoallergenic alternative to nickel. Niobium is often found in the
minerals pyrochlore and columbite, hence the former name "columbium". Its name comes from Greek
mythology: Niobe, daughter of Tantalus, the namesake of tantalum. The name reflects the great similarity
between the two elements in their physical and chemical properties, which makes them difficult to
distinguish.[4]

English chemist Charles Hatchett reported a new element similar to tantalum in 1801 and named it Niobium
columbium. In 1809, English chemist William Hyde Wollaston wrongly concluded that tantalum and
columbium were identical. German chemist Heinrich Rose determined in 1846 that tantalum ores contain Pronunciation /naɪˈoʊbiəm/ ​
a second element, which he named niobium. In 1864 and 1865, a series of scientific findings clarified that (ny-OH-bee-əm)
niobium and columbium were the same element (as distinguished from tantalum), and for a century both Appearance Gray metallic, bluish when
names were used interchangeably. Niobium was officially adopted as the name of the element in 1949, oxidized
but the name columbium remains in current use in metallurgy in the United States.
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Nb)
It was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially. Niobium is an important
92.906 37 ± 0.000 01
addition to high-strength low-alloy steels. Brazil is the leading producer of niobium and ferroniobium, an
alloy of 60–70% niobium with iron. Niobium is used mostly in alloys, the largest part in special steel such 92.906 ± 0.001 (abridged)[1]
as that used in gas pipelines. Although these alloys contain a maximum of 0.1%, the small percentage of Niobium in the periodic table
niobium enhances the strength of the steel by scavenging carbide and nitride. The temperature stability of
niobium-containing superalloys is important for its use in jet and rocket engines. V
↑
Nb
Niobium is used in various superconducting materials. These alloys, also containing titanium and tin, are ↓
Ta
widely used in the superconducting magnets of MRI scanners. Other applications of niobium include
zirconium ← niobium → molybdenum
welding, nuclear industries, electronics, optics, numismatics, and jewelry. In the last two applications, the
low toxicity and iridescence produced by anodization are highly desired properties. Niobium is considered Atomic number (Z) 41
a technology-critical element.
Group group 5
Period period 5
History
Block d-block
Niobium was identified by English chemist Charles Hatchett in Electron [Kr] 4d4 5s1
1801.[5][6][7] He found a new element in a mineral sample that configuration
had been sent to England from Connecticut, United States in 1734 Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 12, 1
by John Winthrop F.R.S. (grandson of John Winthrop the
Younger) and named the mineral columbite and the new element Physical properties
columbium after Columbia, the poetic name for the United Phase at STP solid
States.[8][9][10] The columbium discovered by Hatchett was Melting point 2750 K ​(2477 °C, ​4491 °F)
probably a mixture of the new element with tantalum.[8]
Boiling point 5017 K ​(4744 °C, ​8571 °F)
Subsequently, there was considerable confusion[11] over the Density (near r.t.) 8.57 g/cm3
difference between columbium (niobium) and the closely related
Heat of fusion 30 kJ/mol
tantalum. In 1809, English chemist William Hyde Wollaston
compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, Heat of 689.9 kJ/mol
with a density 5.918 g/cm3 , and tantalum—tantalite, with a vaporization
density over 8 g/cm3 , and concluded that the two oxides, despite Molar heat 24.60 J/(mol·K)
the significant difference in density, were identical; thus he kept capacity
English chemist Charles Hatchett the name tantalum.[11] This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by
identified the element columbium in Vapor pressure
German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two
1801 within a mineral discovered in
different elements in the tantalite sample, and named them after P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
Connecticut, US.
children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe) and pelopium (from
at T (K) 2942 3207 3524 3910 4393 5013
Pelops).[12][13] This confusion arose from the minimal observed
differences between tantalum and niobium. The claimed new elements pelopium, ilmenium, and Atomic properties
dianium[14] were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum.[15]
Oxidation states −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5
The differences between tantalum and niobium were unequivocally demonstrated in 1864 by Christian (a mildly acidic oxide)
Wilhelm Blomstrand[15] and Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as Louis J. Troost, who Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.6
determined the formulas of some of the compounds in 1865[15][16] and finally by Swiss chemist Jean
Ionization energies 1st: 652.1 kJ/mol
Charles Galissard de Marignac[17] in 1866, who all proved that there were only two elements. Articles on
ilmenium continued to appear until 1871.[18] 2nd: 1380 kJ/mol
3rd: 2416 kJ/mol
De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced niobium chloride by heating it in
an atmosphere of hydrogen.[19] Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a Atomic radius empirical: 146 pm
larger scale by 1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was used in incandescent lamp Covalent radius 164±6 pm
filaments, the first commercial application.[16] This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement
of niobium with tungsten, which has a higher melting point. That niobium improves the strength of steel
 was first discovered in the 1920s, and this application remains its predominant Spectral lines of niobium
use.[16] In 1961, the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Other properties
Labs discovered that niobium–tin continues to exhibit superconductivity in the
Natural occurrence primordial
presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields,[20] making it the first
material to support the high currents and fields necessary for useful high-power Crystal structure ​body-centered cubic (bcc)
magnets and electrical power machinery. This discovery enabled—two decades
later—the production of long multi-strand cables wound into coils to create large,
powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery, particle accelerators, and particle
detectors.[21][22] Speed of sound 3480 m/s (at 20 °C)
Picture of a thin rod
Hellenistic Naming the element Thermal expansion 7.3 µm/(m⋅K)
sculpture
representing Thermal 53.7 W/(m⋅K)
Columbium (symbol Cb)[23] was the name originally given by Hatchett upon his conductivity
Niobe by Giorgio
Sommer
discovery of the metal in 1801.[6] The name reflected that the type specimen of the
Electrical 152 nΩ⋅m (at 0 °C)
ore came from the United States of America (Columbia).[24] This name remained in
use in American journals—the last paper published by American Chemical Society resistivity
with columbium in its title dates from 1953[25]—while niobium was used in Europe. To end this Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
confusion, the name niobium was chosen for element 41 at the 15th Conference of the Union of Young's modulus 105 GPa
Chemistry in Amsterdam in 1949.[26] A year later this name was officially adopted by the International
Shear modulus 38 GPa
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) after 100 years of controversy, despite the chronological
precedence of the name columbium.[26] This was a compromise of sorts;[26] the IUPAC accepted Bulk modulus 170 GPa
tungsten instead of wolfram in deference to North American usage; and niobium instead of columbium in Poisson ratio 0.40
deference to European usage. While many US chemical societies and government organizations typically
use the official IUPAC name, some metallurgists and metal societies still use the original American name, Mohs hardness 6.0

"columbium ".[27][28][29][30] Vickers hardness 870–1320 MPa

Brinell hardness 735–2450 MPa
Characteristics CAS Number 7440-03-1
History

Physical Naming after Niobe in Greek

mythology, daughter of
Niobium is a lustrous, grey, ductile, paramagnetic metal in group 5 of the periodic table (see table), with Tantalus (tantalum)
an electron configuration in the outermost shells atypical for group 5. Similarly atypical configurations Discovery Charles Hatchett (1801)
occur in the neighborhood of ruthenium (44), rhodium (45), and palladium (46).
First isolation Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand
Although it is thought to have a body-centered cubic crystal (1864)
structure from absolute zero to its melting point, high- Z Element No. of electrons/shell
Recognized as a Heinrich Rose (1844)
resolution measurements of the thermal expansion along the 23 vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2 distinct element by
three crystallographic axes reveal anisotropies which are
41 niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1 Isotopes of niobium
inconsistent with a cubic structure.[31] Therefore, further
research and discovery in this area is expected. 73 tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2
Main isotopes[2] Decay
105 dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2
Niobium becomes a superconductor at cryogenic abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
temperatures. At atmospheric pressure, it has the highest
91 91
critical temperature of the elemental superconductors at 9.2 K.[32] Niobium has the greatest magnetic Nb synth 680 y ε Zr
penetration depth of any element.[32] In addition, it is one of the three elemental Type II superconductors, 92
Nb trace 7
3.47 × 10 y β+ 92
Zr
along with vanadium and technetium. The superconductive properties are strongly dependent on the
purity of the niobium metal.[33] 93
Nb 100% stable

93m 93
When very pure, it is comparatively soft and ductile, but impurities make it harder.[34] Nb synth 16.12 y IT Nb

The metal has a low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons;[35] thus it is used in the nuclear industries
94
Nb trace 20.4 × 103 y β− 94
Mo

where neutron transparent structures are desired.[36] 95

Nb synth 34.991 d β− 95
Mo

Chemical

The metal takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended periods.[37] Despite a high melting point in elemental form (2,468 °C), it is
less dense than other refractory metals. Furthermore, it is corrosion-resistant, exhibits superconductivity properties, and forms dielectric oxide layers.

Niobium is slightly less electropositive and more compact than its predecessor in the periodic table, zirconium, whereas it is virtually identical in size to the heavier
tantalum atoms, as a result of the lanthanide contraction.[34] As a result, niobium's chemical properties are very similar to those for tantalum, which appears directly
below niobium in the periodic table.[16] Although its corrosion resistance is not as outstanding as that of tantalum, the lower price and greater availability make
niobium attractive for less demanding applications, such as vat linings in chemical plants.[34]

Isotopes

Niobium in Earth's crust comprises one stable isotope, 93 Nb.[38] By 2003, at least 32 radioisotopes had been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 113.
The most stable is 92 Nb with half-life 34.7 million years. One of the least stable is 113 Nb; estimated half-life 30 milliseconds. Isotopes lighter than the stable 93 Nb
tend to β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to β− decay, with some exceptions. 81 Nb, 82 Nb, and 84 Nb have minor β+-delayed proton emission decay paths,
91 Nb decays by electron capture and positron emission, and 92 Nb decays by both β+ and β− decay.[38]
At least 25 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 84 to 104. Within this range, only 96 Nb, 101 Nb, and 103 Nb do not have isomers.
The most stable of niobium's isomers is 93mNb with half-life 16.13 years. The least stable isomer is 84mNb with a half-life of 103 ns. All of niobium's isomers
decay by isomeric transition or beta decay except 92m1 Nb, which has a minor electron capture branch.[38]

Occurrence

Niobium is estimated to be the 34th-most common element in Earth's crust, at 20 ppm.[39] Some believe that the abundance on Earth is much greater, and that the
element's high density has concentrated it in Earth's core.[28] The free element is not found in nature, but niobium occurs in combination with other elements in
minerals.[34] Minerals that contain niobium often also contain tantalum. Examples include columbite ((Fe,Mn)Nb2 O6 ) and columbite–tantalite (or coltan,
(Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)2 O6 ).[40] Columbite–tantalite minerals (the most common species being columbite-(Fe) and tantalite-(Fe), where "-(Fe)" is the Levinson suffix
indicating the prevalence of iron over other elements such as manganese[41][42][43][44]) that are most usually found as accessory minerals in pegmatite intrusions,
and in alkaline intrusive rocks. Less common are the niobates of calcium, uranium, thorium and the rare earth elements. Examples of such niobates are pyrochlore
((Na,Ca)2 Nb2 O6 (OH,F)) (now a group name, with a relatively common example being, e.g., fluorcalciopyrochlore[43][44][45][46][47]) and euxenite (correctly
named euxenite-(Y)[43][44][48]) ((Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2 O6 ). These large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites (carbonate-silicate
igneous rocks) and as a constituent of pyrochlore.[49]

The three largest currently mined deposits of pyrochlore, two in Brazil and one in Canada, were found in the 1950s, and are still the major producers of niobium
mineral concentrates.[16] The largest deposit is hosted within a carbonatite intrusion in Araxá, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, owned by CBMM (Companhia
Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração); the other active Brazilian deposit is located near Catalão, state of Goiás, and owned by China Molybdenum, also hosted
within a carbonatite intrusion.[50] Together, those two mines produce about 88% of the world's supply.[51] Brazil also has a large but still unexploited deposit near
São Gabriel da Cachoeira, state of Amazonas, as well as a few smaller deposits, notably in the state of Roraima.[51][52]

The third largest producer of niobium is the carbonatite-hosted Niobec mine, in Saint-Honoré, near Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada, owned by Magris Resources.[53]
It produces between 7% and 10% of the world's supply.[50][51]

Production
After the separation from the other minerals, the mixed oxides of tantalum Ta2 O5 and niobium Nb2 O5 are
obtained. The first step in the processing is the reaction of the oxides with hydrofluoric acid:[40]

Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2[TaF7] + 5 H2O

Nb2O5 + 10 HF → 2 H2[NbOF5] + 3 H2O

The first industrial scale separation, developed by Swiss chemist de Marignac, exploits the differing
solubilities of the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides, dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate Niobium producers in 2006 to 2015
(K2 [NbOF5 ]·H2 O) and dipotassium heptafluorotantalate (K2 [TaF7 ]) in water. Newer processes use the
liquid extraction of the fluorides from aqueous solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone.[40] The
complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with water and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride
to produce a potassium fluoride complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide:[54]

H2[NbOF5] + 2 KF → K2[NbOF5]↓ + 2 HF

Followed by:

2 H2[NbOF5] + 10 NH4OH → Nb2O5↓ + 10 NH4F + 7 H2O

Several methods are used for the reduction to metallic niobium. The electrolysis of a molten mixture of K2 [NbOF5 ] and sodium chloride is one; the other is the
reduction of the fluoride with sodium. With this method, a relatively high purity niobium can be obtained. In large scale production, Nb2 O5 is reduced with
hydrogen or carbon.[54] In the aluminothermic reaction, a mixture of iron oxide and niobium oxide is reacted with aluminium:

3 Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12 Al → 6 Nb + 2 Fe + 6 Al2O3

Small amounts of oxidizers like sodium nitrate are added to enhance the reaction. The result is aluminium oxide and ferroniobium, an alloy of iron and niobium
used in steel production.[55][56] Ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70% niobium.[50] Without iron oxide, the aluminothermic process is used to produce
niobium. Further purification is necessary to reach the grade for superconductive alloys. Electron beam melting under vacuum is the method used by the two major
distributors of niobium.[57][58]

As of 2013, CBMM from Brazil controlled 85 percent of the world's niobium production.[59] The United States Geological Survey estimates that the production
increased from 38,700 tonnes in 2005 to 44,500 tonnes in 2006.[60][61] Worldwide resources are estimated to be 4.4 million tonnes.[61] During the ten-year period
between 1995 and 2005, the production more than doubled, starting from 17,800 tonnes in 1995.[62] Between 2009 and 2011, production was stable at 63,000
tonnes per year,[63] with a slight decrease in 2012 to only 50,000 tonnes per year.[64]
 Mine production (t)[65] (USGS estimate)[66][67]
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Australia 160 230 290 230 200 200 200 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Brazil 30,000 22,000 26,000 29,000 29,900 35,000 40,000 57,300 58,000 58,000 58,000 58,000 63,000 53,100 53,000 58,000 57,000

Canada 2,290 3,200 3,410 3,280 3,400 3,310 4,167 3,020 4,380 4,330 4,420 4,630 5,000 5,260 5,000 5,750 6,100
Congo
? 50 50 13 52 25 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
D.R.

? ? 5 34 130 34 29 ? ? 4 10 29 30 20 ? ? ?
Mozambique

Nigeria 35 30 30 190 170 40 35 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 29 104

Rwanda 28 120 76 22 63 63 80 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

World 32,600 25,600 29,900 32,800 34,000 38,700 44,500 60,400 62,900 62,900 62,900 63,000 50,100 59,400 59,000 64,300 63,900

Lesser amounts are found in Malawi's Kanyika Deposit (Kanyika mine).

Compounds
In many ways, niobium is similar to tantalum and zirconium. It reacts with most nonmetals at high temperatures; with fluorine at room temperature; with chlorine at
150 °C and hydrogen at 200 °C; and with nitrogen at 400 °C, with products that are frequently interstitial and nonstoichiometric.[34] The metal begins to oxidize in
air at 200 °C.[54] It resists corrosion by acids, including aqua regia, hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids.[34] Niobium is attacked by hot concentrated
sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric acid and hydrofluoric/nitric acid mixtures. It is also attacked by hot, saturated alkali metal hydroxide solutions.

Although niobium exhibits all of the formal oxidation states from +5 to −1, the most common compounds have niobium in the +5 state.[34] Characteristically,
compounds in oxidation states less than 5+ display Nb–Nb bonding. In aqueous solutions, niobium only exhibits the +5 oxidation state. It is also readily prone to
hydrolysis and is barely soluble in dilute solutions of hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids due to the precipitation of hydrous Nb oxide.[57] Nb(V) is
also slightly soluble in alkaline media due to the formation of soluble polyoxoniobate species.[68][69]

Oxides, niobates and sulfides

Niobium forms oxides in the oxidation states +5 (Nb2 O5 ),[70] +4 (NbO2 ), and the rarer oxidation state, +2 (NbO).[71] Most common is the pentoxide, precursor to
almost all niobium compounds and alloys.[54][72] Niobates are generated by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in alkali metal
oxides. Examples are lithium niobate (LiNbO3 ) and lanthanum niobate (LaNbO4 ). In the lithium niobate is a trigonally distorted perovskite-like structure, whereas
the lanthanum niobate contains lone NbO3−
4 ions.
[54]
The layered niobium sulfide (NbS2 ) is also known.[34]

Materials can be coated with a thin film of niobium(V) oxide chemical vapor deposition or atomic layer deposition processes, produced by the thermal
decomposition of niobium(V) ethoxide above 350 °C.[73][74]

Halides

Niobium forms halides in the oxidation states of +5 and +4 as well as diverse substoichiometric compounds.[54][57] The
pentahalides (NbX5 ) feature octahedral Nb centres. Niobium pentafluoride (NbF5 ) is a white solid with a melting point of
79.0 °C and niobium pentachloride (NbCl5 ) is yellow (see image at left) with a melting point of 203.4 °C. Both are hydrolyzed to
give oxides and oxyhalides, such as NbOCl3 . The pentachloride is a versatile reagent used to generate the organometallic
compounds, such as niobocene dichloride ((C5 H5 )2 NbCl2 ).[75] The tetrahalides (NbX4 ) are dark-coloured polymers with Nb-Nb
bonds; for example, the black hygroscopic niobium tetrafluoride (NbF4 ) and brown niobium tetrachloride (NbCl4 ).

Anionic halide compounds of niobium are well known, owing in part to the Lewis acidity of the pentahalides. The most
important is [NbF7 ]2−, an intermediate in the separation of Nb and Ta from the ores.[40] This heptafluoride tends to form the
oxopentafluoride more readily than does the tantalum compound. Other halide complexes include octahedral [NbCl6 ]−:

Nb2Cl10 + 2 Cl− → 2 [NbCl6]− A very pure sample of niobium

pentachloride
As with other metals with low atomic numbers, a variety of reduced halide cluster ions is known, the prime example being
[Nb6 Cl18 ]4−.[76]

Nitrides and carbides

Other binary compounds of niobium include niobium nitride (NbN), which becomes a superconductor at low temperatures and is
used in detectors for infrared light.[77] The main niobium carbide is NbC, an extremely hard, refractory, ceramic material,
commercially used in cutting tool bits. Ball-and-stick model of
niobium pentachloride, which
Applications exists as a dimer
Out of 44,500 tonnes of niobium mined in 2006, an estimated 90% was used in high-grade structural steel. The second-
largest application is superalloys.[78] Niobium alloy superconductors and electronic components account for a very small
share of the world production.[78]

Steel production

Niobium is an effective microalloying element for steel, within which it forms niobium carbide and niobium nitride.[28]
These compounds improve the grain refining, and retard recrystallization and precipitation hardening. These effects in turn
increase the toughness, strength, formability, and weldability.[28] Within microalloyed stainless steels, the niobium content
is a small (less than 0.1%)[79] but important addition to high-strength low-alloy steels that are widely used structurally in A niobium foil
modern automobiles.[28] Niobium is sometimes used in considerably higher quantities for highly wear-resistant machine
components and knives, as high as 3% in Crucible CPM S110V stainless steel.[80]

These same niobium alloys are often used in pipeline construction.[81][82]

Superalloys

Quantities of niobium are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-based superalloys in proportions as great as 6.5%[79] for such
applications as jet engine components, gas turbines, rocket subassemblies, turbo charger systems, heat resisting, and
combustion equipment. Niobium precipitates a hardening γ''-phase within the grain structure of the superalloy.[83]

One example superalloy is Inconel 718, consisting of roughly 50% nickel, 18.6% chromium, 18.5% iron, 5% niobium,
3.1% molybdenum, 0.9% titanium, and 0.4% aluminium.[84][85]

These superalloys were used, for example, in advanced air frame systems for the Gemini program. Another niobium alloy
was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module. Because niobium is oxidized at temperatures above 400 °C, a
protective coating is necessary for these applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle.[86] Apollo 15 CSM in lunar orbit; it has
dark rocket nozzle made from
niobium–titanium alloy
Niobium-based alloys

C-103 alloy was developed in the early 1960s jointly by the Wah Chang Corporation and Boeing Co. DuPont, Union Carbide Corp., General Electric Co. and
several other companies were developing Nb-base alloys simultaneously, largely driven by the Cold War and Space Race. It is composed of 89% niobium, 10%
hafnium and 1% titanium and is used for liquid-rocket thruster nozzles, such as the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules.[86]

The reactivity of niobium with oxygen requires it to be worked in a vacuum or inert atmosphere, which significantly increases the cost and difficulty of production.
Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) and electron beam melting (EBM), novel processes at the time, enabled the development of niobium and other reactive metals. The
project that yielded C-103 began in 1959 with as many as 256 experimental niobium alloys in the "C-series" (C arising possibly from columbium) that could be
melted as buttons and rolled into sheet. Wah Chang Corporation had an inventory of hafnium, refined from nuclear-grade zirconium alloys, that it wanted to put to
commercial use. The 103rd experimental composition of the C-series alloys, Nb-10Hf-1Ti, had the best combination of formability and high-temperature
properties. Wah Chang fabricated the first 500 lb heat of C-103 in 1961, ingot to sheet, using EBM and VAR. The intended applications included turbine engines
and liquid metal heat exchangers. Competing niobium alloys from that era included FS85 (Nb-10W-28Ta-1Zr) from Fansteel Metallurgical Corp., Cb129Y (Nb-
10W-10Hf-0.2Y) from Wah Chang and Boeing, Cb752 (Nb-10W-2.5Zr) from Union Carbide, and Nb1Zr from Superior Tube Co.[86]

The nozzle of the Merlin Vacuum series of engines developed by SpaceX for the upper stage of its Falcon 9 rocket is made
from a niobium alloy.[87]

Superconducting magnets

Niobium-germanium (Nb3 Ge), niobium–tin (Nb3 Sn), as well as the niobium–titanium alloys are used as a type II
superconductor wire for superconducting magnets.[88][89] These superconducting magnets are used in magnetic resonance
imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance instruments as well as in particle accelerators.[90] For example, the Large Hadron
Collider uses 600 tons of superconducting strands, while the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor uses an
estimated 600 tonnes of Nb3 Sn strands and 250 tonnes of NbTi strands.[91] In 1992 alone, more than US$1 billion worth
of clinical magnetic resonance imaging systems were constructed with niobium-titanium wire.[21]

Other superconductors Merlin Vacuum nozzle made from a

niobium alloy
The superconducting radio frequency (SRF) cavities used in the free-electron lasers FLASH (result of the cancelled
TESLA linear accelerator project) and XFEL are made from pure niobium.[92] A cryomodule team at Fermilab used the
same SRF technology from the FLASH project to develop 1.3 GHz nine-cell SRF cavities made from pure niobium. The
cavities will be used in the 30-kilometre (19 mi) linear particle accelerator of the International Linear Collider.[93] The same
technology will be used in LCLS-II at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and PIP-II at Fermilab.[94]

The high sensitivity of superconducting niobium nitride bolometers make them an ideal detector for electromagnetic
radiation in the THz frequency band. These detectors were tested at the Submillimeter Telescope, the South Pole
Telescope, the Receiver Lab Telescope, and at APEX, and are now used in the HIFI instrument on board the Herschel
Space Observatory.[95]

A 3-tesla clinical magnetic resonance

Other uses imaging scanner using niobium
superconducting alloy

Electroceramics
Lithium niobate, which is a ferroelectric, is used extensively in mobile telephones and optical modulators, and for the
manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices. It belongs to the ABO3 structure ferroelectrics like lithium tantalate and
barium titanate.[96] Niobium capacitors are available as alternative to tantalum capacitors,[97] but tantalum capacitors still
predominate. Niobium is added to glass to obtain a higher refractive index, making possible thinner and lighter corrective
glasses.

Hypoallergenic applications: medicine and jewelry

Niobium and some niobium alloys are physiologically inert and hypoallergenic. For this reason, niobium is used in
A 1.3 GHz 9-cell superconducting
prosthetics and implant devices, such as pacemakers.[98] Niobium treated with sodium hydroxide forms a porous layer that
radio frequency cavity made from
aids osseointegration.[99] niobium is on display at Fermilab

Like titanium, tantalum, and aluminium, niobium can be heated and anodized ("reactive metal anodization") to produce a
wide array of iridescent colours for jewelry,[100][101] where its hypoallergenic property is highly desirable.[102]

Numismatics

Niobium is used as a precious metal in commemorative coins, often with silver or gold. For example, Austria produced a series of silver niobium euro coins
starting in 2003; the colour in these coins is created by the diffraction of light by a thin anodized oxide layer.[103] In 2012, ten coins are available showing a broad
variety of colours in the centre of the coin: blue, green, brown, purple, violet, or yellow. Two more examples are the 2004 Austrian €25 150-Year Semmering
Alpine Railway commemorative coin,[104] and the 2006 Austrian €25 European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin.[105] The Austrian mint produced for
Latvia a similar series of coins starting in 2004,[106] with one following in 2007.[107] In 2011, the Royal Canadian Mint started production of a $5 sterling silver
and niobium coin named Hunter's Moon[108] in which the niobium was selectively oxidized, thus creating unique finishes where no two coins are exactly alike.

A 150 Years Semmering Alpine

Railway Coin made of niobium and
silver

Other

The arc-tube seals of high pressure sodium vapor lamps are made from niobium, sometimes alloyed with 1% of zirconium; niobium has a very similar coefficient
of thermal expansion, matching the sintered alumina arc tube ceramic, a translucent material which resists chemical attack or reduction by the hot liquid sodium
and sodium vapour contained inside the operating lamp.[109][110][111]

Niobium is used in arc welding rods for some stabilized grades of stainless steel[112] and in anodes for cathodic protection systems on some water tanks, which are
then usually plated with platinum.[113][114]

Niobium is used to make the high voltage wire of the solar corona particles receptor module of the Parker Solar Probe.[115]

Research has been conducted to allow niobium based catalysts to be used for recycling polyethylene terephthalate (PET).[116][117]

Precautions
Niobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a potential fire hazard, Niobium
elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is often used in
Hazards
jewelry and has been tested for use in some medical implants.[118][119]
NFPA 704
Short- and long-term exposure to niobates and niobium chloride, two water-soluble chemicals, have been tested in rats. (fire diamond) 0
Rats treated with a single injection of niobium pentachloride or niobates show a median lethal dose (LD50 ) between 10 0 0
and 100 mg/kg.[120][121][122] For oral administration the toxicity is lower; a study with rats yielded a LD50 after seven
days of 940 mg/kg.[120]

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External links
Los Alamos National Laboratory – Niobium (http://periodic.lanl.gov/41.shtml)
Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center (http://www.tanb.org/)
 Niobium for particle accelerators eg ILC. 2005 (https://web.archive.org/web/20061002182416/http://www.symmetrymag.org/cms/?pid=100017
3)
"Niobium" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Niobium). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. XVII
(9th ed.). 1884. p. 513.
"Columbium" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Columbium). New International Encyclopedia.
1905.
"Columbium" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Columbium). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Niobium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/041.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)

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