CHAPTER TWO

Research Process

There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective

ofwhether it is applied research or basic research. Each particular research study will be
unique in some ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place
inwhich it is being undertaken. Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common
goal of furthering ourunderstanding of the problem and thus all traverse through certain
basic stages, forminga process called the research process.

An understanding of the research process is necessary to effectively carry out

researchand sequencing of the stages inherent in the process.

The following are stages in the research process:

I. Selecting researchable issues

II. Selecting research topics (subject) within the subject
III.Following the Objectives
IV. Developing( Formulation) of reserch Problem
V. Conduct relevant literature review
VI. Formulation of reserch hypothesis
a. Identify variables
b. Research design
c. Data collectio
d. Samplin
e. Metrics
f. Models
g. Algorithms
VII.Data interpretation, analysis
VIII. drawing Conclusion and Identifying Future Work
IX. Results and reporting
a. Written report
b. Oral presentation
A close examination of the above stages reveals that each of these stages, by and large,
is dependent upon the others.One cannot analyze data unless he has collected data. It
is also truet hat one can not write a report unless he has collected and analyzed data.
Research then is a system of interdependent related stages. Violation of this
sequencecan cause irreparable harm to the study.It is also true that several alternatives
are available to the researcher during each ofthe stages stated above. A research
process can be compared with a route map.The map analogy is useful for the
researcher because at each stage of the researchprocess, and there are several
alternatives to follow.Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money,
and humanresources in our research decision is our primary goal.Before explaining the
stages of the research process.

Steps

1. Selecting researchable issues and formulation of reserch topic

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a
researchable issues, then formulation of reserch topic, then Formulation of reserch
problem.

Identifying a research topic Defining the problem is the first step and one of the most
difficult in research undertaking. There is a tendency for the beginner in research to ask
questions that are usually diffuse or vague. Each topic that is proposed for research has
to be judged according to certain guidelines or criteria. There may be several ideas to
choose from. Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed topic must be
compared with all other options. The guidelines or criteria discussed on the following
can help in this proces.

Research topics in theroetical computer science

For example, below are a list of articles which are related to TCS research:

• A fast string searching algorithm - This research is about improving a

searching algorithm, providing a theoretical analysis of the suggested
improvements.

• The smallest automation recognizing the subwords of a text - Automata

finite automaton, and deterministic finite automaton (DFA) have been
essential parts of theoretical computer science for a long while. This
research provides an algorithm to build a smallest partial DFA for a certain
problem.

• A faster algorithm for testing polynomial representability of functions over

finite integer rings - This research is also an improvement to an already
devised algorithm in polynomial representability. Reading the article that
describes this research, one, at the first glance, would say that is a
research in mathematics. However, when it is read carefully, the algorithms
that have been provided explain why this research has happened in the
computer science area.

• Categorial dependency grammars - Formal grammars are another

essential part of TCS that are of different usage in programming languages.
Below some samples are mentioned. However, it is still to soon to say that the research
in computer science is a well-established discipline.

• Verification and change-impact analysis of access-control policies - Thisresearch

investigates the data access-control policies through using a software, which is called
Margrave. The aim is to measure how changes in the policies would affect the
performance.

• A two-tier test approach to developing location-aware mobile learning systems for

natural science courses - This research conducts experiments to assess the
effectiveness of mobile learning system on elementary school students

Criteria for selecting a research topic:

• Relevance/Significance

• Avoidance of duplication

• Urgency of data needed (timeliness)

• Feasibility of study

• Applicability of results

• Interest to the researcher

• Ethical acceptability

2. Identifying the Problem

A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phasesof
the research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the
researchmethodology.But the core question is: whether all problems require
research.We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not
qualify asresearch problems, and thus, these do not need to be researched.Keeping this
point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem and anon-research
problem.Intuitively, researchable problems are those who have a possibility of
thoroughverification investigation, which can be affected through the analysis and
collection ofdata, while the non-research problems do not need to go through these
processes.Researcher need to identify both. The Problem section justifies the need for
the project. The initial justification of the project is generally only the beginning in the
understanding of the research problem. All research activities should be couched
within “Further understanding the problem or problems.” This concept provides the “Big
Picture” that justifies and unites all the activities and purposes of the research project.
Without this concept, research programs run the high risk of failure from investing in
solutions searching for problems, or allocating resources to problems that are already
well understood.

Problems needing research should be redefined and better understood as a matter of

course throughout a successful research project. Without constant refinement of the
research problem itself, finding effective solutions and implementable
recommendations is elusive. Researchable problems may be discovered in the problem
statement phase. Some initial problem descriptions may not turn out to be researchable.
Some may not be true problems. Many requests may be referred to operations or
planning units for assistance. If a problem is thought to be worth research investment,
hopefully, after further discussion, literature syntheses, surveys, pilot studies,
experiments, development, etc. the problem can be better understood, and a useful
result can still be offered. It is for these reasons that some successful research projects
employ multiple lines of investigation, hoping that at least some of them will be useful
for different aspects of the problem.The problem section typically consists of one to
three paragraphs describing the problem, and explaining why it should be solved. The
section should include background information on current practices and why they are
deficient. It is important to provide information on the magnitude and extent of the
problem.

For example, whether the problem is a serviceability issue or a safety issue, and
whether it occurs at the local, regional or national level. Wherever possible, it is useful to
provide baseline data, e.g. number of accidents, or cost of failures. It is often
appropriate to place limits on the scope of the project by indicating what form the
solution should take, e.g. a specification, report, test method, design procedure,
computer program, or a piece of equipment. A very useful test of whether a problem
can be solved by research is that, if the form of the solution can be defined, the problem
is researchable.

Objectives

The purpose of the Objective section is to state very clearly what products are expected
from the research. The ability to define products that will resolve the problem, are
attainable, and can be implemented, has a major impact on the likelihood of success.

Non-research Problem, and Research Problem.

Non-Research Problem

Here are some of the problems we frequently encounter, which may well be
consideredas non-research problems:

 Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;

 Preferring admission in public universities over private universities

 Crisis of accommodations in sea resorts during summer,

 Traffic jam in the city street after office hours;

 High sales in department stores after an offer of a discount.

A non-research problem is of primary concern to aresearcher.

A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort, or a

discrepancybetween the common belief and reality. A problem will qualify as a potential
research problemwhen the following three conditions exist:

I. There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “what it should
havebeen.” This implies that there should be a difference between “what exists”
and the “ideal or planned situation”;

II. A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the reason(s)
for this discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to
develop a researchquestion); and

III. There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the questions or
problems.The third point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible
answer to thequestion about the discrepancy, then a research situation does not
exist.It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the managerial or
administrative level.

3. Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a
formalstatement of the problem leading to research objectives.
An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type
ofinformation that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the
study.The best expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable
researchhypothesis.

4. Reviewing of Literature
A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables
theresearcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general
areaof his interest that has not been so far researched.Such a review, not only provides
him exposure to a larger body of knowledge but alsoequips him with enhanced
knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.Through a proper review of the
literature, the researcher may develop the coherencebetween the results of his study
and those of the others.A review of previous documents to similar or related
phenomena is essential even for thebeginning researchers.To ignore the existing
literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.Why spend time
merely repeating what other investigators have already done?If the researcher is aware
of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he will be in amuch better position to
assess the significance of his work and to convince others that itis important.

A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in his questioning of the others’
methodology, the choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from
thestudy results.In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing
the literature:

 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.

 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the
problem.

 It helps the resea

 rcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed byothers

 It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to
his areaof investigation.

 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant

controversies,contradictions, and inconsistencies in findings.

 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research

questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.

 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables in his research that
hemight not otherwise have thought about.

5. A hypothesis
Is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supportedby empirical
data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

6. Choosing the study design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and
answeringresearch questions.It is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the collected data

6.1. Preparing the research design:

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required
to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research
design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the
research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate
description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one
that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.There are
several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control,
after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely
randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial
designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project.The preparation of the
research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:

o the means of obtaining the information;

o the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

o explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be

 organised and the reasoning leading to the selection;

o the time available for research; and

o the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

6.2. Determining sample design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A
complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be
presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left
and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest
element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except
through a survey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of
time, money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many
circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often
select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected
constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must decide the way of selecting
a sample or what is popularly known as th sample design. In other words, a sample design is a
definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that
data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are
appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably
in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary
data can be collected either through experiment, directly observing the current modes of
operation of existing system or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he
observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines
truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one
or more of the following ways:

 By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of

investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents.directly
observing the current modes of operation of existing system. The information
obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the
past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no
doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very
limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are
concerned.

 Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This
method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output
depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
  Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used
method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions,
particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.

 By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in

contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are
mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is
the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before
applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced
which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used
must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the
relevant information.

 Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up
the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much
depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned.
Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere
work.

6.3. Deciding on the sample design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea
ofsampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items
orportions (called a sample of a universe (calle population) to conclude the
wholepopulation.It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every
member of thepopulation is included.Such a complete enumeration is referred to a
census.

A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make

someinference or generalization. A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected
to represent that population. Ifcertain statistical procedures are followed in selecting
the sample, it should have the samecharacteristics as the population as a whole. These
procedures are embedded in the sample design.

7. Analysis of data:
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences.
The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables
for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories
of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the
procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for
tabulation.Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in
the form of tables, use cases ,diagram, models etc .. The mechanical devices can be made use
of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.

Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables
affecting a problem simultaneously. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined
statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there
are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of
the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean
values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of
statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of
random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two
samples.

8. Hypothesis-testing:
After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by
subsequent researches in times to come.

9. Generalisations and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies
in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with
he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead
to further researches.

10. GeneralisationsPreparation of the report :

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report
must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,l and
(iii) the end matter.In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of
tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study
along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. Summary of findings:

After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-
technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.

Main report:

The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into
readily identifiable sections.Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should
again put down theresults of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
Index should also be given specially in a published research report.