Blow Moulding

This process evolved originally from glass blowing technology. It was developed as a method for producing
hollow plastic articles (such as bottles and barrels) and although this is still the largest application area for the
process, nowadays a wide range of technical mouldings can also be made by this method e.g. rear spoilers on
cars and videotape cassettes. There is also a number of variations on the original process but we will start by
considering the conventional extrusion blow moulding process.
Extrusion Blow Moulding
Initially a molten tube of plastic called the Parison is extruded through an annular die. A mould then closes
round the parison and a jet of gas inflates it to take up the shape of the mould. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.21(a).
Although this process is principally used to produce bottles (for washing up liquid, disinfectant, soft drinks,
etc.) it is not restricted to small hollow articles. Domestic cold water storage tanks, large storage drums and 200
gallon containers have been blow-moulded. The main materials used are PVC, polyethylene, polypropylene and
PET.
Process
The conventional extrusion blow moulding process may be continuous or intermittent.
In the continuous method ~the extruder continuously supplies molten polymer through the annular die. In most
cases the mould assembly moves relative to the die. When the mould has closed around the parison, a hot knife
separates the latter from the extruder and the mould moves away for inflation, cooling and ejection of the
moulding. Meanwhile the next parison will have been produced and this mould may move back to collect it or,
in multi-mould systems, this would have been picked up by another mould. Alternatively, in some machines the
mould assembly is fixed and the required length of parison is cut off and transported to the mould by a robot
arm.
In the intermittent processes, single or multiple parisons are extruded using a reciprocating screw or ram
accumulator. In the former system the screw moves forward to extrude the parisons and then screws back to
prepare the charge of molten plastic for the next shot. In the other system the screw extruder supplies a constant
output to an accumulator. A ram then pushes melt from the accumulator to produce a parison as required.
Bottle-necks of the Process
Although it may appear straightforward, in fact the geometry of the parison is complex. In the first place, its
dimensions will be greater than those of the die due to the phenomenon of post extrusion swelling. Secondly,
there may be deformities (e.g. curtaining) due to flow defects. Thirdly, since most machines extrude the parison
vertically downwards, during the delay between extrusion and inflation, the weight of the parison causes
sagging or draw-down. This sagging limits the length of articles which can be produced from a free hanging
parison. The complex combination of swelling and thinning makes it difficult to produce articles with a uniform
wall thickness. This is particularly true when the cylindrical parison is inflated into an irregularly shaped mould
because the uneven drawing causes additional thinning. In most cases, therefore, to blow mould successfully it
is necessary to program the output rate or die gap to produce a controlled non-uniform distribution of thickness
in the parison which will give a uniform thickness in the inflated article.
During moulding, the inflation rate and pressure must be carefully selected so that the parison does not burst.
Inflation of the parison is generally fast but the overall cycle time is dictated by the cooling of the melt when it
touches the mould.
Cooling Media
Various methods have been tried in order to improve the cooling rate e.g. injection of liquid carbon dioxide,
cold air or high-pressure moist air. These usually provide a significant reduction in cycle times but since the
cooling rate affects the mechanical properties and dimensional stability of the moulding it is necessary to try to
optimise the cooling in terms of production rate and quality.

Extrusion blow moulding is continually developing to be capable of producing even more complex shapes.
These include unsymmetrical geometries and double wall mouldings. In recent years there have also been
considerable developments in the use of in-the-mould transfers. This technology enables lables to be attached to
bottles and containers as they are being moulded. Fig. 4.22 illustrates three stages in the blow moulding of a
complex container.
Analysis of Blow Moulding
As mentioned previously, when the molten plastic emerges from the die it swells due to the recovery of elastic
deformations in the melt. It will be shown later that the following relationship applies:

Now consider the situation where the parison is inflated to fill a cylindrical die of diameter, D m. Assuming
constancy of volume and neglecting draw-down effects, then from Fig. 4.23
This expression therefore enables the thickness of the moulded article to be calculated from a knowledge of the
die dimensions, the swelling ratio and the mould diameter. The following example illustrates the use of this
analysis. A further example on blow moulding may be found towards the end of Chapter 5 where there is also
an example to illustrate how the amount of sagging of the parison may be estimated.

Extrusion Stretch Blow Moulding

Molecular orientation has a very large effect on the properties of a moulded article. During conventional blow
moulding the inflation of the parison causes molecular orientation in the hoop direction. However, bi-axial
stretching of the plastic before it starts to cool in the mould has been found to provide even more significant
improvements in the quality of blow-moulded bottles. Advantages claimed include improved mechanical
properties, greater clarity and superior permeation characteristics. Cost savings can also be achieved through the
use of lower material grades or thinner wall sections.
Biaxial orientation may be achieved in blow moulding by
(a) stretching the extruded parison longitudinally before it is clamped by the mould and inflated. This is based
on the Neck Ring process developed as early as the 1950s. In this case, molten plastic is extruded into a ring
mould which forms the neck of the bottle and the parison is then stretched. After the mould closes around the
parison, inflation of the bottle occurs in the normal way. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 4.24.
(b) producing a preform 'bottle' in one mould and then stretching this longitudinally prior to inflation in the full-
size bottle mould. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.25.

Injection Blow Moulding

In Section 4.2.7 we considered the process of extrusion blow moulding which is used to produce hollow articles
such as bottles. At that time it was mentioned that if molecular orientation can be introduced to the moulding
then the properties are significantly improved. In recent years the process of injection blow moulding has been
developed to achieve this objective. It is now very widely used for the manufacture of bottles for soft drinks.
The steps in the process are illustrated in Fig. 4.48. Initially a preform is injection moulded. This is
subsequently inflated in a blow mould in order to produce the bottle shape. In most cases the second stage
inflation step occurs immediately after the injection moulding step but in some cases the performs are removed
from the injection moulding machine and subsequently re-heated for inflation.

The advantages of injection blow moulding are that

(i) the injection moulded parison may have a carefully controlled wall thickness profile to ensure a uniform wall
thickness in the inflated bottle.
(ii) it is possible to have intricate detail in the bottle neck.
(iii) there is no trimming or flash (compare with extrusion blow moulding).

Injection Orientation Blow Moulding

A variation of this basic concept is the Injection Orientation Blow Moulding technique developed in the 1960s
in the USA but upgraded for commercial use in the 1980s by AOKI in Japan. The principle is very similar to
that described above and is illustrated in Fig. 4.49. It may be seen that the method essentially combines
injection moulding, blow moulding and thermoforming to manufacture high quality containers.
 EXTRUSION BLOW MOULDING UNITS
Extruder
Melt Pumps
Melt pumps, also called gear pumps, can be attached between the end of the extruder and the die head to greatly
increase melt quality. For continuous extrusion multilayer blow molding, these units can deliver a stable, surge-
free melt output and provide excellent layer uniformity. These benefits are particularly important for thin barrier
layers and adhesive tie-layers found in coextrusion blow molding.
Die Head Unit
The functions of the die head unit are: 1) to form the melt into its final shape, the parison to maintain the melt at
a constant temperature; 2) to meter out the melt at a constant pressure and 3) to form a parison with a desired
wall thickness.
Parison Die Designs
There are various parison die designs. The two kinds generally used with continuous extrusion blow molding
are center-fed and side-fed. In a center-fed die, the melt flows vertically downward around the core, also called
the pin (Fig. 22). Center-fed dies have an advantage in that the melt distribution around the core is rather
uniform. The melt flows down toward the tip of the torpedo-shaped core for a certain distance after having been
turned by 90 degrees in the die head, resulting in straight flow all around the core.
The core is supported inside the die head unit by either a breaker plate or a spider (Fig. 23). Generally, the
breaker-plate type is preferable because it will keep the melt flow more uniform. However, both types of
support may yield flow lines and knit lines in the blown part, especially when lower melt index resins are used .
Flow lines will result in blow molded items with poor appearance and impaired strength along these lines.
In side-fed dies, the melt flow hits the core, or flow pin, sideways (Fig. 24). To obtain uniform melt flow
around the side-fed core and out of the die, a groove is frequently machined into the core.

Figure 23. Left: perforated

(breaker plate); Right: spider
(cross-piece type of core support
in a blow molding die.
Figure 24. Schematic drawing of
Figure 22. Schematic of center-fed
a side-fed die with a grooved
die.
core.
The die head unit opens to the outside through an accurately machined tube-shaped orifice, through which the
melt is pressed in a steady flow. The die head should be designed without sharp corners or edges that the resin
must pass over. Sharp corners or edges tend to bleed off heat and can cause heat streaks in the finished parison.
With most die head designs, the resin must flow around a mandrel and form the tubular parison. Die heads
should be constructed so that the length is great enough to allow the resin to “remarry” after forming the parison
tube. If the die head length is inadequate, a noticeable weld line will show on the parison, which may remain as
a defect on the finished product. Die heads are usually designed so that dies can be exchanged easily.
Heaters keep the adapter and die head at the required temperature. They are controlled in the same way as barrel
heaters. However, the adapter and die head heaters maintain melt temperature and should not be used to
increase it. Melt temperature at the die head, where the parison forms, ranges from 145°C to 165°C for LDPE;
175°C to 205°C for HDPE; and 190°C to 220°C for PP (PP homopolymers have slightly higher, melting
temperatures than random copolymers). If resin melt temperatures are too low, the parison will be cloudy or
dull in appearance and may also show signs of melt fracturing. A parison of this type will not be hot enough to
yield good weld lines at the pinch-off areas. On the other hand, if the melt temperature is too high, the parison
will look clear, have glossy areas and may emit smoke. The hot parison will be stringy and tend to stretch
easily, resulting in thin areas. Pinch-off problems may also occur, as well as extremely thin weld lines.
Resins with lower melt indices require melt temperatures at the higher end of these ranges than higher melt
index resins. Generally, LDPE resins for blow molding have melt indices below 2 g/10 min.; HDPE, below 1.0
g/10 min.; and PP, melt flow rates below 2 g/10 min.
In a crosshead die unit, the melt flow is almost always turned 90 degrees (in a right angle) and diverted from the
horizontal to the vertical and extruded downward. Some types of extrusion blow molding machines do not
require a crosshead die because the extruder itself is positioned to extrude the parison tube vertically downward.
At the die face, the melt should flow straight down to form a parison with uniform wall thickness. Usually, dies
are one of two types: converging or diverging (Fig.21).

Figure 21. Typical Converging and Diverging Dies

Dies and mandrels for parison extrusion normally have a land. This is a flat section machined at the end of the
die and mandrel. The land is the working area of the die and mandrel where the volume of the resin being
extruded is constant. Some blow molders recommend a die land length 10 to 40 times as long as the die opening
or clearance, or it may very short die lands. A long die land increases back pressure on the melt in the extruder
head and improves mixing. Longer die lands are beneficial when the total head length does not allow the resin
to properly reweld itself after flowing around the core.
A pressure ring above the die and mandrel is often used to erase or smooth out flow lines in the melt before it is
extruded as a parison. A short die land, in conjunction with high extrusion speed, may result in outer surface
roughness of the parison and the blown part. This is known as “melt fracture”..
Parison Programmer
While being formed, the parison is subject to the distorting downward pull of gravity. Unless extrusion is very
fast, the parison thins out at the top and thickens toward the bottom instead of maintaining uniform wall
thickness. This parison sag, also called draw-down and neck-down, results in excessive wall thickness of the
blown item near the bottom of the mold. Sometimes, this may be preferred, as excess resin often strengthens the
shoulder, neck or bottom of a container. But in most instances, sag is to be avoided.
Deviations in wall thickness can be overcome by means of a movable mandrel. The motion of the mandrel in
the die is controlled by a servo valve assembly called a parison programmer. The parison programmer raises or
lowers the mandrel while the parison is being formed (Fig. 26). The mandrel’s position is recorded and fed back
to the controller via a LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) sensor.
As a result, resin is extruded to form a parison with a controlled variability in its wall thickness (center section
in Fig. 27), resulting in an end product with more uniform wall thickness. Parison programming also is used if
the blown end product is not symmetrical and thus, requires an uneven resin distribution. Parison programmers
can have 100 or more profile points, thus permitting excellent control of the parison cross-section.

Figure 26. Parison programming system. Figure 27. A programmed parison designed to fit a
particular mold configuration.
Multiple dies
In extrusion systems with multiple dies, the melt from the extruder passes through a manifold into a series of
parison-forming dies. The amount of material reaching each die is controlled by choke valves in the manifold
or, if the die is equipped with a parison programmer, by weight control settings.
Coextrusion
Multilayer blow molded containers are produced by using multiple extruders, one for each type of resin
processed, and special coextrusion die heads and parison dies (Fig. 29). Coextruded containers can provide:
✓ Excellent odor, moisture, and/or oxygen barrier characteristics, such as needed for many food products
✓ Specially colored outer surfaces, such as needed with fluorescents and metallics
✓ Greater environmental stress crack resistance (ESCR), such as HDPE bleach bottles with an inner lower
density PE layer and coextruded blow molded gasoline tanks.
Another growing use of coextrusion is the production of multilayer blow molded containers with a middle layer
of post-consumer resin, i.e., recycled resin from discarded HDPE and PP containers, sandwiched between two
virgin resin layers.

Cut-Off Devices
A parison cut-off device, frequently mounted under the die face, cut the parison from the constantly extruded
tube when the parison reaches the required length and the blow mold halves have closed around it. The cutting
device, as well as the parison length are controlled by a sensor, such as a limit switch photoelectric cell or even
a laser beam.
There are various types of cutting devices, including
✓ stab knives (for parisons up to three inches in diameter)
✓ hot wire knives (required with PP parisons as well as thin-walled parisons)
✓ impact knives
✓ cold parison knives (the most common type of cuffing device).

Optimizing the Extrusion Blow Molding Process

Parison Swell
Parison swell has two components: diameter swell
and weight swell. If a parison is affected by
diameter swell, it balloons outwards from the die; in
other words, the parison’s diameter becomes
considerably larger than the die diameter.
Weight swell can occur during the short time the
molds are open and the parisons are dropping. The
parisons may actually shrink in length and
concurrently, their walls thicken and become
heavier. Weight swell should be minimized.
To counteract high weight swell, close down the die gap. Small die gaps are however, extremely sensitive to
impurities. Narrow die gaps also result in high shear which can lead to high diameter swell in the parison. The
final bottle may be complete but surrounded by heavy flash.
Parison swell can be solved best by good die design. A smooth, gradual change in the melt path from the solid
column in the head to the thin-walled cylinder issuing from the die minimizes the problems.

Parison Sag
Sag can be influenced by operating conditions and resin properties. For continuous extrusion machines, an
increase in extruder screw speed, if practical, decreases sag to a degree by reducing drop time. Lower parison
processing temperatures render the resin more viscous and thus, the tube less subject to drawdown (sag).
Within the processing temperature range for polyolefins (from 145° to 200°C), the effect of melt temperature on
sag decreases as the melt index decreases. Lower melt index polymer resins are more viscous, that is, they yield
less to the pull of their own weight in the hot melt stage than higher melt index resins. Consequently, lower melt
index resins have less tendency to sag.

Sag and swell are interrelated and some changes in operating conditions and basic resin properties may affect
them conversely. A decrease in extruder speed will unfavorably affect sag because the parison hangs
unsupported for a longer time. However, swell might be reduced under these conditions because the slower
extrusion speed can result in less orientation in the resin. This swell reduction however, may be offset for the
same reason sagging may increase: the greater length of time the parison hangs unsupported. Therefore, as is
obvious, modifications to operating conditions can control sag and swell only to a limited extent. A major factor
is the inherent behavior of the resins selected.
Along with its melt index, the resin chosen will be partly determined by the size of the part to be blow molded
in order to minimize sagging. Since parisons for larger items weigh more than those for smaller ones, they are
affected more by the pull of gravity that causes them to sag. For such large parts, lower melt index resins are
preferable.
Parison Curving
Curving of the parison, that is, its moving away from the vertical
axis, is caused by non-uniformity in its wall thickness. The
parison tends to swing away from the heavy side and toward the
light side. This can be remedied by adjusting the bolts on the die
and checking the core for accurate centering. Curving may also
be caused by nonuniform heating, which can be eliminated by
checking the heaters for good contact.

Sharkskin Melt Fracture

A sharkskin inner surface looks like wide, alternating bands of thick and thin wall sections. If this occurs with
continuous extrusion blow molding, the solution is to slow down the process; if reciprocating extrusion, the
solution is to increase the extrusion speed.

Injection Blow Molding

Injection blow molding is a intermittent, cyclical process used almost exclusively to make plastic bottles.
Initially, a preform is injection molded around a core pin in a closed injection mold. The core pin is a hollow,
valved body that can be transferred with the preform to the blow mold where it may serve as a blow pin through
which the blowing air is introduced. The preform has a finished container neck and a body that resembles a test
tube. While one preform is blown, the next one is injected around another core and a finished container is
ejected.
Advantages of the injection blow molding process are:
✓ Fully finished, close-tolerance containers are produced that require no secondary operations other than
printing or labeling;
✓ No scrap from neck trim or pinch-off areas remains;
✓ Container surfaces are very smooth with no blemishes caused by mold pinch-off;
✓ Bottle weight, dimensions and internal and external neck finish are very precise.
Limitations of the process are:
o Container size is generally limited to up to about 16 oz., although methods of molding larger sized
bottles are under development;
o Tooling costs are high because of the need for two different molds for two different purposes; moreover,
injection molds are more expensive than blowing molds because of their complexity and need to
withstand high injection pressures;
o Handleware and containers with off-set necks are difficult to make and the tooling very expensive;
 o Not all polyolefin blow molding resins can be injection blow molded.

Injection Molding the Preforms

There are two basic injection blow molding processes:
1. In-line, where the preform molding and blowing are done simultaneously
2. Two-stage, where the preforms are injection molded in a separate operation from the blow molding
operation; this technique is referred to as “reheat and blow molding.”
In-line injection blow molding machines in use today are either three or four-station equipment. At the first
station, preforms are injection molded; at the second station, they are blown; cooling and ejection take place at
the third. A co-injection station may be added between the standard first and second stations for forming a
handle, stretching the parison (a technique called “stretch blow molding,” used to improve container clarity
and/or stiffness by means of biaxially orienting the preform) or for post-treatment of the blown container.

Injection Stretch Blow Molding

Special six-station injection stretch blow molding machines also are available. These machines include two
conditioning stations and a post-blow station in addition to the regular injection, blow and ejection stations. The
two conditioning stations are used for heating and/or cooling the parison. In the blow step, the parison is
stretched and blown into the desired shape. In the post-blow step, labelling, surface treatment and/or leak
detection are performed.

The Plasticating and Injection Unit

Whether part of an in-line or two stage process, the resin melting unit is identical to the reciprocating screw
injection unit of a standard injection molding machine. Generally, the injection unit is of the horizontal type, but
injection blow molding machines with vertical injection units also are available and considered to be more
efficient in providing the low injection pressures required. The process of melting the resin and accumulating
the needed shot size is very similar to that found in reciprocating screw extrusion blow molding.

The Preform Molding Unit

Either a single or multiple cavity mold can be used. The melt flows through a manifold with a hot runner system
leading to each mold cavity. Heating fluid maintains the proper temperature distribution in the manifold as well
as in the mold. When the cavities are filled, the screw pulls back slightly to decompress the chamber at the front
of the barrel; this causes a “suck back” at the injection nozzle and locks the melt, under pressure, in the
manifold system. Consistent, reliable mold packing pressure is essential to producing high quality containers by
this process.
To make good injection molded preforms requires about the same operating conditions as are needed to produce
any good injection molded end product. However, moderate injection temperatures, minimum pressures and
warm preform molds are particularly important. Pressures for injection blow molding are in the 5,000 to 10,000
psi range, rather than the 15,000 to 20,000 psi range for standard injection molding.
In injection blow molding, the neck of a container is already shaped in the preform mold. This fact necessitates
selective mold cooling: the neck area must be cooled so that the resin there sets. At the same time, the resin
from which the body of the item will be blown must stay hot until it is fully blown in the blow mold.
Because the wall thickness of the preform body is not uniform, it is possible to obtain irregularly shaped hollow
items with practically uniform wall thickness in the blowing mold. The dimensions of the preform mold and
those of the preform must be carefully and accurately tailored to do this.
A blow mold for injection blow molding equipment has only one difference from a mold for extrusion blow
molding: it has no pinch-off edges. The injection blow mold needs none because it is fed with a preform of
predetermined length and shape instead of an open tube with excess length.
Since the cycle time of all the blow molding process steps is of major importance in productivity, short injecting
time is essential. In conventional injection molding, temperatures would be maximized to lower cycle times, but
in injection blow molding, barrel temperatures must be kept low enough so that the preforms are at the blow
molding step temperature without external cooling.
Also, the time the preform is in the blowing mold must also be minimized to keep the total cycle time short and
productivity high. The injection blow molding operator must balance all these factors, as well as the properties
of the resin being used, in determining process conditions.
Preform Blow Molding Unit
In the preform blow molding unit of the in-line injection blow molding machine, air is injected into the hot
preform to form the part. A core maintains the required inside dimensions during the transfer of the hot preform
from the injection station to the blowing station.
Two-Stage Injection Blow Molding
With two-stage injection blow molding equipment, the preforms are blow molded separately from the injection
step. This type of blow molding unit includes an oven for heating the preforms to the required temperature.

Optimizing the Injection Blow Molding Process

To obtain the best possible molded item in the shortest time and at lowest cost, two basic variables, injection
temperature and injection pressure, must be in balance in the barrel. Since polyolefins become more fluid with
increasing temperature, the pressure required to fill a given mold with the resin melt depends to a large extent
on the melt temperature. Four basic injection machine variables that can be adjusted to obtain preform mold fill
are temperature, pressure, feed rate and injection time. If a particular job is yielding “short shots,” either an
increase in temperature to obtain lower resin viscosity or an increase in pressure, feed rate or injection time
results in the preform mold fill desired.
The higher the melt index of a polyethylene resin (or melt flow rate of a polypropylene resin), the better its flow
properties, the lower the injection pressure and/or barrel temperature or both, required to fill a preform mold.
Therefore, a reduction in injection pressure without switching to a higher melt index, or higher flow, resin must
be accompanied by an increase in barrel temperature to obtain mold fill.
Conversely, an increase in pressure without a change in resin melt index must be accompanied by a reduction in
temperature to prevent “flashing” of the preform mold. Use of higher density resins may reduce the preform
molding cycle time considerably, owing to their greater stiffness and higher heat softening points. These
properties mean higher density preforms can be transferred to the blowing mold at higher temperatures. The
amount of time gained depends on the size and shape of the injection molded article and the speed of the
machine.
For maximum production, injection rates must be high and injection temperatures as low as possible; the lower
limit is fixed by the requirement that the preform must not solidify when transferred to the blowing mold.
However, an irregularly frosty surface on items injection blow molded indicates the injection molding
temperature is too low. These marks can also result from scaling occurring as the resin is pushed through the
nozzle or gating. Increasing the injection temperature to reduce melt viscosity and reducing the pressure
correspondingly may eliminate such roughness.
Surface roughness can also occur it the material at the nozzle of the injection molding machine cools too much
between cycles. This condition can be eliminated by installing heaters on a conventional nozzle or by restricting
the gatings lightly.
Exterior surface defects may also be caused by defects in either the preform mold or the blowing mold. Both
types of mold defects can be eliminated by polishing. As in extrusion blow molding, air vents in the blowing
mold allow entrapped air to escape and thus eliminate another source of surface defects.
Injection temperatures must be high enough to prevent poor welds. For each type of polyolefin used, the most
suitable blow molding temperature must be determined as a function of the blow rate. At this temperature,
preform blowout is minimized as well as thin spots in the finished part.
If thin spots do occur in the wall of an injection blown piece, the temperature of the preform is too high when
air is injected into the blowing mold. Uniform thickness can be obtained by either lowering the injection
temperature or, if this is not feasible, by giving the preform more time for cooling before it is blown.
 Calendering
Calendering is a method of producing plastic film and sheet by squeezing the plastic through the gap (or 'nip')
between two counter-rotating cylinders. The art of forming a sheet in this way can be traced to the paper, textile
and metal industries. The first development of the technique for polymeric materials was in the middle 19th
century when it was used for mixing additives into rubber.
The subsequent application to plastics was not a complete success because the early machines did not have
sufficient accuracy or control over such things as cylinder temperature and the gap between the rolls. Therefore
acceptance of the technique as a viable production method was slow until the 1930s when special equipment
was developed specifically for the new plastic materials. As well as being able to maintain accurately roll
temperature in the region of 200°C these new machines had power assisted nip adjustment and the facility to
adjust the rotational speed of each roll independently. These developments are still the main features of modem
calendering equipment.
Calenders vary in respect of the number of rolls and of the arrangement of the rolls relative to one another. One
typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.57- the inverted L-type. Although the calendering operation as illustrated
here looks very straightforward it is not quite as simple as that. In the production plant a lot of ancillary
equipment is needed in order to prepare the plastic material for the calender rolls and to handle the sheet after
the calendaring operation. A typical sheet production unit would start with premixing of the polymer,
plasticiser, pigment, etc in a ribbon mixer followed by gelation of the premix in a Banbury Mixer and/or a
short screw extruder. At various stages, strainers and metal detectors are used to remove any foreign matter.
These preliminary operations result in a material with a dough-like consistency which is then supplied to the
calender rolls for shaping into sheets.

However, even then the process is not complete. Since the hot plastic tends to cling to the calender rolls it is
necessary to peel it off using a high speed roll of smaller diameter located as shown in Fig. 4.57. When the sheet

Page 1 of 7
leaves the calender it passes between embossing rolls and then on to cooling drums before being trimmed
and stored on drums. For thin sheets the speed of the winding drum can be adjusted to control the drawdown.
Outputs vary in the range 0.1 - 2 m/s depending on the sheet thickness. Calendering can achieve surprising
accuracy on the thickness of a sheet.
For good tolerance of sheet thickness, it is essential to have very close control over roll temperatures, speeds
and proximity. In addition, the dimensions of the rolls must be very precise. The production of the rolls is akin
to the manufacture of an injection moulding tool in the sense that very high machining skills are required. The
particular features of a calender roll are a uniform surface finish, minimal eccentricity and a special barrel
profile ('crown') to compensate for roll deflection under the very high pressures developed between the rolls.
Since calendering is a method of producing sheet/film it must be considered to be in direct competition with
extrusion based processes. In general, film blowing and die extrusion methods are preferred for materials such
as polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene but calendering has the major advantage of causing very little
thermal degradation and so it is widely used for heat sensitive materials such as PVC.
Material Specifications
The best polymers for calendering are thermoplastics. One reason for this is because thermoplastics soften at a
temperatures much lower than their melting temperature, giving a wide range of working temperatures. They
also adhere well to the rollers, allowing them to continue through the chain well, but they don't adhere too well
and get stuck on the roller. The last reason is that thermoplastic melts have a fairly low viscosity, but they are
still strong enough to hold together and not run all over the place. Heat sensitive materials are also great for
calenders because calenders put immense pressures on the materials to work them and therefore do not need as
high of temperatures to process them limiting the chances of thermal degradation. This is why calendering is
often the method of choice for processing PVC. Due to the nature of the process the polymers must have a shear
and thermal history that is consistent across the width of the sheet.
Advantages
The best quality sheets of plastic today are produced by calenders; in fact, the only process that competes with
the calender in sheet forming is extruding. The calender also is very good at handling polymers that are heat
sensitive as it causes very little thermal degradation. Another advantage to calendering is that it is good at
mixing polymers that contain high amounts of solid additives that don't get blended or fluxed in very well. This
is true because compared to extrusion the calender produces a large rate of melt for the amount of mechanical
energy that is put in. Due to this companies are able to add more filler product to their plastics and save money
on raw materials. Calenders are very versatile machines meaning that it is very easy to change settings like the
size of the roller gap.
Disadvantages
Although the calendering process produces a better product than the extruding process there are a couple of
disadvantages. One disadvantage is that the process is more expensive to perform which is a major deterrent for
Page 2 of 7
many companies. The calendering process also is not as good at too high of gauges or too low of gauges. If the
thickness is below 0.006 inches then there is a tendency for pinholes and voids to appear in the sheets. If the
thickness is greater than about 0.06 inches though there is a risk of air entrapment in the sheet . Any desired
thickness within that range though would turn out much better using a calender process.
Types
There are 3 main types of calender: the I type, L type and Z type

Fig 1: Roller setup in a typical 'I' Fig 2: Roller setup in a typical

type calender inverted 'L' type calender Fig 3: Roller setup in a typical 'Z'
type calender

I Type

The I type, as seen in Figure 1, was for many years the standard calender used. It can also be built with one
more roller in the stack. This design is not ideal though because at each nip there is an outward force that pushes
the rollers away from the nip.
L Type

The L type is the same as seen in Figure 2 but mirrored vertically. Both these setups have become popular and
because some rollers are at 90o to others their roll separating forces have less effect on subsequent rollers. L
type calenders are often used for processing rigid vinyls and inverted L type calenders are normally used for
flexible vinyls.
Z Type

The Z-type calender places each pair of rollers at right angles to the next pair in the chain. This means that the
roll separating forces that are on each roller individually will not effect any other rollers. Another feature of the
Z-type calender is that is that they lose less heat in the sheet because as can be seen in Figure 3 the sheet travels
only a quarter of the roller circumference to get between rollers. Most other types this is about half the
circumference of the roller.

Page 3 of 7
Analysis of Calendering
A detailed analysis of the flow of molten plastic between two rotating rolls is very complex but fortunately
sufficient accuracy for many purposes can be achieved by using a simple Newtonian model. The assumptions
made are that
(a) the flow is steady and laminar
(b) the flow is isothermal
(c) the fluid is incompressible
(d) there is no slip between the fluid and the rolls.
If the clearance between the rolls is small in relation to their radius then at any section x the problem may be
analysed as the flow between parallel plates at a distance h apart. The velocity profile at any section is thus
made up of a drag flow component and a pressure flow component.
For a fluid between two parallel plates, each moving at a velocity Vd , the drag flow velocity is equal to Vd . In
the case of a calender with rolls of radius, R, rotating at a speed, N, the drag velocity will thus be given by
2πRN.
The velocity component due to pressure flow between two parallel plates has already been determined in
Section 4.2.3(b).

Therefore, the total velocity at any section is given by

Considering unit width of the calender rolls the total throughput, Q, is given by

Since the output is given by Vd Hw, then

From this it may be seen that

Page 4 of 7
To determine the shape of the pressure profile it is necessary to express h as a function of x. From the equation
of a circle it may be seen that

However, in the analysis of calendering this equation is found to be difficult to work with and a useful
approximation is obtained by expanding (R 2 - x2 )1/2 using the binomial series and retaining only the first two
terms. This gives

Substituting the value of h, we get the pressure profile as a function of direction x as

For maximum or minimum pressure, dP/dx will be zero. Previously, it has been shown that at h = H, dP/dx is
zero. Putting h = H in equation 4.37, we get

If the equation 4.39 is integrated and the value of x from (4.38) substituted then the maximum pressure may be
obtained as

Page 5 of 7
Where

Example 4.9 A calender having rolls of diameter 0.4 m produces plastic sheet 2 m wide at the rate of 1300
kg/hour. If the nip between rolls is 10 mm and the exit velocity of the sheet is 0.01 m/s, estimate the position
and magnitude of the maximum pressure. The density of the material is 1400 kg/m3 and its viscosity is 104
Ns/m2 .

Temperature Effects
The temperature of the fluid melt has been found to be highest at the rollers. This happens for two reasons:

i) the shear is highest at the sides in laminar flow and therefore friction and heat is also highest there
ii) the heat is added to the system through the rollers, and the fluid doesn't conduct it very well

The effects of this tend to grow in magnitude even more the more viscous the fluid is. If one were to raise the rolling
temperature there would be changes in the above fluid mechanics. It would decrease the viscosity; consequently decreasing the
power input, pressure and roll separating forces in the fluid. It would also lower the chances of a fracture in the fluid and make
the surface finish better, but this all comes at the price and increases the chances of thermal degradation.

Velocity Effects on Final Product

The calender is able to produce the polymer sheeting at a fast rate. It can produce sheeting at a rate between 0.1 - 2.0 ms-1 .
Increasing the speed though has negative effects on the process. By increasing the speed the heat has even less time to spread

Page 6 of 7
throughout the polymer from the rollers causing an even greater temperature variation. It also causes an increase in shear forces
in the fluid at the rollers, which increases the chances of surface defects like fractures. The speed clearly needs to be chosen
very carefully in order to produce a quality product.

Roll Bending
In calendering the rollers are under great pressures, which can reach up to 41MPa in the final nip. The pressures are highest in
the middle of the width of the roller and due to this the rollers get deflected. This deflection causes the sheet being made to be
thicker in its center than it is at its sides. There are three methods that have bee developed to compensate for this bending:

1) Roll crowning
2) Roll bending
3) Roll crossing

Roll crowning uses a roller that has a bigger diameter in its center to compensate for the deflection of the roller. Roll bending
involves applying moments to both ends of the rollers to counteract the forces in the melt on the roller. With roll crossing the
rollers are put at a slight angle to each other and because of this the force of the rollers on the melt is higher in the middle where
the rollers are on top of each other more, and less force is applied on the edges where the rollers are not directly over top of each
other.

Page 7 of 7
 Compression Moulding
Compression moulding is one of the most common methods used to produce articles from thermosetting plastics. The
process can also be used for thermoplastics but this is less common.
The Moulding Operation (for thermosets)
A pre-weighed charge of partially polymerised thermoset is placed in the lower half of a heated mould and the upper half
is then forced down. This causes the material to be squeezed out to take the shape of the mould. The application of the
heat and pressure accelerates the polymerisation of the thermoset and once the crosslinking ('curing') is completed the
article is solid and may be ejected while still very hot.
✓ Mould temperatures are usually in the range of 130-200 o C.
✓ Cycle times may be long (possibly several minutes) so it is desirable to have multi-cavity moulds to increase
production rates.
✓ Moulds usually have a large projected area so the closing force needed could be in the region of 100-500 tonnes
to give the 7-25 MN/m2 cavity pressure needed.

There are two different types of compounds most frequently used in compression molding: Bulk Molding Compound
(BMC), Dough Moulding Compound(DMC) and Sheet Molding Compound (SMC). SMC costs higher but can be pre-cut
to conform to the surface area of the mold. The more evenly distributed material over the mold surface usually results in
less flow orientation during the compression stage and, therefore, higher product consistency.
Primary Factors in a Successful Compression Molding Process
▪ Amount of material
▪ Heating time and technique
▪ Force applied to the mold
▪ Cooling time and technique
Pros
▪ Low initial setup costs
▪ Fast setup time
▪ Capable to produce large size parts beyond the capacity of extrusion techniques
▪ Allows intricate parts to mould
▪ Good surface finish (in general)
▪ Wastes relatively little material
 ▪ Can apply to composite thermoplastics/thermosets with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly orientated
fiber mat or chopped strand
▪ Compression molding produces fewer knit lines and less fiber-length degradation than injection molding.
Cons
▪ Production speed is not up to injection molding standards
▪ Limited largely to flat or moderately curved parts with no undercuts
▪ Less-than-ideal product consistency

Types of Moulds
The following points highlight the four types of moulds used for compression moulding of plastics in industries. The types
are: 1. Flash Type 2. Positive Type 3. Landed Positive Type 4. Semi-Positive Mould.

1. Flash Type:
This type of mould is widely used because it is simple to construct and holds the part thickness and density within close
limits. As the mould closes, the excess material escapes over the land where it forms a very thin fin. This fin hardens first,
preventing the escapement of the mould charge. Flash type moulds may be loaded by volume since excess material is
permitted to escape. Material lost through flashing is higher than for other types of compression moulds, but the original
mould cost is relatively low.

2. Positive Type:
The characteristics of positive type mould are deep cavity and a plunger that compresses the compound at the bottom of
the mould. As there is very little escapement of material, it is necessary to weight the charge accurately if the size of the
part is to be controlled. Such moulds are used for high impact materials and parts requiring deep draw.

3. Landed Positive Type:

This type of mould is similar to the positive mould except that lands are incorporated in the design to stop the travel of the
plunger at a predetermined point. The density may vary depending upon the charge. In this process, greater loading space
is provided thus making possible the processing of bulky materials.
4. Semi-Positive Mould:
This is a combination of flash type and landed mould. In addition to the flash ridges, land is incorporated to restrict the
travel of the plunger while some of the pressure is taken up by the land, much pressure is being exerted on the part being
moulded. The amount of clearance between the flash ridges regulates the thickness of flash and controls to a large extent
the density of the moulded part.

Materials of Construction of Mould

Oil and air hardening tool steel are used for phenolic, urea and melamine, and cast steel for polyester materials requiring
low pressure. Flash parting lines on the dies of these materials are usually flame hardened and the cavities are hard
chrome plated.

Bolster: The removable plates that serve as the working

surface for the bed and ram. The plate is usually bolted
to the bed and rams substructures. The bolsters can be
machined with a variety of work holding features.

Stroke: The amount of possible ram travel. Stroke is the

total distance that the ram can travel, from full extension
to full retraction.
Shut Height: The distance between the bed bolster and
the ram bolster when the ram is fully extended. This is
also commonly known as the Closed Height. As
standard, this dimension is usually within “0.25” due to
assembly processes.
Daylight: The distance between the bed bolster and the
ram bolster when the ram is fully retracted. This is also
commonly known as the Open Height.

Bed Height: Bed Height is the distance from the bottom

of the hydraulic press structure to the working height or
top of the bed bolster.

Analysis
During compression moulding, the charge of material may be put into the mould either as a powder or a preformed 'cake'.
In both cases the material is preheated to reduce the temperature difference between it and the mould. If the material is at
a uniform temperature in the mould then the process may be analysed as follows.
Consider a 'cake' of moulding resin between the compression platens as shown in Fig. 4.63. When a constant force, F, is
applied to the upper platen the resin flows as a result of a pressure gradient. If the flow is assumed Newtonian then the
pressure flow equation derived in Section 4.2.3 may be used

For the annular element of radius, r, in Fig. 4.63 it is more convenient to use cylindrical co-ordinates so this equation may
be rewritten as

Now if the top platen moves down by a distance, dH, the volume displaced is (πr2 dH) and the volume flow rate is
πr2 (dH/dt). Therefore,

This simple differential equation is separable and so each side may be solved in turn.

Now the force on the element is 2πrdr(P) so the total force, F, is given by integrating across the platen surface.

This may be rearranged to give

Example 4.10 A circular plate with a diameter of 0.3 m is to be compression moulded from phenol formaldehyde. If the
preform is cylindrical with a diameter of 50 mm and a depth of 36 mm estimate the platen force needed to produce the
plate in 10 seconds. The viscosity of the phenol may be taken as 10 3 Ns/m2 .

Transfer Moulding
Transfer moulding is similar to compression moulding except that instead of the moulding material being pressurized in
the cavity, it is pressurized in a separate chamber and then forced through an opening and into a closed mould. Transfer
moulds usually have multi-cavities as shown in Fig. 4.64. The advantages of transfer moulding are that the preheating
of the material and injection through a narrow orifice improves the temperature distribution in the material and accelerates
the crosslinking reaction. As a result the cycle times are reduced and there is less distortion of the mouldings. The
improved flow of the material also means that more intricate shapes can be produced.
 Rotational Moulding
Rotational moulding, like blow moulding, is used to produce hollow plastic articles. The process is attractive for
a number of reasons. Firstly, since it is a low pressure process the moulds are generally simple and relatively
inexpensive. Also the moulded articles can have a very uniform thickness, can contain reinforcement, are
virtually strain free and their surface can be textured if desired. The use of this moulding method is growing
steadily because although the cycle times are slow compared with injection or blow moulding, it can produce
very large, thick-walled articles which could not be produced economically by any other technique. Wall
thicknesses of 10 mm are not a problem for rotationally moulded articles.
However, the principles in each method are quite different. In rotational moulding a carefully weighed charge
of plastic powder is placed in one half of a metal mould. The mould halves are then clamped together and
heated in an oven. During the heating stage the mould is rotated about two axes at right angles to each
other. After a certain time, the plastic will be sufficiently softened to form a homogeneous layer on the surface
of the mould. The latter is then cooled while still being rotated. The final stage is to take the moulded article
from the mould.
The process was originally developed in the 1940s for use with vinyl plastisols in liquid form. It was not until
the 1950s that polyethylene powders were successfully moulded in this way. Nowadays a range of materials
such as nylon(PA), polycarbonate(PC), ABS, high impact polystyrene(HIPS) and polypropylene(PP) can be
moulded but by far the most common material is polyethylene(PE).
There is a variety of ways in which the cycle of events described above may be carried out. For example, in
some cases (particularly for very large articles) the whole process takes place in one oven. However, a more
common set-up is illustrated in Fig. 4.59. The mould is on the end of an arm which first carries the cold mould
containing the powder into a heated oven. During heating the mould rotates about the arm (major) axis and also
about its own (minor) axis (see Fig. 4.60). After a pre-set time in the oven, the arm brings the mould into a
cooling chamber. The rate of cooling is very important. Clearly, fast cooling is desirable for economic reasons
but this may cause problems such as warping. Normally therefore the mould is initially cooled using blown air
and this is followed by a water spray. The rate of cooling has such a major effect on product quality that even
the direction of the air jets on the mould during the initial gradual cooling stage can decide the success or
otherwise of the process. As shown in Fig. 4.59 there are normally three arms (mould holders) in a complete
system so that as one is being heated another is being cooled and so on. In many machines the arms are fixed
rigidly together and so the slowest event (heating, cooling or charging/discharging) dictates when the moulds
progress to the next station. In some modem machines, the arms are independent so that if cooling is completed
then that arm can leave the cooling bay whilst the other arms remain in position.
It is important to realize that rotational moulding is not a centrifugal casting technique. The rotational speeds are
generally below 20 rev/min with the ratio of speeds about the major and minor axes being typically 4 to 1. Also
since all mould surfaces are not equidistant from the centre of rotation any centrifugal forces generated would
tend to cause large variations in wall thickness. In fact in order to ensure uniformity of all thickness it is normal
design practice to arrange that the point of intersection of the major and minor axis does not coincide with the
centroid of the mould.
The heating of rotational moulds may be achieved using infra-red, hot liquid, open gas flame or hot-air
convection. However, the latter method is the most common. The oven temperature is usually in the range 250-
450°C and since the mould is cool when it enters the oven it takes a certain time to get up to a temperature
which will melt the plastic. This time may be estimated as follows.
Thermal Analysis
When the mould is placed in the heated oven, the heat input (or loss) per unit time must be equal to the
change in internal energy of the material (in this case the mould).

𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑡 𝑡
( ) = exp [−ℎ𝛽 ( ) 𝐶𝑝 ]
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 𝜌
where Ti is the initial temperature of the mould and β is the surface area to volume ratio (A/V).
This equation suggests that there is an exponential rise in mould temperature when it enters the oven, and in
practice this is often found to be the case.
then for an aluminium cube mould 330 mm side and 6 mm thick, as was used to produce Fig. 4.61 then

For a steel mould of the same dimensions and thickness, a quick calculation (h = 11 W/m2 K, Cp = 480 J/kg.K
and ρ = 7850 kg/m3 ) shows that the steel mould would take three times longer to heat up. However, in practice,
steel moulds are less than a third of the thickness of aluminium. Therefore, although aluminium has a better
thermal conductivity, steel moulds tend to heat up more quickly because they are thinner.
It is important to note that the above calculation is an approximation for the time taken to heat the mould to any
desired temperature. Fig. 4.61 shows that in practice it takes considerably longer for the mould temperature to
get to 220°C. This is because although initially the mould temperature is rising at the rate predicted in the above
calculation, once the plastic starts to melt, it absorbs a significant amount of the thermal energy input .
Fig. 4.61 illustrates that the mould temperature is quite different from the set oven temperature 330°C or indeed
the actual oven temperature, throughout the moulding cycle. An even more important observation is that in
order to control the rotational moulding process it is desirable to monitor the temperature of the air inside
the mould. This is possible because there is normally a vent tube through the mould wall in order to ensure
equal pressures inside and outside the mould. This vent tube provides an easy access for a thermocouple to
measure the internal air temperature.
The internal air temperature characteristic has a unique shape, which shows clearly what is happening at all
stages throughout the process. Up to point A in Fig. 4.61 there is simply powder tumbling about inside the
mould. At point A, the mould has become sufficiently hot that plastic starts to melt and stick to the mould.
The melting process absorbs energy and so over the region AB, the internal air temperature rises less
quickly. It may also be seen that the temperature of the mould now starts to rise less quickly. At B, all the
plastic has melted and so a larger proportion of the thermal energy input goes to heating the inner air. This
temperature rises more rapidly again, at a rate similar to that in the initial phase of the process.
Over the region BC the melt is effectively sintering because at B it is a powdery mass loosely fused together
whereas at C it has become a uniform melt. The value of temperature and duration at C is very important
because if the oven period is too short, then the material will not have sintered properly and there will be an
excess of pin-holes (Here, the powder particles have fused together and trapped a pocket of air). If the oven
period is too long then the pin-holes will all have disappeared but thermal/oxidative degradation will have
started at the Inner surface of the moulding. Extensive tests have shown that this is a source of brittleness in the
mouldings and so the correct choice of temperature at C is a very important quality control parameter.
For most grades of polyethylene the optimum temperature is in the region of 200±5°C
Once the mould is removed from the oven the mould starts to cool at a rate determined by the type of cooling-
blown air (slow) or water spray (fast). There may be a overshoot in the internal air temperature due to the
thermal momentum of the melt. This overshoot will depend on the wall thickness of the plastic product. In Fig.
4.61 it may be seen that the inner air temperature continues to rise for several minutes after the mould has been
taken out of the oven (at about 13.5 minutes).
During cooling, a point D is reached where the internal air temperature decreases less quickly for a period. This
represents the solidification of the plastic and because this process is exothermic, the inner air cannot cool so
quickly. Once solidification is complete, the inner air cools more rapidly again. Another kink (point E) may
appear in this cooling curve and, if so, it represents the point where the moulding has separated from the
mould wall. In practice this is an important point to keep consistent because it affects shrinkage, warpage, etc
in the final product. Once the moulding separates from the mould, it will cool more slowly and will tend to be
more crystalline, have greater shrinkage and lower impact strength.
New Developments
In rotational moulding are continuing, with the ever increasing use of features such as
i) Mould pressurisation (to consolidate the melt, remove pin-holes, reduce cycle times and provide more
consistent mould release),
ii) Internal heating/cooling (to decrease cycle times and reduce warpage effects).
In overall terms the disadvantages of rotational moulding are its relative slowness and the limited choice of
plastics which are commercially available in powder form with the correct additive package. However, the
advantages of rotational moulding in terms of stress-free moulding, low mould costs, and easy control over
wall thickness distribution (relative to blow moulding) means that currently rotational moulding is the fastest
growing sector of the plastics processing industry. Typical annual growth rates are between 10 and 12% p.a.
Biaxial Rotomoulding Machine - Roto molding Machine - Water Tank Making Machine - YouTube
 Rotational Moulding
❖ Used to produce hollow plastic articles.
❖ Accurately weighed charge of plastic powder is placed in one half of a metal mould.
The mould halves are then clamped together
❖ Heated in an oven; the mould is rotated about two axes at right angles to each other.
Plastic sufficiently softened to form a homogeneous layer on the surface of the
mould.
❖ Cooled using blown air; followed by a water spray while still being rotated.
❖ Take the moulded article out of the mould.

Advantages
✓ Moulds are generally simple and relatively inexpensive.
✓ Moulded articles can have a very uniform thickness
✓ Virtually strain free product
✓ Surface can be textured if desired
✓ Can produce very large, thick walled (10 mm) articles economically compared to
other technique

Disadvantages
o Relative slow
o Limited choice of plastics which are commercially available in powder form with the
correct additive package
Typical Rotational Moulding Process
Typical 'off-set arm' Rotation

➢ The mould is on the end of an arm

➢ Arm carries the cold mould containing the
powder into a heated oven.
➢ Mould rotates about the arm (major) axis
and also about its own (minor) axis
➢ Not a centrifugal casting technique. RPM <
20 rev/min; the ratio of speeds about the
major and minor axes being typically 4 to 1
➢ After a pre-set time, arm brings the mould
into a cooling chamber.

➢ Heating media - infra-red, hot liquid, open gas flame or hot-air convection
➢ Oven temperature is usually in the range 250-4500C
➢ Rate of cooling is very important. - fast cooling results in warping. Whereas slow
cooling lengthens the cycle time
➢ Mould is initially cooled using blown air and this is followed by a water spray.
Energy (Heat) Balance
When the mould is placed in the heated oven, the heat input (or loss) per unit time must
be equal to the change in internal energy of the material (in this case the mould)

✓ where Ti ant Tt are the initial &

final temperatures of the mould
and β is the surface area to volume
ratio (A/V).
✓ This equation suggests that there
is an exponential rise in mould
temperature when it enters the
oven
Temperature Profile Diagram

Upto point A – Mould heating; polymer powder tumbling about inside the mould;
At A, the mould has become sufficiently hot that plastic starts to melt and stick to mould
Region A to B - melting of powder that absorbs energy, the internal air temperature rises
less quickly. At B, all the plastic has melted & loosely fused together .
Region BC - melt is effectively sintering, A larger proportion of the thermal energy input
goes to heating the inner air. This temperature rises more rapidly again, at a rate similar to
that in the initial phase of the process. At C loosely fused polymer become a uniform melt.
value of temperature and duration at C is very important - if the oven period is too short,
excessive pin-holes will be formed; if the oven period is too long, thermal/oxidative
degradation will take place . Optimum temperature for PE is 200±5°C
Temperature Profile Diagram

At C - Mould cooling started; internal air temperature decreases

At D – Solidification of the polymer starts (exothermic process). Internal air temperature
decreases less quickly as the inner air cannot cool so quickly due to exothermic process.
Once solidification is complete, the inner air cools more rapidly again.
At E - the moulded component has separated from the mould wall. It affects shrinkage,
warpage, etc in the final product. Once the moulding separates from the mould, it will cool
more slowly and will tend to be more crystalline, have greater shrinkage and lower impact
strength.
 Thermoforming
When a thermoplastic sheet is heated it becomes soft and pliable and the techniques for shaping this sheet are
known as thermoforming. This method of manufacturing plastic articles developed in the 1950s but limitations
such as poor wall thickness distribution and large peripheral waste restricted its use to simple packaging
applications. In recent years, however, there have been major advances in machine design and material
availability with the result that although packaging is still the major market sector for the process, a wide range
of other products are made by thermoforming. These include aircraft window reveals, refrigerator liners, baths,
switch panels, car bumpers, motorbike fairings etc.
Depth of Draw
The relationship of a parts depth to its width is called the "depth of draw ratio." While most thermoformed parts
are much shallower than they are wide, draw ratios of one-to-one are fairly common, and ratios in excess of one
to one (where a part is deeper than its width) can be achieved with careful part design, tool construction, and
manufacturing controls.
The depth a thermoplastic material is drawn is an important factor in determining the best thermoforming
technique, and depth of draw ratio is a prime factor affecting the final average part wall thickness. For
moderately deep draws, male drape forming will give more uniform wall thickness than straight vacuum female
forming. For very deep draws or depth-to-width rations exceeding one-to-one, plug assisted female forming will
often produce the most uniform material distribution. Using a "pre-draw" bubble to stretch material prior to
forming can also extend the draw ratio for many forming approaches.

The term 'thermoforming' incorporates a wide range of possibilities for sheet forming but basically there are two
sub-divisions - vacuum forming and pressure forming.

(a) Vacuum Forming

In this processing method a sheet of thermoplastic material is heated and then shaped by reducing the air
pressure between it and a mould. The simplest type of vacuum forming is illustrated in Fig. 4.51 (a). This is
referred to as Negative Forming and is capable of providing a depth of draw which is 1/3-1/2 of the maximum
width. The principle is very simple. A sheet of plastic, which may range in thickness from 0.025 mm to 6.5 mm,
is clamped over the open mould.
A heater panel is then placed above the sheet and when sufficient softening has occurred the heater is removed
and the vacuum is applied. For the thicker sheets it is essential to have heating from both sides. In some cases
Negative Forming would not be suitable because, for example, the shape formed in Fig. 4.51 would have a wall
thickness in the comers which is considerably less than that close to the clamp.
Billow Forming
A method of thermoforming sheet plastic where the heated sheet is clamped over a billow chamber. Air
pressure in the chamber is increased causing the sheet to billow upward against a descending male mold.
Similar to vacuum snapback except the heated sheet is blown upward into a bubble shape to give similar surface
area of the final product and then vacuum is applied.
If the depth of draw is especially deep, a plug assist may be used to facilitate an even distribution of material.
in straight vacuum the plug or mold is driven into the pre-stretched sheet from the top plate.
Plug Assisted Forming
Another alternative would be to have a female mould as in Fig. 4.51 but after the heating stage and before the
vacuum is applied, a plug comes down and guides the sheet into the cavity. When the vacuum is applied the
base of the moulding is subjected to less draw and the result is a more uniform wall thickness distribution. This
is called Plug Assisted Forming.
If this was not acceptable then

the same basic shape could be produced by Positive Forming. In this case a male (positive) mould is pushed
into the heated sheet before the vacuum is applied. This gives a better distribution of material and deeper shapes
can be formed - depth to width ratios of 1:1 are possible. This thermoforming method is also referred to as
Drape Forming. Note that both Positive Forming and Plug Assisted Forming effectively apply a pre-stretch to
the plastic sheet which improves the performance of the material quite apart from the improved wall thickness
distribution.
In the packaging industry skin and blister vacuum machines are used. Skin packaging involves the
encapsulation of articles between a fight, flexible transparent skin and a rigid backing which is usually
cardboard. Blister packs are preformed foils which are sealed to a rigid backing card when the goods have been
inserted.
The heaters used in thermoforming are usually of the infra red type with typical loadings of between 10 and 30
kW/m2 . Normally extra heat is concentrated at the clamped edges of the sheet to compensate for the additional
heat losses in this region. The key to successful vacuum forming is achieving uniform heating over the sheet.
One of the major attractions of vacuum forming is that since only atmospheric pressure is used to do the
shaping, the moulds do not have to be very strong. Materials such as plaster, wood and thermosetting resins
have all been used successfully. However, in long production runs mould cooling becomes essential in which
case a metal mould is necessary. Experience has shown that the most satisfactory metal is undoubtedly
aluminium. It is easily shaped, has good thermal conductivity, can be highly polished and has an almost
unlimited life.
Materials which can be vacuum formed satisfactorily include polystyrene, ABS, PVC, acrylic, polycarbonate,
polypropylene and high and low density polyethylene. Co-extruded sheets of different plastics and multi-colour
laminates are also widely used nowadays. One of the most recent developments is the thermoforming of
crystalisable PET for high temperature applications such as oven trays. The PET sheet is manufactured in the
amorphous form and then during thermoforming it is permitted to crystallise. The resulting moulding is thus
capable of remaining stiff at elevated temperatures.

(b) Pressure Forming

This is generally similar to vacuum forming except that pressure is applied above the sheet rather than vacuum
below it. This advantage of this is that higher pressures can be used to form the sheet. A typical system is
illustrated in Fig. 4.52 and in recent times this has become attractive as an alternative to injection moulding for
moulding large area articles such as machine housings.
(c) Matched Die Forming
A variation of thermoforming which does not involve gas pressure or vacuum is matched die forming. The
concept is very simple and is illustrated in Fig. 4.53. The plastic sheet is heated as described previously and is
then sandwiched between two halves of a mould. Very precise detail can be reproduced using this
thermoforming method but the moulds need to be more robust than for the more conventional process involving
gas pressure or vacuum.

(d) Dual-Sheet Thermoforming

This technique, also known as Twin-Sheet Forming, is a recent development. It is essentially a hybrid of blow
moulding and thermoforming. Two heated sheets are placed between two mould halves and clamped as shown
in Fig. 4.54. An inflation tube at the parting line then injects gas under pressure so that the sheets are forced out
against the mould. Alternatively, a vacuum can be drawn between the plastic sheet and the mould in each half
of the system. This technique has interesting possibilities for further development and will compete with blow
moulding, injection moulding and rotational moulding in a number of market sectors. It can be noted that the
two mould halves can be of different shapes and the two plastic sheets could be of different materials, provided
a good weld can be obtained at the parting line.

Analysis of Thermoforming
If a thermoplastic sheet is softened by heat and then pressure is applied to one of the sides so as to generate a
freely blown surface, it will be found that the shape so formed has a uniform thickness. If this was the case
during thermoforming, then a simple volume balance between the original sheet and the final shape could
provide the wall thickness of the end product.
Aihi = Af hf (1)
where A = surface area, and h = wall thickness ('i' and ' f ' refer to initial and final conditions).

Example 4.7 A rectangular box 150 mm long, 100 mm wide and 60 mm deep is to be thermoformed from a flat
sheet 150 mm x 100 mm x 2 mm. Estimate the average thickness of the walls of the final product if (a)
conventional vacuum forming is used and (b) plug assisted moulding is used (the plug being 140 mm x 90 mm).
THERMOFORMING OPERATIONS & MACHINARIES
Clamping
The clamp frame needs to be sufficiently powerful enough to handle the thickest material likely to be formed on the
machine – up to 6mm with single heater and upto 10mm with the twin heater machines. If an automated process is used
the operation of the moving parts must be guarded and interlocked to avoid accidental damage. In addition a safety guard (
in the form of a fabricated guard or light curtain) must be provided to protect the machine operator at all times.

Heating
Heaters are generally infra-red elements mounted within an aluminium reflector plate. In order to obtain the best vacuum
forming results, using any material, it is essential that the sheet is heated uniformly over its entire surface area and
throughout its thickness. In order to achieve this it is necessary to have a series of zones which are controlled by energy
regulators.
Ceramics do have some disadvantage in that their high thermal mass makes them slow to warm up (approx 15 minutes)
and slow in their response time when adjustments are made.
More sophisticated quartz heaters are available which have less thermal mass enabling more rapid response time.
Pyrometers enable accurate heat temperature control by sensing the melting temperature of the sheet and interacting with
the operating process control. A cooling jacket is required for the pyrometer. Precise temperature readout is also available
with a computer controlled system working with the pyrometer(s). Twin heaters are also recommended when forming
thicker materials as they assist in providing more uniform heat penetration and faster cycle times.
Twin quartz heaters are advisable when forming high temperature materials with critical forming temperatures. By close
control of areas of heat intensity, heat losses around the edges caused by convection air currents and absorption from
clamp areas can be fully compensated for and consistent results achieved on a continuous basis. Cost savings can also be
considerable if quartz heaters are specified as there is an adjustable percentage power drop when the heaters are in the rear
position during the forming process.

Pre-stretch
Once the plastic has reached it’s forming temperature or ‘plastic’ state it can be pre -stretched to ensure even wall
thickness before the vacuum is applied. Pre-stretch is an invaluable feature when forming deep draw parts with minimum
draft angles and high mould surface detail. Vacuum, air pressure and optional aids such as a plug assist are then used to
assist in moulding the heated, stretched plastic.

Vacuum
Once the material is suitably pre-stretched a vacuum can be applied to assist in forming the sheet. A dry vane vacuum
pump is used to draw the air trapped between the sheet and the mould. The vacuum pump should be capable of
maintaining a differential pressure of approx 27 inch Hg. With larger machines a vacuum reservoir is used in conjunction
with a high volume capacity vacuum pump. This enables a two stage vacuum to be applied ensuring rapid moulding of the
heated sheet ( before the sheet temperature drops below its ideal forming temperature).
Plug Assist
Plug-assist forming is the term used to describe the use of a male plug tool, mounted on a pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder
situated over the forming area of the machine, to force the material into a female cavity within the moulding area. It
enables complicated and deep-draw moulds to be produced without webbing and with even thickness distribution. The
idea behind the process is to feed as much material into the cavity prior to the vacuum being applied in order to avoid
thinning in that area. Plug moulds are generally made from wood or metal and a smooth surface allows the sheet to slide
whilst stretching into the mould. A felt or leather lining ensures that the risk of premature chilling on contact is greatly
reduced. Resin plugs provide a good alternative as being good insulators they do not affect the temperature of the sheet.
Plug assist is also an essential feature when forming multiple impression male moulds as they can be placed very close
together without the fear of the material webbing between the formed parts.

Cooling and Release

Once formed the plastic must be allowed to cool before being released. If released too soon then deformation of the
moulding will result in a reject part. To speed up the cooling cycle high speed fans are fitted and activated once the part is
formed. A spray mist option is also available whereby nozzles are attached to the fans and a fine mist of chilled water is
directed onto the sheet. This, in conjunction with the fans can speed up the cooling cycle by up to 30%.
Mould temperature control units are also available which regulate the temperature within the mould ensuring accurate and
consistent cooling times when cooling crystalline and crystallising polymers such as PP, HDPE and PET.
Once cooled sufficiently the sheet can be released by a reverse pressure activated through the vacuum system. The part is
then stripped from the mould and transferred to the trimming station.

Finishing and Trimming

With vacuum forming there are secondary processes and operations required before a finished part will be ready for the
customer. Once the formed part has cooled and been removed from the machine the excess material is removed, holes,
slots and cut-outs are drilled into the part. Other post forming processes include decoration, printing, strengthening,
reinforcing and assembly.

The accompanying table lists some more commonly used amorphous and semi crystalline materials and provides a
guideline as to their temperature characteristics.

Different thermoplastics have different characteristics and are better suited to specific applications. Ideally the material
should be easy to form with a low forming temperature, good flow characteristics and thermal strength, high impact
strength and low shrinkage on cooling.
To improve thermal stability in certain materials like, for example, PVC, stabilisers are added to help prevent degradation
when heated. Certain materials are known as Hygroscopic – namely that they absorb moisture which if not pre-dried prior
to forming will result in moisture blisters which will pit the surface of the sheet resulting in a reject part. It is a common
misconception that the blisters are as a result of too much heat. This in turn can lead to incorrect heating cycles being
entered which in turn cause problems with definition on the finished part. (To avoid the pitting the operator is forced into
forming the part before the plastic has reached its forming temperature).
To overcome this problem it is therefore necessary for hygroscopic materials to be pre-dried in an oven before forming.
The drying temperature and length of drying time depends on the material and the thickness. E.g.: Polycarbonate with a
thickness of 3mm would require 4 hours at a drying temperature of 80-120°.
Mould and Mould Design
The thermoforming mould can be as simple as a wooden block or as sophisticated as an injection mould with all the
ancillary elements to enable in mould trimming. They are one of the most important parts of the thermoforming cycle.
One of the main advantages of vacuum forming is that the pressures used are significantly less compared to, for example,
the injection moulding process. The result is that vacuum formed tools can be produced economically and in a wide range
of materials to suit different prototype and production requirements.
Mould Materials
Selection of the best suited mould material depends largely on the severity and length of service required. If only a few
parts are required using fairly low temperature plastics then wood or plaster could be used. However, if the quantity
requirements run into the thousands and material temperatures are higher than ideally an aluminium based resin or
aluminium mould would be recommended.
Modelling clay is widely used for educational and model making purposes. It enables the user to quickly shape a low cost
prototype which can then be cured in an oven overnight. Suitable only for a few formings as the heat and pressures
applied cause it to deteriorate rapidly.
Wooden moulds are cheap and easy to fabricate, and have a longer life than plaster moulds – in many cases being used on
a production basis for in excess of 500 formings.
There are numerous resins (Cast Epoxy Resins) available which are relatively cheap and easy to work. Moulds made from
this material are durable and produce a forming with good surface finish.
Aluminium is frequently the material chosen for production tooling due to its good surface hardness, heat conductive
properties and low wear. It is lightweight and has an excellent strength to weight ratio. It can be machined from blocks or
cast from patterns and due to its thermal properties heat from the formed plastic sheet is quickly and efficiently dissipated.
Male and Female Moulds
There are basically two kinds of moulds: male (positive) and female (negative).

Fig 5.6: A greater degree of definition is achieved on the side of the plastic in
contact with the mould. The choice of a male or female should be considered so that
the side requiring the highest definition is the one in contact with the mould
especially thicker plastics.

Fig. 5.5

Several factors will affect the decision as to which is more suited and below we provide a few useful pointers. The top
surface of a moulding (the part not in contact with the mould) is invariably the better finished surface, since it cannot pick
up any marks such as dust particles from the tool itself. This factor alone may dictate whether a male or female mould is
required. Often a male tool is much easier to make and more suitable for a single deep-draw object. On the other hand, a
compartment tray with divisions, would typically be of female construction. The above Fig. shows a male and female
forming and the effects of thinning to the plastic sheet.
Draught Angles / Tapers
Most moulds are made with a base to sit flat on the forming table and must be provided with a draught or taper to
facilitate removal, (fig 5.7.) The degree of taper will depend on various factors, such as the surface quality of the tool, the
depth of near vertical faces, type of material used and if the option of pre-stretch is being utilised. In some instances, an
internal recess may be made with zero draft angle, since the shrinkage will actually pull the sheet away from the mould.
However the minimum typical taper we would recommend to ensure good quality forming and moulding release would be
circa 5°. It therefore goes without saying that the greater the taper, the more even the thickness of sheet and the easier it
will be to release. In summary, if using female moulds we recommend a minimum taper of 3° and 5° for male moulds.
Venting
An important feature of mould design is the requirement for suitably positioned vent holes to facilitate the evacuation of
air trapped between the plastic sheet and the mould. Ideally located in parts where the sheet last makes contact - notably
edges, cavities and internal corners. All these areas need to be vented to ensure good definition and rapid air evacuation.
Depending on plastic used and mould design determines the number of vent holes required. Ideally they should be as few
as possible and small enough to prevent them witnesses on the finished parts outer surface. However if too few vent holes
are provided or if the vent area is too small, the rate of draw-down will be controlled by the rate of air flowing from the
bubble. If this is too slow then the plastic may cool before the required definition has been achieved.
The diameter of vents at the surface should be less than half the material thickness at the mould surface or between ½ and
1mm. They can be far larger below the surface and one solution is to drill the smaller hole from the surface using a high
speed hand powered drill or pillar drill. The mould can then be inverted and a larger hole drilled from the underneath.
Shrinkage and Mould Release
On cooling and hardening, a molding will tend to shrink on to a male mould. Different thermoplastics have differing
shrinkage rates depending on the grade and thickness. Crystalline and semi crystalline materials tend to shrink more than
amorphous normally due to the higher forming temperatures required. The shrinkage rate of the materials will also affect
the mould design in that these differences need to be taken into consideration during the design phase especially if
tolerances are critical.
Difficulties in stripping the molding from the tool will depend to a large extent on mould design. If generous tapers, no
undercuts, good surface finish exist then removal should be fairly straight forward. In order to assist removal there are a
number of oil and silicone based release sprays which when applied to the mould prior to forming facilitate easy release.
It is also possible to use a compressed air line to blow air between the molding and the tool. The most effective way to
ensure that the moldings are released on a repeated basis is to ensure that the moulds are mounted on baseboards which in
turn can be attached to the mould rise and fall table on the machine. This ensures that only the plastic part is ejected when
release is activated.
Undercuts, Split and Multi Impression Moulds
A number of other features can be incorporated into mould design. Although technically not possible as once formed it is
impossible to release, undercuts can be incorporated into a mould design with the use of split tooling. With the use of a
removable side entrant tool it is possible to achieve undercuts in forming. Tooling costs are higher in most cases. If the
mould has an undercut at one end but an equal angle at the other end then the finished part can also be released.
Multi impression moulds are used when production requirements justify the added expense. It is normally the case that
with higher levels of production the maximum forming area of the machine is utilized by making multi impression
moulds.
Trouble Shooting Guide
Improper sheet temperature at the time of forming is a primary source of problems. Poor vacuum control and insufficient
cooling are also typical causes.
 THERMOFORMING
When a thermoplastic sheet is heated it becomes soft and pliable and the
techniques for shaping this sheet are known as thermoforming.
MATERIALS USED
LDPE, HDPE, PP, PS, PVC, ABS, PMMA, PC, PET
APPLICATION AREAS
aircraft window reveals, refrigerator liners, baths, switch panels, car bumpers,
motorbike fairings etc.
KEY TO SUCCESSFUL VACUUM FORMING
Achieving uniform heating over the sheet
HEATERS USED
Infra red type with typical loadings of between 10 and 30 kW/m 2.
❖ Normally extra heat is concentrated at the clamped edges of the sheet to
compensate for the additional heat losses in this region.
MOULDS USED
One of the major attractions of vacuum forming - atmospheric pressure is used to do
the shaping, the moulds do not have to be very strong. Materials such as plaster, wood
and thermosetting resins have all been used successfully.
For long run, the most satisfactory metal is aluminium. It is easily shaped, has good
thermal conductivity, can be highly polished and has an almost unlimited life.
TYPES OF THERMOFORMING
A. Vacuum Forming
I. Negative Forming
o Billow forming
o Plug Assisted Billow forming
II. Positive Forming
III. Plug Assisted Forming
Application: Skin and blister vacuum Forming
B. Pressure Forming
C. Matched Die Forming
D. Dual-Sheet Thermoforming
Negative Forming

➢ A sheet of plastic, (thickness from 0.025 -6.5 mm) clamped over the open mould.
➢ A heater panel is then placed above the sheet
➢ When sufficient softening has occurred the heater is removed
➢ The vacuum is applied.
➢ Cooling & ejecting the thremoformed article
For the thicker sheets it is essential to have heating from both sides.
❖ Providing a depth of draw which is 1/3 - 1/2 of the maximum width.
Drawback
The shape formed would have variable wall thickness - in the comers, thickness is
considerably less than that close to the clamp.
Positive Forming(Drape Forming)

➢ A sheet of plastic, (thickness from 0.025 -6.5 mm) clamped over the open mould.
➢ A heater panel is then placed above the sheet
➢ When sufficient softening has occurred the heater is removed
➢ A male (positive) mould is pushed into the heated sheet
➢ The vacuum is applied.
➢ Cooling & ejecting the thermoformed article

For the thicker sheets it is essential to have heating from both sides.
❖ Providing depth to width ratios of 1:1 are possible.
Plug Assisted Billow Forming

➢ A sheet of plastic, (thickness from 0.025 -6.5 mm) clamped over the open mould.
➢ A heater panel is then placed above the sheet
➢ When sufficient softening has occurred the heater is removed
➢ A plug comes down and guides the sheet into the female mould cavity
➢ The vacuum is applied.
➢ Cooling & ejecting the thermoformed article

❑ The moulding is subjected to less draw and the result is a more uniform wall thickness
distribution. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZYCwfKO8ho
Skin Vacuum Forming
➢ Skin packaging involves the encapsulation of articles between a tight, flexible
transparent skin and a rigid backing which is usually cardboard.
Blister Vacuum Forming

Blister packs are preformed foils which are sealed to a rigid backing card when the goods
have been inserted.
Pressure Forming
Similar to vacuum forming
except that pressure is applied
above the sheet rather than
vacuum below it.

Advantage
Higher pressures can be used
to form the sheet.

❑ Become attractive as an
alternative to injection
moulding for moulding large
area articles such as
machine housings.
Matched Die Forming

❖ Does not involve gas pressure or vacuum in matched die forming.

❖ The plastic sheet is heated as described previously and is then sandwiched between
two halves of a mould.
❖ Very precise detail can be reproduced using this thermoforming method but the
moulds need to be more robust
Dual-Sheet Thermoforming

➢ A hybrid of blow moulding and thermoforming.

➢ Two heated sheets are placed between two mould halves and clamped as shown
➢ An inflation tube at the parting line then injects gas under pressure so that the sheets
are forced out against the mould.
➢ Alternatively, a vacuum can be drawn between the plastic sheet and the mould in each
half of the system.
➢ Can compete with blow moulding, injection moulding and rotational moulding in a
number of market sectors.
Problem 4.7 A rectangular box 150 mm long, 100 mm wide and 60 mm deep is to be
thermoformed from a flat sheet 150 mm x 100 mm x 2 mm. Estimate the average
thickness of the walls of the final product if (a) conventional vacuum forming is used and
(b) plug assisted moulding is used (the plug being 140 mm x 90 mm).