Design and Manufacturing

476 Computer Aided

Flexible manufacturing systems

vehicles are used as the materials handling systemn in the
In this application, the guided
vehicles deliver work from the staging
area to the individual workstations in the sve
in the manufacturing system. At a work
MS.,Tha
The
vehicles also move work between stations
work is transferred from the vehicle platform
into the work area of the station for
n for n , the
After the completion of processing at that station, a vehicle returns to pick up theprocessing,
transport it to the next area. AGV systems provide a versatile material handlino
ndling systen and
complement the flexibility of the FMS operation. to

Miscellaneous applications
Other applications of automated guided vehicle systems include non-manufacturino
warehousing applications such as mail delivery in office buildings and hospital material h
turing and non-
Don.
operations. Hospital guided vehicles transport meal trays, linen, medical and laboratorys
and other materials between various departments in the building. These applications
require movement of the vehicles between different floors ot the hospital and hospital AGVs typica
s have
the capability to summon and use elevators for this purpose.

20.18 FUNCTIONS OF AGVs

There are several functions that must be performed to operate any automated guided vehicda
system successfully. These are:
Vehicle guidance and routing
Traffic control and safety
System management

20.18.1 Vehicle Guidance and Routing

The term guidance systemrefers to the method by which the AGVs pathways are defined
and
the vehicle control systems that follow the pathways.
There are two principal methods to define the pathways along the floor embedded guide
wires and paint strips. The guide wire system is commonly used in warehouse and
factory
applications.
In the guide wire method, the wires are usually embedded in a small channel, i.e., about
1/8 in wide and in deep. After the guide wires are installed, the channel slot is filled soasto
eliminate the discontinuity in the floor surface. A
frequency generator provides the guidance
signal carried in the wire. The signal is of relatively low voltage, low current and has a frequency
inthe range I to 15 kHz. This signal level creates a magnetic field along the pathway that is
followed by sensors on-board each vehicle. Figure 20.13 illustrates the operation of a typical
sensor system.
Two sensors (coils) are mounted on the vehicle on either side of the guide wire. When tne
vehicle is moving along a course such that the guide wire is directly between the two col5,
intensity of the magnetic field measured by each coil will be equal. If the vehicle strays to
side or the other, or if the guide wire path curves, the magnetic field intensity at the two sens
will be different.
 Industrial Robots and Automated Guided Vehicle
Systems 477
AGV.

Floor

Sensor (coil)

Guide
Electromagnetic
field
wire

of the board
on-boa sensor system that uses two coils to truck the magnetic field
Operation
wire.
in the guide

diorence is used to control the steering which makes the required changes in vehicle
This
difference

ction to equalize
the two sensor signals, hereby tracking the defined pathway.
are used to define the vehicle pathways, the vehicle possesses an optical
When paint stripscapable of tracking the paint. The strips can be taped, sprayed or painted
system thatis
uses a 1-in wide paint strip containing fluorescent particles that reflect
onthe
floor. One system
on the vehicle. A non-board sensor detects the reflected
utraviolet (UV) ght source light in
n controls the steering mechanism to follow it.
h stip and
The paint guidance system is useful in environments where electrical noise would render the
gie sstem unreliable or when the installation of guide wires in the floor surface would
t he appropriate. One problem with the paint strip guidance method is that the paint strip must
be maintained.

Routing
koading in AGVs is concerned with the problem of selecting anmong alternative pathways available
Baveticle in its travel to a defined destination point in the system. A typical layout that exploits
ecupabilities of modern AGV's technology, contains feature such as multiple loops, branches,
ste tacks and spurs in addition to the required pickup and drop-off stations. Vehicles in the
ysiem must decide which path to take to reach the defined destination point.
When a vehicle approaches a branching point in which the guide path splits into two (or
NE directions, a decision must be made as to which path the vehicle should take. This is
RTed to as a decision
he are two
point for the vehicle.
decide which
methods used in commercial AGVs to permit the vehicle to path
btake:

Frequency select method

) Path
switch select method
In the frequer
two separate paths at the
wAnch ency select method, the guide wires leading into the
ation coderent frequencies. As the vehicle enters the decision point, it reads an
kenification code on the
hie
ehicle colselects floor to identify its location. Depending on its programmed destination
uc Or the guide paths by deciding which frequency to track. This method
 Aided Design and Manufacturing
478 Computer
for each frequency that is used in the
the
requires a separate frequency generator guide Path
Additional
needed in the system. path .
s mlayou
are
This means that two or three generators
cut into the floor with the frequency select method to provide for bypass chann
the main channel needs to be powered for vehicle tracking. where onlbe
The path switch select method single frequency throughout the guide
uses a
uideof path
order to control the path ofa vehicle at a decision point, the power is switched
off in alllayout. In
except the one onwhich the vehicle is to
routing by the path branches
travel. To accomplish 1

method, the guide path layout must be divided into blocks that can be independentlswitch seleu
and off by means of controls mounted the floor
on their
respective blocks. Theseturned on
near
units are operated by the vehicles as they move in the various blocks.
As a vehicle enters a decision point, it activates a floor-mounted switching deui
contro,
ce
to the control unit for the relevant block. The control unit activates the desir
turn off the alternative branch or branches.
connected
and
20.18.2 Traffic Control and Safety
The purpose of traffic control for an AGV is to
prevent collisions between vehicles t
along the same guide path the layout. This purpose is usually achieved by
in
means c
system called the blocking system. The term blocking that suggests
guide path is in some way prevented from hitting any vehicle ahead oftravellin
it
a vehicle
g
There are several means used in commercial AGV
systems to accomplish blocking. The
(a) On-board vehicle sensing are
.

(b) Zone blocking

On-board vehicle sensing and zone blocking are often used in
comprehensive blocking system. combination to implement
mer s

On-board vehicle sensing (forward sensing) involves the use

of some form of
to detect the presence of vehicles and carts ahead on sensor system
the same guide wire. The
commercial guided vehicles include sensors used on
optical
When the on-board sensor detects an
sensors and ultrasonic
systems.
obstacle (another guided vehicle) in
vehicle stops. When the obstacle is front of it, the
removed, the vehicle
proceeds. Assuming the sensur
that
system is 100% effective, collisions between vehicles are
effectiveness of forward sensing is limited avoided and traffic is controlled. The
vehicles in front of it on the by the capability of the sensor system to deer
guide path since the sensors themselves are most
detecting obstacles directly ahead of the vehicle. These effective n
that contain long stretches
of straight
systems are most
appropriate on ayu
points where forward vehicles may not pathways. They are less effective at turns and conveng
be directly in front of the
The concept of zone sensor.
control is simple. The AGV's
the operating rule is
that no vehicle is layout is divided into separate zo , and
by another vehicle. permitted to enter a zone if that zone is alreaay OCcupred
The length of a zone is
sufficient to hold one vehicle train systens
plus an allowance for safety
and other
(or a train in driverless ua
Includete
number of considerations. These other
vehicles in the system, the size and consiaetd hieciveol
the objective
minimizing number of separate zone
the complexity of the layout and
anu
Ven zone,a
trailing vehicle is not allowed controls. When one vehicle occupies a
into that zone. E
 Industrial Robots and
Automated Guided Vehicle
Systems 479
mus
proceed into the next zone before the
leading
vehic
v e h i c l e

trailing vehicle can occupy

lling the forward movement of vehicles in the
separate
c o n t r o i

The edand
y affic in the overall system is controlled. Figure 20.14
By
z o n e .
illustrates thecollisions
zones, concept
t h e
g i v e n
n
aTeprevented.
c o n t r o l
t o i m p l e m e n t

blocking system.
i

a one
con

Gudepath

HAGV
AGV2 AGV 3
- ZoneA
Zone B Zone C
Zone D
Eia, 20.14 Zone control to implement blocking system.

Onemeans of. nplementing

zone control is to use
separate control units for each zone. These
One mounted along the guide path and are actuated by the vehicle in
the zone. When a
irs nters a given zone, it activates the block in the previous (upstream) zone to block any
controls

moving forwar
forward and colliding with the present vehicle. When it moves into
hicle from moving
ownstream) zone, it activates the block in that zone and deactivates the block in the
thenex zone.
In eeffect, zones are
In turned off and on to control vehicle movement by the
blocking
previous

addition to avoiding collisions between vehicles, a related objective is the safety of human
system.

might be located the route of the vehicles travelling in the system. There
along are
teingswho
devices
de
that are usually included on AGV to achieve this safety objective. One e
sCveral
u devices is an obstacle-detection sensor located at the front of each vehicle. This is the
nr on-board sensor as that used in the blocking system to detect the presence of other vehicles
liated in front of the sensor. The sensor can detect not only other vehicles. but also people and
hacles in the path of the vehicle. These obstacle-detection systems are based on optical.
infiared or ultrasonic sensors. The vehicles are programmed either to stop when an obstacle is
sIsed ahead of it or to slow down. The reason for slowing down is that the sensed object may
e locatcd off to the side of the vehicle path, or directly ahead of the vehicle beyond
the guide path. In either of these cases, the vehicle should be permitted to proceed at a siower

speed until it has passed the object or rounded the turn.

Another safety device included on virtually all commercial AGVs is an emergency bumper
The bumper surrounds the front of the vehicle and protrudes ahead of it by a distance which
an be a foot or more. When the bumper makes contact with an object. the vehicle is
vehicle. its load and other
POgrammed to brake immediately. Depending on the speed of the
several feet. Most vehicles are
nons, the braking distance will vary from several inches to has occurred with the
o require manual restarting after an obstacle encounter

emergency bumper.
devices on the vehicles include warning lights
(blinking or rotating lights) and
ru
r ety If the vehicle strays by
warning
o than abells. These devices alert people that the vehicle is present.
few inches fror the defined path, the vehicle is programmed to stop.

AL8,3 System Management

Maheenaging the operations of an AGV deals principally with the problem of dispateching vehicles
deliveries)in
points in C8ystem to perform pickups and
the where they are needed (e.g..
sys
 Manufacturing
and
Aided Design
480 Computer
function depends on al
The system
management
Thee able operato
timely and efficient
manner.

guidance, routing
and traffic control).
here
mae are a
a
of the other system
functions
commercial
such as

AGV systems
for dispatching
vehicles. These
These metho
of the overalus are
number
used in
system. The
effectiveness
and
ofmethods to maximize
responsiveness
in combination
dispatchingg methods include:

(a) On-board control panel

(b) Remote call stations
(c) Central computer control
control panel for the man
with some form of
Eachguided vehicle is equipped
other functions. Most commercial vehicles have the
vehicle
control, vehicle programming and
control panel to given station in the AGV's lavout
y
to be dispatched by means of this
represents the lowest level of sonhics.
Dispatching with an on-board control panel
among the possible methods. Its advantage is
that it provides the AGVs with flexibiliny ophistication
Its disadvantage is that it re
responsiveness to changing demands on the handling system. requires
manual attention.
The use of remote call stations is another method that allows the AGVs to respond to
changing demand patterns in the system. The simplest from of call station is a press buton
mounted near the load/unload station. This provides a signal to any passing vehicle to stop at the
station in order to accomplish a load transfer operation.
The vehicle might then be dispatched to the desired location by means of the on-boatd
control panel.
More sophisticated call stations consist of control panels mounted near the various stations
along the layout. This method permits a vehicle to be stopped at a given station, and its next
destination to be programmed from the remote call panel.
This represents a more automated
approach to the dispatching function and is useful in AGVs
that arecapable of automatic loading and unloading operations.
Both of the call station methods involve a human interface
with the AGVs at the load/unload
station. It is also possible to automate the call function at
an automatic load/unload station. One
example is an automated production workstation that receives raw materials and sends completed
parts by means of the AGVs. The workstation is interfaced with the
as needed to
AGVs to call for vehicles
perform the loading and unloading procedures.
In large factory and warehouse
systems
servicing the factory or warehouse must also beinvolving
a high level of automation, the AGVs

of the entire highly automated to achieve efficient operal

production-storage-handling
automatic distpatching of vehicles system. Central computer control is used to
accom
in the layout and/or in according to a preplanned schedule of pickups and de
response to calls from the various
this dispatching method, the central load/unload stations in the sysic
computer issues commands to the vehicles in
stem

concerning their destinations and operations to the sye

the central computer must perform. accomplish the dispatching Tu
To Ction,

possess real-time
concerning which vehicles to dispatch to whatinformation about the location of eaci N
vehice

communicate their whereabouts to the central locations. Hence, the vehicles must conu
There are differences in the controller.
way these central One
of the differences involves the computer dispatching systems te.
distribution of the decision-making opcnen the
central controller and the individual
vehicles. At one responsibilities betwoN
extreme, the central computer makes
 Industrial Robots and Automated Guided Vehicle
Systems 481
ohout routing of vehicles and other functions. The central computer plans out
about

hedecisioh yehicle and controls the operation of the guide path zones and other functions.
decisions

the
Msforeac
all
r o u t e
for
s
eac
extreme, each individual vehicle possesses a substantial decision-making
A t the opposite

the
own
routing selections and to control its own operations.
make
its
nDuter is still
is still needed to control the overall scheduling and determine which
to
ability
computer
The
c e n t r a l

t h e various demand points in the system. However, the vehicles themselves

v e h i c l e ss h o u
and control their own load transfer operations. Vehicles in this second
to take
hich routes as smart vehicles.
egory are r e ffered
ffe to
helpful it is to monitor
operation the overall
omplish the system management function, central
of
means
form of graphics display.
some Even with computer control
AGVs. by able to see the overall system operations, in order
oitfthe sirable for human manager to be
traffic jams, breakdowns, etc.). A CRT
tatus and to spot problems (e.g.,
still
is
its general statu
monito

used for these purposes in modern guided

vehicle systems.
graphics display is function is a system
colour
tool in carrying out the systems management
Another useful These periodic reports of system
performance report for each shift of AGV's operation.
erformance report nformation about proportion uptime,
downtime, number of
summary
nerformance provide a shift and more detailed
data about each station and each
(deliveries) made during
ransactions this type of information permit the system
in the system. Hard-copy reports containing level
vehicle to month to maintain a high
operations from shift to shift and month
managers to compare
performance.
of overall system

REVIEW QUESTIONS

elements of a robotic system.

20.1 Define a robot and describe the
robots are generally used.
20.2 Explain the applications for which
classification of robots.
20.3 Briefly explain the in robots?
motion control possible
20.4 What are the various types of
drives used in robots?
20.5 What are the different types of
robot arm.
end effectors used in
20. Explain the various types of
20.7 Define the following terms:
(a) Spatial resolution
b) Accuracy
(c) Repeatability their applications.
20.8 the various types of
robotic joints and state
DIScuss
configurations and
explain their applications.
20.9 the various robot arm configuration.
arm and articulated
SCuss the differences between polar
020.1 How do you specify a robot:
12 Discuss the features of SCARA robot. robots.
used in
commonly
20.13 Sketch and explain different types of grippers robot?
a pendant
20.14
20.14 What are the methods used for
What are programming
programming
and teach

20.15 State the differences lead through between

programming.