Hindawi

Advances in Agriculture
Volume 2023, Article ID 3238867, 11 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/3238867

Research Article
Response of Black Nightshade to Different Cropping
Systems and the Effect on Physiological Parameters and
Mineral Composition

Gudani Millicent Managa and Lufuno Ethel Nemadodzi

Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, Science Campus, University of South Africa, Johannesburg 1709,
Florida, South Africa

Correspondence should be addressed to Lufuno Ethel Nemadodzi; [email protected]

Received 12 May 2023; Revised 4 August 2023; Accepted 30 August 2023; Published 29 September 2023

Academic Editor: Othmane Merah

Copyright © 2023 Gudani Millicent Managa and Lufuno Ethel Nemadodzi. This is an open access article distributed under the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.

In southern African countries, production of indigenous leafy vegetables is commonly practiced at home garden and/or commer-
cial level due to their significant contribution toward eradication of hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition. Black nightshade
(Solanum nigrum L.) is among African leafy vegetable (ALV) highly recognised for its pharmacological and nutritive benefits.
Several research have shown that ALVs can be cultivated in the open field or greenhouses, however, little information is available
on the changes of the agronomical parameters and mineral composition. The aim of the study was to compare the physiological
parameters and mineral composition of nightshade grown in the open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems. The results of the
study revealed high-leaf area and relative chlorophyll content in the open field conditions while plant height and the number of
leaves were reportedly higher under the greenhouse system. Minerals elements such as magnesium, copper, manganese, iron, zinc,
and aluminium were significantly higher in the open field cropping system, while greenhouse cultivation recorded higher sulphur
and boron. Notably, no significant amount was observed in calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and sodium between open field and
greenhouse system. Furthermore, a significant amount of total nitrogen was reported in the open field, however, no significant
difference was observed in moisture and ash content for both cropping systems. In conclusion, black nightshade cultivated in open
field provided higher leaf chlorophyll, leaf area, and trace elements compared to greenhouse cultivation while macro minerals
concentration had no significant difference in both cropping systems.

1. Introduction as a key to the sustainable solutions to address the burden of

micronutrient malnutrition and hunger among the rural
Food security, malnutrition, hunger, and poor household populations of SSA [7, 8]. ALVs are reported to contain
livelihood continue to be major challenges in sub-Saharan higher nutritional benefits in comparison with exotic leafy
Africa (SSA) for centuries [1, 2]. According to the sustainable vegetables [9]. A study by Managa et al. [10], revealed that
development goals centre for Africa (SDGC/A, 2017) [3], raw nightshade leaves contain 199 mg/100 g Ca and 12.8 mg/
food demand in Africa is expected to increase by over 60% 100 g Fe while Chinese cabbage has 27–31 mg/100 g Ca and
by 2050 due to improvements in healthy nutrition and pop- 0.5–3.5 mg 100 g Fe higher than raw spinach (which contains
ulation growth which is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 99 mg/100 g Ca and 2.71 mg/100 g Fe) and cabbage contains
[4]. Climate change is predicted to significantly affect arable Ca 40 mg/100 g and Fe 0.47 mg/100 g [11]. Consumption of
land health and agricultural output which ultimately magni- phytonutrient-rich ALVs on a daily basis was recommended
fies the pressure on agricultural lands to meet the growing by the World Health Organisation, in accordance with the
food demands [5, 6]. As a result, the increased consumption United State Department of Agriculture [12] recommenda-
of African leafy vegetables (ALVs) was reportedly proposed tions of one cup (∼237 g) of raw or cooked vegetables, to
2 Advances in Agriculture

reduce the global disease burden such as chronic diseases, tribe, “vuswa” by VaTsonga tribe of Limpopo Province, ugali
non-communicable diseases (NCDs), primarily cardiovascu- in Kenya [27] and yam/coco yam porridge in Nigeria. Due to
lar diseases (CVDs), and for Type 2 diabetes and cancer, two their highly perishable nature and seasonality, most of the
cups of raw leafy greens should be consumed every day [13, leaves are dried under the sun or in the shade or fermented as
14]. Among the ALVs that are commonly consumed in most preservation practices to increase their shelf life [19] and to
parts of the rural communities in Africa include but are not use in winter period when in scarcity.
limited to; African nightshade (Solanum spp.), amaranth ALVs are primarily grown by smallholder farmers in
(Amaranthus spp.), cowpea leaves and pods (Vigna unguicu- rural areas and are an important source of food for poor
lata), spider plant (Cleome gynandra), mallow jute (Corchorus households [28], with minimal use of agricultural inputs
olitorius), African kale, (Brassica carinata), moringa (Moringa [29]. Investing in a crop such as nightshade has additional
oleifera), and pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita muschara) [15]. benefits, as it plays a crucial role in the local economy by
Solanum nigrum L. (black nightshade) is a short-lived generating commercial revenue, thus enhancing the general
perennial shrub [16] that has been used for many centuries welfare of the local community [30, 31]. Compared to com-
and is probably the second most popular and distributed mercial vegetables, there is a great and/or deal of diversity
ALVs after Amaranthus spp. in rural and peri-urban house- among ALVs, which makes them suitable for production in
holds in Africa [17]. Nightshade has evolved and become an the marginal agricultural systems typical of South Africa’s
important part of most people’s diets over the years in most rural landscapes. Maseko et al. [32] assessed drought and
communities because of their potential contribution to pov- heat stress tolerance in ALVs and the results showed ALVs
erty alleviation and nutritional security [18, 19]. Exploiting adapt to low-water availability and high temperatures.
the potential of nightshade to address the above-mentioned Because of their drought-tolerant and low-agricultural pro-
challenges is important due to the anti-oxidative properties ductivity, they can represent an important component of
nightshade possesses that have the potential to act as a natural agro-biodiversity under the changing climatic conditions in
source for reducing cellular oxidative damage and suppres- South Africa [33]. Although their availability throughout the
sion of various cancers, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases year and affordability makes them an alternative to high-
[20]. The anti-oxidative properties found in nightshade vege- priced off-seasonal vegetables [34], ALVs are not grown com-
tables are due to the presence of a diversity of secondary mercially on a large scale or sold widely, however, are culti-
metabolites such as polyphenols and ascorbic acid [21], which vated, traded, and consumed locally [35]. The less availability
contributes to positive health benefits [22]. In addition to of ALVs in the market also leads to questioning the level of
containing high contents of plant secondary metabolites, consumer’s acceptance of these vegetables. Therefore, there is
nightshade leaves are rich in micronutrients such as β-caro- a need for technological, environmental, and agricultural rev-
tene, folic acid, protein, vitamins C and E, minerals (iron, olution to scale up food production systems to meet modern
calcium, and zinc), and dietary fibre [19]. Although the fruits production efficiency [36] and the demand during the off-
are not edible due to the alkaloid content, they are reported to season. Commercialisation of ALVs will contribute signifi-
have high levels of anthocyanins and are used as a natural cantly toward food demands to end hunger and poor nutri-
source of dye or ink by children [23]. On the contrary Bvenura tion [37] for Africa’s growing population at a national level as
and Sivakumar [24], reported that ripe berries are consumed highlighted in the sustainable development goals in SSA 2017.
as a fruit or processed into a bread’s spread jam. Furthermore, their availability in the commercial markets will
Despite safety concerns of this crop, over the years in also change consumer perception especially to those residing
South African rural communities, the juice of the leaves in the urban areas as these vegetables are considered poison-
and berries were used for medicinal purposes to treat various ous, or weeds, in many parts of the world [38].
ailments such as headache, ulcer, diarrhoea, wounds, ring- Production of nightshade and other ALVs in greenhouses
worms, and fever among other conditions [25]. Generally, has raised considerable interest in recent years as a way to
edible parts of black nightshade include soft, tender leaves, enhance the production and monitor yield. The effects of
fresh shoots, and succulent stems, the vegetable is consumed environmental stress on plants are reported to stimulate the
boiled or fried as a relish [26] with other ingredients, such as antioxidant compounds production [39]. According to Zhang
cooking oil, tomatoes, onions, peanuts, and even spices, are et al. [40], greenhouses can increase agricultural production
added to enhance the flavour and aroma [16], however, prep- such as crop development and high yield per cultivated area if
aration methods vary depending on the individual’s prefer- appropriate measures are taken as compared to those grown
ences. In South Africa, nightshade is normally cooked on its in the open field systems. Additionally, there is better control
own and/or with supplementary vegetables such as Chinese of weeds, pests, and diseases with efficient use of water and
cabbage, and Amaranthus spp., with an addition of tomato/ inputs in the greenhouse condition [41] as a result, crops
grounded nuts and/or cooking oil for flavour. The cooking develop with little risk because of the protective structure
method includes several discarding of boiled extract to which is different from the crops grown in the open field
reduce the bitter taste. In African countries, the relish of system, which are subjected to uncontrolled environmental
the vegetable is accompanied by the main meal which is changes [42]. Hence, the study analysed S. nigrum L. grown in
the carbohydrates staple such as pap/porridge in South the open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems and the
Africa commonly referred to as “vhuswa” by VhaVenda impact on agronomical parameters and mineral composition.
Advances in Agriculture 3

TABLE 1: Effect of open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems on agronomic parameters of S. nigrum L.
Cropping systems
Variables SEM LSD (5%) F probability
Open field Greenhouse
Leaf chlorophyll (SPAD) 103.1a 49.0b 2.12 8.34 <.001
Leaf area (cm2) 6214 a
1217b 910.7 3575.6 <.001
Number of leaves 24.3 b
42.0a 1.55 6.07 <.001
Plant height (cm) 52.67 b
59.67a 0.333 1.309 <.001
Note: Means within columns followed by the same superscript were not significantly different (p ≤ 0:01). SEM is the standard error of means; LSD is the t-test
least significant difference at 5% level.

2. Material and Methods liner equation according to Mârzoca et al. [48] using the
below formula:
2.1. Experimental Areas. The open field trial was carried out Leaf area (cm2) = 0.52 × (L × W)
at Itsani Matieni village, found in Thulamela Local Munici- Where: 0.52 = leaf shape coefficient; L = length of leaf
pality under Vhembe District (Latitude: −22°9ʹ47.86ʺ; Longi- (cm); W = width of leaf (cm) measured at half-length.
tude: 30°47ʹ27.6ʺ) with 550 m altitude, Limpopo Province, Leaf chlorophyll content was measured using a spectro-
South Africa. The planting took place in the summer season photometer (Konica Minolta SPAD-502 PLUS Chlorophyll
when temperatures ranged between a minimum of 26 and a Meter, 2 × 3 mm, −9.9 to + 199.9 SPAD) the non-destructive
maximum of 32°C and annual rainfall of Æ500 mm in approach method was used to determine leaf chlorophyll in
October–March [43]. The experiment lasted for 4 months fresh, healthy edible leaves in (SPAD units) as described by
(October–December 2021) for both cropping systems. As Bvenura and Afolayan [49] and Zhang et al. [50]. Further-
described by Mthimunye et al. [44], the greenhouse pot exper- more, plant height was measured with a tape measure as
iment was conducted at the Science Campus, Horticultural prescribed by Managa and Nemadodzi [43].
centre, at the University of South Africa, Florida (GPS coor-
dinates −26°9ʹ29.274ʺ; 27°55ʹ17.663ʺ). The minimum and 2.5. Chemical Analysis. Nutritional traits of leaves such as
maximum air temperature inside the greenhouse ranged total nitrogen, moisture, ash, and minerals were determined
from 7.4 to 44.9°C. During the planting period (October–De- by chemical analysis at the Agricultural Research Council
cember 2021) the average relative humidity was 68% inside Institute for Soil, Climate, and Water located in Pretoria,
the greenhouse. South Africa. Determination of total nitrogen was done fol-
lowing a dry combustion method as described by Matejovic
2.2. Treatments. S. nigrum L. seeds were obtained from a [51] and Nemadodzi et al. [52]. A standardised method of
reputable seed supplier. In both cropping systems, direct the AOAC [53] was used to determine the ash, moisture
sowing in sandy loam soil was used as a planting method. content, and minerals composition such as phosphorus,
The potting plant of 20 cm in diameter, with a height of potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, aluminium, iron,
17.5 cm, and 20 cm width were laid at 0.3 m by 0.25 m inter- zinc, manganese, sulphur, boron, and copper.
and intrarow spacing, respectively, as prescribed by Managa
and Nemadodzi [43] with crop density established at 30 2.6. Statistical Analysis. One-way analysis of variance
plants per 7 m2. Cultivation was done without fertilisers as (ANOVA) was used to obtain data from black nightshade
adopted from Van Rensburg et al. [45]. In both trial sites, grown in the open field and greenhouse cropping system with
plants were irrigated every 2 days, and weeding done as and a software of Genstat 64-bit Release 20.1 Where differences were
when the need arose. significantly observed, the mean separation was carried out using
least significant difference test at 5% level.
2.3. Sample Preparation. Healthy edible leaves of black night-
shade from each cultivation system were randomly collected 3. Results
between 60 and 95 days (8-leaf stage) as prescribed by
Medoua and Oldewage-Theron [46]. Thereafter, the col- 3.1. Agronomic Parameters. The significant influence of open
lected leaf samples were transported to the laboratory at field vs. greenhouse cropping systems on the agronomic
the University of South Africa. To preserve the leaves from parameters and chlorophyll content (SPAD units) of black
spoilage, wilting, and yellowing, leaves were placed in an ice- nightshade is shown in Table 1 and Figure 1 below. The leaf
packed cooler box. Leaves were detached, thoroughly washed chlorophyll content, leaf area (cm2), number of leaves, and
with running water to discard the unwanted particles, and air stem height (cm) showed significant difference (p ≤ 0:01)
dried at room temperature (30 Æ 2°C) for 4 days until between the two-cropping conditions. S. nigrum grown in
crisped according to Kachiguma et al. [47] and ground an open field exhibited the highest leaf chlorophyll of 103.1
with a 500 W blender, (Russel Hobbs), manufactured in SPAD values and a larger leaf area of 621.4 cm2 (see Table 1).
Shangai, thereafter used for nutritional analysis. On the contrary, greenhouse grown S. nigrum attained the
lowest chlorophyll content of 49 SPAD values and leaf area
2.4. Agronomic Parameters. True leaves without defects were of 121.7 cm2. Furthermore, the findings demonstrated that
counted randomly and the leaf area calculated following a the two-cultivation system differed significantly (p ≤ 0:01)
4 Advances in Agriculture

650
600 a
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150 b
a
100
b a b a
50 b
0
Leaf chlorophyll (SPAD)

Leaf area (cm2)

Number of leaves

Plant height (cm)

Agronomic parametrs
Open field
Greenhouse

FIGURE 1: Effect of open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems on agronomic parameters of S. nigrum L. Bars with similar alphabetic letters for
cropping system are not significantly different at p ≤ 0:01 according to Fisher’s LSD test.

TABLE 2: Proximate analysis composition of S. nigrum L. grown in open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems.
Cropping systems
Nutrient (%) SEM LSD (5%) F probability
Open field Greenhouse
Total nitrogen 6.197 a
2.707b 0.0474 0.1860 <.001
a
Moisture 4.17 4.95ab 0.687 2.698 0.467
ab
Ash 12.97 13.03a 0.176 0.693 0.802
Note: Means within columns followed by the same superscript were not significantly different (p ≤ 0:01). SEM; LSD at 5% level.

on the growth of nightshade in terms of the number of leaves conditions as compared to the greenhouse cropping system with
and plant height, whereby greenhouse condition had the a lower concentration of 2.707% of total nitrogen.
highest number of leaves 42 and longer plant height of
59.67 cm as compared to the open-field grown plants which 3.3. Minerals. The macro mineral contents of S. nigrum grown
resulted in fewer leaves 24.3 and lower stem height 52.67 cm in the open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems such as C, P,
as shown in Table 1. K, and Na content were not significantly (p ≤ 0:01) different as
The comparison of agronomic parameters measured and shown in Table 3. On the contrary, magnesium content was
recorded on nightshade grown in the open fields and green- recorded as the highest (0.6940%) in open-field grown plants,
house cultivated are shown in Figure 1. while the highest (1.503%) sulphur content was observed in
greenhouse-grown plants. The trace elements found in S.
3.2. Proximate Composition. The available moisture and ash nigrum were significantly different (p ≤ 0:01) among the culti-
concentrations in S. nigrum grown in the open field and vation systems. Notably, open-field cultivation system exhib-
greenhouse cropping systems were not significantly (p ≤ ited significantly (p ≤ 0:01) higher contents of trace elements
0:01) different from each other as shown in Table 2. such as copper, manganese, iron, zinc, and aluminium. How-
Proximate constituents of S. nigrum cultivated in two envi- ever, the available boron content was significantly (p ≤ 0:01)
ronmental conditions did not differ significantly (p ≤ 0:01) as higher in S. nigrum greenhouse grown than in the open-field
illustrated in Figure 2, however, total nitrogen was observed at cultivation system. Therefore, the trace elements of open-field
the highest concentration of 6.197% under open-field growing crops are superior compared to the greenhouse-grown crops.
Advances in Agriculture 5

16

14 a a

12

10

(%)
8
a
6 a
a
4
b
2

0
Total nitrogen Moisture Ash
Proximate composition
Open field
Greenhouse

FIGURE 2: Proximate composition of S. nigrum grown in open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems. Bars with similar superscripts for
cropping systems are not significantly different at p ≤ 0:01 according to Fisher’s LSD test.

TABLE 3: Variation in mineral composition of S. nigrum L. in the two cropping systems: open field and greenhouse.
Cropping systems
Nutrient SEM LSD (5%) F probability
Open field Greenhouse
Macro minerals
Calcium (%) 1.183a 1.017ab 0.0145 0.0570 0.001
Phosphorus (%) 0.6143a 0.5213ab 0.01088 0.04270 0.004
Magnesium (%) 0.6940a 0.4073b 0.00475 0.01865 <.001
Potassium (%) 3.900ab 4.570a 0.1288 0.5056 0.021
Sodium (mg/kg) 350.3ab 465.6a 11.49 45.11 0.002
Sulphur (%) 0.634b 1.503a 0.0297 0.1166 <.001
Trace elements
Copper (mg/kg) 16.97a 12.87b 0.488 1.915 <.001
Manganese (mg/kg) 78.93a 24.97b 0.211 0.828 <.001
Iron (mg/kg) 882a 139b 32.9 129.2 <.001
Zinc (mg/kg) 59.90a 37.27b 1.314 5.160 <.001
Boron (mg/kg) 27.03b 37.27a 0.636 2.497 <.001
Aluminium (mg/kg) 672a 68b 21.2 83.4 <.001
Note: Means within columns followed by the same superscript were not significantly different (p ≤ 0:01). SEM; LSD at 5% level.

Figure 3 below shows the level of mineral composition Exploring different cultivation systems is a promising
found in black nightshade grown in the open fields vs. green- method to promote utilisation and commercialisation via
house cultivated. urban fresh-produce markets of these vegetables [19] while
The concentration levels of the trace elements are shown positively contributing toward food production and nutrition
in Figure 3(b) (see below) where black nightshade grown in security [57]. Studies on the production of different African
the open field had a significantly high Fe and Al as compared nightshade species in the open field are available, however,
to the greenhouse cultivated. currently, no studies are available in the scientific literature on
the comparison of cultivation of S. nigrum L. in the green-
4. Discussion house vs. open-field cultivation system which makes the cur-
rent study the first to conduct such comparison.
The lack of quality seeds has been a major hindrance to Chlorophyll is reported to be responsible for the green
sustainable production and utilization of African indigenous colour in fruits and vegetables [58]. Higher chlorophyll value
leafy vegetables [54, 55]. Moreover, marketing of African of 60.34 SPAD units were recorded for S. nigrum in the trial
indigenous leafy vegetables has been poorly organised, lead- conducted in the field by Bvenura and Afolayan [49] which is
ing to significant product losses in transit or markets [56]. within the range of 103.1 SPAD units recorded in the current
6 Advances in Agriculture

600 1,000
a
900
500 a
800
a
700
400 ab
600
300 500
400
200
300
200 b
100
100 a a b
a b b b b a
a ab a ab a b ab a b a
0 0

Copper (mg/kg)

Manganese (mg/kg)

Iron (mg/kg)

Zinc (mg/kg)

Boron (mg/kg)

Aluminium (mg/kg)
Calcium (%)

Phosphorus (%)

Magnesium (%)

Potassium (%)

Sodium (mg/kg)

Sulphur (%)
Micro minerals
Open field Trace minerals
Greenhouse Open field
Greenhouse
ðaÞ ðbÞ
FIGURE 3: (a) Micro minerals of S. nigrum grown in open field vs. greenhouse cropping systems. Bars with similar superscripts for cropping
system are not significantly different at p ≤ 0:01 according to Fisher’s LSD test. (b) Trace minerals of S. nigrum grown in open field vs.
greenhouse cropping systems. Bars with similar superscripts for cropping system are not significantly different at p ≤ 0:01 according to
Fisher’s LSD test.

study. However, when comparing results of similar studies greenhouse cultivation subjected to the different levels of
conducted on different variety of nightshade in the green- irrigation water stress. Notably, the leaf area yielded by
house by other authors, the current chlorophyll values of Ogembo Oyaro et al. [65] ranged from 120 to 130 cm2 on
49.0 SPAD obtained in the greenhouse grown S. nigrum two different African nightshades grown in a greenhouse is
are in agreement with those reported by Bvenura and Afo- in accordance with the results of the present study. On the
layan [49] who reported 49.49 SPAD values. Concurrently, a contrary, the results of leaf area (304.45 cm2) obtained by
study conducted in the greenhouse by Prehl [59] reported Okello et al. [64] are higher than leaf area of 121.7 cm2
chlorophyll content values between 30 and 40 SPAD units in obtained from the current study under the greenhouse condi-
young S. nigrum plant leaves. On the contrary, Masinde et al. tion. Leaf area development is directly related to the yield of
[60] reported higher chlorophyll values of between 40 and 70 African nightshades since the edible part is the leaf [64]. Eval-
SPAD units in the greenhouse-grown Solanum villosum. uation of leaf area is an important parameter in understand-
Notably, destructive or non-destructive chlorophyll methods ing crop growth and yield potential, photosynthesis, water
determination may give different results. In the present and nutrient use, and light interception [66]. A plant’s growth
study, SPAD-502PLUS that measures the absorbance in is usually decreased by reducing cell elongation, which results
two wavelengths (400–500 and 600–700 nm) was used to in smaller cells and, consequently, a smaller leaf area. Wang et
measure the relative chlorophyll concentration in the leaves, al. [67] reported that when comparing plant potential, the
therefore it is assumed that an increase in absorbance wave- number of leaves is a vital factor to observe.
length can be an indication of higher chlorophyll units in From our study, greenhouse-grown S. nigrum had the
open-field grown S. nigrum as compared to the other open- highest leaf numbers (42) recorded as compared to those
field grown vegetables. Although no fertilisers were applied recorded in the open field (25) per plant. Similar results
in the current study, several studies have reported that high- were reordered in other ALVs such as Amaranthus hypo-
chlorophyll content in the plant cells are an indication of chondriacus grown in the greenhouse condition where 44.8
high nitrogen and therefore a good nutrient status of the leaves per plant were recorded after 98 days of planting while
plants [61, 62]. However, in our study, low-chlorophyll con- 26.1 leaves per plant were observed in the open field after 78
tent observed in greenhouse-grown plants may be linked to days of planting [68]. Smaller leaves of S. nigrum recorded in
fertiliser deficiency and high humidity and temperatures the open-field cropping system could be attributed to greater
[63]. A study by Okello et al. [64] reported that Solanum leaf hydraulic conductance responsible for photosynthesis
scabrum had a higher leaf area of 304.45 cm2 under [69] hence larger leaf area of 621.1 cm2 was recorded in the
Advances in Agriculture 7

open field. S. nigrum grown in the greenhouse system had a ranged from 8.74%to 5.12% [77] which is within the same
significant plant height of 59.67 cm which concurs to a range as the present study under the open-field cultivation. A
greater extent with those by Kimaru et al. [70] who reported study by Schmidt [79] comparing the yield and nutrition
a 60-cm plant height of root-knot nematode non-inoculated composition of tropical leafy vegetables, Solanum melano-
S. nigrum plants grown under the greenhouse conditions. A cerasum had the highest total nitrogen contents ranging
study conducted by Bvenura and Afolayan [49] of black from 6.04%to 6.74%, the results obtained are in accordance
nightshade grown in a glasshouse reported the highest plant with that of the current study where 6.19% of total nitrogen
height of 54.33 cm, however, inorganic fertilisers were was obtained under the open-field grown S. nigrum.
applied. In the study by Okello et al. [64] two varieties of Quintaes and Diez-Garcia [80] reported that minerals in
nightshade measurements on plant height and S. scabrum food are required for diverse metabolic functions. Although
variety exhibited taller plants (40.17 cm) under the green- there were no significance differences noted among the
house cultivation with different levels of irrigation. Benard macro minerals such a sodium, potassium, and calcium,
et al. [71] reported the highest plant height 51 cm of African they were noted to be the most abundant macro minerals
nightshade grown in the greenhouse where different concen- in S. nigrum irrespective of the growing condition ranging
tration of superabsorbent polymers was applied. On the from 465.6to 350.3 mg/kg, 4.570% to 3.900%, and 1.183% to
other hand, open-field plant height in our study resulted in 1.017%, respectively. Open-field grown black nightshade in
a lower height of 52.67 cm compared to the greenhouse. this study showed higher magnesium content than green-
Kirigia et al. [23] conducted an open-field study where plants house grown. On the contrary, higher sulphur content of S.
height of 56.3 cm was recorded in African nightshade after nigrum was recorded in the greenhouse cultivation system.
90 days of planting which surpassed the plant height According to Raskh [81], high-calcium content in the leaves
reported from the present study. According to Kannan and is significant due to the calcium needed by the cells in the
Kulandaivelu [72], the decrease in plant height under the body. More than 99% of calcium in the body is used as a
open-field cultivation can be attributed to low-cytokinin structural component of bones and teeth [82, 83]. The cal-
transportation from roots to shoots and/or an increase in cium content in the leaves suggests that their consumption
the quantity of the phytohormone called abscisic acid. Defi- can increase the calcium level in the body and help in blood
ciencies of abscisic acid hormone negatively cause change in clotting process [84]. Moreover, Cochavi et al. [85] reported
cell wall extensibility which leads to a decline in photosyn- that calcium plays a major role in root system development
thetic enzyme concentration and reduce the plant growth associated with a better water and nutrient uptake in crops.
[73]. Moreover, Anjum et al. [74] demonstrated that influ- Trace minerals such as iron, zinc, manganese, aluminium,
ence of environmental factors such as water stress and and copper concentration were noted to be abundant in the
drought stress affects both elongation and expansion of the open-field grown S. nigrum compared to the greenhouse
plant growth. Stress to the plant and more leaf senescence is cultivation system. Significant concentration of boron was
reported to inhibit the efficiency of the translocation and higher in greenhouse condition. Sodium, iron, copper, and
assimilation of the photosynthetic products [75] and might zinc obtained from the present study in open field and green-
have caused a reduction in plant height in the present study. house conditions are within the same range as other ALVs
It should be noted that environmental conditions and plant such as Amaranthus hybridus and Galinsoga parviflora
age at harvest influence variations in the chemical composi- reported in the study conducted by Kissanga et al. [86].
tions of leafy vegetables, including the quantity of com- Zinc content of 62.1 mg/kg reported from a field study con-
pounds that are useful and harmful to humans. In this ducted by Kirigia et al. [23] is within the range of zinc con-
study, both open field and greenhouse growing conditions centration of 59.90 mg/kg in the current study. According to
showed lower moisture content of 4.17% and 4.95%, ash Oboh et al. [22] zinc is involved in chlorophyll synthesis,
content of 13.97% and 13.03%, respectively, and there were which is important for the photosynthesis. Low concentra-
no statistical differences observed between the two cropping tion of zinc content in the greenhouse cropping system may
systems. Low moisture is vital to protect dried samples from be attributed to diversion of this mineral toward plant devel-
microbial infestation which negatively impacts physico- opment. Khader and Rama [87] and Mamboleo et al. [88]
chemical and shelf life [76]. In this study, the moisture con- reported that during fruit initiation and development, some
tent was low because the leaves were dried before analysis metabolites for the cellular synthesis and growth substances
and the efficacy of the drying method used could have influ- are translocated from the leaves, stems, and roots to the
enced the moisture content. Because the moisture content developing fruits. Iron and magnesium play a major role in
percentage was found in the dry milled samples, it indicates the metabolic processes that take place in human system and
that freshly harvested leaves will contain a higher amount of regulation of blood and is essential in the formation of hae-
moisture content [77]. High values of ash content have been moglobin and controlling of anaemia [89]. Jansen et al. [90]
reported to relate high-mineral composition [78]. The ash investigated the accumulation of aluminium in leaves of 127
content of 10.18% recorded by Akubugwo et al. [31] is within species of Melastomataceae, 970 mg/kg in Memycylon spp.
the range of ash content obtained in this study regardless of was reported which is a bit higher (672 mg/kg) to that
the growing conditions. Ash content of other ALVs such as obtained in this study under the open field condition. Kröppl
Zanthoxylum zanthoyloides Herms, Vitex doniana Sweet, et al. [91] measured the amount of aluminium in various tea
and Adenia cissamploides Zepernic of Ebonyi State of Nigeria powders (green, black, herbal, and fruit), which showed
8 Advances in Agriculture

statistically significant differences in aluminium content of the UNISA and Horticulture Centre’s staff for their assis-
tea powders. Green and black tea contain high amount of tance which made the greenhouse experiment to be carried
aluminium 910 Æ 31 and 760 Æ 36 mg/kg, respectively. The out with ease.
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