ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

This is the application of scientific principle to the environmental issues and their
solution. Generally, it includes supply of water disposal and recycling of waste drainage
of community control of water soil and atmospheric pollution and environmental input
of different activities carried out in our environment.
Environmental engineer has helped us to improve the natural environment such as air,
water and land resources to provide heaLth, water, air and land for human habitation
and for other organisms and to remediate polluted site. Environmental engineer
conduct hazardous waste manages studies to evaluate the significance of such hazard,
advice on treatment. It also designs municipal water supply and industrial waste water
treatment system, as well as address locations and worldwide environmental issues
such as the effect of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air
pollution from automobile exhaust and industrial sources.
Environmental civil engineer focuses on hydrology, water resources management, bio-
remediation and water treatment plant design. While the environmental chemical
engineer focuses on environmental chemistry, advance air and water treatment
technology and separation processes.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The main task of the environmental engineer is to protect the public heaLth by
protecting (from further degration) reserving the present condition and enhancing the
environment.
Sub-division of Environmental Engineering
1. Environmental Impact Assessment and Mitigation (EIA)
In this division, engineer and scientist use a system identification and evaluation process
to access the potential impact of propose project, plan, program or legislative action
upon the physical, chemical, biological, cuLtural and social economic component on
environmental condition. They apply scientific engineering principles to evaluate if they
are likely advance impact to water quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and fauna
agricuLtural capacity, traffic impact; social impact, ecological impact. If impact are
expected, the engineer will then develop mutigation measures to limit or prevent such
impact.
2. Water supply and treatment
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Environmental engineering work to solve water supply for portable and agricuLtural use.
They evaluate the water balance within a water shed and determine the available water
supply, the water needed for various needs in that water shed, the several cycle of
water movement through the water shed and the development system to store, treat
and convey water for various uses. Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives
for the end uses. In the care of portable water supply, water is treated to minimize risk
of infectious disease transmitted. Water distribution systems are designed and buiLt to
provide adequate water pressure and flow rate for domestic use; fire suppression and
irrigation.
3. Waste water conveyance and treatment
Most urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to land
through septic or bucket system but rather deposits such waste into water and convey it
from house hold collection treatment to carry this waste material away from where
people live and produce the waste and discharge it into the environment. In developed
countries, substantial resources are applied to the treatment and de- toxification of this
waste before it is discharged into a river, lake or ocean system. Developing nations are
striving to obtain the resources to develop such system so that they can improve surface
water quality and reduce risk of water-borne diseases.
4. Air Quality Management
Environmental engineers apply engineering principle to the design of manufacturing and
combustion processes to reduce air pollution to some acceptable levels.
Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and various other processes are utilized to remove
particular matter, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, other air pollutants from
gases and other sources prior to allowing their emission to atmosphere
5. Solid waste management
6. Natural resource management
7. Noise waste management
8. Contaminated land management and site remediation.

WATER SUPPLY (Occurrence, uses, sources, phylum, standards)

Water supply is the provision of water for use. It comprises the source, intake,
treatment, storage and distribution.
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Sources of Water Supply
1. Surface water sources
2. Ground water sources
3. Water reuse and reclamation
4. Rain water harvesting

1. SURFACE WATER USE

Direct supply from rivers, streams, lake, pond, impounding reservoirs, e.t.c. Water
flowing in streams, rivers and lakes are more reliable but more susceptible to pollution
depending on the activities in the catchment. Seasonal variation in quality compared to
ground water. Surface water is used when there is no available ground water source. A
major disadvantage of surface water is that it is usually piped over long distances to the
consumers and because of its susceptibility to pollution, it may require extensive
treatment. Water shortages can occur during dry period when there is less rainfall,
hence impounding reservoirs may be created by constructing dams across rivers or
streams to store water for supply.

2. GROUND WATER
It is the water which infiLtrate into the ground and it is stored underneath the ground
surfaces typically below the water table. Ground water constitute up to 95% of available
fresh water reserves. It is reported up to 2 billion people depend directly on ground
water supply for drinking. The major advantage of ground water is that sources of
ground water supply e.g. springs, wells, bore hole) include
1. Consistent and adequate yield
2. It is relatively easy to use as bore holes can be drilled close to point of consumption
3. It has high quality due to natural attenuation (fiLtration particularly in porous aquifer
system). This mitigate the effect of pollution hence minimal treatment is required in
comparison with surface water resources.
Some disadvantages include
1. Ground water may contain high concentration of iron & manganese

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2. Ground water may be hard in situation where the sources have limestone formation
3. There is an increased threat to ground water quality in recent times due to misuse
and mismanagement disposal of waste and chemicals to land resuLting in the
underlining aquifer
4. Nitrates and pesticides from agricuLtural activities and chlorinated solvent from
industrial activities may be found in contaminated ground water sources
5. In the event of extensive contamination, ground water remediation is difficuLt,
expensive and may be impractical in some areas. Hence, the need for effective
monitoring, surveillance and careful management of aquifer systems and ground water
supply.
WATER ROUSE AND RECLAMATION
Waste water that is treated before discharge can be reclaimed through the water
treatment processes before entering the water supply system.
RAIN WATER HARVESTING
It is a water supply process in areas with extreme rainfall and limited water sources. It is
generally of good water quality but can be affected by air pollution of contamination
through the air quality system.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY

In selecting a water supply source, the following factors are considered
1. The purity of the source
2. Volume of the water available
3. Permanency of the source
4. Quality of the source
5. Elevation of water level with respect to the area to be served.
6. Cost
7. Location of the source

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USES OF WATER
Water use can be classified into three major categories
1. Consumption – Imgation
2. Partial consumption - Domestic
- Institutional
- Industrial
- Thermal power plant
- Fire fighting
3. Non consumptive - Recreational
- Navigational
- Pollution control
- hydro elastic power plant

ROOF CATCHMENT
Rain water can be collected from house roof tops made of tiles, corrugated, galvanized
pipes or iron, aluminum or asbestos roofing sheets. The use of asbestos for roof
catchment requires some caution. The roof gutter should slope uniformly towards the
down pipe because if it sags, there would be formation of stagnant water. To slope
guard, the quality of rain water, the roof of the rain water, the roof and gutter should be
cleaned regularly. The size of the roof would depend on the size of the house, the
quantity of rainwater that can be collected through roof catchment depends on the area
of the rof and the annual rainfall.
Hence Q = C A P
Q = Quantity of water collected annually in m3
C = Collection efficiency
A = Area of roof in m2
P = Total annual rainfall in mm/annum

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Example
A farming settlement in Iyekogba housing estate is made up of 20 persons each with an
average water consumption of 150litres/day. The average annual rainfall in the
community is 1200mm. Estimate the minimum horizontal roof area required to collect
enough rainwater to meet the need of the community each year. Assume efficiency of
collection is 80%, select a suitable size of storage tank to store 50% of the collection
Solution
Given P= 1200mm, A= ?, C= 80%
Q = 20 X 150 X 365
= 1095000
Q = = 1095 m3
Substituting Q = C A P
1095 = 0.8 x A x
1095 = 0.96A
A = = 1140.625m2
A = 1141m2
50% of Q
= x 1095 = 547.5m3
Use regular tank (Assume 2 – 3 m) 2m depth
Note: When length is too long divide again Q by 2 or 3 or 4
i.e. depending on the calculation
Assuming 2m depth,
Area = = 237.75m2
L: W = 2: 1

2W: W = 273.75 or 2W:W

2W2 = 273.75

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W2 = 136.875
W=
W = 11.70
L = 2W
L = 2 x 11.70 = 23. 40m
23.40m is large hence provide 10 tanks - = 2.34

Question
For a rod measuring 5m x 8m in plan and assuming an annual rainfall of 1750mm. What
is the amount of rainfall that can be collected in a year if the collection efficiency is 75%.
What is the dimension of the storage tank rectangular in shape with a length to breadth
ratio of 2:1 required to store 70% of total collection?
Solution
Given Area = 5m x 8m = 40m2
Annual rainfall = 1750mm
Collection frequency = 75%
Dimension of storage tank = ?
Breadth ratio = 2:1
Recall Q = C A P
Q = 0.75 x 40 x
Q = 52.5m3
70% of the total collection
= 0.7 x 52.5
= 36.75m3
Assuming 2m depth
Area = = 18.375m2
L:W = 2:1
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2W:W = 18.375
2W2=18.375
W2 = 9.1875, W = 3.03m
L = 2W
L = 2 x 3.03
L = 6.06m
Hence, provide 3 tank of 2.1m
L = = 2.02m

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL STANDARDS FOR PORTABLE WATER

Water is said to be portable if it is fit for human consumption. WHO prescribes that
water intended for human consumption must be free from pathogens (disease causing
organisms) and from concentration of chemical substances that may be hazardous.
Physical Standards and Characteristics of water
1. Turbidy:- It is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by
the suspended matter in water. Turbidy is due to the presence of colloidal matter in
water. Measurement of turbidy is done using a turbidimeter.
2. Colour and Texture: For drinking purposes, water should be colourless. Colourless
water is not aesthetically and psychologically accepted. i.e. people may not like to drink
coloured water even if it may be safe from other points of view. Tintometer is used to
measure colour.
< 10 = 20 i.e. 1-20 can be drunk. For drinking purpose, the colour number on cobaLt
scale should not exceed 20 and should be less than 10.
For temperature, surface water is usualLt at atmospheric temperature while ground
water may vary. Desireable temperature for public water supply is between 4.4 0C –
100C.
3. Taste and Colour: Taste and odour may be due to the presence of dead or living
micro-organisms, dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide(H2S), methane and other
minerals.

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Osmoscope: is used to test for odour in water.

Chemical Standards / Characteristics of Water.

1. Total Solids (TDS & TSS).

Total solids are in collidal and dissolved form. it is determined by fiLtering water
samples, weighing and drying. Total dissolved solid is the fiLtrable fraction (passes
through fiLter) and TSS is the non-fiLtrable fraction (retained on fiLter).
2. Alkalinty: Capacity of water to neutralise acid due to presence of calcium &
magnessium bi- carbonate.
3. PH Of Water: it is the concentration of hydrogen ions present in water and a measure
of acidity or alkalinity in water. for distilled water, PH = 7, WHO Standards, Public
water supply = 6.5 - 8.5. Acidity of water can occur due to natural contaminents such
as dissolved carbon dioxide and organic acids.
4. Hardness.
5. Chlorides: Chloride is present in water in the form of calcium, magnesium, sodium
and it may be due to leaching of marine sedimentary deposits, pollution from sea
water, domestic/industrial water. Concentrations less than 250mg/L is desirable for
drinking. More than 250mg/L produce saLty taste in drinking water and has a corrosive
effect on metal pipes and structures and is harmful to most plants.
6. Metals and Elements- Aluminium, sodium, flouride, maganese, iron.
7. Nitrogen Compounds: Ammonia, nitrates, NO4, nitrides NO3.
8. Heavy Metals: They are non bio-degradable, harmful to human heaLth. They are
known and suspected cacinogens e.g. Lead, Cadmium, Zinc, Copper.

Microbial Standards.
The indicator organism is total coliform present in faecal matter. Ecole indicates the
presence of faecal contamination. Total coliform indicates the presence of soil or
organic matter.

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 Example.
The weight of an empty evaporating dish is determined to be 40.525g. After a water
sample is fiLtered, 100ml of the sample is evaporated from the dish. The weight of the
dish + dry residue is found to be 40.545g. Compute TDS concentration.
Solution:
The concentration of TDS is expresssed in mg/L
TDS = (A - B) X 100
C
A = Weight of dish + residue(mg)
B = Weight of empty
C = Volume of fiLtered sample(mL)
A = 40.545g - 40545mg, B = 40.525 - 40525mg C = 100mL
TDS = (40545 - 40525) X 100 = 200mg/L
100

Waste Water
Human activities resuLt in the production of several waste flows which are
harmful to the environment. in areas without sewerage system, this can be divided
into toilet wast and waste water from bath and kitchen. Toilet waste goes into septic
tank. The water from kitchen and bathroom are commonly discharged into store
water drain. In many urban areas, house hold waste are combined to domestic water
sewage which is discharged into a sewerage. The major waste flows that may enter a
sewerage are:
1. Domestic Waste Water:
This originate primarily from residential, commercial, instutional and public
building. Water used for domestic purposes collect impurities and become waste
water hence domestic waste water consist of faecal matter and used water from bath,
kitchen etc. These waste water consist of 99% water and 1% solid. The amount of
domestic waste produced per capital, per day is usually a fraction or say 80 - 90% of
domestic water consumption and may range from 60Lpc per day to 250LPC per day.
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2. Storm Water: It is commonly collected seperately and discharged directly without
treatment into receiving water body. This storm water may be contaminated by traffic
emulsions like oils, hydrocarbons, heavy metals or with chemical pesticides and
fertilizers.
3. InfiLtration of ground water: This may be considerable in areas with high ground
water table as it may penetrate sewer pipes. InfiLtration may be reduced by water
tight joints and good workmanship.
4. Industrial waste water: This is waste water resuLting from industrial activities. It is
characterised by hourly flows, bad variations(depending on whether the process is a
continous or batch operation). The decision whether to accept the discharge of
industrial waste water into the municipal or public sewer depends on.
1. Waste water composition because toxic and corrosive compounds may damage
sewer pipes and stress biological treatment.
2. The design capacity of sewer and treatment plant. Regulatory agencies often set
quality criteria for accepting industrial waste water into sewer system to minimize
damage to the system.

Characteristicss of Water Waste

- Solids
Organic Matter
Nutrient(Nitrogen and phosphorus)
Pathogens
Heavy metals and micro pollutants.
The main objectives of waste water is the protection of the environment.
1. Too high amount of solids.
2. Too much organic matter
3. Too low oxygen level
4. Too much nutrient
5. Toxic amount of harzardous compounds

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6. Contamination with pathogenic organisms.

Organic Mater in waste water

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
It is the amount of oxygen required for the oxidation of waste by bacteria. It is the
most organic used parameter to quantify organic pollution in waste water. BOD
determines the dissolved oxygen consumption of micro organisms during
biodegradable of organic matter. It is expressed in mg/L.
Organic matter are usually treated by supplying them with oxygen so that bacteria can
utilize the waste as food.
BOD is usually expressed on a five (5) day, 20oC basis (BOD5). That is, the oxygen
consumed during the oxidation of the waste for 5days are 20oC. BOD5 is more esaily
measured than utimate BOD (BODu), BODu is the oxygen required for the complete
oxidation of the waste..

BOD5 = Do initial - Do Final

P
P = dilution factor
P = Volume of W.W
Vol. Of W.W + dilution water

Example:
1. A BOD test was done on a 6ml sample in a 300ml standrad BOD bottle. The initial
dissolved oxygen of the sample and the dilution water was 8.42mg/L. The dissolved
oxygen of the sample after 5days of the incubation at 20oC was 4.28mg/L. What is the
BOD5 of the sample.

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2. The dissolved oxygen in a sample of dilute waste wate havind an initial Do of 9mg/L is
measured to be 3mg/L after 5 days. The dilution factor is 0.003. What is BOD5?

Solution
1. Di = 8.42mg/L Df = 4.28mg/L, P = 6/300
BOD5 = 8.42 - 4.28 = 207mg/L
6/300
2. BOD5 = 9 - 3 = 200mg/L
0.03

Modelling BOD reaction

BOD is a widely used parameter to quantify organic matter. BOD test is widely used in
waste energy because of the following advantages.
1. Simplicity
2. Popularity
3. Used in major design equation
4. Familiar to most engineers
5. Produce information on carbonaceous and nitrogens oxygen demand.

The disadvantages are

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1. Long period of incubation
2. Reproductivity is poor
3. It is susceptible to inhibition by many industrial waste.
The value of BOD at any time and the uLtimate BODu or UBOD can be computed
based on the first order kinetics of oxygen consumption by micro organisms during the
degradation of carbonaceous organic matter.
BOD = UBOD (e-K1t) 1
where BODr = BOD remaining at any time t (mg/L)
UBOD = ULtimate BOD (mg/L)
K1 = BOD rate constant
BOD used at any time + BODt = UBOD - BODr 2
sub. BODr from equ(1) into (2)
BODt = UBOD - UBOD (e-K1t)
K120oC - 0.23/d
To determine K at other temp. apart from 20oC
K1T = K120OT-20
where K1T = BOD rate constant at any temperature ToC
O = Temperature cooefficent factor
O = 1.047 @ 20oC - 30oC
It is often assumed that the rate of decomposition of organic waste is proportional to
the amount of waste available.
dLt - Lt 1
dt
dLt = -KLt
dt
where K = BOD reaction rate constant given in (time-1)
integrating
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 The ultimate carbonaceous oxygen demand is the sum of the amount of oxygen
consumed in the first time t day + the amount of oxygen remained to be consumed
after time t.
Lo = BODt + Lt
= BOD5 + Lt
substitute value of Lt in equ (6) into (7)
Lo = BODt + Loe-kt
BODt = Lo (1 - e-kt)
Example.
Given the following data for a waste water sample, determine the uLtimate and 3 day
old BOD at 20oC.
BOD5 at 20oC = 250mg/L
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K1 = 0.23/day
solution
BODt = Lo (1 - e-kt)
250mg/L = Lo ( 1 - e-0.23 x 3)
BOD3 = 182.34mg/L
Example
If the BOD5 of a sample measured at 20oC is 250mg/L, determine the 3day BOD at
27oC. Assume K = 0.3/d and O = 1.056
solution.
BOD5 = 250mg/L
BOD3 at 27oC = ?
BODt or Lt = Lo( 1 - e-kt)
Lo = 365.8mg/L
KIT = K120OT-20
=0.23 (1.056)27 - 20
= 0.34d-1
BOD3 = 365.8(1 - e-0.34 x3)
= 233.8mg/L

The dissolved oxygen in a sample of dilute waste water having an intial dissolved
oxygen of 9mg/L is measured to be 3.0mg/L. The dilution factor is 0.03 and the
reaction rate factor/ constant K is 0.22/day.
1. What is the 5day BOD of the waste.
2. What is the remaining oxygen demand after 5days
solution
BOD5 = Doi - Dof = 9-3 = 200mg/L
P 0.03
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Lt = Loe-kt
BODt = Lo (1 - e-kt)
200mg/L = Lo (1 -e-0.22 x 5)
Lt = 99.792mg/L
The BOD5 of a waste has been measured to be 600mg/L. If k = 0.023, what is the
BODu (ultimate BOD of the waste)?. What proportion of the waste will remain
unoxidized after 20days?
A waste has UBOD of 300mg/L at 20oC, the BOD5 = 200mg and the reaction rate
constant is 0.22 per day. What will be the BOD5 of this waste at 25oC.

Effect of oxygen demanding waste

Deoxygenation in a river.
The rate of deoxygenation at any point in a river assumed to be proportional to
the BOD remaining at that point for deep rivers, this is reasonable, for turbullent
shallow rapidly moving streams, the approximation is less valid.

Lw = BODu of waste water

Qw= waste water flow rate
Lm = BOD of mixture
Assume a mass balance

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 LrQr + LwQw = Lm(Qr + Qw)
Lm = Lr + Qr + LwQw
Qr + Qw
This relationship holds for the complete and instanteneous mixing of the waste.
Read up: Effect of oxygen demanding waste

OXYGEN SAG CURVE.

Oxygen concentration in a river or lack of it was first modelled by Streeter Phelps
in 1925. Oxygen concentration in a river system changes with time and space and is
dependant on a host of other constituents and parameters. The oxygen sag or deficit
in a stream at any point in time during self purification process is the difference
between the saturation dissolved oxygen content and the actual dissolved oxygen
content at that point in time.
O2 Deficit (D) = Saturation Do - Ac
The normal Saturated Do value per fresh water depends on the temperature and its
value varies from 1462mg/L at 0oC to 7.63mg/L at 30oC respectively.

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 BOD waste discharged into riverine system exact demand on the oxygen levels
and may draw the oxygen down to levels too low to sustain aquatic life (<3mg/L). The
concentration of Do is represented as the result of two principal computing process.
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 DEOXYGENATION AND REOXYGENATION.
The deoxygenation is caused by microbial decomposition of waste and
reoxygenation is caused by re-aeration of stream or river. These two process are
simultaneously removing and adding oxygen to the river.
Rate of deoxygenation = K1Loe-kt 1
Rate of re-aeration = K 2D 2
combining equation (1) and (2)
we have rate of increase of O2 deficit
= Rate of reoxygenation - rate of re-aeration
dD = K1Loe-kt - K2D
dt
D = Oxygen (O2) deficit at any time t = DO5 - DOn
Lo = BODu at discharge point
Dn = initial O2 deficit at BOD discharge point
From the equation
t = time of travel or flow in the stream from point of discharge to point in question
downstream. If the stream has constant cross - section and travelling at a speed V,
then time t and distance X down stream are related by X = Ut
Do reaches a minimum at a particular location and time called critical point. At this
point, rate of deoxygenation = rate of re-aeration.
Beyond the critical point, re-aeration exveeds reoxygenation and the stream recovers
naturally. The location of the critical point in the corresponding minimum dissolved
oxygen are very important, it is at this point, the stream is at its worst condition.
Setting the derivative of the oxygen deficit to O and solving for the critical time is given
as.
tc = 1 Ln[K2 (1- Do (K2 -K1)]
K2-K1 K1Lo

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Example
1. Just below the point where a continous discharge of pollution mixes with a river,
the BOD is 10.9mg/L and Do is 7.6mg/L, the river and waste mixture has a temp of
20oC; The deoxygenation rate constant of 0.20/day. An average speed of 0.32m/s and
average depth of 3m. The re-aeration rate constant = 0.4/day.
The saturation value of Do at 20oC is 9.1mg/L.
1. Find the time and distance downstream at which th stream deficit is maximum,
minimum?
2. Find the minimum value of dissolved oxygen.
2. A stream flows through an industial and residential area discharges some effluent into
its as shown below.

a. Determine the dissolved O2 at deficit at point D.

b. At what distance after point D will the minimum deficit occur.
c. What will be the available dissolved oxygen in the stream at this point
assume temp is 20oC all through.
K1 = o.1/day, K2 = 0.35/day, Vel for all reaches = o.3m/s
BOD = 10.9mg/L, Do = 7.6, K1 = 0.20/d, K2 = 0.41/d, S = 0.3m, d =3m
solution

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BOD of mixture = QwLw + QrLr = 5 X 1 + 25 X 2 = 7.857mg/L
Qw + Qr 5+2
Similarly Do of mixture = (0.2 X 5) + ( 5 X 2) = 8mg/L
542
Therefore Do = 9.2 - 8.0 = 1.2mg/L
Distance from A to B = 20km
t = x/v = 20 X 1000 = 0.77days
0.36 X 60 X 60 X 24
D = K1Lo (e-k1t - e-k2t) + Doe-k2t
K2 - k1
D = 143mg/L
Do entering Pt B
pt B
L = Loe-k1t
= 7.857e-0.1 X 0.77
= 7.275mg/L
BODmax = 7.275 (5 + 2) + 10(2) = 7.88
(5 + 2) + 2
DOmax = 7(2) + 1.43(5 + 2) = 2.71
(2 + 7)
Do = 9.2 - 2.71
= 6.53mg

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

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 It can be defined as the ocntrol of solid waste generation, stograge, collection,
transfer, transport, processing and disposal based on engineering principles at
minimum environment impact and cost.

Role Of Solid Waste Management.

1. For environmental sanitation
2. Safety
3. Security
4. Aesthetic purposes

Functional Elements Of Solid Waste Management

Waste are usually generated from industries, homes, institutions, and public
places. waste generation generally depends among other factors on the nature
economic activities, level of affluence and general attitude of the public towards
waste. It has become a good management study to reduce the rate of waste
generation by appropriate consumer education.

Methods For Determining The Rate For Solid Waste Generation

1. Load count analysis.
The number of individual loads are recorded and the corresponding vehicle
characteristics(capacity) is noted over a specified time. Based on the number of loads
delivered and the size of vehicle, the rate of generation is computed.
2. Volume - weight analysis: This method is based on determining the density of each
load from the net weight divided by the corresponding volume of the vehicle.
3. Material Balance Analysis: This method involves
a. Drawing a system boundary around unit to be studied
b. Identifying all activities that occur or cross boundary
c. Identifying factors affecting waste generation
d. Determining th rate of generation.
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 e. Determining the amount generated and stored

Example
A household generate a certain amount of waste daily bottles and cans represent 15%
by weight and are recycled by the family. Paper forms 35% of the whole waste while
5% of the peaper waste is burnt. The rest of the paper waste is solid to scavengers.
What is left of the waste are put into the dust bin for collection by sanitation agency.
On a particular day, 15kg of consumer goods (food, newspaper, magazine etc) were
brought into the house. 5kg and 2kg of the food were consumed and stored
respectively. if all the magazine recieved constitute 5% of the paper waste, determine
the amount of solid waste disposed off that day.
Solution
Inflow = 15kg
Bottles and cans 15% of 15kg = 2.25kg
Paper = 35% of 15kg = 5.25kg
Burnt paper = 5% of 5.25 = 0.26kg
magazines = 5% of total paper (5.25) = 0.26kg
Scavengers = 5.25 - 0.26 - 0.26 = 4.73
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 Food
consumed = 5kg
Stored = 2kg
Actual waste remaining for collection.
= Total amount - Incinerated waste- stored item - used - reused - scavenger.
Outflow
= 15 - (0.26 -(2 + 0.26) - 5 - 2.5 - 4.73)
15 - (0.26 +(2 + 0.26) + 5 + 2.25 + 4.73)
= 0.5kg

Representing In Material Balance Diagram

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WASTE COLLECTION
It involves the removal of solid waste and transfer from stored facilities directly
to disposal site or transfer stations from where they are finally transported to the
disposal site. Waste collection essentially has components.
1. Pick up and loading process
2. Transportation.
There are different methods of waste collection which depend on the type of
containers where the waste are deposited. The 3 methods are:\
1. The conventional mode or system.
2. The halved container system.
3. Stationery container system.

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WASTE TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT.
This involved the transfer of waste from smaller collection vehicles to larger
transport equipment where necessary and the transport of waste over long distance
to processing and disposal site.

Assignment.
Explain the rate of solid waste management.

AIR POLLUTION
It may be defined as the emission into the atmosphere of any matter that
interfers with the amenties of life. Air is said to be polluted when substances present
in it are in concentration that can cause harm or damage to plant, animals, properties
and human health.

Primary And Secondary Air Pollutant

Primary air pollutants are those that are emitted directily from idetifyable
services. Examples are particulate matter such as ash, smoke, midst, fumes, dust,
sprays, organic and innorganic gases such as SO2, H2S, CO2 oxides of nitrogen.
Secondary air pollutants are thosed formed in the atmosphere by chemical
interaction among primary pollutants and atmospheric constituents e.g Ozone, SO3,
aldehyde, ketones. These pollutants are usually more harmful than primary.

Air Pollution Control

The basic objecive of control is to preserve the health and welfare of man.
Others are protection of plant and animal ife, prevention of damage or physical
provision of visibility required for safe air and ground transportation properties and
provision of enabling environment for sustainable economic growth and existence of
aesthetically acceptable atmosphere.
Effective control and preventive measures adopted are dependent on the nature
of sources of pollution and the pollutants.

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 Pollution By Automobiles
1. By taxation aimed at penlizing inefficiency in soil consumption
2. Developing more efficient fuel consumption systems
3. Installation of systems to control motor vehicle exhausts
4. Encouraging mass transits.

Pollution By Industries
1. Polluting industries may be regulated to emit pollutants only during favourable wind
movement and direction.
2. Erection of extremely tall stacks which usually also have high velocities in them.
3. Mounting devices (foot scribbers, gravitational precipilators) in the industry for the
removal of pollutants.
4. Adoption of cleaner production technique aimed at modifying the process to achieve
zero pollution.
5. Reduction in the burning of fossil fuels and resorting to enviornmentally clean energy
sources.

NOISE POLLUTION
Noise is an unwanted sound produced by a source causing vibrations in a
medium around it. Vibrations are waves in the form of pressure. Vibration and termed
sound waves if they fall within the range capable of exciting the sense of hearing.
What constitute noise is subjective since individual percieves noise differently.

Sources Of Noise.
1. Automobiles, commercial activities like trading and hawking, human activities such as
parties, social functions, playing of musical instruments, operation of factories and
plant.
2. Use domestic kitchen gadgets e.g. grinders.
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Types Of Noise
There are three (3) different types of noise.
1. Steady level noise: It is constant over a period of time and it is often experienced in
factories. Permissible exposure.
2. Mixed noise: it consists of several layers of steady level noise and is experienced by
factory supervisors as they move from one section of the factory to another.
3. Impact noise: It is a sound of very short duration produced by the operation of some
tools e.g. forge hammer, punch - press

NOISE EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR NIGERIA

Duration per Day(Hour) Permissble exposure limit(dB)
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
1.2 100
1.5 102
1 105
0.5 110
0.25 or less 115
Totall daily noise dose at different times D.

Where
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 ti = actual exposure time at a given noise level.
T = permissible exposure time at that level using table 1
n = number of discrete periods of exposure above 90dB.
NOTE: For no noise pollution for any individual D<1

Example
The data on daily noise exposure of machine operator is given below
Noise level(dB) Duration of exposure(Hrs)
100 0.6
105 0.25
95 1.2
92 0.2
is the noise permissible level exceeded?
Solution.

Prevention And Control Of Noise Pollution

Control and prevention can be achieved by
1. Reducing the noise at source by the improved design and proper maintenance of
machine moving parts.
2. Enclosing the noise by silencers or mutters.
3. Through proper land area planning whereby some areas are reserved for noise
production activities and giving space between buildings and road.
4. Using hearing protection devices e.g. cotton wool, glass wool, ear plugs,
5. By monitoring by protection agencies and penalizing defaulters.

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6. Enclosing rooms where noise are generated with sound insulator materials.
construction of floors with smooth hard surface sealing with acoustic ties and walls
even fabric will enhance noise reduction through absorption.
7. By introducing appropriate enlightment programme on dangers and impact of noise.

Noise Measurement
Noise measurement is expressed as
SPL = 8.69ln(P/Po)
SPL =sound pressure level (dB)
P = Sound pressure (Vbar)
Po = reference pressure (0.0002Vbar)
Noise is measured with a sound level meter. This meteer consists of a microphone,
amplifier, a frequency weighing circuit (filters) and their output sede. The meter is
located in a desired position with no obstruction from sound source and reading is
taken. Sound pressure first reaches the microphone where a diaphragm mimics the
pressure pattern of the source and converts the signal to a small electric current. The
signal is then amplified in a pre amplifier. The purpose of the weighing network is to
filter specific frequencies which makes the response more characteristic of human
hearing. These measurement are based on scales A, B and C.
Scale A is good approximation for not very loud noise
C better approximation for very loud noise
B fits inbetween
In order to encourage.
Example
If the sound pressure level(dB) of a certain noise is 92 and the reference pressure
is 0.0002. Determine the sound pressure.
Solution
92 = 8.69 In P/0.0002
92/8.69 = In P/0.0002
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 10.587 = InP/0.0002
P/0.0002 = e10.587
P = 0.0002 X e10.587
P = 7.9Vbar
Onsite Disposal System
- Sewerless Toilets (Latrines)
- Septic tank
- Soak Away.

Types Of VIP Latrine

1. Single pit
2. Twin pit or alternating pit.
Example 8.1 pg 268 of material science

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