Reflections on the Relationship of Analysis and Performance

Author(s): Catherine Nolan

Source: College Music Symposium , 1993/1994, Vol. 33/34 (1993/1994), pp. 112-139
Published by: College Music Society

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 Reflections on the Relationship of
Analysis and Performance1
Catherine Nolan

Introduction

their common endeavor to make and deliver personal interpretations about mus
compositions, the activities and preoccupations of analysts and performers of m
intersect in several notable ways. Both analysts and performers begin, presumably, wit
an emotional response to or fascination with an individual work that accounts fo
choice of work to interpret, followed by extensive consultation with the notated score
both require some combination of acquired knowledge and skills as well as approp
musical intuition; and both must make overt or covert, formal or informal, deci
about musical structure for the purpose of transmission to a reading or listening
ence.

Interest in the nature of the relationship between analysis and perform

spired great diversity in approaches to the subject. In much of the secondary
however, the relationship is portrayed as a didactic one in which the perform
titioner, takes on the role of apprentice to the analyst, who acts as the adviso
matters concerning musical structure. This inequity can be viewed from
angles, one from which the analyst is mentor, the other from which the anal
to the performer. From either perspective, the roles of analysis and perform
equal or balanced. In the final result, the role of analysis is ultimately one
performance, even if in the position of tutor. Furthermore, most of the liter
relationship between analysis and performance is published by scholars i
analysis, and appears in publications that are not routinely read by perfo
therefore, has little influence on, or even alienates, performing musician
often technical language and sometimes dogmatic tone.3

1 A preliminary version of this article was prepared for the Special Theory Colloquium at the Can
Music Society annual meeting in Ottawa, Ontario, May 1993. 1 wish to express my appreciation to Rich
acted as respondent to that paper (and two others) at the "Analysis and Performance Relationships" session
Parks in his thoughtful response undoubtedly influenced the version presented here. Thanks are also due
Segger of Edmonton, Alberta, for his comments on two earlier drafts of this article and for engaging in an
provocative dialogue on the relationship of analysis and performance.
2 This account of the motivation of analysts and performers to choose individual works for stud
oversimplified. Other more pragmatic motivations for performers may include available performing reso
ations of balance in concert programming. An analyst may be motivated by theoretical factors that point
toires or even specific pieces, as well as pragmatic factors pertaining to available resources, such as scores,
ofteaching.
3 Although most of the secondary literature on this topic implicitly or explicitly addresses the question of how analysis
can benefit performers, a stimulating and compelling essay by Joel Lester approaches the analysis/performance relationship
conversely, exploring ways in which different performance interpretations can influence analytical interpretations. See Joel
Lester, "Interactions Between Analysis and Performance," in Performance Studies, ed. John Rink (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, forthcoming). A version of this article was presented at the Fifth British Music Analysis Conference in
Southampton, UK, in March 1993.

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 13

In contrast to this viewpoint that indicates inequitable roles for analysis and
mance, a different, but still prevalent, assumption is that a reciprocal relationsh
between them, that they are fundamentally parallel activities. As Leonard Meyer

Just as analysis is implicit in what the performer does, so every critical anal
is a more or less precise indication of how the work being analyzed shou
performed. By explaining the processive and formal relationships of a com
tion, analysis suggests how phrases, progressions, rhythms, and higher-
structures should be shaped and articulated by the performer.4

To paraphrase and extrapolate from Meyer's words, reciprocation between a

performance takes place through a mutual understanding of the conventions
form and process; analysis implicit in performance evinces the performer's ratio
sideration of the design of a composition, from both small- and large-scale persp
while performance strategies implicit in the analyst's work reveal a sensiti
diachronic aspect of formal paradigms. This reciprocal view of analysis an
mance may hold a measure of truth, but it is contradicted by real applications t
underlying conflicts and tensions between the two activities and undermine
tent reciprocity. This line of thought will be explored further later in the artic
The activities of analysts and performers also diverge from each other i
ways. Performance, in the literal sense (that is, during the actual concert setting
garding for the moment the preparation for performance), is a diachronic p
folding in real time, while analysis, although carried out in time, is not limited
tation by temporal duration or sequence. The analyst's interpretation is transmitte
primarily verbal and graphic means, while the performer's interpretation is tran
aurally. The nature of both performance and analysis is such that each requ
thought and intellectual consideration of possible alternatives to any interpr
sion, but performance includes an additional and separate physical componen
also requires highly developed muscular actions and control, while analysis is
a rational pursuit of the mind. These analogies and disparities between the a
analysis and performance bring into relief the complex and elusive nature of
tionship.
As mentioned earlier, analysis and performance are commonly understood to relate
to each other didactically; the analyst, whose vocation itself involves explaining musical
structures or phenomena, is placed in the role of informing the performer.5 Most musi-
cians in all areas of specialization would surely acknowledge that the development of
skills in formal and harmonic analysis as offered in undergraduate college or university
curricula can be of great practical benefit to performers. Analysis, at the very least,
provides a shared vocabulary of terminology in common usage to facilitate verbal dis-

4 Leonard B. Meyer, Explaining Music, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 29.
5 Those whose vocation is to explain musical structures are more properly referred to, of course, as theorists, not
analysts. The two monikers may often apply to the same individual, but the concerns of theory and analysis differ signifi-
cantly, a subject too extensive to explore in the present context. References to the "analyst" in this article will be generic, and
will include the possibility for interpretation as theorist.

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1 14 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

cussion of musical works, and can provide a rational

interpretive decisions, thus contributing to a perform
ture in general terms. As a number of authors have re
pretation of a work is arrived at with the structural a
more satisfied with her or his performance decisions,
the interpretation effectively. David Beach expresses

. . . performance is based on knowledge, which is

process of analysis. The more one knows about ho
greater the chance that the performance will be a co
jection of the complex web of relationships inher
function of analysis to uncover these relationships.6

That performers can benefit from analysis of the w

granted, but this alone does not account for a relations
mance. The relationship is not simple and direct, and r
Beneath these common, though opposing, assumptio
number of unanswered, and some unasked, question
mance relate to each other. This article is not inten
issues, but, more modestly, to acknowledge them op
some of them in an effort to come to a better underst
relationship of analysis and performance.

Tensions between Analysis and Performa

Many performers are suspicious of analysis becaus

analysis as an arid intellectual preoccupation and th
artistic inspiration, creativity, or intuition. I make
ence and discussion with performers, but documen
Konrad Wolffs account of the teachings of pianist A

[Schnabel pointed out that] . . . Theoretical analys

He always encouraged students to find out as muc
ture, harmonies, motivic technique, etc. used in each
for interpretation in most of this. Fruitful analysis
reaction to some musical detail which puzzles the
gates what happens here in particular.7 [emphasis

Schnabel' s differentiation between theoretical and fru

6 David Beach, "The First Movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in A Min

Performance " Journal of Musicolozical Research 7 (1987): 157.
7 Konrad Wolff, Schnabel 's Interpretation of Piano Music, with a new p
Norton & Company, 1979), 18-19. First edition published under the title
and Faber, 1972).

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 1 5

ambivalence about the role of analysis for the performer; analysis is encouraged, but fo
what purpose if there is "no basis for interpretation in most of this"? As an examp
what Schnabel considered to be unproductive theoretical analysis, Wolff discusses
opening fifteen measures of Beethoven's Sonata Op. 1 09, and his comments, cited below
reveal Schnabel's position on the role of analysis to a performer of this work. The s
for these measures is reproduced in Example 1 .

An academic outline analysis, as applied to the first movement of Beethoven's

Sonata in E major, op. 1 09, will establish the fact that the first eight bars consti-
tute the first, the ensuing Adagio the second thematic group. If the pianist-inter-
preter lets himself be guided by this obvious fact, he will make an interruption
after the first eight bars to bring out the formal contrast between the different
themes and speeds. Nothing could be more wrong. There is one long line that
goes from the first note to ... [m.15] without stop or without a break of any
kind. The initial E major chord opens a phrase which is continued until finally
the E major key is replaced, in bar 1 5, by a B major chord implied in the sforzato
bass on B. Schnabel formulated this as follows: "The question of form arises
here only as one of the space to be conquered in one impulse, as inner necessity,
as emotion put in motion, as something almost physical."8

8 Ibid., 19.

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1 1 6 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

EXAMPLE 1. Beethoven, Op. 109/1: mm. 1-15.

SONATE
Maximiliane Brentano gewidmet
KompooiertmO ^^
Vivace, ma nontroppo. ,

w P 'U ^J 1^^ fir M ^ "

l^mirt H |7 h>7 «Th [ft JJh "Jv _Uh f h [j I7 M
O « Adagio espressivo <K 4

^yiti^u ». r '^7 i^l v I f^ »| */ |p f M

I'D

%f n ,'f ^^^^9 I ^^^^B I I ftittl ^ P

^^
-t ^^ ^T***^ U

•J espresstt'o ^^h«^^^^™ ^ cvcsc. . - 3 -

\\ if Ti . i jf'^^^ ^ _ SBBt^B^^a - ^^^jfT", i, ^ -^- P- I '* I t8~

y ■fftf'fT*' I ''I I p ^ _ ^ I I M I I 1^1 ^Bi^^^^^^»^__ ^^^^^1 I I -l-tt^ ff^\ ill I ^1 «

Reproduced from Beethoven, Klaviersonaten Band II, © 1980, with the kind perm

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 1 7

Schnabel's academic or theoretical analysis reflects a particular mode of

analysis, designating phrases or other formal units of a work by conventional
ogy. This mode of analysis is essentially descriptive, not explanatory, and does
any of the more interesting and dynamic features, such as voice leading, tonal str
and their interaction with design that may inform the work. A purely descri
proach to analysis reveals no more, and possibly less, to an analyst than to a p
(From a theorist's point of view, it is even questionable whether to regard su
ments as analytical.) Schnabel does not disclose exactly what he understands b
sis that is fruitful, except to say that it supports or confirms what the performe
will have decided by musical instinct and sensitivity. He concedes that analysi
a role in modifying a performer's instincts, but states clearly that he does not be
has any role in producing the instincts in the first place.9
In the case at hand, the opening of Beethoven's Op.109, Schnabel (through
addresses perhaps the most fundamental issue that relates performance and an
each other: the segmentation of a whole into its constituent parts. For a perfo
ticulating the local disjunctions of smaller units while still projecting the cohe
larger whole is a perpetual challenge, expressed eloquently by Schnabel's appr
about losing the "long line" from mm. 1-1 5 by overemphasizing on the disjun
tween first and second theme groups at m.8. For the analyst, the selection of appr
segments for informative analytical discussion is likewise challenging, another
touchstone linking the two activities.
Schnabel's instincts about a "long line" extending from m. 1 to m. 1 5 can be su
tiated analytically by a voice-leading graph showing the tonic harmony prolon
m.l to m.15, where it is supplanted at the middleground level by the domin
Example 2a.) Scale degree 3, supported by tonic harmony, is initially prolonged
the inner-voice linear progression of an octave (Q 4-Gt 3) from mm. 1-4, then
the register transfer from mm.4-7 (G* 4-Gi 5). At m.8, Gl 5 ascends by step
which is supported by V of V. At the middleground, this At 5 is a passing tone wh
is only reached in m. 1 5, on B5, supported by V, precisely where Schnabel's (o
intuitions had determined.10 This passing motion transcends all the changes in tem
meter, as well as rhythmic and textural features at the surface that are introduce
the onset of the "adagio espressivo" at m.9. The prolongation of the middlegro
ing tone At 5 is shown in some detail in Example 2a and summarized by the
reductions shown in Example 2b and 2c.

9 Ibid., 20.
10This reading diverges somewhat firom an orthodox Schenkerian reading of the passage, which would place the struc-
tural arrival on 2, supported by V, at m. 1 1 . (See Heinrich Schenker, Free Composition, (New York: Longman, 1979), 138.)
The analysjs presented her evinces a covering progression (G* 5-A* 5-B5) at the middleground, situated registrally above the
arrival on 2 While not conflicting substantially with the harmonic-contrapuntal framework of the orthodox reading, aside
from the interpretation of A* 5 as an expanded passing tone, this reading draws out the dynamic quality of the anticipated
arrival on V, which is not conclusive until m. 1 5 . It accomplishes this through the registral connection from the initially
prolonged G* 5 through A* 5 in m.9 to B5 in m. 1 5, creating a "long line" that is perhaps more concretely perceptible than the
orthodox background paradigm of a sonata exposition.

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1 1 8 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

EXAMPLE 2a. Beethoven, Op. 109/1: mm. 1-15, voice

/♦IN

♦IN

^ tINI ^

'm!=!! ^ "l

© >-•••■ ,-■■,

I )U - ♦•
s fji)^ /
:*£ < II I ' ( I . .

"IN-, a • ,
("!♦- s "\
''♦- a i)
mi

'ui

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 1

EXAMPLE 2b, 2c.

,. 8va

Schnab
second
forme
does n
need n
Schnab
larger
dynam
from m
asserti
also sh
section
analys
to clar
The sin
ness of
of the
It mu
presen
The co
proach
their r
ity wi
musica
shaped by it.
A more recent book addressed to performers on interpretation of piano music by

11 Ibid., 46-48.
12 Ibid., 56-72.
13 Ibid., 64, 123, 128.

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120 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

Kendall Taylor reveals an unabashedly positive att

to the performer, while still acknowledging the a
tween analysis and imagination.14 Taylor's view of th
concurs with the content of David Beach's statements
edge gained through analysis is indispensible for
expressed by Taylor, perhaps representative of many
assist the performer in grasping the intentions and

A detailed analysis can help the performer to grasp

ture of a composition, and it may lead him, wit
formed imagination, to an understanding of the
analysis to the serious performer cannot be exaggerated

analysis in depth would seem to be in some measure a rev

art (and science) of musical composition.15

Indeed, performers like Schnabel or Taylor, who have co

interpretation to words, are driven towards rational insights an
tably reveal the analytical bent of the author. Some, such as the
individual works that are often truly profound, arising from the
a vast repertoire, and probably do more to foster respect for th
performers than do many of the authors of secondary literatur
Analysis, either in relation to performance or in relation to c
ally has been regarded as an activity that serves another act
higher order. Music performance has a long history through ma
social and iconographic contexts. Music analysis, by contra
history as an independent activity, and even today many musici
in theory and analysis are unaware of this history. Many perfor
theory and analysis of music as primarily concerned with m
onomy. These are, of course, the basic materials that compr
undergraduate theory programs in most colleges and universitie
of most performers' shared experience in analysis. As important
grammar and syntax is to the formation of a musician, and as a
classroom may be for acquiring this knowledge, music theor
aspire for more. Eugene Narmour writes:

Music theory ... has a nobler goal than just teaching musi
a knowledge of musical style or instructing them in the way
better. For the ultimate aim of any theory is not utilitarian
planatory: good theories of music illuminate the various
inherent in a given musical relationship. They do not just clas

14 Kendall Taylor, Principles of Piano Technique and Interpretation, (Borough

Inc.), particularly Chapter V, "Analysis and Imagination."
13 Ibid, 118.

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 2 1

rials for the practitioner's ease of consumption.16

Narmour's words bring into relief the tension between the performer's and t
understanding of the objectives of analysis. For the performer, analysis, as we
other intellectual study of a work cannot help but be primarily concerned with pr
and utilitarian matters, since there is an unequivocally more important goal (to the
former) to be achieved, and analysis is but one of several means to the end.
analyst, analysis is an end, even a vocation, unto itself, or at least in tandem with
theory, and performance of a work analysed is unessential to the validity of the an
The underlying incompatibility between these positions is at the heart of the a
and alienation that exists between many performers and analysts.

Historical perspective on analysis and performance

Analysis and performance have not always been separated by the conceptu
that SchnabeFs remarks quoted earlier reveal. Eighteenth-century figured bass and
mentation practices constitute the prime example of a tradition in which ana
virtue of necessity, is integrated with, and indeed, inseparable from performance.
context, analysis does not refer to analytical method but rather to the more gener
of conscious rational thought about music that is dependent upon theoretical k
for an effective performance. The continuo player realizing a figured bass re
degree of theoretical or analytical instruction to interpret individual figures and t
stand specific voice- leading situations, special treatments of dissonant figures
rendering of melodic lines in the unnotated soprano and inner voices. The exp
continuo player would undoubtedly make appropriate decisions instinctively, b
theless depended upon prior training that was inherently analytical. Figured b
tises were, on the whole, directed to the performing musician, but exhibited syste
and rational classification schema for figures, with rules for doublings, substit
possible additions for each figure. Thus, in addition to fulfilling their intended pr
objectives, figured bass treatises also provided compendia of tonal simultane
voice-leading practices. A balance between continuo performance and analysi
in which the performer who was equipped with the theoretical knowledge of figur
made analytical decisions about local harmony in order to realize the figured
conversely, the authors of figured bass treatises presented their theories with the
ing musician in mind. The performer was informed by prior analytical think
experience, not about specific pieces necessarily, but about music and music m
general.
The scope of certain figured bass treatises, notably those of C.P.E. Bach17 and Johann
David Heinichen18 conspicuously extends beyond the needs of the performer to demon-

16 Eugene Narmour, "On the Relationship of Analytical Theory to Performance and Interpretation," in Explorations
in Music, The Arts and Ideas, ed. Eugene Narmour and Ruth Solie (Stuy vesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1 988), 3 1 7.
17 C.P.E. Bach, Versuchuber die wahre Art das Clavier zuspielen, (Berlin: 1759-1762). See also Essay on the True
Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, tr. and ed. William J. Mitchell, (New York: Norton, 1949).
18 Johann David Heinichen, Der General-Bass in der Composition, (Freiburg: Chnstoph Mattheus, 1 728). Facsimile
edition, (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1969).

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 122 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

strate the association of figured bass theory and c

amalgamate analysis and performance into a singu
deed, Heinichen's title reflects this compositional
things, his meticulous explanations of unusual treat
particularly in the theatrical style, were undoubtedly
certainly not intended specifically for performers.19
The interdependence of performance and analysi
pended on the improvisatory aspect of continuo pe
required a knowledge of the structural framework
achieved through some degree of analytical underst
the point of consciousness. As with figured bass re
vised ornamentation. For example, Chapter XIII of
Playing the Flute,10 entitled "Of Extempore Varia
over twenty-five simple melodic idioms and nume
each one, including arpeggiations, consonant skips,
ments. Examples such as these, which originated in
as current pedagogical devices for illustrating the
They also indicate that the didactic aspect of the an
not be construed in one direction only, that is, from
Aside from the pragmatic subjects of figured ba
tury treatises on other subjects - such as counterp
were directed not to the performer but primarily
analysis was largely the domain of the composer. W
traditions, the role of analysis became conceived less i
ing music and more in terms of inspiring the creatio
ing classic formal models.23 In the twentieth century
been perpetuated by Arnold Schoenberg and his fo
Despite a small number of isolated analyses of si
century that portend a wider view of analysis and
concerns of composition, it is in the twentieth cen
into an autonomous scholarly pursuit, an achievem
Schenker and his followers. As is well understood

19 See George Buelow, "Heinichen's Treatment of Dissonance/ "Jo

20 Johann Joachim Quantz, On Playing the Flute, tr. and ed. Edwar
136-61.
21 See Allen Forte and Stephen Gilbert, Introduction to Schenker
1982), 7-9.
22 Stephen Hefling writes about performance practice and structural levels as represented in Quantz's treatise in '"Of
the Manner of Playing the Adagio' : Structural Levels and Performance Practice in Quantz's Versuch," Journal of Music
Theory 31(1987): 205-23.
23 For a fuller discussion of the history of music analysis, see Jonathan Dunsby and Arnold Whittall, Music Analysis
in Theory and Practice, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 11-19. See also Ian Bent, Analysis, (New York: W.W.
Norton &Comoanv. 1987V 1-78.

24 Arnold Schoenberg, The Fundamentals of Musical Composition, (London: Faber & Faber, 1970). See also Erwin
Ratz, Einfuhrung in die musikalische Formenlehre, dritte erweiterte und neugestaltete Ausgabe, (Wien: Universal Edi-
tion, 1973).

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 23

mechanisms of organic structure in the "masterworks" of the great tonal compos

developed his theories over the course of his lifetime directly through his p
activities as a performer and editor.25 Perhaps the most unique feature of S
theories is the absence of references to external models or theories; Schenker
provide a self-referential framework for analysis, in which the tonal structure o
is defined hierarchically in its own terms. Such a theory elevates analysis of mus
sterile parsing into a dynamic and creative act in which the analyst can beco
mately aware of subtle and profound connections between both proximate an
events in a composition.
Schenkerian theory has had an enormous impact on theoretical and analyti
arship, not only because of its own intrinsic value, but also by contributing to th
tus for the broader enterprise of developing new analytic methodologies that
cupied many theorists in the last half century or so. With the intellectual indepe
musical analysis and the greater formalism that has entered the field of music th
the second half of this century, the estrangement between analysts and perform
more pronounced than in Schnabel's time, and threatens to persist.

Some Practical Illustrations

I will now turn to some practical illustrations drawn from well-known literature for
solo piano (or keyboard), some of which have been the subject of discussion by other
authors. The examples have been chosen in order to illustrate concisely three specific
analytical issues that bear on the relationship between analysis and performance: hidden
motivic connections between apparently contrasting themes; cadential elision and eva-
sion; and motivic parallelisms. (These three issues pertain exclusively to tonal music, but
the problems exposed are not necessarily restricted to a particular harmonic language.)
The objective here is not to dictate how the music in question should be performed (though
it is occasionally irresistible to make suggestions about how a passage should probably
not be performed). The focus on these three issues will serve to underscore some of the
complexities and contradictions involved in articulating the ambiguous relationship be-
tween analysis and performance.
As a point of departure for discussion of the issue of hidden motivic connections
between apparently contrasting themes, I will draw on a study by Roger Kamien, who
points out underlying rhythmic congruities between the beginnings of the first theme and
the second theme group (m.23) in the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata K.457.26
From this observation, Kamien suggests that the second theme be played in such a way
as to bring out this connection with the work's opening gesture. (Example 3 contains the
score for the opening of the movement. Example 4 shows the excerpts selected by Kamien
and reproduces his rhythmic overlay.) He also includes another passage near the end of

25 For a splendid account of Schenker's views on performance, see William Rothstein, "Heinrich Schenker as an
Interpreter of Beethoven's Piano Sonatas," 19th Century Music 7 (1984): 3-28. Rothstein focuses on several unpublished
sources in the Oswald Jonas Memorial Collection at the University of California at Riverside.
26 Roger Kamien, "Analysis and Performance: Some Preliminary Observations," Israel Journal ofMusicology 3
(1983): 156-70.

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124 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

the second theme group (mm.53-56) that likewise refer

rhythmic/melodic profile, and suggests "slightly st
rhythmic pattern," again to draw out the connection to
these suggestions to convey the rhythmic connections
article with an elegant disclaimer stating that speci
lead to a specific performance strategy. He writes:

... the connection between analysis and performan

reveals and clarifies the multiplicity of relationships
But a specific musical relationship can be project
Some relationships in a composition may not even
The performer must choose - either consciously
the relationships are to be brought out.28

27 Ibid., 164.
28 Ibid., 157.

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 25

EXAMPLE 3. Mozart, K. 457/1: mm. 1-35.

SONATE
Therese von Trattnern gewidmet
Komponiert in Wien wahrscheinlich 1784

Molto Allegro*> , Kv 45

b^ ^ ' " ' 'r" l=tt±d

® t t

\ ^

i^'i. ffir^ir f i i'i if 1 1 1 1 11* 1 1 1 if rrrrrf f^ f^^^

l^i/n H^l'ff, iff i ftff r,
*)N.chderEmauH[abe;inder Alwchrift (»iche *) According to the first edition; in the copy ♦) D'.pre. I. premiere rdition: dans la copie (voir
Vorwort) nur Allegro. («e Preface) only Allegro. Preface) Kulement Allegro.
**} TSiSmJZl "V^ ™ T* 13/1i* 15/16' *+) Tht tie from •b' t0 ab* in bm 13/14' 15/16, **) L'arc de la\? a lab« dans mes. 13/14, 15/16, 112/113
112/113,114/115n.chE™t.u«.;nichtinAb. 13/1i* 112/113, 114/115 foundonlyin ab* L« 13/14' ed.;notioC. 15/16, **) L'arc 114/115, de la\? .eulement a lab« dans dan. mes. la 1« 13/14, edition/ 15/16, p.. 112/113 dan. C

Reproduced from Mozart, Klaviersonaten, © 1977, with the kind permission of G. Henle Verlag, MUnchen.

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126 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

EXAMPLE 4. Mozart K. 457/1: excerpts with K

a) mm. 1-2 i I I I I
[ J J I J I J I J I i

I ^ q j J J I r r
,
fcV 1. ■■

/* I/, ^ ff. -y * M

r /* H I/, ^ ff. j -y J *

b) nun.*-* , J j j j j }

fe > i> q J» J J J J J j E

'M»rrrr rrrrlr

** ™°-53'* i j j j j j j j j j j j i
ft ^ q :== r |T] = vJ ^ [ c^

K H c J.=j^JJ^l[jlJJ 11

By disregarding his own admonition, and proceeding to suggest a performance strat-

egy for bringing out the motivic connection between mm.53-56 and the opening, Kamien
reveals what is probably an irresistible urge for many performers who use analysis
preparing their interpretations - to account for their personal performance decisions, not
necessarily with the intent to be prescriptive towards other performers who may not pla
the passage in the same way. In spite of his hortatory tone, Kamien's recommendation for
a slight stress on the quarter notes in mm.53-56 need not invite other performers to do

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 21

exactly the same. I would submit that Kamien's observations regarding mm.53-56
the opening should not require "any special emphasis" to bring out, as the metric organ
zation alone will provide the necessary weight to enunciate the quarter notes and
connection to the opening. To add any stress to the quarter-note beats could risk sound
ing unmusical in performance, and diminish the effect on the listener by destroying i
subtlety.
Returning to the rhythmic similarities between mm. 1-2 and mm.23-24, voice-lead-
ing graphs of these brief passages reveal fundamentally different contexts. (See Example
5.) The graph of mm. 1-4 shows two arpeggiations of the tonic triad, one at the fore-
ground level and one at the middleground. The former articulates the motion from 1 to 3
(C4 to E>5 within a larger arpeggiation that constitutes the initial ascent to the entry of
the primary tone 5, G5, which arrives in m.3. The graph of mm.23-25 shows an entirely
different voice-leading event, a linear progression from G4 to EM, which serves to pro-
long G4. The linear progression is supported by the parallel tenths between the outer
voices and a voice exchange between the alto and bass, prolonging the mediant harmony.

EXAMPLE 5. Mozart, K. 457/1: mm. 1-4 and mm. 23-25, voice-leading graphs.

mra.l-4 I k mm.23-25

10 v%/ io

^ _fl
^
Jf
_fl

^ (fo
^ r3^! -- \\
i

On
of
m
as
m
co
su
te
m
th
ha
ov
ar
ad

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 128 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

gests. To be sure, the rhythmic connections pointed

observations about underlying threads that contribut
ness of these connections would surely contribute
work's intricacies. However, it is shortsighted to tran
specific directions to stress the rhythmic correspond
to be perceived as mechanical and counter- intuitive t
listeners.
As Kamien intimates in the quotation above, som
elemental and self-referential that they should re
mance strategy to bring out. For example, model
points of closure and partial closure in a work often
their intrinsic structural properties define their f
consequent phrase pairings, the half cadence at the
an incomplete harmonic motion that is completed by
at the end of the consequent phrase. The experienc
ventions of tonal rhetoric may make analytical cl
redundant for the purpose of performance.
Not all cadences, of course, are so clearly define
potentially ambivalent cadential situations are th
dence. In each of these, the conflicting functions of
same moment, and suggest the need for conscious deli
which function to emphasize or planning an effec
functions.
An example of an elided cadence occurs at the cl
movement of the sonata K.457/I by Mozart. (The
Example 3.) The transition begins at m.19 with a
gesture of the work (minus the low bass reinforce
simultaneously as the melodic closure on 1 of the f
leading graph of the passage. In a situation such as th
dual role of the downbeat of m. 19 in providing closu
the beginning of the next formal unit. The voice-lead
of the primary tone G5 with its upper neighbor Ai>5
down to C5.29 This descent - a linear progression t
the middleground - and its harmonic support prov
first theme. The harmonic support for 1 at the c
however, is not literally present but implied, und
moment.

29 Note the motivic connection between the upper neighbor as a prefix to 5 in m. 1 3 and m. 1 5, and its appearance as a
suffix in m.4 at the initial entry of the primary tone.

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 29

EXAMPLE 6. Mozart, K. 457/1: mm. 14-19, voice-leading graph.

, . >i- °5=r->. jj h *\ J 1 ^k
10 10 10 \

i V i

Althou
goal-di
tify it
from p
ing the
ate reg
beginn
the pri
of perf
take pl
to C5 c
they a
voice le
of begi
to that
closure
project
a slight
is an ar
mance
tations
Cadent
functio
As an
mm.23

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 130 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

a prominent feature of second themes in the classi

defers the arrival of full melodic and harmonic closur
sions from G5 to C5, supported by a cadential prog
C major. (See the voice-leading graph in Example 8
sions extends from mm. 23 -3 5; G5 is initially prolon
sions, each supported by a linear intervallic patter
scent toward C5 begins in m.32 and concludes in m.35
an actual C5. The absence of melodic closure here
the next attempt at closure through another statemen
from m.35 to m.40, but this time there is no harmon
ing 1 is shown on the graph as an implied note. I
closure is attempted, but then thwarted by dramatic
melodic or bass note.

30 For a comprehensive treatment of cadential evasion as a characteristic device in eighteenth-century second theme
groups, see Janet Schmalfeldt, "Cadential Processes: The Evaded Cadence and the 'One More Time Technique,'" Journal
of Musicological Research 12 (1992): 1-52. See also William Caplin, "The Expanded Cadential Progression: A Category
for the Analysis of Musical Form," Journal of Musicological Research 7 (1987): 215-58.
31 1 am indebted to David Beach's detailed article on this movement, which provides voice-leading graphs of virtually
the entire movement. My graph of the passage conforms quite closely in interpretation to Beach's, differing mainly in
matters of notation and agreater amount of detail from mm. 40-45. Beach offers additional insights into the hypermetric
organization of the second theme group. See Beach, "The First Movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in A Minor, K.3 1 0,"
165-67.

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 3 1

EXAMPLE 7. Mozart, K. 310/1: mm. 20-50.

lit r^-j 4I1 ~rTTrHj

(22) % m m m m m *

(2S) 8 .X*

d») ^_

(53) 1 $ \ uiniiv

Reproduced from Mozart, Klavier

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132 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

1,'p ^ I ^ [ 'i "'"'

*

i \# ^aw*~^^7 1 £~Wf~W II 1 ^^J I ^^^^ f r F B g I I

4 5 2.

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 33

EXAMPLE 8. Mozart, K. 310/1: mm. 23-45, voice-leading graph.

■':. \ \ Si )

• ri 4 f ,3 r ' '
f I o ^ - < I /

. V41 - '•
\. til*.-, ,J

/'• © L <L--- / J

®J-*i- ■ *■■• - 'i U

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 134 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

The passage in mm.40-45 begins by presenting t

invertible counterpoint, prolonging C6 as a cover t
linear progression to C5 in m.44, and concludes wi
in m.45.32 A performer who is aware of the dram
trated attempts at closure will be able to shape the en
not only sustains the dramatic tension, but also in
strategy:

This lack of closure in bar 35 and again in bar 40 has direct implications for
performance. Quite obviously one must play through the intermediary cadences
until the goal is achieved. That is, the performer must not allow the tension to
release prematurely, but must carry the momentum through these points to the
end.33

A performer with strong musical intuitions and experience with music of the classical
repertoire may well respond to an analytical discussion such as the preceding examination
of the second theme group of K.3 1 0/1 by claiming that the performance strategy proposed -
drawing out the dramatic potential in the passage by "playing through" the evaded (Beach' s
"intermediary") cadences - is obvious and instinctively well understood.34 As much as the
practical value of formal analysis is widely acknowledged among performers, the advice to
"play through" the evaded cadences in an example such as this is a conclusion that a
sensitive pianist would be likely to arrive at intuitively without the more technical ap-
proach of the analysis. Such a tight correspondence between a conclusion arrived at inde-
pendently through the performer's insight and the analysts 's more protracted study, here
and also in the case of the opening of Beethoven's Op. 1 09 sonata discussed earlier, demon-
strates the inadequacy of conceptualizing the relationship between analysis and perfor-
mance simply in terms of how analysis can benefit the performer.
Influenced by Schenkerian theory, analysts of tonal music are often drawn to parallel
recurrences of important tonal motives at the foreground and middleground. Consider, as a
simple illustration, the beginning of the passacaglia theme from Handel's Seventh Suite for
harpsichord, shown in Example 9. The foreground double neighbor figure D5-E>5-C5-D5
is replicated at the middleground, as the voice-leading graph shows. The middleground
double neighbor prolongs D5 (scale degree 5) as its harmonic support changes from tonic
to mediant. As Schenker has demonstrated, such motivic parallelisms are common in tonal
music, and are most satisfying to discover (at least for those of us with a passion for
analyzing music), but of all the issues raised in this essay, this is perhaps the most troubling
to assess in terms of implications for performance. The concept of motivic parallelisms
engages at once both the synchronic aspect of analysis and the diachronic aspect of perfor-

32 It could be argued that harmonic closure is not achieved even at m.45 because of the disruptive registral shift of two-
and-a-half octaves in the bass from the cadential dominant to tonic harmonies, but only at m.49, the final measure of the
exposition.
33 Beach, "The First Movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in A Minor, K.3 10," 166.
34 Beach s suggestion to play through" the evaded cadences is not so much a recommendation toward a specific action,
rather, an exhortation not to destroy the longer-range directedness toward the real harmonic goal in m. 45.

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 135

mance. In this excerpt, the enlarged replication of the double neighbor figure is
cally significant because of the interaction of the motivic and harmonic pro
the performer would probably be reluctant to allocate any special emphasis
the D5 in m.2 because it would detract from the momentum of the harmoni

EXAMPLE 9. Handel, Suite VII, Passacaille, mm. 1-2 : score and voice-leadin

Passacaille
*mmmm^m^mmm ^^^^^^_ m^^h^mmm 5

lW»f f If f ^=E
Reproduced from Handel, Klaviersuiten, © 1983, with the kind permission of G. Henle Verlag, Munchen.

I
i III

Should a
have broa
the Adagi
the motiv
and also in
ductor con
occurrenc
emerge. H
motive. C
parallelism
also recog
violate th
35 Wallace B
36 Charles Bu
David Beach

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 136 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

bringing out a concealed motivic parallelism, but is c

because of the disruption that would occur in conn
on strong and weak metric positions.37
The concept of motivic parallelism is one that
Schenkerian analytical techniques and the theory of
appreciation by a performer without exposure to
former, the concept seems esoteric and not of dir
analytical construct revealing large-scale connectio
by its forward and retroactive references, motivic p
temporal domain that is essential to performance. Th
isms can be perceived is one that applies more to a lis
who can hear, or will herself or himself to hear, mo
ships between discrete structural levels is not dep
bring out these phenomena.
The three issues considered in this section - hidden motivic connections between
apparently contrasting themes, cadential evasion and elision, and motivic parallelism -
were selected to illustrate that some recommendations for interpretation that may be
perceived as counter-intuitive, obvious, or esoteric may emanate from analysis, even
when the analysis is inherently convincing and insightful. This is not to denigrate the
seriously conceived work of authors mentioned, but to suggest that herein lies the source
of at least some of the discomfiture among performers who view such recommendations
by analysts as driven more toward justifying the analysis and projecting the discoveries
of the analyst than illuminating the performer.

Conclusion

The ambivalence expressed in these reflections on the relationship of analysis and

performance is partially attributable to the numerous and varying connotations of the
term analysis. Specialists not only in music theory, but also in the disciplines of musicol-
ogy, education, and other subdisciplines, as well as performance, study musical compo-
sitions and therefore make analytical observations. Analysis may be used to assist in
dating works, or to classify them by genre, style, or other criteria; it does not necessarily
always involve consideration of the structure of musical compositions. To a theorist,
analysis can involve structural aspects of entire compositions (even entire repertoires) or
can be limited to excerpts of varying lengths; it can refer variously to the formal function
of passages of differing lengths, to the interpretation of the voice-leading function of
individual harmonies, to local or to large-scale events; it may be restricted to relation-
ships that center on pitch or tonal organization, or may include other parameters, such as
register, articulation, instrumentation or rhythm, or may combine these in particular

37 Janet Schmalfeldt, "On the Relation of Analysis to Performance: Beethoven's Bagatelles Op. 126, Nos. 2 and 5,"
Journal of Music Theory 29 (1985): 12, 18. John Rink points out Schmalfeldt's equivocalness between bringing out the
concealed motivic repetition and maintaining its concealed identity, as well as the questionable results in performance from
undue stress on non-contiguous notes in the effort to bring out their middleground contiguity. See John Rink, review of
Musical Structure and Performance, by Wallace Berry, Music Analysis 9 (1990): 320-21 .

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 137

ways; it may reflect an existing theoretical model, or it may be utilized to dem

new model. To a specialist in analysis or theory, these divergent modes of anal
understood, but to some performers, some of the more abstract ones may be u
and/or even distasteful, as reflected in the remarks cited earlier by Schnabel.
A number of authors have written about a relationship between analysis an
mance, but there has been little research tradition or serious scholarly dialogu
true comparison or exchange of ideas on the subject. A recent exception is
review of Wallace Berry's book, Musical Structure and Performance, whic
by surveying some of the growing literature purporting a relationship bet
and performance.38 Rink points out that the relationship is defined in qui
terms by different authors, resulting in a large amount of confusion and cont
The incompatibilities result, in large measure, from the differing orientations
ture and goals of analysis on the parts of authors who are primarily theorists.
As I have said, a conspicuous inclination of authors writing about the relati
analysis and performance is to link analysis and performance causally, cit
which specific analytical findings lead to specific performance directives,
tain note or chord should be accentuated or "brought out" in some way, or
dynamic treatment is intimated for a given passage.40 Wallace Berry goe
state that every analytical observation has an implication for performance
the implication may be one of neutrality.41 Janet Schmalfeldt expresses the m
attitude that more than one approach to interpretation can be adduced fr
analytical observation;42 analysis may suggest what should be brought ou
itself how to do it. Jonathan Dunsby states that ". . . the most helpful way to
analysis for the performer ... is not as some form of absolute good, but a
solving activity."43 This interaction between analysis and performance is
lective, in that what the analyst and the performer perceive as problems may
siderably.
Two authors who have advocated the development of a new mode of analysis ema-
nating specifically from the performer's concerns are John Rink and Tim Howell. John
Rink appeals for an approach to analysis based on "informed intuition," an approach
that would offer more practical assistance or benefit to the performer than existing modes
of analysis.44 Tim Howell recommends the synthesis or amalgam of various analytical
approaches as initiated by the instinctive reactions of the performer. A mode of analysis

38 Rink, review of Musical Structure and Performance by Wallace Berry, 3 19-39.

39 Ibid., 319-24.
40 Rink provides several good illustrations of this found in writings by Janet Schmalfeldt, Wallace Berry, Leonard
Meyer and Eugene Narmour.
41 Wallace Berry, Musical Structure and Performance, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 44. "Every
analytical finding has an implication for performance, even when it suggests a relatively neutral execution that projects
explicit, self-evident factors of structure."
42 Schmalfeldt, "On the Relation of Analysis to Performance", 28.
43 Jonathan Dunsby, "Guest Editorial: Performance and Analysis of Music," Music Analysis 8 (1989): 8. Dunsby
connects the "interaction of pedagogy and performance" with the history of nineteenth- and twentieth-century editorial
practice, at least in regard to piano repertoire.
44 Rink, review of Musical Structure and Performance, by Wallace Berry. See Tim Howell, "Analysis and Perfor-
mance: The Search for a Middleground," in Companion to Contemporary Musical Thought, Vol.2, ed. John Paynter, Tim
Howell, Richard Orton, and Peter Seymour (London: Routledge, 1992), 679-714.

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 1 3 8 COLLEGE MUSIC SYMPOSIUM

that could actively engage performers would undoub

approach based on "informed intuition" could even b
their ties to the larger musical community and elevatin
of teachers of musical grammar. This conception, ho
and even alienating for the analyst, who would likely f
difficulty with implementing such a mode of analys
tive exigencies of each group: the analyst's need for rig
place for intuition. And yet these exigencies are not mu
tary. For many analysts, the process of analysis beg
sponse to a musical work, and for many performers
working out of technical difficulties and simply "lea
intuition and rigor belong to both analysis and perf
the same stage in the process for each.45
A basic issue left unaddressed by most authors subscr
analysis to performers is that of who is the produce
who are specialists in theory and analysis are often
graphic means that, at least within current educatio
quire specialized training only rarely assumed to th
analysis is then not undertaken, but responded to, b
performer will, naturally, study analysis to a certain p
cialization, which enters into college curricula at an
performers from learning the skills needed to accom
transcend the descriptive. The same interested and gift
a great deal from clearly conceived and presented analy
by a specialist in theory or analysis, and gain insig
influence a performance, but formulating one's own an
fully, to someone else's are not the same thing. The
pedagogical implications involving not only the analy
the undergraduate level, but also the role of analysi
cializations.
It is at the level of process - the process of discovery and preparation of a committed
interpretation, even if subject to change - that the ontological connection between analy-
sis and performance emerges. Although there are profound differences between the cog-
nitive processes involved in these two activities, and conflicting ways in which to com-
prehend the potential influence of either one on the other, I find myself still struck by the
three basic analogies outlined at the beginning of this article: the point of departure from
the written score; the combination of intuition and acquired knowledge or skills; and the
attempt to arrive at and convey a convincing personal interpretation of a living work of
art. These powerful ontological links between the activities of performance and analysis
undermine the pragmatic bias that is prevalent in the literature, and they indicate, ironi-

45 Tim Howell discusses this point. See Howell, "Analysis and Performance " 698.
46 Janet Schmalfeldt examines the roles of both the analyst and the performer in an imaginative format that allows each
to act both as the presenter of and respondent to an interpretation of two short works. See Janet Schmalfeldt, "On the
Relation of Analysis to Performance."

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 RELATIONSHIP OF ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE 1 39

cally, that the conceptual independence of analysis yields the basis of their c
At the same time, these fundamental bonds suggest that more can and shou
through research and pedagogy to amplify the points of contact between an
performance, and to capitalize on their symbiosis, perhaps through some fo
collaborative nature that draws on the vocational expertise of both analysts and p
ers. Such a format would induce greater interaction between performing and
musicians as colleagues, and assuage the deleterious effects of the antipathy t
between them. The intimacy with exquisite works of art that is attainable, throu
ent means, in both performance and analysis is the essence of their connecti
prochement between performers and analysts that includes a sharing of insig
through intimate knowledge, and a deeper commitment to learn from each other
lead to deeper analytical insights and more illuminating performances.

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