1 General Identities

sec(𝑥) + 𝑐
∫ sec(𝑥) tan(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑛| sec(𝑥) + tan(𝑥) | + 𝑐

∫ sec(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − cot(𝑥) − 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝑥) + 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

tan(𝑥) + 𝑐
∫ sec 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

−cot (𝑥) + 𝑐
∫ cosec 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝜃) 4cos3 (𝜃) − 3cos (𝜃)

sin2(𝑥) 1
(1 − cos (2𝑥)
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) 1
(1 + cos (2𝑥)
2
tan2 (𝑥) + 1 sec 2 (𝑥)

∫ cot(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑛|sin(𝑥)| + 𝐶

2 Inverse trig
sin[𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)] = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
arcsin[𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)] = 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓𝑜𝑟 − ≤ 𝑥 ≤
2 2
----------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
cos[𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)] = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
arccos[𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)] = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
----------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
tan[𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥)] = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
arctan[𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥)] = 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓𝑜𝑟 − ≤ 𝑥 ≤
2 2
----------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) + 𝑐
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫− 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) + 𝑐
√𝑎2 − 𝑥2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
∫ arctan ( ) + 𝑐
𝑎2 + 𝑥2 𝑎 𝑎

3 Hyperbolic functions
sinh(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
2
cosh(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
2

sinh(−𝑥) − sinh(𝑥)
cosh(−𝑥) cosh(𝑥)

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 (𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 (𝑥) 1

1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (𝑥) sech2 (𝑥)

sinh (x + y) sinh(𝑥) cosh(𝑦) + sinh(𝑦) cosh (𝑥)

cosh(𝑥 + 𝑦) cosh(𝑥) cosh(𝑦) + sinh(𝑥) sinh (𝑦)

Derivatives-------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
𝑑 cosh (𝑥)
sinh (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 +sinh (𝑥)
cosh (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 sech2 (𝑥)
tanh (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

4 Complex Numbers
4.1 Conjugate
 Change the sign of the coefficient of the imaginary part.
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖

Generally, 𝑍1 × 𝑍2 = 𝑍1 × 𝑍2 for all 𝑍1 , 𝑍2 ∈ ℂ

4.2 Multiplication
𝑍1 = 𝑟1 (cos(𝜃1 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 ))
𝑍2 = 𝑟2 (cos(𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃2 ))
𝑍1 × 𝑍2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]
4.3 Division

Remember: 𝑖 2 = −1
4 + 7𝑖 4 + 7𝑖 2−𝑖 (4 + 7𝑖)(2 − 𝑖)
= × = = 3 + 2𝑖
2+𝑖 2+𝑖 2−𝑖 (22 + 12 )
4.4 Powers
𝑍 = 𝑟(cos(𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))
𝑍 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃))
4.5 Roots
𝑍 = 𝑟(cos(𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃))
1 1 1
𝑊0 = 𝑟 2 (cos ( 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜃))
2 2
𝑊1 ≔ −𝑊0 → 𝑊1 2 = (−𝑊0 )2 = 𝑍

To find 𝑛𝑡ℎ root write as follows:

1 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )]
𝑛 𝑛
At 𝑊0 − 𝑘 = 0
At 𝑊1 − 𝑘 = 1

If you find 𝑛 roots you will have to sub in 𝑘 = 0, 𝑘 = 1, … , 𝑘 = (𝑛 − 1)

4.6 Solving for 𝒁
Eg1:
𝑍 2 = −6
→ 𝑍1 = √6𝑖
→ 𝑍2 = −√6𝑖
Eg2:
𝑍 2 = −7 − 24𝑖
𝑍 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑖 2 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦

(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦 = −7 − 24𝑖

𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = −7
2𝑥𝑖𝑦 = 24𝑖
24
∴𝑦= −
2𝑥

12 2
𝑥 2 − (− ) = −7
𝑥
𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 2 − 144 = 0
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2
𝑢2 + 7𝑢 − 144 = 0
(𝑢 + 16)(𝑢 − 9) = 0
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 = −16 Impossible since 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

𝑢 = 𝑥2 = 9
𝑥1 = 3
12
𝑦=− = −4
𝑥1
∴ 𝑍1 = 3 − 4𝑖

𝑥2 = −3
 12
𝑦=− =4
𝑥2
∴ 𝑍2 = 3 + 4𝑖
 𝑖 2 = −1
𝑖 3 = −𝑖
𝑖4 = 1
𝑖5 = 𝑖
4.7 Polar form
Find the polar form of 𝑍 = 1 − √3𝑖

2
|𝑍| = √12 + (−√3) = 2

−𝜋 −𝜋
∴ 𝑍 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 3 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 3 ))

𝑜𝑟
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑍 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 3 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 3 ))

𝑜𝑟
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑍 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( + 2𝜋𝑘) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + 2𝜋𝑘)) 𝑘∈ℤ
3 3

4.7.1 Shorthand notation for polar form

𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos(𝑦) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦)
𝑒 𝑖𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑦
sin(𝑦) =
2𝑖
𝑒 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑦
cos(𝑦) =
2

4.8 Argument
4.8.1 Principle Argument

𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑍) returns one angle where −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋

𝜋
Arg(𝑖) =
2
4.8.2 General Argument
𝜋
arg(𝑖) = + 2𝜋𝑘 𝑘∈ℤ
2
5 L'Hopital's rule
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 0
lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥3 0

0 ∞
Allowed to apply L'Hopital's rule if limit is equal to 0 or ∞. The limit is equal to the

derivative of the limit.

6 U sub tips
6.1 If powers are odd and even
If integral like ∫ sin5 (𝑥) cos 2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Choose your u depending on the one with an even power.
𝑢 = cos(𝑥)
6.2 If powers are both odd
You have the choice to choose which one to set u equal to.

6.3 If powers are both even

Trig identities.
7 Simplify trig multiplied by trig under integral

If Use
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑥) (mixed) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑥) (homogenous) 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑥)𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑥) (homogenous) 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑥)

If you have

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛(6𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Use
cos(2𝑥 + 6𝑥) = cos(2𝑥) cos(6𝑥) − sin(2𝑥) sin(6𝑥)
cos(2𝑥 − 6𝑥) = cos(2𝑥) cos(6𝑥) + sin(2𝑥) sin(6𝑥)
Subtract the first function from the second

𝑐𝑜 𝑠(−4𝑥) − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(8𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛(6𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
8 Trig Sub
8.1 Three Flavors:
If you have Use Domain Identity
𝑥 = asin (𝜃) 𝜋 𝜋 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃)
√𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 − ≤ 𝜃≤
2 2
𝑥 = asec (𝜃) 𝜋 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝜃) − 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃)
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎 2 0< 𝜃<
2
𝑥 = atan (𝜃) 𝜋 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃) + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝜃)
√𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2 − < 𝜃<
2 2

9 Complex logarithms
9.1 Complex logarithms to std form (a+bi)
ln(
ln(−1 + √3𝑖) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 |−1 + √3𝑖| + 𝑖 arg (−1 + √3𝑖)
2𝜋
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 |−1 + √3𝑖| + 𝑖 ( + 2𝜋𝑛) , 𝑛∈ℤ
3

9.2 Useful log identity

ln(𝑍1 𝑍2 ) = ln(𝑍1 ) + ln (𝑍2 )
10 Integration by parts
∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈′(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) − ∫ 𝒇′(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

Tip: Choose 𝒈′ (𝒙) such that you can easily integrate it and choose f(x) such that you can easily
differentiate it.

11 Most beautiful formula

𝒆𝒊𝝅 = −𝟏

12 Partial Fractions
12.1 Steps
1 Long div (only if the degree of the numerator is higher than the degree of
the denominator).
2 Factorize the denominator.
3 Find A, B, C…
4 Integrate
12.2 Fast method

You can use the fast method by subbing in the roots of the denominator to get the
values for A, B and C. This only works if the denominator has distinct roots.
12.3 Long method
Multiply out the brackets and group together all the 𝑥 2 ’s and 𝑥’s and the constants.
The coefficients of them are equal to the coefficients of the LHS of the equals sign.
13 Weierstrass
𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2
2𝑢
sin(𝑥) =
1 + 𝑢2
1 − 𝑢2
cos(𝑥) =
1 + 𝑢2
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
1 + 𝑢2

14 Matrices
14.1 Dimensions
Matrices have two dimensions:
Rows and Columns, written as follows ( Rows × Columns )
A square matrix has the following dimensions:
(n×n)
14.2 Addition
You can only add or subtract two matrices if their dimensions are the same.

14.3 Multiplication
You can only multiply two matrices if the inner dimensions are equal.
A→(4×5)
B→(5×8)

A×B=(4×8)
B × A is not possible as the inner dimensions are not equal.

14.4 The determinant of a matrix

14.4.1 Important characteristics
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝑇 ) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴)
If there are two identical rows in A, then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 0
If A has a zero row or column then 𝐷𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 0
If B is obtained from A by switching two rows or columns, then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐵) = −𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴)
If B is obtained by multiplying a row with a factor 𝑘, then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐵) = 𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴)
det(𝐴𝐵) = det (𝐴) × det (𝐵)
If 𝐴 is triangular (upper or lower), then det(𝐴) = 𝑎11 × 𝑎22 × 𝑎33 × … × 𝑎𝑛𝑛

1 4 9
Triangular matrix example: 𝐴 = |0 3 6|
0 0 4
det(𝐴) = 1 × 3 × 4 = 12

14.4.2 Simplification of matrix before finding the determinant

You may take out a common factor from a row or a column.
6 2 7
𝐴 = [−4 −3 2]
2 4 8
6 2 7
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = |−4 −3 2|
2 4 8

6 2 7
= 2 |−4 −3 2|
1 2 4

When swopping a row or column you must multiply the determinant with a minus.

1 2 4
= −1 × 2 |−4 −3 2|
6 2 7

14.4.3 Determinant of a ( 𝟐 × 𝟐 )
2
5
𝐴=[ ]
6
9
2 5
det(𝐴) = | |
6 9
= (2 × 9) − (5 × 6)
= −12
14.4.4 Determinant of a ( 𝒏 × 𝒏 ) Cofactor Expansion
To find the determinant of a ( 𝑛 × 𝑛 ) matrix follow these steps.

+ − +
Cofactor matrix = [− + −]
+ − +

Cofactor for position ( 𝑟 × 𝑐 ) = (−1)𝑟+𝑐

1 2 4
𝐴 = |−4 −3 2|
6 2 7
1 2 4
det(𝐴) = |−4 −3 2|
6 2 7
−3 2 −4 2 −4 −3
= (−1)1+1 × (1) × | | + (−1)1+2 × (2) × | | + (−1)1+3 × (4) × | |
2 7 6 7 6 2

= (1) × (1) × [(−3 × 7) − (2 × 2)] + (−1) × (2) × [(−4 × 7) − (2 × 6)]

+ (1) × (4) × [(−4 × 2) − (−3 × 6)]

= (−25) + (80) + (40)

= 95

14.4.5 Determinant of a ( 𝒏 × 𝒏 ) using row reduction

Keep subtracting or adding rows or multiples of rows to each other to form a
triangular matrix. Multiply the diagonal to obtain the determinant.
14.5 Inverse of a ( 𝒏 × 𝒏 ) matrix
14.5.1 Multiply with determinant method

1 2 4
𝐴 = |−4 −3 2|
6 2 7
To find the inverse matrix you must find the:
• Determinant
• Cofactor Matrix

det(𝐴) = 95 → See previous page.

Find the Matrix of minors

−3 2 −4 2 −4 −3
| | | | | |
2 7 6 7 6 2
2 4 1 4 1 2
| | | | | |
2 7 6 7 6 2
2 4 1 4 1 2
[ |−3 2
| |
−4 2
| |
−4
|
−3 ]
Note colors are just to easily see different elements.

−25 −40 10
[ 6 −17 −10]
16 18 5

Cofactor matrix
+ − +
𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 × [− + −]
+ − +
Or
𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 × (−1)(𝑟𝑜𝑤+columns)

−25 −40 10 + − +
𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = [ 6 −17 −10] × [− + −]
16 18 5 + − +
−25 40 10
= [ −6 −17 10]
16 −18 5
Adjoint matrix
→Transpose the cofactor matrix (Swop rows and columns).
−25 40 10
𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = [ −6 −17 10]
16 −18 5
−25 −6 16
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = [ 40 −17 −18]
10 10 5
Inverse matrix
1
𝐴−1 = × 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
det (𝐴)

1 −25 −6 16
= [ 40 −17 −18]
95
10 10 5

14.5.2 Finding inverse with identity matrix

1 2 4
𝐴 = |−4 −3 2|
6 2 7
Start by writing the given matrix next to the identity matrix. Use row reduction to
make the left-hand side look like the identity matrix. You may NOT swop columns.
1 2 4 1 0 0
|−4 −3 2| ⋮ [0 1 0]
6 2 7 0 0 1
Start counting from top left.

𝑅2  𝑅2 + 4𝑅1

1 2 4 1 0 0
|0 5 18| ⋮ [4 1 0]
6 2 7 0 0 1

𝑅3  𝑅3 − 6𝑅1

1 2 4 1 0 0
|0 5 18 | ⋮ [ 4 1 0]
0 −10 −17 −6 0 1
 𝑅3  𝑅3 + 2𝑅2
1 2 4 1 0 0
|0 5 18| ⋮ [4 1 0]
0 0 19 2 2 1

1
𝑅3  𝑅3 ×
19
1 0 0
1 2 4
4 1 0
|0 5 18| ⋮ [ 2 2 1]
0 0 1
19 19 19

2
𝑅1 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
5
3 2
16 − − 0
1 0 − 5 5
| 5|⋮ 4 1 0
0 5 18 2 2 1
0 0 1 [ 19 19 19]

16
𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅3
5
5 6 16
1 0 0 − −
19 95 95
|0 5 18| ⋮ 4 1 0
0 0 1 2 2 1
[ 19 19 19]

𝑅2 𝑅2 − 18𝑅3
5 6 16
− −
19 95 95
1 0 0 40 17 18
|0 5 0| ⋮ − −
0 0 1 19 19 19
2 2 1
[ 19 19 19 ]

1
𝑅2 𝑅2 ×
5
 5 6 16
− −
19 95 95
1 0 0 8 17 18
|0 1 0| ⋮ − −
0 0 1 19 95 95
2 2 1
[ 19 19 19 ]

5 6 16
− −
19 95 95
8 17 18
𝐴−1 = − −
19 95 95
2 2 1
[ 19 19 19 ]

14.6 Solving linear systems

14.6.1 Multiplying with inverse
1𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 12
−4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 22
6𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 46
1 2 4 12
𝐴𝑢𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = |−4 −3 2| ⋮ [22]
6 2 7 46
Multiply both sides by the inverse.
5 6 16 5 6 16
− − − −
19 95 95 19 95 95
1 2 4 8 17 18 12 8 17 18
|−4 −3 2| × − − ⋮ [22] × − −
6 2 7 19 95 95 46 19 95 95
2 2 1 2 2 1
[ 19 19 19 ] [ 19 19 19 ]
16
1 0 0 5
[0 1 0] ⋮ 38
0 0 1 −
5
[ 6 ]

14.6.2 Cramer’s Rule

If you want to solve for 𝑥1 replace column one with the answer column.

det(𝐴𝑛 )
𝑥𝑛 =
det(𝐴)
 det(𝐴3 )
𝑥3 =
det(𝐴)
1 2 12
𝐴3 = |−4 −3 22|
6 2 46
det(𝐴3 ) = 570
det(𝐴) = 95
570
𝑥3 = =6
95

15 Parametric equations
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 ( 𝑑𝑡 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑2𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
= ( )=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Example

Here a=2, b=1

𝑥 = 𝑓(𝜃) = a cos(𝜃)
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝜃) = 𝑏 sin (𝜃)
Find Area.
We need a function to integrate so we use the top half.

𝑎 0
𝐴
= ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) × 𝑎(− sin(𝜃)) 𝑑𝜃
2 −𝑎 𝜋

Angle to get to 𝑎 is 0
Angle to get to −𝑎 is 𝜋
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎(− sin(𝜃))
𝑑𝜃

𝜋
𝐴
= 𝑎𝑏 ∫ sin2 (𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2 0
𝜋
1
= 𝑎𝑏 ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃))𝑑𝜃
0 2
𝜋
𝜃 sin(2𝜃)
= 𝑎𝑛 [ − ]
2 4 0
𝜋
= 𝑎𝑏 ( )
2
∴ 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏𝜋
16 Polar Graphs
16.1 Plotting polar points
5𝜋
(𝑟, 𝜃) = (1, )
4

16.2 Radius cannot be negative

3𝜋 3𝜋
(−3, ) : = (3, ( + 𝜋))
4 4
16.3 Polar to Cart Eq
𝑥 ≔ 𝑟 cos(𝜃)
𝑦 ≔ 𝑟 sin(𝜃)
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
16.4 Derivative
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄
𝑑𝜃
16.5 Area
1 𝑏
𝐴= ∫ 𝑟(𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
2 𝑎
16.6 Parabola
|𝑃𝐹1 | + |𝑃𝐹2 | = 2𝑎
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

16.7 Ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑏 2 𝑎2
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
5 9
𝑎 is the largest of the two values. 𝑎 determines which axis is the major axis.

Here 𝑎 is under y therefore the major axis is the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

16.8 Hyperbole
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
𝑎 is always under the positive coefficient.
𝑎 determines which axis the vertices are parallel to.

16.9 Slant asymptote

𝑎
𝑦= 𝑥
𝑏