Introduction to Immunology

What is immunity?
 We are surronded by  Function of immune
bacteria,viruses, and fungi, system
swarms on our skin and
invades our inner  Defends body against these
passageways!!! small foreign invaders
 Immunity: is the ability  To distinguish between self
of organism to resist (normal component of the
infection by any foreign body) and non-self (foreign
(non-self) invaders component)s
 The Immune System
 The immune system is the body's defense against infectious
organisms and other invaders.
 Each exposure (to the same pathogen) increases the effectivity
of the response
 Primary Lymphoid organs of the immune system
I. Thymus
II. Bone marrow
 Secondary lymphoid organs
I. Lymph nodes
II. Spleen
III. Skin
IV. liver
V. Tonsils
3 VI. Small intestine
The Immune System
Immune system is divided into:
innate Immune system Acquired Immune system
There is immediate maximal There is a lag time between
response exposure and maximal response

Non-specific specific

Exposure results in no Exposure results in immunologic

immunologic memory memory

Non-specific immune System Specific immune System

(innate or natural) (adaptive or acquired)
 Immune system

Acquired Innate
immune system immune system

Humoral Cellular 1st line of 2nd line of

(antibody mediated) (Cell mediated) defense defense
immune response immune response

Skin Inflammation
B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes Mucous Phagocytosis
membrane Complement
Natural killers
Cytokines
Defense Against Disease

Nonspecific External Barriers

skin, mucous membranes

If these barriers are penetrated,

the body responds with

Innate Immune Response

phagocytic and natural killer cells,
inflammation, fever

If the innate immune response is insufficient,

the body responds with

Adaptive Immune Response

cell-mediated immunity, humoral immunity
INNATE IMMUN SYSTEM
Is consists of:
 Innate immunity refers to  Anatomic Barriers (skin and
mucous membrane)
nonspecific defense  Stomach acid and
mechanisms that come into enzymes(lyzozymes)
play immediately or within  Tear & saliva
hours of an antigen's  Phagocytosis (phagocytes)
Interferon
appearance in the body.  Complement system
 These mechanisms include  NK (natural killer)
physical barriers  mast cells
 Inflammatory reaction
 innate immune System(Natural)
The first lines of defense (Anatomical barriers ):
The natural barriers

1- the skin 2- mucous membranes

That protect organ system open to the external environment such as the digestive, respiratory, reproductive system and
urinary system
First line of defense
 Non-specific defenses are designed to prevent infections
by viruses and bacteria. These include:
 Intact skin
 Mucus and Cilia
 Role of skin
 Dead skin cells are constantly
sloughed off, making it hard for
invading bacteria to colonize.
 Sweat and oils contain anti-
microbial chemicals, including
some antibiotics.
 Role of mucus and cilia
 Mucus contains lysozymes, enzymes
that destroy bacterial cell walls.
 The normal flow of mucus washes
bacteria and viruses off of mucus
membranes.
 Cilia in the respiratory tract move
mucus out of the lungs to keep
bacteria and viruses out.
 Second Line defences
Role of phagocytes
 Phagocytes are several types of white
blood cells (including macrophages and
neutrophils) that seek and destroy
invaders. Some also destroy damaged
body cells.
 Phagocytes are attracted by an
inflammatory response of damaged
cells.
Role of inflammation
 Inflammation is signaled by mast cells, which release
histamine.
 Histamine causes fluids to collect around an injury to
dilute toxins. This causes swelling.
 The temperature of the tissues may rise, which can kill
temperature-sensitive microbes.
Role of fever
 Fever is a defense mechanism that can destroy many types
of microbes.
 Fever also helps fight viral infections by increasing
interferon production.
 While high fevers can be dangerous, some doctors
recommend letting low fevers run their course without
taking aspirin or ibuprofen.
Complement:
• Complement is not a cell but a group of proteins
• set of about 30 different kinds of proteins that circulate in an inactive form in the blood
• These proteins can act together (in complement) with other defense mechanisms
• made in the liver
• Activated by infection,
• activated complements:
– help to recruit phagocytes to site of inflammation and activate them
– bind to receptors on phagocytes, helping to remove agent of infection
– form pores in the invader or infected cell’s membrane (like the NKs do)
– activate mast cells to release histamine and other factors
– Certain complement proteins also help trigger the inflammatory responses
Natural killer cells (NK cells)
NK Cells, known as Natural Killer Cells, target virus infections
and tumors. They usually take 3 days to become active. When
active they will destroy the infected cells.
 instead of attacking the invaders, they attack the body’s own
cells that have become infected by viruses

 they also attack potential cancer cells, often before they form
tumors

 they bind to cells using an antibody “bridge”, then kill it by

secreting a chemical (perforin) that makes holes in the cell
membrane of the target cell. With enough holes, the cell will
die.
Cytokines
 Chemical messengers
 Cytokines are small secreted proteins released by cells have a specific
effect on the interactions and communications between cells.
 Cytokine is a general name; other names include lymphokine
(cytokines made by lymphocytes), monokine (cytokines made by
monocytes), chemokine (cytokines with chemotactic activities), and
interleukin (cytokines made by one leukocyte and acting on other
leukocytes).
Cytokines
 Cytokines may act on the cells that secrete them (autocrine
action), on nearby cells (paracrine action), or in some instances on
distant cells (endocrine action)
Specific defenses
 Specific defenses are those that give us immunity to
certain diseases.
 In specific defenses, the immune system forms a chemical
“memory” of the invading microbe. If the microbe is
encountered again, the body reacts so quickly that few or
no symptoms are felt.
Major players
 The major players in the immune system include:
 Macrophage
 T cells (helper, cytotoxic, memory)
 B cells (plasma, memory)
 Antibodies
Dual Nature of Adaptive Immunity
T and B cells develop from stem cells in red bone marrow

Figure 17.8
Dual Nature of Adaptive Immunity
 Red bone marrow stem cells produce lymphocytes
 1. B cells -Humoral immunity
 Some lymphocytes that mature in redbone marrow become B cells.
 Antibody production
 Antibodies are found in serum and lymph.
 2. T cells - Cell-mediated immunity
 Some lymphocytes migrate through the thymus become T cells (T-
lymphocytes)
 Activation of macrophages, natural killer cells (NK)
 Antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
 Release of various cytokines in response to an antigen.
The Nature of Antigens
 Antigen (Ag): A substance that causes the body to produce specific
antibodies or sensitized T cells
 Antibodies (Ab) interact with epitopes or antigenic determinants
 Hapten: Antigen is combined with carrier molecules
Antigens

Figure 17.1
Hapten: a small molecule that is antigenic but incapable by itself
of inducing a specific immune response.

Figure 17.2
 Antibodies
 Antibody is a large Y-shaped protein an
immunoglobulin (Ig)
 They are secreted form of the B-cell
receptor
 The antibody recognizes a unique part
of the antigen – epitope( a
portion of a molecule to which an
antibody binds) or antigenic
determinants.
 Antibody Structure
The Ig monomer consists
of four paired polypeptide
chains connected by
disulfide bonds.
Two identical heavy chains
Two identical light chains
Each chain has two
domains: one constant
domain (C) and
one variable domain (V)
The type of heavy chain
present defines the class
of antibody (IgA, IgD, IgE,
IgG, and IgM)

Figure 17.3a,b
Antibodies

Figure 17.3c
IgG Antibodies

 Monomer
 80% of serum Ab
 Fix complement
 In blood, lymph, and intestine
 Cross placenta
 Enhance phagocytosis; neutralize toxins and viruses; protects fetus
and newborn
 Half-life = 23 days
IgM Antibodies
 Pentamer
 5–10% of serum Abs
 Fix complement
 In blood, in lymph, and on B cells
 Agglutinates microbes; first Ab produced in
response to infection
 Half-life = 5 days
IgA Antibodies
 Dimer
 10–15% of serum Abs
 In secretions, (mucus, salvia, tears, and breast milk)
 Mucosal protection
 Half-life = 6 days
IgD Antibodies
 Monomer
 0.2% of serum Abs
 In blood, in lymph, and on B cells
 On the surface of B cells, initiate immune response
 Half-life = 3 days
IgE Antibodies

 Monomer
 0.002% of serum Abs
 On mast cells, on basophils, and in blood
 Allergic reactions; lysis of parasitic worms
 Half-life = 2 days
Antibodies as Receptors
 Antibodies can attach to
B cells, and serve to
recognize foreign
antigens.
 Antigens as Effectors
 Free antibodies can bind
to antigens, which “tags”
the antigen for the
immune system to attack
and destroy.
Antigen recognition
 Cells of the immune system are “trained” to recognize “self ”
proteins vs.
 If an antigen (“not self ”) protein is encountered by a
macrophage, it will bring the protein to a helper T-cell for
identification.
 If the helper T-cell recognizes the protein as “not self,” it will
launch an immune response.
Helper T cells
 Helper T-cells have receptors for recognizing antigens. If
they are presented with an antigen, they release cytokines
to stimulate B-cell division.
 The helper T-cell is the key cell to signal an immune
response. If helper T-cells are disabled, as they are in
people with AIDS, the immune system will not respond.
 B cells
 B-cells in general produce antibodies. Those with
antibodies that bind with the invader’s antigen are
stimulated to reproduce rapidly.
 B-cells differentiate into either plasma cells or memory B-
cells.
 Plasma cells rapidly produce antibodies. Memory cells
retain the “memory” of the invader and remain ready to
divide rapidly if an invasion occurs again.
Clonal Selection
Role of antibodies
 Antibodies released into the blood stream will bind to the
antigens that they are specific for.
 Antibodies may disable some microbes, or cause them to
stick together (agglutinate). They “tag” microbes so that
the microbes are quickly recognized by various white
blood cells.
“Killer” T cells
 While B-cells divide and differentiate, so do T-cells.
 Some T-cells become cytotoxic, or “killer” T-cells.
These T-cells seek out and destroy any antigens in the
system, and destroy microbes “tagged” by antibodies.
 Some cytotoxic T-cells can recognize and destroy
cancer cells.
Calling a halt
 When the invader is destroyed, the helper T-cell
calls a halt to the immune response.
 Memory T-cells are formed, which can quickly divide and
produce cytotoxic T-cells to quickly fight off the invader if
it is encountered again in the future.
 Induced Immunity (acquired immune response)

Active immunity Passive immunity

Production of a person’s own antibodies. Long 1. An individual is given antibodies by another (received
lasting of premade antibodies)
2. Short-term resistance (weeks- 6months)
3.Passive immunity is temporary because the
Natural Active Artificial Active recipient’s immune system is not stimulated by
When pathogen enters • Vaccination – usually antigen
body in the normal way, contains a safe antigen from
we make antibodies the pathogen.
• Person makes antibodies Natural Passive Artificial Passive
without becoming ill •Fetus obtains antibodies • Gamma globulin injection
from its mother’s • extremely fast, but short
bloodstream. lived
•Baby receives antibodies • (e.g. snake venom, which
in breast milk controlled by injecting the
victim with antivenin)
Types of Acquired Immunity
 Naturally acquired active immunity
 Resulting from infection
 Artificially acquired active immunity
 Injection of Ag (vaccination)
 Naturally acquired passive immunity
 Transplacental or via colostrum
 Artificially acquired passive immunity
 Injection of Ab
 Two types of acquired immune
response: 2- The cell- mediated immune response:
1- The humoral immune response: - produced by T cells
- involves the secretion of antibodies - this defensive system results from the
by B cell into the blood and lymph, - action of defensive cells rather than the
the humoral defense defends primary  defensive proteins of the humoral
against bacteria and viruses present response
in body fluids  -certain T cells attack body cells that
 - this defense can be passively are infected with bacteria or viruses,
transferred by injecting blood others
plasma (containing antibodies)  function indirectly by promoting
from an immune individual into a phagocytosis by other blood cells and
non immune individual by
 stimulating B cells to produce
antibodies
The Results of Ag-Ab Binding

Figure 17.7
Agglutination

Figure 17.7
Opsonization

Figure 17.7
Complement Fixation

Figure 17.7
Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Immunity

Figure 17.7
Neutralization

ANIMATION Humoral Immunity: Antibody Function

Figure 17.7