Module 4 - Power Series - Week 12 - 14

Module 4: Power Series
Taylor Series
Maclaurin Series
Radius of Convergence
Manipulation of Power Series
Week : 12-14
RMIT Classification: Trusted
Power Series
• A power series in 𝑥𝑥 - an infinite series containing non-negative
integral powers of a variable 𝑥𝑥,
𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ = ∑∞ 𝑐𝑐

𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
• c𝑛𝑛 are constants

• The more general form, power series in 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎:
𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑∞

𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)
𝑛𝑛
• These two series converge to 𝑐𝑐0 when 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 =

𝑎𝑎, respectively.
• For example 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 is a power
𝑛𝑛
series in 𝑥𝑥.
RMIT University©2017 2
Taylor Series
• For a power series representing a function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 on 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 <
𝑟𝑟,
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯
= ∑∞ 𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 ,
𝑛𝑛
there is a relationship between the coefficients 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 and the

derivatives of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 .
That is,
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐1 + 2𝑐𝑐2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑐𝑐3 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + 4𝑐𝑐4 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 3 +⋯ ,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑐2 + 3 � 2𝑐𝑐3(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) + 4 � 3𝑐𝑐4(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)2 + ⋯ ,
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥 = 3 � 2 � 1𝑐𝑐3 + 4 � 3 � 2𝑐𝑐4(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) + ⋯ ,

and so on.
• Evaluating the above series at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 gives
𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 𝑎𝑎 = 1 � 𝑐𝑐1,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 = 2 � 1 � 𝑐𝑐2 = 2! 𝑐𝑐2,
𝑓𝑓′′′ 𝑎𝑎 = 3 � 2 � 1 � 𝑐𝑐3 = 3! 𝑐𝑐3,
respectively.
𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎
In general, 𝑓𝑓
𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑛𝑛! 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛, or 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 = for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 for 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑟𝑟.
𝑛𝑛!
• This series is called the Taylor series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎
• Named in honour of the English mathematician Brook

Taylor (1685-1731), who published this result in 1715).
Maclaurin Series
• A special case of a Taylor series when 𝑎𝑎 = 0, is called the
Maclaurin series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 :
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 0 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +⋯.
2! 3!
∞ (𝑛𝑛)
𝑓𝑓 (0) 𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=0
• Named after the Scottish mathematician, and former

student of Sir Isaac Newton, Colin Maclaurin (1698-1746)).
Example 1: Find the Taylor series expansion for ln(𝑥𝑥) about

𝑥𝑥 = 1.
Solution: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 1 = 0,
1
𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = 1,
𝑥𝑥
−1
𝑓𝑓 ′′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = −1,
𝑥𝑥
2
2!
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3 and so on, ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = 2!, and so on,
𝑥𝑥
Thus, the Taylor series for In𝑥𝑥 ∶
𝑓𝑓𝑓(1) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(1) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(1)
In𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 3 +⋯
1! 2! 3!
1 −1 2
=0 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 3 +⋯
1! 2! 3!
1 1
= 𝑥𝑥 − 1 − 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 3 +⋯
2 3
𝜋𝜋
Example 2: Find the Taylor series for sin 𝑥𝑥 about 𝑥𝑥= or in
4
𝜋𝜋
power of 𝑥𝑥 − 4 .
𝜋𝜋 1
Solution: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 =
4 2
𝜋𝜋 1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ =
4 2
𝜋𝜋 1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =−
4 2
𝜋𝜋 1
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥 = − cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =−
4 2
𝜋𝜋 2 1 𝜋𝜋 3
1 1 𝜋𝜋 1 𝑥𝑥− 4 𝑥𝑥− 4
∴ sin 𝑥𝑥 = + 𝑥𝑥 − − − 2
+⋯ .
2 2 4 2 2! 3!
Example 3 Find the Taylor series for 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 about 𝑥𝑥 = 2
or in power of 𝑥𝑥 − 2 .
Solution 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 2 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2

1 1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 2 =
𝑥𝑥 2
1 1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 = −
𝑥𝑥2 4
2 1
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 =
𝑥𝑥3 4
2 3
1 1 𝑥𝑥−2 1 𝑥𝑥−2
∴ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 2 − + +⋯ .
2 4 2! 4 3!
Example 4: Find the Maclaurin series for cos 𝑥𝑥 .
Solution:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 0 = 1,
𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 0,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = − cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = −1,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥, and so on, ⇒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 0, and so on.
Hence Maclaurin series for cos 𝑥𝑥 :

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 0 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +⋯ .
2! 3!
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

∴ cos 𝑥𝑥 = 1 − + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!
Example 5: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 .

Solution:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 0 = 1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 0 = 1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and so on, ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 1, and so on,
Hence Maclaurin series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 :

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 0 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +⋯ .
2! 3!
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
∴ 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
Example 6: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑥𝑥) .

Solution:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑥𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 0 = 0
1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 0 = 1
1+𝑥𝑥
−1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = − 1
(1+𝑥𝑥)2
2
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 2
(1+𝑥𝑥)3
−6
𝑓𝑓𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 0 = −6
1+𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥2 2𝑥𝑥3 6𝑥𝑥4

∴ 𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑛 1 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯
2! 3! 4!
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥5
= 𝑥𝑥 − + − + ⋯
2 3 4 5
Note: Some important Maclaurin series:

𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + +⋯ = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛! for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 3!
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑥𝑥 6 ∞ −1 𝑛𝑛 2𝑛𝑛
cos 𝑥𝑥 = 1 − + − +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 4! 6! (2𝑛𝑛)!
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 7 ∞ −1 𝑛𝑛
sin 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛+1 for all 𝑥𝑥,
3! 5! 7! (2𝑛𝑛+1)!
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑥𝑥 6 ∞ 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛
cosh 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + + + +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 4! 6! (2𝑛𝑛)!
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 7 ∞ 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛+1
sinh 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + + + +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 for all 𝑥𝑥,
3! 5! 7! (2𝑛𝑛+1)!
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 4 ∞ (−1)𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯= ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 , for 𝑥𝑥 <1.
2! 3! 4! (𝑛𝑛+1)!
Radius of Convergence
• Interval of convergence - the set of all real numbers 𝑥𝑥 for which a power
series converges.
• A power series in 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 may converge:
• on a finite interval centered at 𝑎𝑎:
𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 , 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 , 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 or 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 ;
• on the infinite interval −∞, ∞ ; or
• at the single point 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎.
In the respective cases, we say that the radius of convergence is
𝑟𝑟, ∞ or 0. For example, for the case 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 :
∞ 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
Example 1: Find the radius of convergence for ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛 .
2
2 𝑛𝑛+1
Solution:
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 2𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + 1 2

lim = lim 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛𝑛 + 2 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
1 2 1 2
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 2
𝑥𝑥 1+𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 1+𝑛𝑛
= lim 2 = ∙ lim 2 = ∙ lim 2
𝑛𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛𝑛+2 2 𝑛𝑛→∞ 1+ 2 𝑛𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
=1
𝑥𝑥
=
2
∙<1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 < 2
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 2
𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥
Example 2: Find the radius of convergence for ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛! .
Solution:
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛!
lim = lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛 + 1 ! 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
�
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑛𝑛! 𝑥𝑥 1
= lim = lim = 𝑥𝑥 � lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛!𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1
=0
= 0 < 1, ∀𝑥𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = ∞
RMIT Classification: Trusted 𝑛𝑛
(𝑥𝑥−5)
Example 3: Find the radius of convergence for ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 .
Solution:
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 (𝑥𝑥 − 5)𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛. 3𝑛𝑛
= lim
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ (𝑛𝑛 + 1)3𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 − 5 𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥−5 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥−5 𝑛𝑛
= lim = ∙ lim 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛𝑛+1 3 𝑛𝑛→∞
𝑥𝑥−5 1
=
3
∙ lim 1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 1+𝑛𝑛
=1
𝑥𝑥−5
=
3
𝑥𝑥−5
= <1
3
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 5 < 3
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 3
Example 4: Find
𝑛𝑛
the radius of convergence of
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥
∑(−1) .
𝑛𝑛
Solution:
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛
lim = lim 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1
= lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛
= 𝑥𝑥 lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1
n
= 𝑥𝑥 < 1. (since lim =1)
n→∞ n+1
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 1
𝑛𝑛! 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
Example 5: Find the radius of convergence of ∑ .
2𝑛𝑛 !
Solution:
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛 + 1 ! 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 1 2𝑛𝑛 !
lim = lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 2𝑛𝑛 + 2 ! 𝑛𝑛! 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛!𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛 !
= lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 2𝑛𝑛+2 2𝑛𝑛+1 2𝑛𝑛 !𝑛𝑛!𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛+1
= 𝑥𝑥 lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ (2𝑛𝑛+2)(2𝑛𝑛+1)
= 𝑥𝑥 × 0=0
= 𝑥𝑥 < 1, ∀𝑥𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = ∞
Manipulation of Power Series

1. Addition and Subtraction of Power Series
• Power series can be added or subtracted, term-by-term for
those values of 𝑥𝑥 for which both series converge.
• Suppose:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =∑∞ 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥+ 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 <𝑟𝑟1,
2
and
𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 =∑∞ 𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 =𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥+ 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 <𝑟𝑟
0 1 2 𝑛𝑛 2,
• 𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑟𝑟2 are the corresponding radius of convergence, then

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 ± ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 (𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 ± 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 )𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛
= (𝑐𝑐0 +𝑑𝑑0) ± (𝑐𝑐1+𝑑𝑑1)𝑥𝑥 ± (𝑐𝑐2+𝑑𝑑2) 𝑥𝑥2 ± ⋯ ±(𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛) 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 ± ⋯

for 𝑥𝑥 < min(𝑟𝑟1, 𝑟𝑟2).
Example 1: Find a power series representation for cosh 𝜃𝜃.

Hence, obtain estimate for cosh (1/2).
Solution:
• Using the relation:
cosh 𝜃𝜃 = 1/2(𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 ), and the series expansion for
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 =1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 3! 4!
we have:
1 𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃3 𝜃𝜃4 𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃3 𝜃𝜃4
cosh 𝜃𝜃 = �1 + 𝜃𝜃 + + + + ⋯ + �1 − 𝜃𝜃 + − + +
2 2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 4!
𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃4 𝜃𝜃6
⋯ �� =1 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝜃𝜃
2! 4! 6!
2 4 6
1⁄2 1⁄2 1⁄2
For θ = 1/2: cosh 1⁄2 = 1 + + + +⋯
2! 4! 6!
≈ 1.1276.
2. Composition of Power Series
Suppose:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1.
The power series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 can be obtained from:

𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑛𝑛
= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐3 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 3 +⋯+

𝑛𝑛
𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1.
and follow by substituting the power series expansion for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
into this expression.
Example 2: Using the standard series from the Concise Collection of
2
Formulae, determine the first few terms of the power series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2.
Solution:
Using the power series expansion for 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 :
𝑛𝑛
𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛!
𝑡𝑡2 𝑡𝑡3 𝑡𝑡4
= 1 + 𝑡𝑡 + + + + ⋯for all 𝑡𝑡,
2! 3! 4!
1
We have upon substituting 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 2 ,
2
1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 4
1 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2⁄2 =1+ 𝑥𝑥 + 2
+ 2
+ 2
+⋯
2 2! 3! 4!
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6 𝑥𝑥8 1

=1+ + + + +⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 2 < 1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 < 2.
2 8 48 384 2
3. Multiplication of Power Series

Suppose
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n
= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1,
and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n
= 𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟2,

then
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 x 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ )(𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ )
= 𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑0 + (𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑0 )𝑥𝑥 + (𝑐𝑐2𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑2)𝑥𝑥2
+ (𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑3 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑2 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑑𝑑0)𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯for 𝑥𝑥 < min(𝑟𝑟1, 𝑟𝑟2).
Example 3: Using the standard series from Concise Collection of

Formulae, determine the first few terms of the power series for
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥.
Solution:
• Using the power series expansions for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and cos 𝑥𝑥, we
have:
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

𝑒𝑒 cos 𝑥𝑥 = (1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + + + ⋯)(1 − + − + ⋯)
2! 3! 4! 2! 4! 6!
2 1 1 1 1
= 1 + 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − + + 𝑥𝑥3 − + +⋯
2 2 2 6
𝑥𝑥3
= 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥.
3
• The series expansion for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 is valid for all 𝑥𝑥, since both
the series expansions for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 are valid for all 𝑥𝑥.
4. Division of Power Series

Suppose
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n
= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1,
and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n
= 𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟2,

then the quotient,
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐0+𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥+ 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 +⋯+𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n+⋯
=
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑0+𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥+ 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3+⋯+ 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n+⋯
= 𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞n + ⋯
provided 𝑐𝑐0 ≠ 0 and 𝑑𝑑0 ≠ 0. The coefficients (𝑞𝑞0,𝑞𝑞1, 𝑞𝑞2, 𝑞𝑞3,𝑞𝑞4 …)
may be obtained by the procedure of long division,
or by writing:
𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯
= (𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ )
× (𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ ),
and expanding the right-hand-side and equating coefficients of

like terms.
• Note that the resulting power series may not converge for
𝑥𝑥 < min(𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 ) as there is an added complication, and
problems may occur whenever the denominator is zero.
Example 4: Using the standard series from the Concise
Collection Formulae, determine the first few terms of the power
1
series for tanh 𝑥𝑥. Hence, evaluate ∫0 tanh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥.
Solution:
Using the power series expansions for sinh 𝑥𝑥 and cosh 𝑥𝑥, we
have:
sinh 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥,
3! 5! 7!

cosh 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 4! 6!
sinh 𝑥𝑥
⟹tanh 𝑥𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥𝑥
3 5 7
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 + 3! + 5! + 7! +⋯
= 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6
1+ 2! + 4! + 6! +⋯
= 𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯.

This requires:
𝑥𝑥 + + + +⋯
6 120 5040

= (𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯) × (1 + + + + ⋯)
2 24 720
1 1 1 1
𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞2 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞3 𝑥𝑥3 + 𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞2 + 𝑞𝑞3 𝑥𝑥4
2 0 2 1 24 2
1 1 1 1 1
+ 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞3 + 𝑞𝑞5 𝑥𝑥5 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞4 + 𝑞𝑞6 𝑥𝑥6
24 1 2 720 0 24 2 2
1 1 1
+ 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞5 + 𝑞𝑞7 𝑥𝑥7 + ⋯
720 1 24 3 2
Equating the coefficients of x we have

𝑞𝑞0 = 0
𝑞𝑞1 = 1
𝑞𝑞0
𝑞𝑞2 = − =0
2
1 𝑞𝑞1 1
𝑞𝑞3 = − =−
6 2 3
𝑞𝑞0 𝑞𝑞2
𝑞𝑞4 = − − =0
24 2
2 17
Similarly, 𝑞𝑞5 = , 𝑞𝑞6 = 0, 𝑞𝑞7 = − , …..
15 315

∴ tanh 𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥 − + − + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥.
3 15 315
29
1 1
∴ � tanh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑥𝑥 − + − + ⋯ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0 3 15 315
8 𝑥𝑥 = 1
𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥5 17𝑥𝑥
= � − + 𝑥𝑥6 − �
3 12 45 2520 𝑥𝑥 = 0
121
= ≈ 0.4321.
280
𝑥𝑥
Exact Answer:
1 1 sinh 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 1
∫0 tanh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =[ln cosh 𝑥𝑥 ]
cosh 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 0
= ln(cosh 1) − 1𝑛𝑛(1)
≈ 0.4338.
Example 5:
31
−𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3

Solution (a) 𝑒𝑒 = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 + − + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + )= − + + ⋯
2 2 8 24
−𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
∴ 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ) = (1 − 𝑥𝑥 + − + ⋯)( − + + ⋯)
2 2! 3! 2 8 24
𝑥𝑥 1 1 1 1 1
= + (− − ) 𝑥𝑥2 +( + + )𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯
2 8 2 24 8 4
𝑥𝑥 5 5
= − 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯
2 8 12
−𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
(b) 𝑒𝑒 : r1 = ∞ (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑒 , 𝑟𝑟 = ∞)
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ): 𝑡𝑡 < 1, < 1 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 < 2
2 2
∴ r2 = 2
𝑥𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑅 of 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ) = min 𝑟𝑟1, 𝑟𝑟2 = 2
2
1 −𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥 5 5
(c) ∫0 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 (2 − 2
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥3 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 8 12
1
𝑥𝑥2 5𝑥𝑥3 5𝑥𝑥4 1 5 5 7
= − + = − + =
4 24 48 0 4 24 48 48
1 −13 4
(d) Upper bound for the error ≤ ∫0 64 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
13𝑥𝑥5
𝑥𝑥
=
64 x 5 0
= 0.04
(e) No, because the upper limit of integration (i.e. 3) is
outside the convergence interval as 𝑅𝑅 = 2.

Module 4 - Power Series - Week 12 - 14

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 4 - Power Series - Week 12 - 14

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 4 - Power Series - Week 12 - 14

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 4: Power Series

𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ = ∑∞ 𝑐𝑐

• c𝑛𝑛 are constants

𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑∞

• These two series converge to 𝑐𝑐0 when 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 =

there is a relationship between the coefficients 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 and the

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑐2 + 3 � 2𝑐𝑐3(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) + 4 � 3𝑐𝑐4(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)2 + ⋯ ,

𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥 = 3 � 2 � 1𝑐𝑐3 + 4 � 3 � 2𝑐𝑐4(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) + ⋯ ,

• This series is called the Taylor series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎

• Named in honour of the English mathematician Brook

• Named after the Scottish mathematician, and former

Example 1: Find the Taylor series expansion for ln(𝑥𝑥) about

Solution 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 2 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2

Hence Maclaurin series for cos 𝑥𝑥 :

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

Example 5: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 .

Hence Maclaurin series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 :

Example 6: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑥𝑥) .

𝑥𝑥2 2𝑥𝑥3 6𝑥𝑥4

Note: Some important Maclaurin series:

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 2𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + 1 2

Manipulation of Power Series

• 𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑟𝑟2 are the corresponding radius of convergence, then

= (𝑐𝑐0 +𝑑𝑑0) ± (𝑐𝑐1+𝑑𝑑1)𝑥𝑥 ± (𝑐𝑐2+𝑑𝑑2) 𝑥𝑥2 ± ⋯ ±(𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛) 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 ± ⋯

Example 1: Find a power series representation for cosh 𝜃𝜃.

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1.

The power series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 can be obtained from:

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐3 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 3 +⋯+

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6 𝑥𝑥8 1

3. Multiplication of Power Series

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1,

= 𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟2,

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 x 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ )(𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ )

= 𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑0 + (𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑0 )𝑥𝑥 + (𝑐𝑐2𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑2)𝑥𝑥2

+ (𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑3 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑2 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑑𝑑0)𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯for 𝑥𝑥 < min(𝑟𝑟1, 𝑟𝑟2).

Example 3: Using the standard series from Concise Collection of

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

4. Division of Power Series

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1,

= 𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟2,

𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯

= (𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ )

× (𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ ),

and expanding the right-hand-side and equating coefficients of

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

= 𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯.

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

Equating the coefficients of x we have

𝑥𝑥3 2𝑥𝑥5 17𝑥𝑥7

−𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3

You might also like