Chapter Four

Introduction to calculus
Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• become familiar with the concept of limits.
• explain the intuitive meaning of limit of a function.
• evaluate limits of a function at given points.
• identify and evaluate one-sided limits.
• have an understanding of the basic limit theorems.
• acquire basic knowledge on infinite limits and limits at infinity to find asymptotes.
• get acquainted with the concept of continuity of a function.
• apply the intermediate value theorem to locate roots of equations.
• become familiar with the derivative of a function.
• find the slope and equation of a tangent line to a curve.
• get basic knowledge on the techniques of differentiation.
• evaluate the derivative of polynomial, rational and composite functions.
• find the derivatives of the exponential and logarithmic functions.
• develop an appreciation of higher derivatives of functions.
• apply the concepts of the derivative to find rates of change of variable quantities.
• evaluate maximum and minimum values of functions.
• use the concepts of the derivative to sketch the graph of a function.
• get acquainted with related rate problems.
• define an anti-derivative of a continuous function.
• find indefinite integrals of some elementary functions.
• evaluate the integrals of functions using the techniques of substitution, integration by parts
and integration by partial fractions.
• solve integrals involving trigonometric functions.
• find the definite integral of continuous functions.
• apply the concepts of definite integrals to find areas of regions bounded by continuous
functions.

157
4.1. Limits and continuity
At the end of this section you should be able to
• become familiar with the concept of limits.
• explain the intuitive meaning of limit of a function.
• evaluate limits of elementary functions at given points.
• identify right-hand limit from left-hand limit.
• evaluate one-sided limits.
• become aware of the relationship between one-sided limits and the existence of limit of a
function.
• find limit of a function in terms of its one-sided limits.
• describe the basic limit theorems.
• find limits of functions given in terms of combinations of function.
• evaluate limit of powers of functions.
• evaluate the limit of composite functions.
• apply the squeeze theorem to evaluate limits.
• gain an understanding of the relationship between infinite limits and vertical asymptotes.
• describe horizontal asymptotes in terms of limits at infinity.
• see the relationship between infinite limits at infinity and oblique asymptotes.
• give the definition of continuous function.
• identify the difference between continuous and discontinuous functions.
• state the theorems on continuity.

In this section we study the concepts of limits and continuity of functions. The concept of limit is
fundamental to our main subjects of the branch of mathematics called differential and integral
calculus. When we ask about the limit of a function at a point c, we are to ask about tendencies of
the values of f(x) as x gets arbitrarily closer and closer to c.

Consider the function f(x) = 2x and find values of f for values of x close to 3 (but not necessarily
equal to 3).

• values of x to the left of 3 x 2 2.5 2.9 2.99 2.999 …

f(x) 4 5 5.8 5.98 5.998 …

• values of x to the right of 3 x 4 3.5 3.1 3.01 3.001 …

f(x) 8 7 6.2 6.02 6.002 …

158
As you can see from the above two tables, the values of f(x) = 2x tend to approach to 6 as x gets
closer and closer to 3 from both sides of 3.
Intuitively, we say “6 is the limit of f(x) = 2x as x approaches 3” and we write
lim(2 x) = 6.
x→3

In general, if for a given real number c, the values of a function f(x) approaches a number L as x
gets close to c, we write
lim f ( x ) = L
x→ c

We may sometimes write this as f(x) → L as x → c.

Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number. When one ask for the behavior (approximate
value) of f(x) for x near c, normally one is not interested about the value f(c). Instead, one is
asking about values of f at x ∈ (c - δ , c + δ ) for x ≠ c, with δ > 0 (δ - delta). We call the
interval (c - δ , c + δ ) a neighborhood of c. When we exclude c from the neighborhood, we
obtain a union of two disjoint intervals.
i.e., (c - δ , c) ∪ (c, c + δ ).
Such a set is called a deleted neighborhood of c. For δ > 0, the interval (c - δ , c) may be called
a left neighborhood of c while (c, c + δ ) a right neighborhood of c. Thus when we talk of f near
c, we are interested in the function values only in a deleted neighborhood of c.

Therefore, when our interest is to know limit of f at c, we are mainly curious to know about the
tendencies of f(x) for x in a deleted neighborhood of c.

Figure 4.1: Deleted neighborhood of c

Similarly, if x gets close to 2, the function f(x) = x + 3 gets close to 5, so that lim( x + 3) = 5
x→2

and if x gets close to 1, f(x) = x – 3 approaches –2, so that lim( x − 3) = −2 .

2 2
x →1

You can also see that

1 1
lim( x 3 + 1) = 9 , lim x + 1 = 3, and lim =−
x→2 x →8 x →1 x−5 4

In the above examples we were able to find the limits without much difficulty. However, finding
certain limits are not so immediate. For example consider
x2 − 4
lim
x→2 x−2

159
Here both x2 – 4 and x – 2 approach to 0 as x approaches to 2, and 0 0 is not determined. But note
that
x2 − 4 ( x − 2)( x + 2)
= = x + 2, for x ≠ 2.
x−2 x−2
x2 − 4
Thus, for x close to 2 (but not necessarily equal to 2), the behavior of is similar to that of x
x−2
+ 2 and it seems reasonable to conclude that
x2 − 4
lim = lim( x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2

In the same manner, we have

( x + 2) 2 − 4 x 2 + 4x + 4 − 4 x( x + 4)
lim = lim = lim = lim( x + 4) = 4 , (for x ≠ 0)
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0

x −1 x −1 x +1 x −1 1 1 1
= , (for x ≠ 1)
lim
x →1 x −1
= lim
x →1 x − 1
,
x +1
= lim
x →1 (
( x − 1) x + 1 ) = lim
x →1
x +1
=
x +1 2

Even though standard textbooks of calculus give the formal (analytic) definition of limit of a
function using the notion of neighborhoods, we shall give here a working definition in terms of
what we call one-sided limits.

Definition 4.1:
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number.

1. A real number L is called the left-hand limit of f at c, written as lim f ( x ) = L

x →c −

if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the left side of c, the
corresponding values of f approach to L.
2. A real number R is called the right-hand limit of f at c, written as lim+ f ( x ) = R
x →c

if and only if for all values of x sufficiently close to c from the right side of c, the
corresponding values of f approach to R.

Note that, if the set (c - δ , c) ∪ (c, c + δ ) is a deleted neighborhood of c, then for left-hand limit
we take x∈(c – δ, c), i.e. x < c, and for right-hand limit we take x ∈(c, c + δ), i.e. x > c (but not
necessarily x = c).
 x 2 , for x < 1
Example 4.1: Let f(x) =  Then lim− f ( x) = lim− x 2 = 1, while lim+ f ( x) = lim+ 2 x = 2
2 x, for x >1 x →1 x →1 x →1 x →1

160
 x − 1, for x < 0
Example 4.2: Let f(x) = =  y
x 1, for x > 0

lim f ( x) = lim− (−1) = –1 x

x →0 − x →1

and lim+ f ( x) = 1 –1 Figure 4.1

x →0

2 x + 1, for x < 0
Example 4.3 : Let f(x) =  2 y = x2+1
 x + 1. for x > 0

The lim− f ( x) = lim+ (2x + 1) = 1 x

x →0 − x →0

and lim+ f(x) = lim+ (x2 + 1) = 1 y = 2x + 1 Figure 4.2

x →0 x →0

Note that in this example lim− f ( x) = lim+ f(x)

x →0 x →0

Definition 4.2:
Suppose ƒ is function and c is a fixed real number. A real number L is called the limit of f at c if
and only if the left-and right-hand limits exist and are both equal to L;
i.e. lim f ( x ) = L if and only if lim− f ( x ) = L = lim+ f ( x )
x→ c x →c x →c

Thus for lim f ( x ) to exist, the following conditions must be satisfied:

x→ c

i) lim− f ( x ) must exist

x →c

ii) lim+ f ( x ) must exist

x →c

iii) lim− f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x )

x →c x →c

Otherwise, we say lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x→ c

2 x + 1, for x < 0
Thus in Example 4.3, where f(x) =  2
 x + 1, for x > 0
we have seen above that lim− f ( x) = 1 = lim+ f ( x) Thus, lim f ( x) = 1.
x →0 x →0 x→0

Example 4.4: Let f(x) = 2 x

for x ∈ ℜ. Then
x
lim f ( x) = lim− 2 = 21 = 2 and lim f ( x) = lim+ 2 x = 21 = 2
x →1− x →1 x →1+ x →1
x x x
Since lim− 2 = lim+ 2 = 2, we have lim 2 = 2
x →0 x →1 x →1

161
In fact, if a > 0, a ≠ 1, then lim a x = ac, for any c∈R
x →c

Similarly, you can show that lim log ax = log ax = log ca , for c > 0 and lim sin x = sin c, ∀c.
x →c x →c

 x , for x ≤ 1 2
Example 4.5: Let f(x) = 
3, for x > 1
Then lim− f ( x) = lim− x 2 = 1 while lim+ f ( x) = lim+ 3 = 3. Since 1 ≠ 3, lim f ( x) does not exist.
x →1 x →1 x →1 x →1 x→1

Example 4.6: Let f(x) = x , for x ≥ 0. Then lim+ f ( x) = 0. But since f(x) = x is not defined
x →0

to the left of 0, lim− x does not exist. Hence lim x does not exist.
x →0 x →0

Remark: If a function f has a limit as x approaches a number c, then the limit is unique; i.e.
if lim f ( x ) = L1 and lim f ( x ) = L2, then L1 = L2.
x→ c x→ c

• Basic Limit Theorems

Theorem 4.1: Suppose lim f(x) = L, lim g(x) = M and k is a constant.

x→ c x→ c

Then i) lim kf(x) = k lim f(x) = KL … Constant Rule

x→ c x→ c

ii) lim (f + g)(x) = lim f(x) + lim g(x) = L + M … Addition Rule

x→ c x→ c x→ c

iii) lim (f – g)(x) = lim f(x) - lim g(x) = L – M … Difference Rule

x→ c x→ c x→ c

Example 4.7: lim 5sin x = 5 lim sin x = 5(1) = 5

x →π 2 x →π 2

Example 4.8: Let f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x – 1. Then

lim (f + g)(x) = lim f(x) + lim g(x) = lim (2x) + lim (5x – 1) = 2(1) + 5(1) – 1 = 2 + 5 – 1 = 6
x →1 x →1 x →1 x →1 x →1

lim (f – g)(x) = lim f(x) – lim g(x) = lim (2x) – lim (5x – 1) = 2(3) – [5(3) – 1] = 6 –14 = –8
x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3

Theorem 4.2: Assume that lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M.

( )( )
x→ c x→ c

Then lim (fg)(x) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) = L.M … Product Rule

x→ c x→ c x→ c

Example 4.9: lim x cos x = lim x. lim cos x = π. cos π = π(-1) = -π.
x →π x →π x →π

It follows from Theorem 4.2 that lim x2 = lim x.x= lim x. lim x = c.c = c2
x→ c x→ c x→ c x→ c

162
In general, if n is a positive integer, lim x n = c n .
x →c

Thus, if P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 is any polynomial function of degree n and c
is any real number, then from Theorems 4.1 and 4.2, we get
lim P(x) = lim ( anxn + an-1 xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0)
x→ c x→ c

= lim anxn + lim an-1xn-1 +…+ lim a2x2 + lim a1x + lim a0
x→ c x→ c x→ c x→ c x→ c
n n-1 2
= an lim x + an-1 lim x + …+ a2 lim x + a1 lim x + a0
x→ c x→ c x→ c x→ c
n n-1 2
= anc + an-1c + …+ a2c + a1c + a0 = P(c)
Example 4.10: Let P(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1. Then
lim P(x) = lim (2x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 1) = 2(–1)3 + 4(–1)2 – 3(–1) + 1 = –2 + 4 + 3 + 1 = 6
x → −1 x → −1

Theorem 4.3: Assume that lim f(x) = L, lim g(x) = M and suppose M ≠ 0
x→ c x→ c

f lim f ( x) L
Then lim   (x) = x →c = … Quotient Rule
x→ c
g lim g ( x)
x →c
M

log x lim log x 1

Example 4.11: lim = x →10 = .
x →10 x lim x 10
x →10

p( x) p( x) lim p ( x ) p (c )
If f(x) = is a rational function, then lim f(x) = lim = x →c = = f(c) if
q( x) x→ c x→ c q ( x ) lim q( x ) q (c )
x →c

f (c) ≠ 0 .

x3 − 4x + 1 lim ( x 3 − 4 x + 1) (−2) 3 − 4(−2) + 1 − 8 + 8 +1 1

x → −2
Example 4.12: lim = = = = .
x → −2 4 x + x − 6
2
lim (4 x + x − 6) 4(−2) + (−2) − 6 16 − 2 − 6
2 2
8
x → −2

Theorem 4.4: Suppose lim f(x) = L, L ≠ 0 and a∈R such that La∈R
x→ c

Then, lim (f(x))a = La …………... Power Rule

x→ c

1
  2 1
Example 4.13: lim sin x = lim (sin x ) =  lim (sin x )
1
2 = 1 2 = 1 = 1.
π
x→
π
2
x→
2
 x →π2 

Example 4.14: lim 3 ( x 2 + 2 x + 3) 2 = lim x 2 + 2 x + 3

x→4 x→4
( )
2
3
= (16 + 4 + 3)
2
3 = (27 )
2
3 = 32 = 9

163
Theorem 4.5 (The Squeezing Theorem). Suppose f, g and h are functions such that f(x) ≤ h(x)
≤ g(x) for all x in some deleted neighborhood of c. If lim f(x) = L = lim g(x), then lim h(x) = L.
x→ c x→ c x→ c

1
Example 4.14: Evaluate lim x2sin
x →0 x

1 1
Solution: It may be tempting to consider x2 sin as the product of x2 and sin and then use the
x x
1
Product Rule. Unfortunately it can be shown that lim sin does not exist. Thus we cannot use
x →0 x
the Product Rule to evaluate the given limit. However since the sine function has range [–1, 1], it
1
follows that –1 ≤ sin ≤ 1, for x ≠ 0. Multiplying both sides by x2, we get
x

1
–x2 ≤ x2sin ≤ x2 with lim (–x2) = 0 = lim x2
x x →0 x →0

1
Thus, by the Squeeze Theorem, we get lim x2 sin = 0.
x →0 x
Remark: One of the most important applications of the Squeezing Theorem is evaluating
sin x
lim . We cannot apply the Quotient Rule to evaluate this limit since the limit of the
x →0 x
denominator is 0. But using some geometric constructions and the Squeeze Theorem it can be
shown that

sin x
lim =1
x →0 x

Remark: The above result has important consequences especially in the evaluation of some
limits involving trigonometric functions.

sin 5 x
Example 4.15: Find lim
x →0 x
sin 5 x 5 sin 5 x sin 5 x
Solution: lim = lim = 5 lim
x →0 x x → 0 5x x → 0 5x
sin 5 x sin y
If we put y = 5x, we have as x → 0, 5x → 0 so that y → 0. Thus lim = 5 lim = 5.
x →0 x y → 0 y
sin ax
In general, for any a∈ ℜ , lim = a.
x →0 x
tan x
Example 4.16: Find lim
x →0 x

164
 tan x  sin x 1   sin x   1  1
Solution: lim = lim  .  = lim   ⋅ lim  = 1. = 1.
x
x →0 x → 0
 cos x x  x → 0
 x  x →0  cos x  1
cos x − 1
Example 4.17: Evaluate lim
x →0 x
Solution: By multiplying both numerator and denominator by cos x + 1 we get
cos x − 1  cos x − 1  cos x + 1  cos 2 x − 1
lim = lim    = lim
x →0 x (cos x + 1)
x →0 x x →0
 x  cos x + 1 
− sin 2 x
= lim (since sin2x + cos2x = 1)
x →0 x(cos x + 1)
 sin x  − sin x  sin x − sin x 0
= lim    = lim . lim = 1. = 1.0 = 0.
x →0
 x  cos x + 1  x → 0 x x → 0 cos x + 1 1

• Infinite Limits, Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes

When lim+ f(x) does not exist, it may happen that as x approaches c from right, the value of f(x)
x →c

becomes indefinitely large or becomes negative and indefinitely large in absolute value. The
value of f(x) may behave similarly when the left-hand limit at c does not exist. We shall use the
symbols ∞ (infinity) and - ∞ to express these cases, respectively.
1
To explain these concepts consider the function f(x) = , for x ≠ 0
x
As x gets close to 0 from right, the values of
1
f(x) = become arbitrarily large positive.
x
1
In this case we write lim+ =∞
x →0 x

and when x gets close to 0 from left,

1
the values of f(x) = become arbitrarily small negative.
x
1
In this case we write lim− = -∞. See Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3
x →0 x

Definition 4.3:
Let f be a function defined in a deleted neighborhood of c.
i) We say that the left-hand limit of f(x) at c is infinity, and write lim− f(x) = ∞
x →c

if for every real number M, we have f(x) > M for every x close to c from the left side of
ii) We say that the right-hand limit of f(x) at c is infinity, and write lim+ f(x) = ∞
x →c

if for every real number M, we have f(x) > M for every x close to c from the right side if c.
165
iii) We say that the limit of f(x) at c is infinity and write lim f(x) = ∞
x→ c

if and only if lim f(x) = ∞ and lim+ f(x) = ∞

x →c − x →c

Definition 4.4:
Let f be a function defined in a deleted neighborhood of c.
i) We say that the left-hand limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity, and write lim− f(x) = -∞
x →c

if for every real number M, we have f(x) < M for every x close to c from the left side of c.

ii) We say that the right-hand limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity, and write lim+ f(x) = -∞
x →c

if for every real number M, we have f(x) < M for every x close to c from the right side if c.
iii) We say that the limit of f(x) at c is negative infinity and write lim f(x) = -∞
x→ c

if and only if lim− f(x) = -∞ and lim+ f(x) = -∞

x →c x →c

1 1 1 1
Example 4.18: For f(x) = , for x ≠ 0, lim+ = ∞ and lim = -∞. Hence lim does not
x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x

1 1 1 1
exist. Whereas for f(x) = 2 , x ≠ 0, lim+ 2 = ∞ = lim− 2 . Hence lim 2 = ∞.
x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x

1 1
In general, for any real number c and f(x) = we have lim+ f(x) = lim+ = ∞ and
x−c x →c x →c x − c

1
lim− f(x) = lim− = -∞.
x →c x →c x − c

Definition 4.5:
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number. We say that the line x = c is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of f if and only if either
lim− f(x) = ±∞ or lim+ f(x) = ±∞
x →c x →c

Remark: From the above examples, we can see that the line x = 0 (i.e. the y-axis) is a vertical
1 1
asymptote of the graphs of the functions f(x) = and f(x) = 2 , while the line x = c is a vertical
x x
1
asymptote of the graph of f(x) = .
x−c
x+2
Example 4.19: Find all the vertical asymptotes of f(x) = 2
x −1
Solution: If c is any number different from 1 or -1, then by the Quotient Rule,
x+2 c+2
lim f ( x ) = lim 2 = 2 ∈R
x→ c x→ c x − 1 c −1
Thus any line x = c for c ≠ ± 1 cannot be a vertical asymptote.

166
 x+2  x + 2  1 
For c = 1, lim+ f ( x) = lim+ = lim+   
x →1 x →1 x − 1 x →1  x + 1  x − 1 
2

 x + 2  1  3
= lim+  . lim   = (∞) = ∞
x →1  x + 1  x →1+  x − 1  2
 x + 2 1 
Similarly, for c = -1, lim+ f ( x) = lim+  . 
x →1 x → −1  x − 1   x + 1 

 x + 2  1   1
= lim+  . lim+   =  −  (∞) = -∞
x → −1  x − 1  x →1  x + 1   2
x+2
Hence the lines x = 1 and x = -1 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function f(x) = .
x2 −1
Next, we try to investigate the behavior of a function f as x increases (or decreases) indefinitely,
and try to see if we have lim f(x) or lim f(x). Such limits, if they exist, are in general called
x →∞ x → −∞

limits at infinite.
Definition 4.6:
i) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (c, ∞), for some c∈R. We say that
the limit of f(x) as x approaches to infinity is the number L, and write lim f(x) = L if when
x →∞

x is assigned sufficiently large positive values, the corresponding values of f approach to L.

ii) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (-∞, c) for some c∈R. We say that
the limit of f(x) as x approaches to negative infinity is the number L, and write lim f(x) = L
x → −∞

if when x is assigned sufficiently small negative values, the corresponding values of f

approach to L.

1
Example 4.20: Let f(x) = , for x ≠ 0.
x
1
When x is assigned sufficiently large positive values, the values of f(x) = become close to 0.
x
1
Similarly for values of x sufficiently small negative values, f(x) = becomes close to 0. Hence
x
1 1
lim = 0 and lim = 0. See Figure 4.3 above.
x →∞ x x → −∞ x

1 1 1
Similarly, lim 2 = 0, lim 2 = 0 and in general, lim = 0.
x →∞ x x → −∞ x x →∞ ( x − c ) 2

Definition 4.7:
If for a function f and a real number L, lim f(x) = L or lim f(x) = L, then the line y = L is called
x →∞ x → −∞

a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f.

167
 1
Thus the line y = 0 (i.e. the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote for both the function f(x) = and
x
1
f(x) = . See Figure 4.3 above.
x2
3x 2 − x + 1
Example 4.21: Find a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f(x) =
2x2 + 5
Solution: Since we are interested with the behavior of f for large values of |x|, we divide both
numerator and denominator of f by the leading exponent (i.e.x 2) to get
3x 2 x 1 1 1
− 2+ 2 3− + 2
3x − x + 1
2 2
f(x) = = x 2x x = x x
2x + 5
2
2x 5 5
+ 2 2+ 2
x 2
x x
 1 1
lim  3 − + 2 
3x − x + 1
2
x → ∞
 x x  3−0−0 3
Then lim f(x) = lim = = =
x →∞ x →∞ 2x + 5
2
 5 2+0 2
lim  2 + 2 
x →∞
 x 
3 3
Thus lim f(x) = and the line y = is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f.
x →∞ 2 2
3
Similarly, lim f(x) = .
x → −∞ 2
p( x)
Remark: For a rational function f(x) = , with deg(p)<deg(q), we find a horizontal asymptote
q( x)
by applying the above technique.
As a combination of the above two subsections, it may happen that as the values of |x| increase
without bound, the corresponding values of |f(x)| also increases without bound leading to what are
generally called infinite limits at infinity.

Definition 4.8:
Let f be defined on an interval of the form (c, ∞), for c∈R. We say that the limit of f(x) as
x approaches to infinity is infinity, written lim f(x) = ∞ whenever x is assigned sufficiently
x →∞

large positive values, the corresponding values of f(x) increase without bound.

Remark: Analogous definitions can be given for

lim f(x) = -∞, lim f(x) = ∞ and lim f(x) = -∞.
x →∞ x → −∞ x → −∞

Example 4,22: For f(x) = x , we have lim x3 = ∞

3
and lim x3 = -∞
x →∞ x → −∞

168
 3 2
1− + 4
x 4 − 3x + 2 x 3
x = ∞.
Example 4.23: lim = lim (By dividing by ).
x →∞ 2x2 + 1 x →∞ 2 1
+
x2 x4

Definition 4.9:
If for a function f and for two real numbers a and b lim [f(x) – (ax + b)] = 0, then the line
x → ±∞

y = ax + b is called an oblique (or a skew) asymptote to the graph of f.

p( x)
In general, for a rational function f(x) = , we have
q( x)
i) When degree(p) < degree (q), lim f(x) = 0 and the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of f.
x → ±∞

ii) When degree(p) = degree(q), then f has a horizontal asymptote given by the quotient of
the leading coefficients of p and q.
iii) When degree(p) > degree(q), then lim f(x) = ±∞, and in particularly if
x → ±∞

degree(p) = degree(q)+1, then f has an oblique asymptote obtained as a quotient when we

divide p by q.
4x2 + 5x − 1
Example 4.24: Let f(x) = , find all asymptotes of f.
x+3
4x2 + 5x − 1
Solution: Since lim+ f ( x) = lim+ = ∞, the line x = -3 is a vertical asymptote.
x → −3 x → −3 x+3
4x2 + 5x − 1 20
By the long division method, we get f(x) = = (4x – 7) +
x+3 x+3
20
⇒ lim [f(x) – (4x – 7)] = lim =0
x →∞ x →∞ x + 3

Therefore, the line y = 4x – 7 is an oblique asymptote of f.

• A special Limit in Exponential Function

x
 1
Consider the function f(x) = 1 +  with domain (-∞, -1) ∪ (0, ∞)
 x
The following two tables indicate the behavior of the values of f(x) as x approaches to positive
and negative infinity, respectively,

x 2 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

f (x ) 2.75 2.593743 2.704814 2.716924 2.718146 2.718268

x -2 -10 -100 -1000 -10,000 -100,000

f (x ) 4 2.867972 2.731999 2.719642 2.718418 2.718295

169
 x
 1
As is tried to be indicated from the above tables, the values of 1 +  tend to approach to an
 x
irrational number whose value is 2.7182818…. This number, denoted by e, is called the base of
the natural logarithm, and plays an important role in calculus.
Remark: The natural logarithmic function (with base e) is given by f(x) = log e x and is denoted
by f(x) = nx. Its inverse, the natural exponential function is given by f(x) = exp(x) = e x.
Thus from the above constructions, we have x x
 1  1
lim 1 +  = e = lim 1 +  .
x →∞
 x x → −∞
 x
This limit has important consequences.
x +3 x 3
 1  1  1
Example 4.25: lim 1 +  = lim 1 +  . 1 +  - Rule of exponents
x →∞
 x x →∞
 x  x

x 3
 1  1
= lim 1 +  . lim 1 +  - Product Rule
x →∞
 x x → ∞
 x
3
= e.1 = e
x+a
 1
In general, for any real number a, lim 1 +  = e.
x → ±∞
 x
Example 4.26: Show that lim (1 + t )
1
t =e
t →0

We prove this by showing that lim+ (1 + t ) = e = lim− (1 + t ) t . First use the

1 1
Solution: t
t →0 t →0
x
1 1  1
substitution t = , so that x = and as x → ∞, t → 0+. Hence, lim+ (1 + t ) t = lim 1 +  = e.
1

x t t →0 x →∞
 x
x
 1
Similarly, as x → -∞, t → 0- . Hence, lim− (1 + t )
1
t = lim 1 +  = e
t →0 x → −∞
 x
Therefore, lim+ (1 + t ) = e = lim− (1 + t ) t ⇒ lim (1 + t ) t = e.
1 1 1
t
t →0 t →0 t →0
x
 5
Example 4.27: Evaluate lim 1 − 
x →∞
 x
−5 −5
Solution: Let t = . Then x = and
x t

[ ]
x −5
 5 −5 1
lim 1 −  = lim− (1 + t ) t = lim− (1 + t ) t = lim(1 + t ) t  = e-5 = 5 .
−5 1 1

x →∞
 x t →0 t →0  t → 0  e
x
 a
In general, for any real number a, lim 1 +  = ea.
x → ±∞
 x

170
 • Continuity of a Function

In our everyday usage, the word continuity refers to something that happens without any
interruption. In calculus, the term continuity is used to describe functions whose graphs can be
traced without any break. We shall give its formal definition using the concept of limits.

Definition 4.10:
- Let f be a function and c be a number in the domain of f. f is said to be continuous at c if
lim f ( x ) = f(c)
t →c

- If f fails to be continuous at c, then we say that f is discontinuous (or not continuous) at c.

- f is said to continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain.

Example 4.28: Let f(x) = 2x and c = 1 y

Then lim f ( x) = lim 2x = 2 y = 2x
x→1 x →1

and f(1) = 2(1) = 2. 2

Since lim 2 x = 2 = f(1), f is continuous at 1.
x →1

1 x
In fact f is a continuous function. See Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4
Remark: For a function f to be continuous at c, the following conditions must be satisfied
a. f(c) must be defined
b. lim f(x) must exist
x→ c

c. lim f(x) = f(c)

x→ c

Otherwise if one of the above conditions is not satisfied, then f is discontinuous at c.

3x, for x < 0

Example 4.29: Let f(x) = 2, for x = 0
 x 2 , for x > 0

Then f(0) = 2 so that f(0) is defined . lim− f ( x) = lim− 3 x = 0 2
x →0 x →0

and lim+ f ( x) = lim+ x 2 = 0 . Thus lim f ( x) = 0

x →0 x →0 x→ 0

But since lim f ( x) ≠ f(0) , f is not continuous at 0. . y = 3x

x→ 0

Figure 4.5
Example 4.30: Let f(x) = sinx. Then, lim f ( x) = lim sin x = 1 = sin π 2 = f (π 2 )
x→π x→π
2 2

Hence f(x) = sinx is continuous at π 2 .

171
In fact f(x) = sinx is a continuous function. Similarly, the functions f(x) = cosx, the exponential
function with base a, f(x) = ax, the logarithmic function with base a, f(x) = log a x , the natural
exponential function f(x) = ex and the natural logarithmic function f(x) = nx are all continuous
functions in their respective domains.
Theorem 4.6: Suppose f and g are functions with common domain such that both f and g are
continuous at c. Then
1) f + g is continuous at c.
2) f – g is continuous at c.
3) if k is a scalar, kf is continuous at c.
4) fg is continuous at c.
f
5) if g(c) ≠ 0, is continuous at c.
g

Example 4.31: Let P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 be any polynomial of degree n, and
let c∈R, arbitrary. Then,
lim P(x) = lim (anxn + an-1xn-1 + …+ a2x2 + a1x + a0)= ancn + an-1cn-1 + …+ a2c2 + a1c + a0 = P(c)
x→ c x→ c

Hence, P(x) is continuous at c, and since c was taken arbitrarily, every polynomial function is
continuous.
p ( x)
Example 4.32: Let f(x) = be any rational function. Then if c is any real number such that
q( x)
p( x) lim p ( x) p (c )
q(c) ≠ 0, then lim f(x) = lim = x →c = = f(c)
x→ c x→ c q( x) lim q ( x) q (c )
x →c

Thus any rational function is continuous in its domain.

2 x3 + x − 1
From the above theorem we can see that f(x) = 5x – 4x + 7 is continuous in R, g(x) =
x2 − 4
3 5
is continuous in R\{-2, 2}, h(x) = |x| cos x - 2 is continuous for x ≠ 0 and f(x) = + nx is
x x −1
continuous for x∈(0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

As a generalization of the Power Rule for limits, we have the following theorem

Theorem 4.7 (Substitution Rule): Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that lim f(x) =
( )
x→ c

L and g is continuous at L. Then lim g(f(x)) = g lim f ( x ) = g(L)

x→ c x→ c

Example 4.33: For f(x) = sinx, g(x) = x , and c = π 2 , we have lim f ( x) = 1 and g is
x→π
2

continuous at 1. Thus lim g(f(x)) = lim sin x = 1 = 1.

x→ c x→ c

172
Using Substitution Rule we have continuity of the composite of two functions as given by the
following theorem.

Theorem 4.8: Suppose f and g are functions such that f is continuous at c and g is continuous at
f(c). Then, gof is continuous at c.

Proof: Since f is continuous at c, lim f(x) = f(c). Now lim (gof)(x) = lim g(f(x)) = g lim f ( x ) =
x→ c x→ c x→ c
(
x→ c
)
g(f(c)) = (gof)(c). Therefore, gof is continuous at c.

2
+5
Example 4.34: For f(x) = x2 + 5, g(x) = ex and c = 1, we have (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = e x and
x 2 +5 6 12 + 5 6 x 2 +5
lim (gof)(x) = lim e =e = e = e . Thus, (gof)(x) = e is continuous at 1.
x →1 x →1

• Intermediate Value Theorem

Recall that for a function f continuous on a closed interval [a, b] its graph can be traced between
the points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) without any break or interruption. In this section we shall see an
important application of continuous functions: namely, the Intermediate Value Theorem, and
some of its consequences. y

For a function continuous on [a, b], the f

intermediate value property asserts that if L f(b)
is any number between (intermediate to) f(a ) L
and f(b), then there is at least one number c
between a and b whose image under f is L.
See Figure 4.6. a c b x
f(a) Figure 4.6

Theorem 4.9: (Intermediate Value Theorem)

Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Let L be any number between f(a) and f(b),
(either f(a) ≤ L ≤ f(b), or f(b) ≤ L ≤ f(a). Then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.

Example 4.35: Let f(x) = x2. Then f is continuous on [0, 3] with f(0) = 0 and f(3) = 9. By the
Intermediate Value Theorem f assumes (takes on) every value between 0 and 9. For instance for L
= 4, we have 2 ∈[0, 3] with f(2) = 4, and for L = 7, we have 7 ∈[0, 3] with f ( 7 ) = 7.
Example 4.36: Let f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + x = 4 on [-2, 1]. Show that there exists some c ∈[-2, 1]
such that f(c) = 4.

173
Solution: f is continuous on [-2, 1] with f(-2) = 2 and f(10 = 8. Since 2 ≤ 4 ≤ 8, it follows, by the
Intermediate Value Theorem that there exists c ∈[-2, 1] such that f(c) = 4. i.e. f(c) = c 3 + 2c2 + c +
4 = 4. In this case we can find such c by solving
c3 + 2c2 + c + 4 = 4
⇔ c3 + 2c2 + c = 0
⇔ c(c2 + 2c + 1) = 0
⇔ c ( c + 1)2 = 0 which gives either c = 0 or c = -1
Since both of these values are in [-2, 1], for this particular case we have two values in [-2, 1] with
image under f equal to 4.

One of the most important applications of the Intermediate Value Theorem is given in the
following theorem.

Theorem 4.10: Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and assume that f(a) and f(b)
have opposite signs. Then there is at least one c ∈(a, b) such that f(c) = 0.

Proof: Without loss of generality, assume that f(a) < 0 and f(b) > 0. Then choose L = 0, between
f(a) and f(b). By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is at least one c between a and b such
that f(c) = L = 0.
Remark: This means that the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one root in the interval (a, b).
Example 4.37: The function f(x) = x3 – x – 2 is continuous on [1, 2]. f(1) = -2 < 0 and f(2) = 4 >
0. Thus there is a number c in (1, 2) such that f(c) = 0 or c3 – c – 2 = 0.
Example 4.38: Show that the graphs of y = ex and y = 3x intersect in the interval [0, 1]
Solution: Define the function f(x) = ex -3x. Then f is continuous on [0, 1] with f(0) = e0 -3(0) = 1
- 0 = 1 > 0 and f(1) = e1 – 3(1) = e – 3 < 0. Thus there is a number c ∈(0, 1) such that f(c) = e c –
3c = 0 and the graphs of y = ex and y = 3x intersect at c∈(0, 1).

Exercise 4.1
1. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
2x − 1 x +1
a. lim (7-2x) b. lim c. lim
x→4 x→2 3x + 1 x →3 2 x − 1

1
−1
x2 −1 x−2 x
d. lim e. lim f. lim
x → −1 x +1 x→2
x+2 −2 x →1 x − 1

2. Find lim− f ( x ) , lim+ f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) , if it exists, for

x →c x →c x→ c

a. f(x) = cos x , at c = π 6
b. f(x) = x + 3 , at c = -3

174
  x, for x < 2
c. f(x) =  , at c = 2
2 x − 2, for x > 2
| x + 1 |, for x ≥ − 2
d. f(x) =  , at c = -2
1 , for x < 2
3. Evaluate each of the following limits, if it exists.
a. lim (2x2 -3x + 5) b. lim 2xsinx c. lim (cos x)4
x →3 x →0 x →π
4

x 2 − 4x + 3
lim  x 2 − x 2 
1 3
d. lim 3 e. f. lim 4 7 x 3 + 9
x − 263 x−3 x → 4   x →1

sin x sin( 2 x) sin(3 x) sin 3 x

g. lim h. lim 2
i. lim
x →0 tan x x →0 5x x →0 sin 4 x

4. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist

2 x 4
a. lim− b. lim c. lim
x →3 x − 3 x →1 ( x − 1)2 x →∞ x − 1

x3 − 1 2 x3 + 3x − 5
d. lim cos x e. lim f. lim
x → −∞ x →∞ 2 x 2 x →∞ 5 x3 + 1
5. Find all the asymptotes, if any, for the following functions
x2 − 9 3x 3 + 2 x + 1
a. f(x) = tanx b. f(x) = c. f(x) =
x+4 ( x + 1) 2
6. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
x+4 x x −1
 1  4   2x + 3 
a. lim 1 +  b. lim 1 +  c. lim  
t →∞
 x t → −∞
 x + 1 t →∞
 2x + 1 

7. Check whether or not the following functions are continuous at the indicated points.
a. f(x) = x2 + 1, at c = 2 b. f(x) = |x2 – 1|, at c = -1, 0, 1
3  x 2 , for x ≠ 1
c. f(x) = , at c = 2 d. f(x) =  , at c = 1
x−2 3, for x = 1

8.Show that the following equations have roots in the indicated intervals.
1 
a) logx = 0, in  ,2
 2 
b) 2x – 2 = 0, in [0, 2] c) cos x – x = 0, in 0, π
2
[ ]
9. Using the Intermediate Value Theorem show that the graphs of f and g intersect in the
given interval.
a. f(x) = x3 + 4x + 2 and g(x) = -1, in [-1, 0]
b. f(x) = 2sinx and g(x) = 1 – x, in [0, 2]
1 
c. f(x) = x nx and g(x) = sinx, in  , e
e 

175
4.2. Derivatives
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to
• get acquainted with the concept of the derivatives of a function.
• evaluate the derivative of elementary functions using the definition.
• find the slope and equation of a tangent line to a curve at a given point.
• evaluate the derivatives of combinations of functions.
• find the derivatives of polynomial and rational functions.
• have a good understanding of the Chain Rule.
• apply the Chain Rule to evaluate derivatives of composite functions and algebraic
functions.
• find the derivative of the logarithmic function.
• find the derivative of the exponential function.
• apply the above derivatives to the natural logarithmic and natural exponential functions as
special cases.
• evaluate derivatives of composite functions with the logarithmic and exponential
functions.
• have an understanding of the derivative of a derivative.

Using the concepts discussed in section 4.1, we are now ready to study one of the central concepts
of calculus: the derivative of a function. Even though the derivative is connected with finding the
tangent lines to curves at a point, its main applications are in finding rates of change of variable
quantities relative to the change in another quantity.
Consider a function f continuous at a point c in its domain.
Then, by definition of continuity lim f ( x ) = f(c) y f
x→ c

This means for x close to c, f(x) is f(x)

close to f(c). If we denote the f(c)
increment (or change) x – c in the
x-direction by h = x – c (so that x = c + h) as
is seen in Figure 4.7,
then the corresponding change in the y-direction
c x x
is given by Figure 4.7
f(x) – f(c) = f(c + h) – f(c).
The ratio of these two increments is given by
f ( x ) − f (c )
x−c

176
and is called the difference quotient of f at c.
For instance, if f(x) = x2 + 2 and c = 3, then
f ( x) − f (3) ( x 2 + 2) − (3 2 + 2) x2 − 9
= =
x−3 x−3 x−3
We shall define the derivative of a function of f at c as the limit of the above difference quotient,
if the limit exists.
Definition 4.11
Let c be a number in the domain of a function f. If
f ( x ) − f (c )
lim
x→ c x−c
exists, we call this limit the derivative of f at c, and denote it by ƒ′(c), so that
f ( x ) − f (c )
ƒ′(c) = lim
x→ c x−c
If this limit exists we say that ƒ has a derivative at c, or ƒ is differentiable at c or ƒ′(c) exists.
Remarks: 1. Observe that we can alternatively write
f (c + h) − f ( c )
ƒ′(c) = lim
h →0 h
since for h = x – c, we have x = c + h and as x → c, h → 0.
2. The notation ƒ′(c) is read as “the derivative of f at c” or for short “f prime at c”.
df
Other notations are given by (c) or Df(c)
dx
3. The quantity f′(c) describes the rate of change of the function f around the point (c, f(c)).
Example 4.39: Let f(x) = 2x + 3. Then, for any c ∈R, the point (c, f(c)), we have
f ( x ) − f (c ) (2 x + 3) − (2c + 3) 2 x − 2c x−c
ƒ′(c) = lim = lim = lim = 2 lim = 2 lim (1) = 2.
x→ c x−c x→ c x−c x→ c x−c x→ c x − c x→ c

Since c∈R is arbitrarily taken, we have for f(x) = 2x + 3, ƒ′(x) =2 for all x∈R.
In fact for any linear function f(x) = ax + b, we have
f ( x ) − f (c ) (ax + b) − ( ac + b) x−c
ƒ′(c) = lim = lim = a lim =a
x→ c x−c x→ c x−c x→ c x − c

for any c ∈R. Thus ƒ′(x) = a

Note that the graph of a linear function is a straight line and the rate of change (a constant) is
measured by the slope of the line.
Example 4.40: Let f(x) = 3x2 + 5. Then for any x∈R
f(x + h) = 3(x + h)2 + 5 = 3x2 + 6xh + 3h2 + 5 and
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) (3 x 2 + 6 xh + 3h 2 + 5) − (3 x 2 + 5)
ƒ′(x) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
6 xh + 3h 2 3h(2 x + h)
= lim = lim = 3 lim (2x + h) = 6x.
h →0 h h →0 h h →0

Thus, for f(x) = 3x + 5, ƒ′(x) = 6x for any x∈R.

2

177
In particular, when c = 1, ƒ′(1) = 6(1) =. 6 is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at (1,8)
Example 4.41: Let f(x) = c, where c is a constant.
Then for any x∈R,
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) c−c
ƒ′(x) = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
h →0 h h → 0 h h →0

Thus, for f(x) = c, a constant, ƒ′(x) = 0 for all x∈R.

Hence, for f(x) = 15, ƒ′(x) = 0, for f(x) = - 2 , ƒ′(x) = 0, and so on.
Applying the above definition, we can get the following derivatives.
ƒ (x) ƒ′(x) ƒ (x) ƒ′(x)
1 −1 f(x) = sinx ƒ′(x) = cosx, for all x∈R
f(x) = ƒ′(x) = 2
, for all x ≠ 0
x x
f(x) = x 1 ƒ(x) = cosx ƒ′(x) = -sinx, for all x∈R,
ƒ′(x) = , for x > 0
2 x
Using the definition to evaluate the derivative of more complicated combinations and
compositions of functions becomes cumbersome. At this stage the student must be able how to
find the derivatives of various types of functions quickly and efficiently without always resorting
to the definition. In the table below we list some techniques of differentiation which can be
proved using the definition.

Theorem 4.11: Suppose ƒ and g are differentiable at c, and k is a constant, then

a) (kf)′(c) = k ƒ′(c) … Constant Rule
b) (f + g)′(c) = ƒ′(c) + g′(c) … Addition Rule
c) (f – g)′(c) = ƒ′(c) – g′(c) … Difference Rule
d) f(x) = x , n an integer, ƒ′(x) = n x …
n n-1
Power Rule
d) (ƒg)′(c) = ƒ′(c) g(c) + ƒ(c) g′(c) … Product Rule
′
f f ′(c) g (c) − f (c) g ′(c)
e)   (c) = provided g(c) ≠ 0 … Quotient Rule
g [ g (c)]2
f) (gof)′(c) = g′(f(c)). ƒ′(c) ….. The Chain Rule

Thus, if ƒ(x) = x4, then ƒ′(x) = 4x3 and if g(x) = x12, then ƒ′(x) = 12x11, and so on.

Example 4.42: Let f(x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = sinx. Then

d 2 d
(ƒ + g)′(x) = ƒ′(x) + g′(x) = (x + 3) + (sinx) = 2x + 0 + cosx = 2x + cos x
dx dx
d d d
(g(x) – 4ƒ(x)) = (sinx) - 4 (x2 + 3) = cosx – 4(2x + 0) = cos x – 8x.
dx dx dx
Since polynomials are sums or differences of constant multiples of powers of x, the first four rules
help us to evaluate their derivatives.

178
Remark: Given a polynomial of degree n, P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0
d
P′(x) = (anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0)
dx
d d d d d
= an (xn) + an-1 (xn-1) + … + a2 (x2) + a1 (x) + (a0).
dx dx dx dx dx
= nanxn-1 + (n-1)an-1xn-2+ … + 2a2x + a1
Example 4.43: For p(x) = 5x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 7x – 1, we have p′(x) = 20x3 – 6x2 + 2x + 7.
For q(x) = 6x3 + 2 x2 – 3x + π, we have q′(x) = 18x2 + 2 2 x – 3.

As an application of the product rule, we have the following examples.

Example 4.44: Let k(x) = 2x sinx. Find k′(x).
Solution: If we put f(x) = 2x and g(x) = sinx, then ƒ′(x) = 2 and g′(x) = cosx.
Thus, k ′(x) = ƒ′(x)g(x) + ƒ(x)g′(x) = 2sinx + 2xcosx.

Remark: In practice, to evaluate the derivative of a product of two functions, we do not need to
identify which one is f and which one is g.
Example 4.45: Let h(x) = x3 cosx. Then
h′(x) = (x3)′ cosx + x3(cosx)′= 3x2cosx + x3(-sinx) = 3x2cosx – x3 sinx.
For the derivative of the product of three functions f, g and h, we have
(fgh)′(x) = f′(x)g(x)h(x) + f(x)g′(x)h(x) + f(x)g(x)h′(x).
Example 4.46: Let k(x) = x3 sinx cosx. Find k′(x).
Solution: Put f(x) = x3, g(x) = sinx and h(x) = cosx in the above statement with ƒ′(x) = 3x 2, g′(x)
= cosx and h′(x) = -sinx. Then k′(x) = 3x2 sinx cosx + x3 cosx.cosx + x3sinx(-sinx)= 3x2 sinx cosx
+ x2 cos2x – x3 sin2x.

p( x)
The Quotient Rule is used to find the derivative of any rational function. If f(x) = , for p, q
q( x)
1
 p( x)  p ′( x )q( x ) − p ( x ) q ′( x )
polynomials, we then have f′(x) =   = , for q(x) ≠ 0.
 q( x)  ( q( x )) 2
3x 2 − 5
Example 4.47: Let f(x) = . Find ƒ′(x)
2x + 1
Solution: Putting p(x) = 3x2 – 5 and q(x) = 2x + 1, we get
6 x(2 x + 1) − (3 x 2 − 5)(2) 12 x 2 + 6 x − 6 x 2 + 10 6 x 2 + 6 x + 10
ƒ′(x) = = =
(2 x + 1)2 (2 x + 1)2 (2 x + 1)2
As an important consequence of the Quotient Rule, we can now find the derivatives of the
remaining four trigonometric functions.
Example 4.48: Let f(x) = tanx. Show that ƒ′(x) = sec2x

179
 sin x
Solution: ƒ(x) = tanx = . Then
cos x
 sin x  (sin x ) cos x − sin x(cos x)
1 1 1
d
ƒ′(x) = (tanx) =   =
dx  cos x  (cos x) 2
cos x. cos x − sin x(− sin x)
=
cos 2 x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1
= 2
= = sec2x.
cos x cos 2 x
In the same manner, we can show that
d d d
(cotx) = -csc2x, (secx) = secxtanx and (cscx) = -cscx.cotx.
dx dx dx
The Chain Rule states that (gof)′(x) = g′(f(x)) ƒ′(x), for all x such that f is differentiable at x and g
is differentiable at f(x).
Example 4.49: Find the derivative of h(x) = cos(x 2 + 1)
Solution: Let f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = cosx. Then, h(x) = (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2 + 1) = cos(x2 +
1) and h′(x) = g′(f(x)). ƒ(x) = -sin(x2 + 1) . (x2 + 1)′ = 2xsin(x2 + 1).

If a and b are any real numbers, we can easily show that

d d
(sinax) = a cosax and (cosbx) = -bsinbx
dx dx
d d
Thus, (sin4x) = 4 cos4x and (cos5x) = -5 sin5x
dx dx
Example 4.50: Find the derivative of h(x) = (1+3x -5x)12
Solution: Let f(x) = 1 + 3x – x5 and g(x) = x12. Then h = gof and
d
h′(x) = (1+3x – x5)12 = 12(1 + 3x – x5)11 (1 + 3x – x5)′ = 12(3 – 5x4) (1 + bx – x5)11.
dx
Example 4.51: Find the equations of tangent and normal lines to the semicircle
1 3
y = f(x) = 1 − x 2 at  , 

2 2 
Solution: The slope of the tangent line T is given by the derivative of y = f(x) = 1 − x 2 at x =
1
. Thus, by Chain Rule,
2
dy d 1 − 2x −x
ƒ′(x) = = 1− x2 = (1- x2)′ = =
dx dx 2 1− x 2
2 1− x 2
1− x2
so that the slope of T is
1 −1 2 1 2 −1
m = ƒ′   = =- . =
 2 1−1 4 2 3 3

180
 1 3
and since the tangent line passes through the point  ,  , its equation in slope-point form is

 2 2 
3 1  1
y- =- x −  or x+ 3y–2=0
2 3  2
1 3
The slope of the normal line at  ,  is
 3 and its equation is
2 2 
3  1
y- = 3  x −  or y - 3 x = 0.
2  2
Remark: The Chain Rule can be extended to more than two functions.
Suppose k(x) = (hogof)(x) = h(g(f(x))) and let f be differentiable at x, g be differentiable at f(x)
and h be differentiable at g(f(x)). Then k′(x) = (hogof)′(x) = h′(g(f(x)).g′f(x)). f′(x)
Similarly, if (x) = (kohogof)(x) = k(h(g(f(x)))), then
′(x) = (kogohof)′(x) = k′(h(g(f(x)))). h′(g(f(x)).g′(f(x)).f′(x).
You can now see why this method is called the Chain Rule!
Example 4.52: Find the derivative of the function
k(x) = cos 2 x 2 − 3
Solution: Let k(x) = cosx 2 x 2 − 3 = h(g(f(x))) with
f(x) = 2x2 – 3, g(x) = x and h(x) =cosx. Then

k′(x) =
d
dx
( )
cos 2 x 2 − 3 = h′(g(ƒ(x)). g′(ƒ(x)) ƒ′(x)

1 − 2 x sin 2 x 2 − 3
= - sin 2 x 2 − 3 . .4x =
2 2x 2 − 3 2x 2 − 3

Example 4.53: Let f(x) = sin(tanx2). Find ƒ′(x)

d
Solution: ƒ′(x) = (sin(tanx2))
dx
= cos (tanx2) sec2x2(2x) = 2x.cos(tanx2) sec2x2.

• Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Function

Recall that for a > 0, and a ≠ 1, the logarithmic function with base a is given by
f(x) = log a x for x > 0.
In particular, when a = e, we get the natural logarithmic function
f(x) = log a x = nx , for x > 0.

181
 Theorem 4.12: Let a > 0, a ≠ 1 and let f(x) = log a x . Then
1
ƒ′(x) = log a x
x
From Theorem 4.12, when the base a = e , it follows that
(log e x )′ = (nx)′ = 1 log e e = 1 .1 = 1 : i.e. (ln x )′ = 1
x x x x
Also, by applying change of base of logarithms, we get

(log a x )′ = 1 log a e = 1 log e e = 1 . 1 : i.e. (log a x )′ = 1

x x log e a x ln a x ln a
1 1
Example 4.54: For ƒ(x) = log 5 x , we have ƒ′(x) = log 5 e =
x x ln 5
Example 4.55: Find the derivative of the following
x
a) f(x) = log3(x2 + x – 1) b) g(x) =
ln x

1 2x + 1
Solution: a) ƒ′(x) = . log 3 e (x2 + x – 1)′ = 2 . log 3 e
x + x −1
2
x + x −1
1
′ 1. ln x − x.
 x 
b) g′(x) =   = x = ln x − 1
2
 ln x  (ln x) ln 2 x
ax
Theorem 4.13: Let a > 0, a ≠ 1 and let f(x) = ax. Then, ƒ′(x) = (ax)′ = .
log a e

By applying change of base we also have

ax
(ax)′ = = ax n a
log a e

ex
When the base a = e, we get (ex)′ = = exne = xx.1 = ex: i.e. (ex)′= ex
log e e
3x
Example 4.56: For f(x) = 3 , we have ƒ′(x) =
x
= 3x n3.
log 3 e
Example 4.57: Find the derivative of the following
x +1
a) f(x) = e b) g(x) = 3sinx
2
c) f(x) = x + e4x d) g(x) = e x nx

182
Solution: a) By using the Chain Rule, we get

(′
) ′
( )
x +1
1 e
ƒ′(x) = e x +1 = e x +1 . x + 1 = e x +1 , =
x +1 x +1
sinx sinx sinx
b) (3 )′ = 3 , n3. (sinx)′ = n3.cosx.3
d 1 1 + 4e 4 x
c) x + e4 x = (x + e4x)′ =
dx 2 x + e4 x 2 x + e4 x
d) By the Product Rule and Chain Rule we get:
2
( ′ 2
) 2 1 2  1
g′(x) = e x ln x = 2 xe x nx + e x . = e x  2 x ln x + 
x  x

• Higher Derivatives

If a function f is differentiable at a point x in its domain, we denote its derivative by ƒ′(x), where
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
ƒ′(x) = lim , provided the limit exists.
h→0 h
This derivative is usually called the first derivative of f at x.
If the new function ƒ′ is differentiable at a point x, then we can repeat the process and find its
derivative as
f ′( x + h) − f ′( x)
(ƒ′(x))′ = ƒ′′(x) = lim , provided the limit exists.
h→0 h
we call ƒ′′(x) the second derivative of f at x, and it is often read as “ƒ double prime of x”.
Observe that ƒ′′(x) is simply the derivative of the function ƒ′ at x and is no more difficult than
finding the first derivative.
1 d  1  −1
Example 4.58: If ƒ(x) = nx, then ƒ′(x) = and hence ƒ′′(x) =   = 2.
x dx  x  x
We can similarly find the derivative of ƒ′′(x) to get
f ′′( x + h) − f ′′( x)
(ƒ′′(x))′ = ƒ′′′(x) = lim , and so on,
h→0 h
and call this the third derivative of f at x.
1 −1 2
Thus, for f(x) = nx, ƒ′(x) = , ƒ′′(x) = 2 and ƒ′′′(x) = 3
x x x
These derivatives when they exist are called higher derivatives (or derivatives of derivatives)
dn f
The nth derivative ƒ[n](x) can also be denoted by (x) .
dx n

183
 d2 f
Thus the second derivative is ƒ′′(x) or ƒ[2](x) or ( x) and the third derivative is ƒ′′′(x) or
dx 2
d3 f
ƒ[3](x) or ( x) .
dx 3
Example 4.59: Find the higher derivatives of the following
a) f(x) = 4x3 + x2 – 3x + 7 b) g(x) = ex
c) f(x) = sinx d) g(x) = n(3x)
3 2
Solution: a) For f(x) = 4x + x – 3x + 7, we have
ƒ′(x) = 12x2 + 2x – 3
ƒ′′(x) = 24x + 2
ƒ′′′(x) = 24
ƒ[4](x) = 0 and for n ≥ 4, ƒ[n](x) = 0
b) For g(x) = ex, g′(x) = ex, g′′(x) = ex, and in general for n > 1, g[n](x) = ex
c) f(x) = sinx , ƒ′(x) = cos x
ƒ′′(x) = -sinx , ƒ′′′(x) = -cosx
ƒ (x) = sinx
[4]
and so on
3 1
d) g(x) = n(3x) , g′(x) = = by Chain Rule
3x x
1 2 3.2
g′′(x) = - 2 , g′′′(x) = 3 , g[4](x) = − 4 , …
x x x

Exercise 4.2

1. For each of the following functions, find ƒ′(c) using the definition
a. f(x) = 2x – 4, at c = 1 b. f(x) = x2 + 3, at c = -1
c. f(x) = x3 – 2 at c = 0 d. f(x) = |x + 2|, at c = 2
2. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the graph of f at the given point.
a. f(x) = x2 + x – 1, at (2, 5) b. f(x) = x, at (4, 2)
1 1
c. f(x) = 2cosx, at ( π 2 , 0) d. f(x) = , at (2, )
x 2
3. Find the derivative of the following functions
a. f(x) = (x2 – 5) cosx b. g(x) = x secx
2x − 5x
3
2x
c. d. g(x) =
x +3
2
tan x
4. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the functions at the indicated point.
a. f(x) = sinx cosx, at (π 4 ,1 2 )
x
b. f(x) , at (1,1 2)
x +12

184
5. Find the derivative of the following functions.
a. f(x) = tan3x b. g(x) = x 1 − x 2 c. f(x) = x sin x2
1
d. g(x) = e. f(x) = x2 + x2 +1 f. g(x) = xcosx + 3
5x − 4
(
x −x
2
)
4

cot x
g. f(x) = sin 2 x + 1 h. g(x) = i. f(x) = etanx
x +1 x
j. g(x) = n(nx) k. f(x) = (nx + e x )3 l. f(x) = n2x + nx2
6. Find the first, second and third derivatives of the following function
2
a. f(x) = e x b. g(x) = secx
c. f(x) = sin(2x) + cos(3x) d. g(x) = n(sinx)

4.3. Applications of the derivative

At the end of this section you should be able to:
• define maximum and minimum values of a function on a given interval.
• explain the fundamental theorem of local extrema values.
• identify the regions where a function is increasing and decreasing.
• apply the first and second derivative tests to find local extrema values of a function.
• solve practical problems related to extrema.
• state the important points that are necessary to sketch the graph of a function.
• sketch the graph of a function applying the above concepts.
• solve related rates problems.

At the beginning of this unit we have mentioned that the derivative of a function at a point c in its
domain measures the rate of change of the function around that point. In this section we shall see
how the derivative can be applied to solve a variety of problem in the areas of engineering, the
natural sciences, business and the social sciences. We see how it can be used to solve maximum
and minimum values of a function (i.e., where it has “peaks” and where it has “valleys”), where it
curves upward and where it curves downward, and in general, to sketch the graph of the function.
At the end we shall introduce related rates problems and see how to solve them using the
derivative.

a) Extrema of a Function
Definition. Let ƒ be a function defined on an interval I. If there is a number d in I such that f(x)
≤ f(d) for all x in I, then f(d) is called the maximum value of f
on I. Similarly, if there is a number c in I such that f(x) ≥ f(c) for all x in I, then f(c) is called the
minimum value of f on I. (See Figure 4.8) A value of f that is either a maximum value or a
minimum value of f on I is called an extreme value of f on I.

185
 Remark: If the set I is the domain of the function f and if f has a maximum value on I, then
this maximum value is called the (absolute or global) maximum of f.
Similar for minimum value of f.

Example 4.60: Let f(x) = x2 on I = [-2, 4]. Then

f has the maximum value of 16 = f(4) and
the minimum value of 0 = f(0). Both 0 and
16 are extreme values of f.
- On the interval [-2, 4), the minimum value of Figure 6.6
f is 0 but f has no maximum.
- On the interval (0, 4) f has neither a maximum
nor a minimum. See Figure 4.8. Figure 4.8
1
Example 4.61: Let f(x) = for x ≠ 0.
x
The domain of f is I = (-∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) and
f has neither a maximum nor a minimum
value on I. See Figure 4,10
- On the interval [-1, 0] f has the maximum
value -1 = f(-1), but no minimum.
1
- On the interval (0, 2] f has the minimum value = f (2) ,
2
Graph of f ( x) =
1

but has no maximum. x

- On the interval [-1, 2], f has no extrema. Figure 4.9

Note that in the first example when the interval is open we have no extrema, while in the second
example, when the function is not continuous, we had no extrema. Continuity of a function on a
closed interval gives us a sufficient condition for the existence of both extreme values.

Theorem 4.14: (Maximum-Minimum Theorem). Let f be continuous on a closed

bounded interval [a, b]. Then f has a maximum and a minimum value on [a, b].

Hence the function f(x) = x2 for -2 ≤ x ≤ 4 has both extreme values on [-2, 4].
Similarly, the function f(x) = x3 – 4x + 5 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 which is continuous on [0, 2] has a
maximum and a minimum value on [0, 2], by Theorem 4.14. Even though the above theorem
tells us about the existence of extreme values on [a, b], it does not tell us where they occur or how
to find them. The following theorem will help us in determining such values.

Theorem 4.15: Let f be defined and continuous on [a, b]. If f has an extreme value
at c in (a, b) and f is differentiable at c, then ƒ′(c) = 0.

186
 Example 4.62: Let f(x) = x3 - 3x + 1.
Then ƒ is differentiable and the
critical points of ƒ are the values
of x for which ƒ′(x) = 0,
But ƒ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 0
⇔ 3(x – 1) (x + 1) = 0
⇒ x = 1 and x = -1 are critical points of f.

Figure 4.10
If we want to find extreme values of f on, say, the interval [-3, 3] we compute and compare the
values of f at -3, -1, 1 and 3 to get f(-3) = 17 , f(-1) = 3, f(1) = -1 and f(3) = 19.
Thus the minimum value of f on [-3, 3] is -17 which occurs at -3 and the maximum value of f is
19 which occurs at 3.
• Monotonic Functions
One of the important points needed to sketch the graph of a function is to find the regions in
which the graph slopes upward to the right (increases) or it slopes downward to the right
(decreases) as seen in Figure 4.11 (a) and (b), respectively.
y y

x x

(a) (b)
Figure 4.11
Definition 4.12: Suppose f is a function defined on an interval I.
i) f is said to be increasing on I if f(x1) ≤ f(x2) whenever x1 < x2
ii) f is said to be decreasing on I if f(x1) ≥ f(x2) whenever x1 < x2
iii) f is said to be monotonic on I if f is either increasing or decreasing on I.
Remark: we can similarly define the terms strictly increasing, strictly decreasing and strictly
monotonic by replacing ≤ by < and ≥ by >.

Example 4.63: Let f(x) = x2-1.

Find the intervals of monotonicity of f.
Solution: For x1, x2 ∈(-∞, 0) with x1 < x2, we have
f(x1) = x12 -1 > x 22 -1 = f(x2)
⇒ f is strictly decreasing on (-∞, 0).
For x1, x2 ∈(0, ∞) with x1 < x2, we have
f(x1) = x12 -1 < x 22 -1 = f(x2)
⇒ f is strictly increasing on (0, ∞). Figure 4. 12

187
The derivative of a function gives us a test for monotonicity as is indicated in the following theorem.

Theorem: 4.16 Suppose f is continuous and differentiable on an interval I.

i) If ƒ′(x) > 0, for every x ∈I, then ƒ is strictly increasing on I.
ii) If ƒ′(x) < 0, for every x ∈I, then ƒ is strictly decreasing on I.

Example 4.64: Find the intervals over which the following function f(x) = x 3 – 3x + 1is
monotonic.
Solution: For f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1, ƒ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x + 1)
To find the intervals over which ƒ is increasing and decreasing we find the sign of ƒ′(x) using the
critical points x = 1 and x = -1 and the Sign Chart Method.

-1 1
x – 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + ++ + +
x + 1 - - - - - - - 0 + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + +
ƒ′(x) + + + + + 0 - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + +

From the above “sign chart” we can see that

ƒ′(x) > 0 for x ∈(-∞, -1) ∪ (1, ∞) and ƒ′(x) < 0 for x ∈(-1, 1).
Thus ƒ is strictly increasing on (-∞, -1) ∪ (1, ∞) and strictly decreasing on [-1, 1].See Figure 4.10.

• The First and Second Derivative Tests for Relative Extrema

If ƒ is a differentiable function, we have seen that at relative extreme values

ƒ′(c) = 0. Thus in order to locate relative extreme values of ƒ we find the values of x for which
ƒ′(x) = 0 or ƒ′(x) does not exist. But this method does not help us to determine which of these
values of x give relative extreme values (or which value is a maximum or which is a minimum).
The next two theorems will provide us with conditions that guarantee that ƒ has relative extreme
values. These conditions will also help in sketching the graphs of functions and in solving
applied problems.

Theorem 4.17: (The First Derivative Test)

Let f be continuous on an interval I, and let c ∈I.
a) If ƒ′(x) changes its sign from positive to negative at c
i.e. if ƒ′(x) > 0 to the left of c and ƒ′(x) < 0 to the right of c, then ƒ has a
relative maximum value at c.
b) If ƒ′(x) changes its sign from negative to positive at c, then ƒ has a relative
minimum value at c.

188
Example 4.65: Consider again the function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1.
ƒ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x + 1) = 0 gives the critical points x = 1 and x = -1
For the critical point x = -1 check the sign of ƒ′ at -2 and 0 with ƒ′(-2) = 9 > 0 and ƒ′(0) = -3 < 0.
Thus ƒ′(-1) = 3 is a relative maximum value of f.
Similarly taking the critical point x = 1 between 0 and 2, we get ƒ′(0) = -3 < 0 and ƒ′(2) = 9 > 0.
Thus f(1) = -1 is a relative minimum value of f. (See Figure 4.11 above)

The above theorem needs to check the signs of two distinct points to the left and to the right of
each critical point. The next theorem makes use of the sign of the second derivative directly at
the critical points.

Theorem: 4.18 (The Second Derivative Test)

Let f be differentiable in an interval I and let c ∈I with ƒ′(c) = 0.
a) If ƒ′′(c) < 0, then ƒ(c) is a relative maximum value of f.
b) If ƒ′′(c) > 0, then ƒ(c) is a relative minimum value of f.
If ƒ′′(c) = 0, then we can not draw any conclusion about f(c).

Example 4.66: Consider again the function f(x) = x3 – 3x + 1 with ƒ′(x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x – 1) (x +
1). We have ƒ′(1) = ƒ′(-1) = 0 and ƒ′′(x) = 6x. Since ƒ′′(-1) = -6 < 0, ƒ(-1) = 3 is a local maximum
value of f. Since ƒ′′(1) = 6 > 0, ƒ(1) = -1 is a local minimum values of f.

4x
Example 4.67: Let f(x) = , Find the local extreme values of f.
x +4
2

4( x 2 + 4) − 4 x(2 x)
Solution: ƒ′(x) = , Quotient Rule.
( x 2 + 4) 2
4 x 2 + 16 − 8 x 2 16 − 4 x 2
= =
( x 2 + 4) 2 ( x 2 + 4) 2
ƒ′(x) = 0 ⇒ 16 – 4x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 2 or x = -2
− 8 x( x 2 + 4) 2 − (16 − 4 x 2 )2( x 2 + 4)(2 x)
ƒ′′(x) = - Quotient Rule and Chain Rule
( x 2 + 4) 4
8 x( x 2 − 12)
= - Simplification.
( x 2 + 4)3
16(−8) −1
Thus ƒ′′(2) = 3
= <0 ⇒ f(2) = 1 is a local maximum value of f and
8 4
− 16(−8) 1
ƒ′′(-2) = 3
= >0 ⇒ f(-2) = -1 a local minimum value of f.
8 4

189
 • Practical Applications of the Extrema

A lot of practical problems can be expressed as a continuous function on a closed and bounded
interval we may be interested to find points where f attains its maximum or its minimum values.
For instance we may be interested in finding the maximum area of a region to be enclosed by a
fixed perimeter; the minimum distance from a fixed point to a curve. In economics a function
may represent a profit or cost function and we may want to find the value of x to find maximum
profit and minimum cost, and so on. The Maximum – Minimum Theorem and the first and
second derivative test will be crucial in finding such points as are illustrated in the following
examples.
Example 4.68: A landowner wishes to use 2000 meters of fencing to enclose a rectangular
region. Suppose one side of the land lies along a river and does not need fencing. What should
be the sides of the region in order to maximize the area?
Solution: Suppose the rectangle is to have length x and width y meters as seen in Figure 4.13.
x
Since the length of the fencing is
2000 meters, we have y
x + 2y = 2000
⇒ 2y = 2000 – x ⇒ y = 1000 - x 2
Figure 4.13

The area of the rectangle is A = xy which can be written as a function of x alone as

x2
A(x) = xy = x(1000 - x 2 ) = 1000x - for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2000
2
Thus we find the maximum value of A on [0, 2000].
A′(x) = 1000 – x = 0 ⇒ x = 1000 is a critical point.
Comparing the value of A at the critical point and at the endpoints 0 and 2000, we get
A(0) = 0, A(1000) = 500,000 and A(2000) = 0 (check!)
Thus the maximum value of A occurs when x = 1000 so that
y = 1000 - x 2 = 1000 – 500 = 500.
Consequently, to enclose maximum area, the fence should have a length of 1000 mts and a width
of 500 mts.
Example 4.69: Ethiopian Airlines offers a round trip discount on group flight from Addis Ababa
to Lalibela. If x people sign up for the flight, the cost of each ticket is to be 1000 – 2x Birr. Find
the number of people the airline gets maximum revenue from the sales of tickets for the flight,
Solution: Since individual cost of a ticket is 1000 – 2x, the total cost of the group will be
C(x) = (1000 – 2x)x = 1000x – 2x2.
To find a critical point, we solve C′(x) = 1000 – 4x = 0, which gives the only critical point
x = 250 of C(x).

190
You can easily check that for x < 250, C′(x) > 0 and for x > 250, C′(x) < 0. Thus by the First
Derivative Test C has an (absolute) maximum value at x = 250.
The maximum revenue the airline gets from the sales of 250 tickets is then
C(250) = 1000(250) – 2(250)2 = 125,000 Birr.
Example 4.70: A manufacturer wishes to produce rectangular containers with square bottom and
top each of which is to have a capacity of 1000 cubic inches. If the cost of production of each
container is proportional to its surface area, what should be the dimensions so as to minimize the
cost of production?
Solution: Let x be the side of the base
and h be the height of the container as seen in Figure 4.15.
Then the volume is h h
V = x2h = 1000
V 1000
⇒ h= 2 = 2 for x > 0 x x
x x
Figure 4.15
To find the surface area, we have the area of the top and bottom as 2x 2 and the area of the four
sides as
 1000  4000
4xh = 4x  2  =
 x  x
Hence the total surface area is given by
4000
s(x) = 2x2 + for x > 0.
x
Since the cost of production is proportional to the surface area, to minimize cost, we find the
minimum value of s.
4000 4 x 3 − 4000
s′(x) = 4x - = =0
x2 x2
⇒ 4x3 – 4000 = 0 ⇒ x3 = 1000
⇒ x = 10 is the only critical point.
By the Second Derivative Test, we have
8000
s′′(x) = 4 + with s′′(10) = 4 + 8 = 12 > 0
x3
Thus x = 10 gives the minimum value s(10) = 600 sq. in.
1000 1000
The height is h = = = 10 in.
x2 100
Hence the manufacturer would minimize the cost of production by manufacturing cubes of side
10 inches.

Curve Sketching
As a second application of the derivative we shall see here sketching the graphs of functions.
You have been sketching the graphs of polynomial and rational functions starting from your high

191
school mathematics. Here we systematically apply the notions of differential calculus to give
precise meaning to the asymptotes, intervals of increase and decrease, the turning points and find
the range of the functions.
First we shall list the important items that will help us in sketching the graph of a function y = f(x).
1) Determine the domain of the function f.
2) Find the intercepts of the function f.
- x-intercepts are points of the form (x, 0)
- y-intercepts are points of the form (0, y)
3) Determine the asymptotes, if any, of the function f.
- A line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f iff
lim+ f(x) = ± ∞ or lim− f(x) = ±∞.
x →c x →c

- A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f iff

lim f(x) = L or lim f(x) = L.
x →∞ x → −∞

- A line y = ax + b is an oblique (or skew) asymptote of the graph of f iff

lim [f(x) – (ax + b)] = L
x → ±∞

4) Determine the intervals of monotonicity of the function f.

- f is increasing for all x at which ƒ′(x) > 0
- f is decreasing for all x at which ƒ′(x) < 0
5) Find extreme values of ƒ, if any.
Find the critical points of f and apply the first or second derivative tests to determine
whether they are relative extreme points or not.
6) If necessary plot some additional points to help you see the behavior of the function.
x−2
Example 4.71: Sketch the graph of f(x) = .
x+2
Solution. 2.1 The domain of f is R\{-2} and the x-intercept is the value of x for which
x−2
f(x) = = 0 ⇒ x = 2. Hence x-intercept at (2, 0)
x+2
0−2
The y-intercept is the value of y when x = 0, i.e. f(0) = = -1. Hence y-intercept at (0, -1).
0+2
x−2
Since lim+ f(x) = lim+ = -∞, the line x = -2 is a vertical asymptote to the graph of f.
x → −2 x → −2 x + 2

Also you can check that lim− f(x) = ∞

x → −2

x−2 x−2 x
Since lim f(x) = lim = lim = 1, the line y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote for the
x →∞ x →∞ x + 2 x →∞ x + 2 x

graph of f.
To find the intervals of monotonicity, let us first find f '(x).
By the Quotient Rule for Differentiation,

192
 ( x + 2)( x −2)' −( x −2)( x + 2)' x + 2−( x −2)
f '(x) = ( xx+−22 ) ' = 2
= = 4 .
( x + 2) ( x + 2) 2 ( x + 2)2
Hence f '(x) > 0 for every element x in the domain of f. It follows that f is strictly increasing on (-
∞ , -2) and on (-2, ∞ ).
ƒ has no critical number and hence no local extrema.
Additional points: f(-1) = -3, f(1) = - 1 3

The graph of f is given in Figure 4.16. Figure 4.16

1
Example 4.72: Sketch the graph of f(x) = x + , for x ≠ 0
x
1 x2 +1
Solution: Since f(x) = x + = ≠ 0 and since x ≠ 0 f has no intercepts.
x x
 1  1
lim f(x) = lim+  x +  = ∞ and lim− f(x) = lim−  x +  = -∞
x →0 + x →0  x x →0 x →0  x
The line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of f.
1
lim [f(x) – x] = lim = 0
x →∞ x →∞ x

Hence the line y = x is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f.

1 x 2 − 1 ( x − 1)( x + 1)
ƒ′(x) = 1 - = = = 0 gives two critical points x = 1 and x = -1.
x2 x2 x2
Using a sign chart to find the intervals of monotonicity:
-1 1
x – 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + ++ + +
x + 1 - - - - - - - 0 + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + +
ƒ′(x) + + + + + 0 - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + + +

ƒ′(x) > 0 in the interval (-∞, -1) ∪ (1, ∞) so that it is strictly increasing in (-∞, -1) ∪ (1, ∞).
ƒ′(x) < 0 in the interval (-1, 1) \ {0} so that f is strictly decreasing in (-1, 1) \{0}.

193
Using the first derivative test, you can see that f(-1) = -2 is a local maximum and f(1) = 2 is a
local minimum. You can also apply the second derivative test to see this.
−5 5
Additional points: f(-2) = − 5 2 , f (− 1 2 ) = , f (1 2 ) = 5 2 , f(2) = .
2 2

Graph of f ( x ) = x + 1
x

The graph is given in Figure 4.17. Figure 4.17

Related Rates
One of the most important applications of the derivative is to solve problems involving rates of
change. As was mentioned at the beginning of this section the derivative measures the rate of
change of a variable quantity (which is the independent variable x) with respect to another
variable (which is the dependent variable y = f(x)). Here we shall apply this to solve some
practical related rates problems.
Example 4.73: Suppose a particle P starts from a point 0 and moves along a straight line in the
positive direction as See in Figure 4.18
Let s(t) devote the distance traveled from
0 in t seconds. If we assume that the speed 0 P
is constant, then we can compute the speed as Figure 4.18
distance traveled
speed =
time elapsed
If we are interested to find the average speed of the particle between two times t 1 and t2
(with t1 < t2), we get
change in distance s (t 2 ) − s (t1 )
Average speed = =
change in time t 2 − t1
In particular if t1 is any time t and t2 is a short time later say t2 = t + h for h > 0, then we have
s (t + h) − s (t ) s (t + h) − s (t )
Approximate speed (at t = t1) = =
t +h−t h

194
If the speed is not even constant, by taking h smaller and smaller we can approximate the speed of
the particle at time t, to get what is called the (instantaneous) velocity of the particle as
s (t + h) − s (t )
v(t) = lim
h →0 h
Thus, if s(t) denotes the position function of the particle its velocity is given by
ds
v(t) = s′(t) = - rate of change of position.
dt
Similarly, the acceleration of the particle can be obtained by
dv
a(t) = v′(t) = - rate of change of velocity
dt
v(t + h) − v(t ) d 2s
= lim = s′′(t) = 2
h →0 h dt
For instance if s(t) = t – 6t + 20 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6,
3 2

then v(t) = s′(t) = 3t2 – 12t

and a(t) = v′(t) = s′′(t) = 6t – 12
In general, if any quantity q is a function of time t, then the rate of change of the quantity with
respect to time is given by the derivative q ′(t).

Example 4.74 : Water is flowing into a vertical cylindrical tank of radius 2 feet at the rate of 8
ft3/min. How fast is the water level rising after t minutes?
h(t)

v(t)
Figure 4.19
Solution: Let v(t) denote the volume of water in the tank after t minutes and let h(t) denote the
height of water in the tank after t minutes. See Figure 4.19.
Since the rate at which water is flowing into the tank is 8 ft 3/min. the volume of water in the tank
after t minutes is
v(t) = 8t
On the other hand since the base of the cylinder is 2 feet and height in h minutes is h(t), we have
the volume
v(t) = πr2h(t) = 4πh(t)
2
Thus 4πh(t) = 8t ⇒ h(t) = t
π
The rate at which the water level is rising in then
2
h′(t) = ft|min, a constant! (why?)
π

195
Example 4.75: Two automobiles start from a point A at the same time. One travels west at 60
km/hr and the other travels north at 35 km/hr. How fast is the distance between them increasing 3
hrs later?
Solution: Let s(t) denote the distance
between the two cars after t hrs. In s(t)
t hrs the car due north travels 35t kms 35t
and the car due west travels 60t kms A
as seen in Figure 4.20 60t
Figure 4.20.
Hence the distance s(t) between the two cars in t hrs is
s(t) = (35t ) 2 + (60t ) 2
The rate of change of the distance between the cars is
2(35) 2 t + 2(60) 2 t
s′(t) = … How ?
2 (35t ) 2 + (60t ) 2
Hence after 3 hrs the distance between the two cars is increasing at the rate of
3(35) 2 + 3(60) 2
s′(3) = = 5 193 km/hr
3 (35) 2 + (60) 2
Exercise 4.3

1. Find relative extrema and the intervals in which the given function is increasing or
decreasing
a) f(x) = 5 – 4x – x2 b) g(x) = x3 + x2 – x – 4

x 1
c) f(x) = d) g(x) = x2 +
x +1
2
x2

2. Use the First or Second Derivative Test to determine relative extreme values of the function
x2 4
a) f(x) = 5x2 – 2x + 1 b) g(x) = +
4 x

1 1
c) f(x) = x4 + x d) g(x) =
2 x +1
2

cos x
e) f(x) = f) g(x) = (x2 + 2)6
1 + sin x

3. Sketch the graph of the following functions

ex x 3 − 3x 2 + 4
a) f(x) = (x2 – 1)2 b) g(x) = c) g(x) =
x x2 −1

196
4. A menu of total area of 100 sq. in. is printed with 2 in. margins at the top and bottom and
1in. margins at the sides. For what dimensions of the menu is the printed area largest?
5. A rectangle of perimeter p is rotated about one of its sides so as to from a cylinder. Of all
such possible rectangles, which generated a cylinder of maximum volume?
6. The volume of a spherical balloon is increasing at a constant rate of 8 cubic feet per minute.
How fast is the radius of the sphere increasing when the radius is exactly 10 feet?
7. At midnight ship B was 90 miles due south of ship A. Ship A sailed east at 15 m/hr and
ship B sailed north at 20 m/hr. At what time were they closest to each other?

4.4. Integrals and their applications

In this section we shall introduce the second major part of calculus known as integral calculus.
Just like subtraction is the inverse process of addition, integration is the inverse process of taking
the derivative of a function. Historically, integral calculus was developed in solving problems
connected with finding areas of regions with curved boundaries.

Section Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
• define an anti-derivative of a continuous function.
• state properties of anti-derivatives.
• find indefinite integrals of some elementary functions.
• evaluate the integrals of functions using the techniques of integration.
• solve integrals involving trigonometric functions.
• find the definite integral of continuous functions.
• apply the concepts of definite integrals to find areas of regions bounded by continuous
functions.

The Indefinite Integral

As is mentioned above the process of integration is the inverse process of differentiation and
hence is sometimes called taking anti-derivatives.

Definition 4.13: A function F(x) is called an anti-derivative of a continuous function f(x) if and
only if F′(x) = f(x) for every x in the domain of f.
Example 4.76: Let f(x) = 3x2 + 4x. Then the function F1(x) = x3 + 2x2 is an anti-derivative of
d 3
f(x), since F′(x) = (x + 2x2) = 3x2 + 4x = f(x).
dx
Note that F1 is not the only anti-derivative of f(x). You can also check that F 2(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5
and F3(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 7 are also anti-derivatives of f.

197
In fact, if c is any real number, then F(x) = x3 + 2x2 + c is an anti-derivative of f(x) = 3x2 + 4x
d
since F′(x) = (x3 + 2x2 + c) = 3x2 + 4x = f(x)
dx

Theorem 4.19: If F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x), then F(x) + c, where c is an arbitrary

constant, is also an anti-derivative of f(x).

Notation and terminologies: Given a function f, the symbol ∫ f ( x)dx stands for any (and

hence all) anti-derivatives of f. i.e. if F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x), we write ∫ f ( x)dx = F(x)

+ c, for any constant c. The symbol ∫ is called the integral sign. The function f(x) is called the
integrand, x is called the variable of integration, and c is called a constant of integration.
∫ f ( x)dx is also called the indefinite integral of f with respect to x.

Examples 4.77: We have

a) ∫ 3x2dx = x3 + c d) ∫ sinxdx = -cosx + c; g) ∫ cosx dx = sinx + c
1
b) ∫ exdx = ex + c e) ∫ x dx = n|x| + c
c) ∫ sec2xdx = tanx + c f) ∫ cscx cotxdx = -cscx + c

• Properties of the Indefinite Integral

Suppose F and G are antiderivatives of f and g, respectively, and k is a constant. Then

1) ∫ kf(x)dx = k ∫ f(x)dx = kF(x) + c.

2) ∫ (f(x) + g(x))dx = ∫ f(x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx = F(x) + G(x) + c.

3) ∫ (f(x) – g(x))dx = ∫ f(x)dx - ∫ g(x)dx = F(x) – G(x) + c.

Examples 4.78:
1) ∫ 4 cosxdx = 4 ∫ cosxdx = 4sinx + c
 1 1
2) ∫  e −  dx = ∫ exdx - ∫ dx = ex – n|x| + c
x

x x
3) If f(x) = x , for any rational r ≠ -1, then
r

x r +1
∫ f(x)dx = ∫ xrdx =
r +1
+c (verify!)

198
 −1
x6 −3 x 2
−2
∫ + c and ∫x +c = +c.
5
Thus, x dx = 2
dx =
6 −1 x
2
 1 
∫  x ∫x dx + 2 ∫ sec 2 xdx
−3
4) 3
+ 2 sec 2 x dx =

1
= −
+ 2tanx + c.
2x 2
5) If P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0 is a polynomial, then its anti-derivative is
given by
a x n +1 a xn a x 3 a1 x 2
P(x) = ∫ P( x) dx = n + n −1 + …+ 2 + + a0 x
n +1 n 3 2
Thus, ∫ (3x4 + 2 x3 – 5x + 2)dx = 3 ∫ x4dx + 2 ∫ x3dx - 5 ∫ xdx + ∫ 2dx

3 5 2 4 5 2
= x + x - x + 2x + c
5 4 2

• Some Techniques of Integration

In the previous section we were trying to find anti-derivatives of some functions whose
derivatives can easily be found from the previous unit on differentiation. But there are various
functions such as
2x
f(x) = (x + 3)5 , g(x) = xe-x and h(x) =
x( x 2 − 4)
whose anti-derivatives are not readily found. In this section we shall see some techniques to find
the integrals of such functions.

a) Integration by Substitution

This technique is basically developed by reversing the Chain Rule. It is very helpful in finding
the integrals of functions that appear as the composite of two functions.
Suppose we want to find the indefinite integral
∫ ( x + 3)
5
dx
we may expand (x + 3)5 and then integrate term by term using the formula
1 r +1
∫ x dx = r + 1 x + c .
r

But this would obviously be very tedious and cumbersome. On the other hand if we replace or
substitute u for x + 3, we get
du d
(x + 3)5 = u5 and = (x + 3) = 1 ⇒ dx = du.
dx dx

199
 1 6 1
∫ (x + 3) dx ∫ (x + 3) dx
5 5
Thus, = ∫ u 5 du = u + c. Hence, = (x + 3)6 + c, for some constant c.
6 6

Theorem 4.20: If g′(x) is continuous ∀x∈[a, b] and f is continuous at g(x), then

∫ f(g(x))g′(x)dx = ∫ f(u)du - Integration by Substitution

Example 4.79: Evaluate ∫ 2x(x2 – 5)6dx

du
Solution: Let u = x2 – 5. Then, = 2x which implies that du = 2xdx. Thus,
dx

1 7 1 2
∫ 2x(x2 – 5)6dx = ∫ u6du =
7
u + c and hence ∫ 2x(x2 – 5)6dx =
7
(x – 5)7 + c.

x
Example 4.80: Integrate ∫ 1+ x2
dx

du 1
Solution: Let u = 1 + x2. Then, = 2x which implies that xdx = du . Therefore,
dx 2

x 1 du 1 −1 1 1
∫ 1+ x 2
dx = ∫ u 2
= ∫ u 2 du = .2.u 2 + c =
2 2
u + c = 1 + x 2 + c.

Example 4.81: Integrate ∫ sin 4 xdx

du 1 1 1
Solution: Let u = 4x. Then = 4 ⇒ dx = du. Thus ∫ sin 4 xdx = ∫ sin udu = - cosu +c
dx 4 4 4
1
=- cos4x+ c.
4

1 1
In general ∫ sin axdx = - cosax + c, and ∫ cos bxdx = sinbx + c
a b

These two formulas can be used to find integrals involving trigonometric functions together with
trigonometric identities.

Example 4.82: Integrate ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 xdx

Solution: From trigonometric identities we have

200
 1 − cos 2 x 1 + cos 2 x
sin2x = and cos2x =
2 2

1 1
Thus ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 xdx = ∫ 2 (1 − cos 2 x) 2 (1 + cos 2 x)dx
1 1  1 
=
4 ∫ (1 − cos 2 2 x)dx = ∫ 1 − (1 + cos 4 x)dx
4  2 
1 1 1 1
= ∫ dx − ∫ cos 4 xdx = x − sin 4 x + c.
8 8 8 32

Example 4.83: Find ∫ tan xdx

sin x du
Solution: ∫ tan xdx = ∫ cos x dx . Let u = cos x. Then
dx
= -sinx ⇒ sinx dx = -du.

− du 1
Hence, ∫ tan xdx = ∫ u
= - ∫ du = -n|u| + c = -n|cosx| + c.
u
You can similarly find ∫ cot xdx .

Example 4.84: Integrate ∫ e −2 x dx

du 1
Solution: Let u = - 2x. Then = -2 ⇒ dx = - du.
dx 2
1 1 1
So that ∫ e −2 x dx = − ∫ e u du = eu + c = e-2x + c
2 2 2
d f(x)
In general since e = ƒ′(x) ef(x), we have ∫ f ′( x)e f ( x ) dx = e f ( x ) + c.
dx
1 2
Thus ∫ xe x dx = e x + c and ∫ 3x 2 e x dx = e x + c.
2 3 2

b) Integration by Parts

The method of integration by parts is basically developed from the Product Rule for
differentiation. If f and g are differentiable functions, we have
(f(x)g(x))′ = ƒ′(x) g(x) + g′(x) ƒ(x)
Integrating on both sides with respect to x, we get
f(x) g(x) = ∫ f ′( x) g ( x)dx + ∫ g ′( x) f ( x)dx
If one of the integrals on the right can be easily evaluated, we can find the other integral using the
following theorem

Theorem 4.21: If f and g are differentiable functions, then

∫ f ( x) g ′( x)dx = f(x)g(x) - 201
∫ g ( x) f ′( x)dx - Integration by parts
 ∫ xe dx
x
Example 4.85: Find
Solution: Let f(x) = x and g′(x) = ex. Then ƒ′(x) = 1 and g(x) = ex. Therefore,
∫ xe dx = xe - ∫ e .1.dx
x
x x
= xex – ex + c, for some constant c.
Integration by parts can be easily remembered using the following substitutions.
Let u = f(x) and v = g(x)
Then du = ƒ′(x)dx and dv = g′(x)dx
So that ∫ f ( x) g ′( x)dx = ∫ udv = f(x)g(x) - ∫ g ( x) f ′( x)dx = uv- ∫ vdu
Thus, ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu - Integration by Parts.

Example 4.86: Find ∫ xnxdx

1 x2
Solution: Let u = nx, dv = xdx. Then, du = dx, v= .
x 2
x2 x2 1 x2 x x2 x2
Thus ∫ xnxdx = 2
nx - ∫2x dx =
2
nx - ∫2 2
dx = nx -
4
+ c.

Example 4.87: Find ∫ nxdx

1
Solution: Let u = nx and dv = dx. Then, du = dx and v = x
x
1
Hence ∫ nxdx = xnx - ∫ x. dx = x nx - ∫ dx = xnx – x + c = x(nx – 1) + c.
x
2
∫ x e dx
x
Example 4.88: Find the integral
2
Solution: Let u = x2 and dv = ex dx. Then, du = 2xdx, v = ex and ∫ x e dx = x2ex - ∫ 2 xe dx .
x x

But we have seen above that ∫ xe x dx = xe2 - ex + c. Hence,

2
∫ x e dx = x e
2 x
x
– 2(xex – ex + c) = ex(x2 – 2x + 1) + c1 where c1 = -2c is a constant.

In some cases we may have to apply integration by parts more than once to arrive at the required
result as in the following example.

Example 4.89: Find ∫ e x cos xdx

Solution: Let u = ex and dv = cosxdx. Then, du = exdx and v = sinx. Thus,
∫e cos xdx = exsinx - ∫ e x sin xdx .
x

To evaluate the integral on the right, we again use integration by parts.

Let u = ex and dv = sinx dx. Then, du = exdx and v = -cosx.

202
Thus, ∫ e x sin xdx = -excosx + ∫ e x cos xdx which implies 2 ∫ e x cos xdx = exsinx + excosx + c.
1 x
Therefore, ∫ e x cos xdx = e (sinx + cosx) + c.
2
c) Integration by the Method of Partial Fractions

The method of Partial Fractions is used for rational functions

p( x)
f(x) =
q( x)
where degree of p(x) is less than degree of q(x). (If not we can apply long division to write f(x)
as a sum of a polynomial and a rational function with the desired property.) The first step in this
method is to factorize the denominator q(x) into linear factors, if possible. (The case where we
have irreducible quadratic factors of q(x) will not be treated here.) Now with each linear factor
(ax + b)m (of multiplicity m) we associate constants A 1, A2, …,Am and write
A1 A2
+ +…with the Ai’s to be determined. Then, the rational function f(x) is then
ax + b (ax + b) 2
expressed as a sum of simple rational functions and can be easily integrated.

1
Example 4.90: Find ∫x
−4
dx
2

Solution: By factorizing x2 – 4 as (x – 2) (x + 2), we have

1 1 A B A( x + 2) + B ( x − 2)
= = + =
x −4
2
( x − 2)( x + 2) x−2 x+2 ( x − 2)( x + 2)

Since the denominators are equal, we equate the numerators as A(x+2) + B(x - 2) = 1.
From equality of polynomials, we get
A + B = 0 −1
 ⇒ A = 1 4 and B =
2 A − 2B = 1  4
1  14 −1 4  1 dx 1 dx 1 1
Hence, ∫x 2
−4
dx = ∫  +
 x − 2 x + 2
dx =
4 ∫ x−2-4 ∫ x+2= 4
n|x – 2| - n |x+2| + c.
4
3x 2 + x − 1
Example 4.91: Find ∫ x 3 − x 2 − 2 x dx
Solution: The denominator x3 – x2 – 2x = x(x2 – x – 2) = x(x + 1) (x – 2) has three roots 0, -1 and
2.
3x 2 + x − 1 3x 2 + x − 1 A B C
= = + +
x − x − 2x
3 2
x ( x + 1)( x − 2) x x +1 x − 2
A( x − 1)( x − 2) + Bx ( x − 2) + Cx ( x − 1)
=
x( x + 1)( x − 2)
⇒ A(x+1) (x - 2) + B x(x - 2) + Cx(x+1) = 3x2 + x – 1

203
This equation is true for all x∈R. In particular,
when x = 0, A(1)(-2) = -1 ⇒A=12
when x = -1, B(-1)(-3) = 1 ⇒B=13
when x = 2, C(2)(3) = 13 ⇒ C = 13 6
3x 2 + x − 1 1 dx 1 dx 13 dx 1 1 13
Hence, ∫ x 3 − x 2 − 2 x dx = 2 ∫ x
+
3 ∫ x +1 + 6 ∫ x − 2 = 2 n|x| + 3
n|x + 1| +
6
n|x-2|+c.

• The Definite Integral

For a very long time, mathematicians have struggled with the problem of finding areas of plane
regions. Until the invention of the integral calculus, however, the regions considered were mostly
those regions bounded by straight lines, called polygons, with a few exceptions such as the circle
and the ellipse. The Greek mathematicians found the area of a polygon by first finding the area of
a rectangle, then finding the area a parallelogram, and then finding the area of a triangle. The area
of a polygon can be used to approximate the area of a region bounded by curved boundaries. For
instance, the area of a circle can be found by drawing a sequence of inscribed polygons
P4, P8, P16, …,Pn, and then taking limit as n → ∞.

To develop the idea for more general regions, consider the region bounded by the graphs of
y = 2x2 + 1, x = 0, x = 6 and x-axis.
To find the area of the region, let us identify the region S by drawing its boundaries, namely the
graphs of y = f(x) = 2x2 + 1, x = 0, x = 6 and the x-axis as shown in Figure 4.21.

Figure 4.21
Unfortunately, since f(x) = 2x2 + 1 is a curve that is not a line segment, we cannot find the area of
the region by the elementary methods. So, it is necessary to develop a stronger technique that also
generalizes the elementary method and enables us to find the area of such regions.

204
Let A(S) denote the area of the region S. It is not difficult to give lower and upper bounds of
A(S). For instance, we consider the rectangle r that is enclosed by the boundaries of S and the
rectangle R that encloses S, as shown in Figure 4.22.

Figure 4.22

Then A(r) = 6 and A(R) = 6 × 73 = 438. Hence 6 ≤ A(S) ≤ 438, which gives a wide range
of bounds of A(S).
Better bounds of A(S) can be obtained if we consider the finer rectangles r1 , r 2 , r 3 , r 4 ,
r5 and r 6 that are enclosed by the boundaries of S and R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 and R6 that enclose S as
shown in Figure 4.23.

Figure 4.23

Figure 4.23
Evidently, each of the rectangles has base 1 unit but varying heights. It follows that
A( r1 )+A( r 2 ) + … + A( r 6 ) ≤ A(S) ≤ A(R1) + A(R2) + … + A(R6)
6 6
i.e., ∑ A(ri ) ≤ A(S) ≤ ∑ A( Ri ) which gives 116 ≤ A(S) ≤ 188.
i =1 i =1

205
To give a formal definition of the subdivisions, for any positive integer n, divide [a, b] into
subintervals by introducing points of subdivision x0, x1, …xn
Definition 4.14: A partition of [a, b] is a finite set P of points x 0, x1, …, xn such that
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < … < xn = b. We describe P by writing P = { x0, x1, …xn}
By definition, any partition of [a, b] must contain a and b.
The length of any subinterval [xi-1, xi] of a partition P is defined and given by
∆xi = xi – xi-1
In particular, when the lengths of each subintervals are equal, it is called a regular partition.
In this section we shall consider only regular partitions, so that the length of each subinterval is
b−a
∆xi = xi – xi-1 =
n
Having chosen a partition P of [a, b], we inscribe and circumscribe rectangles on the region R
using the division points of P as seen in Figure 7.3(a) and (b). Since f is continuous on [a, b], by
the Maximum-Minimum Theorem, for each i between 1 and n, there is a minimum value m i and a
maximum value Mi of f on the subinterval [xi-1, xi]. If ri and Ri denote the inscribed and
circumscribed rectangles on [xi-1,xi], respectively, then the area of ri is A(ri) = mi∆xi and the area
of Ri is A(Ri) = Mi∆xi, since the base of both ri and Ri is ∆xi = xi - xi-1. From our observation in
Figure 7.3 (a) and (b) we see that the area of the region R is between the sum of the inscribed
rectangles and the sum of the circumscribed rectangles.
Definition 4.15: Let f be continuous on [a, b] and P be any partition of [a, b].
The sum Lf(P) = m1∆x1 + m2∆x2 + …+ mn∆xn
is called the lower sum of f associated with P and the sum
Uf(P) = M1∆x1 + M2∆x2 + … + Mn∆xn
is called the upper sum of f associated with P.
From our construction we see that if P is any partition of [a, b], then the area of R should be
between Lf(P) and Uf(P) i.e.
Lf(P) ≤ Area (R) ≤ Uf(P)
 1 3 
Example 4.92: Let f(x) = x2 for o ≤ x ≤ 2 and let P = 0, ,1, ,2 be a partition of [0, 2].
 2 2 
 1 1   3 3 
Then the subdivision of [0, 2] associated with P are 0,  ,  ,1 , 1,  ,  ,2 . Since x2 is an
 2 2   2 2 
increasing function on [0, 2], the minimum value of f on each subinterval is at the left end point
and the maximum value of f at the right end point. Thus
1 1  3 9
m1 = f(0) = 0, m2 = f   = , m3 = f(1) = 1, m4 = f   =
 2 4  2 4
1 1  3 9
and M1 = f   = , M2 = f(1) = 1, M3 = f   = , M4 = f(2) = 4
 2 4  2 4
2−0 1
The base of each subinterval is ∆xi = = . Thus the lower sum of f associated with P is
4 2

206
 1 1 1 1 9 1 7
Lf(P) = 0. + . + 1. + . =
2 4 2 2 4 2 4
and the upper sum of f associated with P is
1 1 1 9 1 1 15
Uf(P) = . + 1. + . + 4. =
4 2 2 4 2 2 4
Therefore the area of the region R below the graph of f(x) = x 2 above the x-axis on [0, 2] is
7 15 7 15
between and , i.e. ≤ Area(R) ≤ .
4 4 4 4
Definition 4.16: Let f be continuous on [a, b]. The definite integral of f from a to b is the
unique number I satisfying Lf(P) ≤ I ≤ Uf(P) for every partition P of [a, b].
This integral is denoted by
b
I= ∫ f ( x)dx
a

The numbers a and b are called the lower and upper limits of integration, respectively.
Note that as the number of subdivisions of an interval [a, b] increases, the minimum and the
maximum values of f on [xi-1, xi] are close to each other. For each i from 1 to n if we take an
arbitrary number ti in [xi-1, xi], then we get the sum
n

∑ f (t )∆x
i =1
i i = f(t1)∆x1 + f(t2)∆x2 + …+ f(tn)∆xn

This sum is called a Riemann sum or an Integral sum.

b
Even though it is sometimes possible to calculate ∫ f ( x)dx by finding formulas for lower and
a

upper sum we are to evaluate it here by the use of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
For the moment we can conclude that if f is continuous and nonnegative on [a, b], then the area of
the region R between the graph of f and the x-axis on [a, b] is given by
b
Area(R) = ∫ f ( x)dx .
a

Remark: The definite integral has the following properties.

If f and g are integrable over [a, b] and k is a constant, then
b b
a) ∫ kf ( x)dx
a
= k ∫ f ( x) dx
a
b b b
b) ∫ ( f ( x) ± g ( x))dx =
a
∫
a
f ( x) dx ± ∫ g ( x)dx
a
b
c) If f(x) ≥ 0, for a ≤ x ≤ b, then ∫ f ( x)dx
a
≥ 0 and

207
 b
if f(x) ≤ 0, for a ≤ x ≤ b, then ∫ f ( x)dx
a
≤ 0.

d) If m ≤ f(x) ≤ M for all x ∈ [a, b], then

b
m(b – a) ≤ ∫ f ( x)dx ≤
a
M(b – a)

e) If c is any number in (a, b), then

b c b

∫ f ( x)dx = ∫ f ( x)dx
a a
+ ∫ f ( x)dx
c
- Additive Property

a
f) ∫ f ( x)dx
a
= 0 for any number a.

a b
g) ∫
b
f ( x) dx = - ∫ f ( x) dx .
a
b
To develop a general method for evaluating ∫ f ( x)dx
a
without computing lower and upper sums

we shall state the most important theorem in calculus: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
To this end let f(t) be continuous on [a, b]. Then f is integrable on [a, b] and for any x∈[a, b] the
x x
definite integral ∫ f ( x)dt
a
exists. Define a function F on [a, b] as F(x) = ∫ f (t )dt
a

In effect the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that the function F(x) is differentiable with
derivative f(x) thereby eliminating the integral by the derivative. It also shows us how to evaluate
the definite integral.
Theorem 4.22: (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)
Let f(t) be continuous on [a, b] and for each x ∈[a, b] let
x
F(x) = ∫ f (t )dt
a

Then (i) F(x) is a differentiable function with F′(x) = f(x)

b
(ii) If F is any anti-derivative of f on [a, b], then ∫ f (t ) dt = F(b) – F(a).
a

b
Remarks: a) From (ii) to evaluate ∫ f ( x)dx all we have to do is to find an anti-derivative of F
a

of f and find the difference of its values at a and at b. This is usually denoted by
b
[F ( x)]ba or F ( x) to mean F(b) – F(a).
a

208
b) If F is an anti-derivative of f, then F(x) + c, for any constant c is also an anti-derivative of
f. But since [F ( x) + c ]a = (F(b) + c) – (F(a) + c) = F(b) – F(a) = F ( x) ba
b

the constant c does not play any role in evaluating the definite integral. Thus we can
always take c = 0.
1
Example 4.93: Let f(x) = x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2. Then F(x) = x 3 is an anti-derivative of f, so that by
3
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
2
1 3 2 1 1 8 8
∫ x dx = F(2) – F(0) = 23 - .03 = − 0 =
2
= x
0
3 0 3 3 3 3
From our previous discussion, the area of the region R under the graph of f(x) = x 2 on [0, 2] above
2

∫ x dx
2
the x-axis is thus = 8 3 sq. units.
0

Example 4.94: Evaluate each of the following definite integrals

4 π
a) ∫ 3 x dx
1
b) ∫ sin xdx
0
π2 1

∫ ( x + cos x)dx ∫ (5x + 2 x − e x )dx

3
c) d)
0 0

2 32
Solution: a) Since F(x) = 3. . x = 2x x is an anti-derivative of f(x) = 3 x , we have
3
4

∫3
0
x dx = F(4) – F(1) = 2(4) 4 - 2(1) 1 = 16-2 = 14

b) An anti-derivative of sinx is –cosx. Thus

π
π
∫ sin xdx = -cosx 0
0
= -cosπ - (-cos 0) = -(-1) + 1 = 2.

π 2 π2
 x2   π2  π2
c) ∫0 ( x + cos x ) dx = 2

+ sin x 
0
= 
 8

+ 1


- (0 + 0) =
8
+1.

1 1
5 4 x 5  13
∫0 (5x + 2 x − e )dx =  4 x + x − e  0 =  + 1 − e  - (0 + 0 – 1) = −e
3 x 2
d)
4  4
Remark: For functions that are given by more than one formula we evaluate the definite integral
using the additive property.
1
Example 4.95: Evaluate ∫ x + 1dx
−2

209
  x + 1, for x ≥ − 1
Solution: By definition |x + 1| = 
− ( x + 1), for x < − 1
y
Then by Additive Property, we have
1 −1 1

∫
−2
x + 1dx = ∫ − ( x + 1)dx +
−2
∫ ( x + 1)dx
−1
−1 1
 x2   x2 
= -  + x +  + x x
2 −2 2  −1
Figure 4.23
 1    1   1  1
= -  − 1 − (2 − 2) +  + 1 −  − 1 = + 2 = 5 2
 2    2   2  2

From the method of Integration by Substitution we have

∫ f ( g ( x)) g ′( x)dx = ∫ f (u )du where u = g(x)
If we are to evaluate this integral between a and b, we have,
when x = a, u = g(a) and when x = b, u = g(b). Thus it follows

b g (b )
- Change of Variable.
∫
a
f ( g ( x)) g ′( x)dx = ∫ f (u )du
g (a)

3
Example 4.96: Evaluate ∫x
2
x 2 − 4dx

Solution: We have two possibilities to evaluate such a definite integral. One way is to find an
anti-derivative of x x 2 − 4 and evaluate it between 2 and 3 by the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus. The other is to use the change of variable formula and change the limits of integration
before integrating.
To this end, let u = g(x) = x2 – 4. Then du = 2xdx.
When x = 2, u = g(2) = 0 and when x = 3, u = g(3) = 5
3 3 5
du 1
∫ x x − 4dx = ∫ = ∫ u1 2 du
2
Thus u
2 0
2 20
5
1 2 1 5 5
= . u u = .5, 5 - 0 = .
2 3 0 3 3
• Application of the Definite Integral: Area
The definite integral has several applications such as finding areas of regions, arc length
of curves, surface areas and volumes of solids of revolution. In this section we shall see
how to find areas of plane regions with curved boundaries using the definite integrals.

210
In the previous section we have seen that if f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈[a, b] and if f is continuous on [a,
b
b], then ∫ f ( x)dx
a
gives the area of the region R below the graph of f, above the x-axis, between

the lines x = a and x = b. For instance, if f(x) = x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, then the area of R as given in is
2
x3 2
∫ x dx = = 8 3 sq. units.
2
given by A(R) =
0
3 0
- If f(x) ≤ 0 on [a, b], then taking g(x) = -f(x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, the area of the region R below the
b b b
x-axis, above the graph of f on [a, b] is given by A(R) = ∫ g ( x)dx = ∫ − f ( x)dx = - ∫ f ( x)dx .
a a a

For instance, if f(x) = 2x for -2 ≤ x ≤ 0, then the area of the region R below the x-axis, above the
graph of f on [-2, 0] is given by
0 0 0
A(R) = - ∫ f ( x)dx = - ∫ 2xdx = -x2 − 2 = -[0 - 4] = 4 sq. units.
−2 −2

Now let f and g be continuous on [a, b], and assume that f(x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b. Then the area
of the region R below the graph of f, above the graph of g, and between the lines x = a and x = b
is given by
b
A(R) = ∫ [ f ( x) − g ( x)]dx
a

Example 4.97: Find the area of the region bounded by f(x) = 2 x , g(x) = -x and line x = 9.
Solution. Sketching the graphs of y = f(x), y = g(x) and x = 9, the region R can be identified as
shown in Figure 4.24.
y

y=2 x

R 9 x

y = -x

Figure 4.24
It follows that

211
 3

∫ 0 ( f ( x) − g ( x))dx = ∫ 0 (2 )
9 9 2 9
A(R) = x + x dx = 4
3
x2 + x | = 76.5 .
2 0

Exercise 4.4

1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals

a) ∫ (x3 + 5)dx d) ∫ (4 – x + 3x2 – 2x5)dx

b) ∫ 2x-8dx e) ∫ (cosx – 4ex)dx

x3 − 4 x
c) ∫ 3 sinxdx f) ∫ x 2 dx
2. Find the following integrals by substitution
dx
∫ x−3 ∫ sin
2
a) c) x cos xdx

n 4 x
∫ e dx ∫ x dx
x3
b) d)

3. Find the following integrals by the method of Integration by Parts.

nx
a) ∫ x cos xdx c) ∫ x 2 dx
∫ ( x + 1)3 dx ∫x
x 2
b) d) sin xdx

4. Integrate the following by the method of Partial Fractions

dx dx
a) ∫ ( x + 2)(3x + 4) c) ∫ ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3)
x 2x
b) ∫x 2
− x−6
d) ∫ (x − 2) dx 2

5. Find the area of the region R between the graph of f and the x-axis on the given interval
a) f(x) = x2 + 1 , on [1, 3]
b) f(x) = 2 + cosx, on [0, 3π 2]
1
c) f(x) = , on [1, 4]
x
d) f(x) = |x| - 1, on [-1, 2]
6. Find the area of the region between the graphs of the following functions.
. a) f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2 – x

b) f(x) = ex, x = -1, x = 3 and the x-axis

c) f(x) = x2 – 4 and g(x) = 4 – x2

212
References
1. Alemayehu Haile and Yismaw Alemu, Mathematics an Introductory Course,
Department of Mathematics, Addis Ababa University
2. Demisu Gemeda and Seid Mohammed, Fundamental Cocepts of Algebra, AAU
3. Edwin J. Purcell, Dale Varberg, Calculus with Analytic Geometry
4. G. Chartrand, A. D. Polimeni and P. Zihang, Mathematical proofs: a transition to
advanced mathematics 3rd edition, Pearson Education. Inc.
5. Goodman Hirsch, Precalculus-Understanding functions, 2000

171