Wastewater Engineering-I MODULE

Water Supply and
Environmental Engineering
Department
Wastewater Engineering-I
Module
Module No: WSEE-3122

Instructor: Moltot G.
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Contents
Contents ......................................................................................................................................i
List of Table .............................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figure ............................................................................................................................ iii
1- INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT ..............................................1
1.1 General about Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment .............................................................................2
1.3 Wastewater Treatment Standards .................................................................................. 3
1.4 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems ...........................................................4
2- CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER ....................................................................7

2.1 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristic of Wastewater .........................7
2.2 Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewater ..................................15
2.3 Mathematical Model for the BOD Curve ..................................................................... 20
3- PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS...........26

3.1 Preliminary Treatment ................................................................................................ ..26
3.1.1 Screening ............................................................................................................. ..26
3.1.2 Grit Removal Basins ............................................................................................ ..31
3.1.3 Tanks for Removing Oils and Grease ................................................................... .43
3.2 Primary Wastewater Treatment ................................................................................... ..45
3.2.1 Sedimentation ...................................................................................................... ...45
3.2.2 Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation (Type II Sedimentation) .......................... 62
4- SECONDARY/BIOLOGICAL AND TERTIARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT ........66

4.1 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment ............................................... 66
4.1 Microbial Growth Kinetics .......................................................................................... ..68
4.2 Types of Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment ............................................... .76
4.1.1 Biological filtration of sewage ...............................
4.1.2. Secondary Sedimentation ................................................................................... ..123
4.1.3. Activated Sludge Process (Aerobic Suspended Culture) ....................................... 95
4.1.4. Rotating biological contractors (Aerobic Attached Culture) ......................... ……124
4.1.5. Aerobic stabilization units (Aerobic Suspended Culture) .............................. …..129
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4.3 Tertiary Treatment Processes .................................................................................... 163
4.3.1. Filtration ............................................................................................................ ...163
4.3.2. Lagooning .......................................................................................................... ...163
4.3.3. Nutrient removal ................................................................................................ ...163
4.3.4. Nitrogen removal ............................................................................................... ...163
4.3.5. Phosphorus removal ........................................................................................... ..164
4.3.6. Disinfection ....................................................................................................... ...164
4.3.7. Odour Control .................................................................................................... ...166
5- SEWAGE EFFLUENT DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES .................................................... .167

5.1 Disposal by Dilution and Oxygen Sag Curve ............................................................. 167
5.1.1 Dilution in Rivers and Self Purification of Natural Streams ................................ 168
5.1.2 Disposal of Wastewaters in Lakes and Management of Lake Waters .................. 177
5.1.3 Disposal of Wastewater in Sea Water ................................................................. 180
5.2 Land Disposal and Treatment .................................................................................... 180
6- SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL .................................................................... 185

6.1 Sludge and Its Moisture Content ............................................................................... 185
6.2 Sludge Digestion Process .......................................................................................... ...189
6.3 Stages in the Sludge Digestion Process ....................................................................... 190
6.4 Factors Affecting Sludge Digestion and Their Control .............................................. .190
6.5 Sludge Digestion Tank or Digesters .......................................................................... ...190
6.6 Disposal of Digested Sludge ..................................................................................... ...197
References .............................................................................................................................. ...203
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List of Table
Table 1-1 Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment ......................................2
Table 1-2 Unit operations, processes, and treatment systems ......................................................3
Table 2-1 Summary of typical domestic wastewater characteristics ........................................... .15
Table 2-2 Typical values of KD at 20°c for various types of waters and wastewaters ................. 23
Table 3-1 Standard dimensions for parshall flumes (with respect to Figure 3-6) in cm .............. 38
Table 3-2 Hydraulic settling values in mm/sec in still liquids at 10ºc ......................................... 51
Table 3-3 Properties of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment ......................... ……63
Table 3-4 Summery of preliminary and primary treatment unit functions and efficiencies .........65
Table 4-1 Major biological treatment processes used for wastewater treatment.......................... 77
Table 4-2 Conventional vs high rate trickling filters .................................................................. ..94
Table 4-3 Variation with the extent of BOD removal................................................................. ..98
Table 4-4 Characteristics and design parameters of different activated sludge systems ............ .113
Table 5-1 Values of Re-oxygenation Coefficient (KR) at 20°c ................................................. 174
Table 5-2 Values of self-purification constant (f = / ) ................................................... 175
Table 5-3 Recommended Doses for Sewage Farming .............................................................. 181
Table 5-4 Effluent standards for Irrigation under Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 ......... 183
Table 6-1 Design Capacities of the Digestion Tanks on Per Capita Basis ................................ 193
Table 6-2 Approximate area of Drying beds for different types of sludge ................................ 199
List of Figure
Figure 1-1 Flow chart for wastewater treatment processes .............................................................6
Figure 2-1 Imhoff cone ...................................................................................................................9
Figure 2-2 Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials ......................................18
Figure 2-3 Lag period in BOD test ............................................................................................ ...19
Figure 2-4 1st stage BOD curve ................................................................................................. ...20
Figure 2-5 BOD exertion as a function of KD ......................................................................... …..22
Figure 2-6 Combined BOD curve .............................................................................................. ..23
Figure 3-1 Fixed bar type coarse or medium screen ................................................................... 27
Figure 3-2 Reinsch-Wurl screen (disc type fine screen) ............................................................. 28
Figure 3-3 Comminutor or shredder .......................................................................................... ..30
Figure 3-4 Velocity control sections for horizontal grit channels ............................................... .33
Figure 3-5 Modem rectangular grit chamber (not showing scraper arrangements)...................... .34
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Figure 3-6 Parshall flume .......................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3-7 Grit channel section ............................................................................................... …43
Figure 3-8 Skimming tank ......................................................................................................... ..44
Figure 3-9 Settling phenomena in a clarifier .............................................................................. 47
Figure 3-10 Rectangular sedimentation tank ........................................................................... …53
Figure 3-11 Circular sedimentation tank .................................................................................... 53
Figure 3-12 Elevation of a rectangular sedimentation tank ........................................................ 54
Figure 3-13 Cumulative particles removal versus settling velocity curve ................................... 56
Figure 3-14 Zones of a rectangular horizontal continuous flow sedimentation tank ................... 59
Figure 3-15 Section of a submerged type or a weir type inlet ................................................ …...60
Figure 3-16 Weir type outlet ..................................................................................................... ...61
Figure 4-1 Generalized representation of growth of micro-organisms ........................................ 66
Figure 4-2 Microbial growth curve ............................................................................................ ..69
Figure 4-3 Chemostat for continuous culture of microorganisms ............................................... 71
Figure 4-4 Relationship between the specific growth rate µ and substrate concentration S ......... 74
Figure 4-5 Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter .......................................... 79
Figure 4-6 Photographic view of a conventional circular trickling filter with rotary distributors 79
Figure 4-7 Photographic view of rotary distributors .................................................................. 80
Figure 4-8 Under drains ............................................................................................................ ...81
Figure 4-9 Single Stage commonly adopted Recirculation Process ............................................ 85
Figure 4-10 Two stage commonly adopted recirculation process ............................................... 85
Figure 4-11 Flow diagram for a conventional AS plant giving high degree of treatment ...........96
Figure 4-12 L-section of a ridge and furrow type of an aeration tank ........................................ 97
Figure 4-13 Cross-section of a spiral flow type of an aeration tank ............................................ 98
Figure 4-14 Section of a mechanical aerator .............................................................................. ..99
Figure 4-15 Flow chart of conventional activated sludge plant ................................................ 104
Figure 4-16 Flow chart of step-aeration process ...................................................................... ..109
Figure 4-17 Contact-stabilization process ................................................................................ .110
Figure 4-18 Flow chart of a complete mix plant ...................................................................... .111
Figure 4-19 Rotating Biological Contractors placed in series ...................................................124
Figure 4-20 Hopper-bottomed conical vertical flow type sedimentation tank ........................... 124
Figure 4-22 Extended Aeration Process .......................................
Figure 5-1 Showing zones of pollution along a river stream .................................................... 172
Figure 5-2 Deoxygenation curve ............................................................................................. 173
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1- INTRODCTION TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT
1.1 General about Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater collected from urban areas and from different industries must ultimately be returned
to receiving water bodies or to the land. The complex question of which contaminants in
wastewater must be removed is to protect the environment and to what extent must be answered
specifically for each case. This requires analyses of local conditions and needs together with the
application of scientific knowledge, engineering judgment based on past experience, and
consideration of federal, state and local requirements and regulations.
The presence of different pollutants in the wastewater makes it almost impossible to treat all the
wastewater in the same manner. Some important contaminants/pollutants of concern in
wastewater treatment are given in the Table 1-1.
The contaminants (pollutants) in wastewater are removed by physical, chemical and/or biological
means, and the individual methods usually are classified as physical, chemical and biological unit
processes or operations.
Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces predominates are known as
physical unit operations. Typical physical unit operations are: screening, mixing, flocculation,
sedimentation, flotation, and filtration and membrane filter operations.
Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of contaminants is brought about by the
addition of chemicals or by other chemical reactions are known as chemical unit processes.
Neutralization, oxidation, reduction, precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, ion-exchange, electro-
dialysis etc. are the most common examples of these processes used in wastewater treatment.
Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by biological activity
are known as biological unit processes.
Biological treatment is used primarily to remove the biodegradable organic substances (colloidal
or dissolved) in wastewater. Basically, these substances are converted into gases that can escape
to the atmosphere and into biological cell tissue that can be removed by settling. The most
common approaches in the biological wastewater treatments are: aerobic processes such as
trickling filters, activated sludge, oxidation ponds (or lagoons), and anaerobic processes such as
anaerobic lagoons, sludge digestion, etc.
Usually in the municipal wastewater treatment, but also in other wastewater processing all the
above mentioned unit operations and processes are grouped together to provide what is known as
primary, secondary and tertiary (or advanced) treatment.
The term primary refers to physical unit operations and in some cases to chemical unit processes;
secondary refers to biological unit processes; and tertiary refers to combinations of all three.
The contaminants of major interest in wastewater and the unit operations and processes or
methods applicable to the removal of these contaminants are shown in Table 1-2.
In addition to the above mentioned classical basic processes, some new directions are also evident
in various specific areas of wastewater treatment, including:
WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 1

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(ii)
modification in treatment operations, processes and concepts
the changing nature of the wastewater to be treated
(iii) the problem of industrial wastes
(iv) wastewater treatability studies
(v) environmental and energy concerns
(vi) land treatment
(vii) small and individual onsite systems
Table 1-1 Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment

Contaminants Reason for importance
Suspended Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge deposits and anaerobic
solids conditions when untreated wastewater is discharged in the aquatic environment
Biodegradable Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, biodegradable

organics organics are measured most commonly in terms of BOD and COD. If
discharged untreated to the environment, their biological stabilization can lead
to the depletion of natural oxygen resources and to the development of septic
conditions
Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogenic organisms in

wastewater
Nutrients Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with carbon, are essential nutrients for
growth. When discharged to the water these nutrients can lead to the growth of
undesirable aquatic life. When discharged in excessive amounts on land they
can also lead to the pollution of groundwater
Refractory These organics tend to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment.

organics Typical examples include surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides
Heavy metals Heavy metals are usually added to wastewater from commercial and industrial
activities and may have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused
Dissolved Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium, and sulfate are added to the
inorganic solids original domestic water supply as a result of water use and may have to be
removed if the wastewater is to be reused
Source: Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater engineering
Table 1-2 Unit operations, processes, and treatment systems

W Contaminant
Unit Operation, Unit Process, or
Treatment System
Classification
Suspended solids Screening and comminution P

Sedimentation P
Flotation P
Filtration P
Coagulation / sedimentation C/P
Land treatment P
Biodegradable Activated sludge B
organics Trickling filters B
Rotating biological contactors B
Aerated lagoons B
Oxidation ponds B
Intermittent sand filtration P/B
Land treatment B/C/P
Physical / chemical P/C
Pathogens Chlorination C
Ozonation C
Land treatment P
Nutrients: Suspended-growth nitrification and denitrification B
Nitrogen Fixed-film nitrification and denitrification B
Ammonia stripping C/PC
Ion exchange C
Breakpoint chlorination B/C/P
Land treatment
Phosphorus Metal salt coagulation/sedimentation C/P
Lime coagulation / sedimentation C/P
Biological/chemical phosphorus C/P
removal B/C
Land treatment C/P
Refractory organics Carbon adsorption P
Tertiary ozonation C
Land treatment systems P
Heavy metals Chemical precipitation C

W Ion exchange
Land treatment
C
C/P
Dissolved inorganic Ion exchange C
solids Reverse osmosis P
Electrodialysis C
*B = biological, C = chemical, P = physical.
The wastewater originating from various sources can be broadly divided into two categories:
1. Biodegradable wastewater
The wastes in general have a predominance of biodegradable organic matter, and are generally
treated in a similar manner.
The stabilization of organic matter is accomplished biologically using a variety of
microorganisms. The microorganisms are used to convert the colloidal and dissolved
carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and into cell tissue. Because cell tissue has a
specific gravity slightly greater than that of water, the resulting tissue can be removed from the
treated liquid as sludge by gravity settling.
Based on bacterial relationship to oxygen (ability or inability to utilize oxygen as a terminal
electron acceptor in oxidation/reduction reactions), the microorganisms can be: (i) obligate
aerobes
(ii) obligate anaerobes
(iii) facultative anaerobes
(iv) denitrifiers
The general term that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a bacterial cell is
metabolism which is divided into catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism includes all the
biochemical processes by which a substrate (food) is degraded to end products with the release of
energy.
Anabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium synthesizes new cells.
The type of electron acceptor available for catabolism determines the type of decomposition
used by a mixed culture of microorganisms.
Decomposition of wastes and particularly of wastewater can be:
(i) aerobic decomposition

(ii) anaerobic decomposition
(iii) anoxic decomposition

WSEE-3122 Module 2015 E.C
For aerobic decomposition the molecular oxygen (O2) must be present as the terminal electron
acceptor to proceed by aerobic oxidation. The chemical end-products of aerobic decomposition
are primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), water, and new cell material.
Anoxic decomposition occurs when some microorganisms will use nitrate (NO3-) as the terminal
electron acceptor in the absence of molecular oxygen. Oxidation by this route is called
denitrification.
In order to achieve anaerobic decomposition, molecular oxygen and nitrate must not be present
as terminal electron acceptors. Sulfate (SO42-), carbon dioxide, and organic compounds that can
be reduced serve as terminal electron acceptors. The end-products of anaerobic decomposition are
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), mercaptans, methane (CH4), carbon dioxide, ammonia and water.
2. Non-biodegradable wastewater
The non-biological wastes in general and the wastewater in particular are rich in
nonbiodegradable matter consisting of solids and liquids in suspended or dissolved form,
including various inorganic and organic, many of which may be highly toxic.
Examples are domestic or industrial wastewater containing excessive dissolved solids (minerals),
inorganic or organic compounds or naturally occurring organics such as humic and fulvic acids.
Treatment processes are available for removing these contaminants. The physical processes
frequently used in engineered systems include sedimentation, filtration and gas-transfer.
Chemical processes include the usage of different chemicals for wastewater treatment. Chemicals
may be added to alter equilibrium conditions and cause precipitation of undesirable species. It
should be kept in mind that chemical processes are conversion processes and that actual removal
is accomplished by physically separating the solid, liquid, or gaseous products of the chemical
reactions. The chemical processes frequently used in engineered systems include neutralization,
coagulation, flocculation, chemical precipitation and oxidation & reduction. Some wastewater
must be treated by means of highly sophisticated processes and equipment, requiring highly
skilled operators, and therefore quite expensive. Such processes are physicochemical processes
and include: demineralization, desalinization, ion-exchange, reverse osmosis, electro-dialysis,
adsorption, evaporation, incineration, etc.
1.2 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment
1. To introduce fundamentals of the wastewater treatment plants and their unit operations and
processes
2. To provide basic design skills and knowledge on the wastewater treatment plants and their
unit operations and processes
3. To experience a design project on a hypothetical wastewater treatment plant
a. Identify kinds and sources of wastewater
b. Describe hazards in wastewater

c. Describe ways of treating wastewater

d. Describe the products of wastewater treatment, including the production and use of
biosolids
The overall objectives of wastewater treatment are associated with the removal of pollutants and
the protection and preservation of our natural resources.
Specific concern is protection of human health by the destruction of pathogenic organisms present
in wastewater prior to treated effluent being discharged to receiving water bodies and land.
1.3 Wastewater Treatment Standards
Effluents from different establishments should be treated before being discharged to receiving
bodies so that it should be:
1. Free from materials and heat in quantities, concentrations or combinations which are toxic
or harmful to human, animal, aquatic life.
2. Free from anything that will settle in receiving waters forming putrescence or otherwise
objectionable sludge deposits, or that will adversely affect aquatic life.
3. Free from floating debris, oil, scum and other materials in amounts sufficient to be
noticeable in receiving waters;
4. Free from materials and heat that alone, or in combination with other materials will produce
color, turbidity, taste or odour in sufficient concentration to create a nuisance or adversely
affect aquatic life in receiving waters;
5. Free from nutrients in concentrations that create nuisance growths of aquatic weeds or
algae in the receiving waters.
A significant element in wastewater disposal is the potential environmental impact associated with
it.
Environmental standards are developed to ensure that the impacts of treated wastewater
discharges into ambient waters are acceptable. Standards play a fundamental role in the
determination of the level of wastewater treatment required and in the selection of the discharge
location and outfall structures.
Regulations and procedures vary from one country to another and are continuously reviewed and
updated to reflect growing concern for the protection of ambient waters. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) developed the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit programme in 1972 to control water pollution by regulating
point sources that discharge pollutants into waters. Accordingly, industrial, municipal, and other
facilities are required to obtain permits if their discharges go directly into surface waters. Under
this programme, secondary treatment standards were established by USEPA for publicly owned
treatment works, governing the performance of secondary wastewater treatment plants. These
technology-based regulations, which apply to all municipal waste-water treatment plants,

represent the minimum level of effluent quality attainable by secondary treatment in terms of
BOD5 and TSS removal.
Specific Limits
Effluents discharged to receiving water bodies should achieved the following minimum
wastewater quality limits:
Parameter Effluent Limit
BOD5 20mg/l
TSS 30mg/l
Nitrates (as Nitrogen) 30mg/l
Phosphate 10mg/l
COD 100mg/l
pH 6–9
Faecal coliform 1000MPN/100ml
Residual chlorine 1.5mg/l
MPN- Most Probable Number
1.4 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems
Depending on the contaminants to be removed, an almost limitless number of process

combinations can be developed using the unit operations and processes. The term "flow sheet" is
used to describe a particular combination of unit operations and processes used to achieve a
specific treatment objective. Apart from the analysis of the technical feasibility of the individual
treatment methods, the exact flow-sheets configuration will depend on factors such as:
(1) the needs of the client's needs,
(2) the designer's past experience,
(3) regulatory agency policies on the application of specific treatment methods,
(4) the availability of equipment suppliers,
(5) what use can be made of existing facilities,
(6) the availability of qualified operating personnel,
(7) initial construction costs, and
(8) future operation and maintenance costs
Conventional flow sheets for the treatment of wastewater are presented and discussed below. The
choice of a set of treatment methods depends on several factors, including discharge permits and
available disposal facilities. For example, where an ocean discharge is used, removal of large
debris by screens and of settleable solids by sedimentation may be the only treatment steps that

are required. Where treated effluent is to be discharged to an inland stream, complete treatment
may be required. Discharges to environmentally sensitive lakes, streams, and estuaries may
require additional treatment to remove specific constituents.
Treatment schemes are often identified as primary, secondary, or advanced (also known as
tertiary). In primary treatment, a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter is removed
from the wastewater. This removal is usually accomplished with physical operations such as
screening and sedimentation. The effluent from primary treatment will ordinarily contain
considerable organic matter and will have a relatively high BOD. The further treatment of the
effluent from primary treatment to remove the residual organic matter and suspended material is
known as secondary treatment. In general, biological processes employing microorganisms are
used to accomplish secondary treatment. The effluent from secondary treatment usually has little
BOD5 and suspended solids and may contain several milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen.
When required for water reuse or for the control of eutrophication in receiving waters, advanced
(tertiary) treatment is used for the removal of suspended and dissolved materials remaining after
secondary treatment.
Actually, the distinction between primary, secondary, and advanced treatment is rather arbitrary,
as many modern treatment methods incorporate physical, chemical, and biological processes in
the same operation. A more rational approach would be to drop these arbitrary distinctions and to
focus instead on the optimum combinations of operations and processes that must be used to
achieve the required treatment objectives.
Typical flow sheets for the treatment of wastewater are presented in Figure 1-1

Figure 1-1 Flow chart for wastewater treatment processes

The diagram demonstrates how the treatment plant works and how the different processes are
inter-connected to work as one. Each treatment process in the flow sheet will be discussed in
chapter 3 and 4.

2- CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER
Wastewater contains many different substances that can be used to characterize it. The specific
substances and amounts or concentrations of each will vary depending on the source. It is difficult
to precisely characterize wastewater. Instead, wastewater characterization is usually based on and
applied to an average domestic wastewater.
Note: Keep in mind that other sources and types of wastewater can dramatically change the
characteristics.
2.1 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristic of Wastewater
Wastewater is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.
A. Physical Characteristics
The physical characteristics of wastewater are based on color, odor, temperature, and flow.
1. Turbidity
Sewage is normally turbid, resembling dirty dish water or wastewater from baths having other
floating matter like fecal matter, pieces of paper, cigarette-ends, match-sticks, greases, vegetable
debris, fruit skins, soaps, etc. The turbidity increases as sewage becomes stronger.
The degree of turbidity can be measured and tested by turbidity rods or by turbid-meters, as is
done for testing raw water supplied.
2. Color
Fresh wastewater is usually a light brownish-gray color. However, typical wastewater is gray and
has a cloudy appearance. The color of the wastewater will change significantly if allowed to go
septic (if travel time in the collection system increases). Typical septic wastewater will have a
black color.
3. Odor
Odors in domestic wastewater usually are caused by gases produced by the decomposition of
organic matter or by other substances added to the wastewater. Fresh domestic wastewater has a
musty odor. If the wastewater is allowed to go septic, this odor will significantly change to a rotten
egg odor associated with the production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
4. Temperature
The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the water supply because of the
addition of warm water from households and industrial plants. However, significant amounts of
infiltration or storm water flow can cause major temperature fluctuations.
The temperature has an effect on the biological activity of bacteria present in sewage, and it also
affects the solubility of gases in sewage. In addition, temperature also affects the viscosity of
sewage, which, in turn, affects the sedimentation process in its treatment.

The normal temperature of sewage is generally slightly higher than the temperature of water,
because of additional heat added during the utilization of water. The ideal temperature of sewage
for the biological activities is 20°c. However, when the temperature is more, the dissolved oxygen
content (DO) of sewage gets reduced.
B. Chemical Characteristics
In describing the chemical characteristics of wastewater, the discussion generally includes topics
such as organic matter, the measurement of organic matter, inorganic matter, and gases. For the
sake of simplicity, chemical characteristics can be described in terms of alkalinity, BOD, chemical
oxygen demand (COD), dissolved gases, nitrogen compounds, pH, phosphorus, chloride and
solids (organic, inorganic, suspended, and dissolved solids).
1. Total Solids, Suspended Solids and Settleable Solids

Most pollutants found in wastewater can be classified as solids. Wastewater treatment is generally
designed to remove solids or to convert solids to a form that is more stable or can be removed.
Sewage normally contains very small amount of solids in relation to the huge quantity of water
(99.9%). It only contains about 0.05 to 0.1 percent (i.e. 500 to 1000 mg/l) of total solids. Solids
present in sewage may be in any of the four forms: suspended solids, dissolved solids, colloidal
solids, and settleable solids.
Suspended solids are those solids which remain floating in sewage. Dissolved solids are those
which remain dissolved in sewage just as salt in water. Colloidal solids are finely divided solids
remaining either in solution or in suspension. Settleable solids are that portion of solid matter
which settles out, if sewage is allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of 2 hours. The
proportion of these different types of solids is generally found to be as given below:
Inorganic matter consists of minerals and salts, like: sand, gravel, debris, dissolved salts,
chlorides, sulphates, etc.
Organic matter consists of:
(i) Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton, fiber, starch, sugar, etc.

(ii) Fats and oils received from kitchens, laundries, garages, shops, etc.
(iii) Nitrogenous compounds like proteins and their decomposed products, including wastes
from animals, urea, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, etc.
As a general rule, the presence of inorganic solids in sewage is not harmful. They require only
mechanical appliances for their removal in the treatment plant. On the other hand, suspended and
dissolved organic solids are responsible for creating nuisance, if disposed of, untreated. The
amounts of various kinds of solids present in sewage can be determined as follows:
(a) The total amount of solids (S1 in mg/l) present in a given sewage can be determined by
evaporating a known volume of sewage sample, and weighing the dry residue left. The mass

of the residue divided by the volume of the sample evaporated will represent the total solids
in mg/l, S1.
(b) The suspended solids (S2) are those solids which are retained by a filter of 1µm pores; and
they are, therefore, also called as filterable solids. Their quantity can be determined by
passing a known volume of sewage sample through a glass-fiber filter apparatus, and
weighing the dry residue left: The mass of the residue divided by the volume of sample
filtered will represent the suspended solids, (S2), in mg/l.
(c) The difference between the total solids (S1) and the suspended solids (S2) will represent
nothing but dissolved solids plus colloidal, or non-filterable solids; S3 where S3 = S1 - S2,
(d) Now, the total suspended solids (S2) may either be volatile or fixed. In order to determine
their proportion, the filtered dry residue of step (b) above, is burnt and ignited at about 550°c
in an electric muffle furnace for about 15 to 20 minutes. Loss of weight due to ignition will
represent the volatile solids in the sample volume filtered through the filter. Let the volatile
suspended solids concentration be S4 (in mg/l).
(e) The difference S2 - S4 = S5 will evidently represent the fixed solids.
(f) The quantity of settleable solids (S6) can be determined easily with the help of a specially
designed conical glass vessel called Imhoff cone (Refer Figure 2-1). The capacity of the cone
is 1 liter, and it is graduated up to about 50 ml.
Figure 2-1 Imhoff cone

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Sewage is allowed to stand in this Imhoff cone for a period of two hours, and the quantity of solids
settled in the bottom of the cone can then be directly read out. However, in order to obtain precise
amount of settleable solids, the liquid from the cone should be decanted off, and the settleable
solids collected at the bottom of the cone should be dried and weighed. The quantities of different
types of solids when determined experimentally as above will help in detecting the strength of
sewage, as given in Table 2-1.
2. Alkalinity
This is a measure of the wastewater’s capability to neutralize acids. It is measured in terms of
bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide alkalinity. Alkalinity is essential to buffer (hold the neutral
pH) of the wastewater during the biological treatment processes.
3. pH
This is a method of expressing the acid condition of the wastewater. pH is expressed on a scale of
1 to 14. For proper treatment, wastewater pH should normally be in the range of 6.5 to 9.0. The
determination of pH value of sewage is important, because of the fact that efficiency of certain
treatment methods depends upon the availability of a suitable pH value.
It may also be mentioned here that the fresh sewage is generally alkaline in nature (with pH more
than 7); but as time passes, its pH tends to fall due to production of acids by bacterial action in
anaerobic or nitrification processes. The pH, however, rises upon treatment of sewage.
4. Chloride Contents
Chlorides are generally found present in municipal sewage and are derived from the kitchen
wastes, human feces, and urinary discharges, etc. The normal chloride content of domestic sewage
is 120mg/l, whereas, the permissible chloride content for water supplies is 250mg/l. However,
large amounts of chlorides may enter from industries like ice cream plants, meat salting, etc., thus,
increasing the chloride contents of sewage. Hence, when the chloride content of a given sewage is
found to be high, it indicates the presence of industrial wastes or infiltration of sea water, thereby
indicating the strength of sewage.
The chloride content can be measured by titrating the wastewater (i.e. sewage) with standard silver
nitrate solution, using potassium chromate as indicator as is done for testing water supplies.
5. Dissolved gases
These are gases that are dissolved in wastewater. The specific gases and normal concentrations are
based upon the composition of the wastewater. Typical domestic wastewater contains oxygen in
relatively low concentrations, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide (if septic conditions exist).

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6. Nitrogen compounds
The type and amount of nitrogen present will vary from the raw wastewater to the treated effluent.
Nitrogen follows a cycle of oxidation and reduction.
The presence of nitrogen in sewage indicates the presence of organic matter, and may occur in one
or more of the following forms:
(a) Free ammonia, called ammonia nitrogen;
(b) Albuminoid nitrogen, called Organic nitrogen;
(c) Nitrites; and
(d) Nitrates
Most of the nitrogen in untreated wastewater will be in the forms of organic nitrogen and ammonia
nitrogen.
The free ammonia indicates the very first stage of decomposition of organic matter (thus indicating
recently, staled sewage); albuminoid nitrogen indicates quantity of nitrogen present in sewage
before the decomposition of organic matter is started; the nitrites indicate the presence of partly
decomposed (not fully oxidized) organic matter; and nitrates indicate the presence of fully oxidized
organic matter.
The nitrites thus indicate the intermediate stage of conversion of organic matter of sewage into
stable forms, thus indicating the progress of treatment. Their presence will show that treatment
given to sewage is still incomplete, and the sewage is stale. Whereas, the presence of nitrates
indicate the most stable form of nitrogenous matter contained in sewage, thus indicating the well
oxidized and treated sewage.
All these different forms of nitrogen, present in sewage, can be tested and measured easily as given
below:
The amount of free ammonia present in sewage can be easily measured by simply boiling the
sewage, and measuring the ammonia gas which is consequently liberated. The amount of
albuminoid nitrogen can be measured by adding strong alkaline solution of potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) to the already boiled(removing free ammonia) sewage sample and again
boiling the same, when ammonia gas is liberated, which is measured, so as to indicate the amount
of albuminoid nitrogen present in sewage. If however an un-boiled sample is used to add KMnO4
before boiling, the evolved ammonia gas will measure the sum total of ammonia nitrogen as well
as organic nitrogen; and is known as kjedahl nitrogen.
The amount of nitrites or nitrates present in sewage sample can be measured by colour matching
methods. For nitrites, the colour is developed by adding sulphonilic acid and naphthamine;
whereas for nitrates, the colour is developed by adding phenol-di-sulphonic acid and potassium
hydroxide. The colour developed in waste water is finally compared with the standard colours of
known concentrations.

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7. Phosphorus
This element is essential to biological activity and must be present in at least minimum quantities
or secondary treatment processes will not perform. Excessive amounts can cause stream damage
and excessive algal growth. Phosphorus will normally be in the range of 6 to 20mg/L. The removal
of phosphate compounds from detergents has had a significant impact on the amounts of
phosphorus in wastewater.
8. Presence of Fats, Oils and Greases

Greases, fats and oils are derived in sewage from the discharges of animals and vegetable matter,
or from the industries like garages, kitchens of hotels and restaurants, etc.
Such matter form scum on the top of the sedimentation tanks and clog the voids of the filtering
media. They thus interfere with the normal treatment methods, and hence need proper detection
and removal.
The amount of fats and greases in a sewage sample is determined by making use of the fact that
oils and greases are soluble in ether, and when the ether is evaporated, it leaves behind
ethersoluble-matter, which represents the quantity of fats and oils. Hence, in order to estimate their
amount a sample of sewage is first of all evaporated. The residual solids left are then mixed with
ether (hexane). The solution is then poured off and evaporated, leaving behind the fats and greases
as a residue which can be easily weighed.
9. Sulphides, Sulphates and Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

The determination of suphides and sulphates in sewage is rarely called far, although their presence
reflects aerobic, and/or anaerobic decomposition.
Sulphides and sulphates are formed due to the decomposition of various sulphur containing
substances present in sewage, this, decomposition also leads to evolution of hydrogen sulphide
gas, causing bad smells and odours, besides causing corrosion of concrete sewer pipes.
In aerobic digestion of sewage, the aerobic and facultative bacteria oxidize the sulphur and its
compounds present in sewage to initially form sulphides, which ultimately break down to form
sulphate ions (SO42-), which is a stable and an unobjectionable end product. The initial
decomposition is associated with formation of H2S gas, which also ultimately gets oxidized to
form sulphate ions.
In anaerobic digestion of sewage, however, the anaerobic and facultative bacteria reduce the
sulphur and its compounds into sulphides, with evolution of H2S gas along with methane and
carbon dioxide, thus causing very obnoxious smells and odours. If, however, the quantity of H2S
in raw sewage is below 1ppm, obnoxious odours are not felt.

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10. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
The determination of dissolved oxygen present in sewage is very important, because: while
discharging the treated sewage into some river stream, it is necessary to ensure at least 4ppm of
DO in it; as otherwise, fish are likely to be killed, creating nuisance near the vicinity of disposal.
To ensure this, DO tests are performed during sewage disposal treatment processes.
The DO test performed on sewage before treatment helps in indicating the condition of sewage. It
is well known by now that only very fresh sewage contains some dissolved oxygen, which is soon
depleted by aerobic decomposition. Also the dissolved oxygen in fresh sewage depends upon
temperature. If the temperature of sewage is more, the DO content will be less. The solubility of
oxygen in sewage is 95% of that in distilled water.
The DO content of sewage is generally determined by the Winkler's method which is an oxidation-
reduction process carried out chemically to liberate iodine in amount equivalent to the quantity of
dissolved oxygen originally present.
11. Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical oxygen demand is used as a measure of the quantity of oxygen required for oxidation
of biodegradable organic matter present in the wastewater by aerobic biochemical action. The rate
of oxygen consumption in a wastewater is affected by a number of variables: temperature, pH, the
presence of certain kinds of microorganisms, and the type of organic and inorganic material in the
wastewater. BOD directly affects the amount of DO within the wastewater.
The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the water body, leaving less oxygen
available to higher forms of aquatic life. The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for
low DO: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die.
BOD is one of the most important and useful parameters (measured characteristics) indicating the
organic strength of a wastewater. BOD measurement permits an estimate of the waste strength in
terms of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down the wastewater.
12. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD measures the total quantity of oxygen required for oxidation of organics into carbon dioxide
and water. The oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter present in a given wastewater can be
theoretically computed, if the organics present in wastewater are known. Thus, if the chemical
formulas and the concentrations of the chemical compounds present in water are known to us, we
can easily calculate the theoretical oxygen demand of each of these compounds by writing the
balanced reaction for the compound with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O and oxidized inorganic
components.
Hence, if the organic compounds and their concentrations are known, the theoretical oxygen
demand of the water can be accurately calculated, but it is virtually impossible to know the details
of the organic compounds present in any natural raw water or a waste water.

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13. Total Organic Carbon
Another important method of expressing organic matter is in terms of its carbon content. Carbon
is the primary constituent of organic matter, and hence the chemical formula of every organic
compound will reflect the extent of carbon present in that compound. Known concentrations of
such chemical compounds in a given wastewater will thus enable us to theoretically calculate the
carbon present in that wastewater per liter of solution.
C. Biological Characteristics
The bacterial characteristics of sewage are due to the presence of bacteria and other living
microorganisms, such as algae, fungi, protozoa, etc. The former are more active.
Most of the vast number of bacteria present in sewage (of the order of 5 - 50 billion per liter of
sewage) is harmless non-pathogenic bacteria. They are useful and helpful in bringing oxidation
and decomposition of sewage. A little number of bacteria, however, is disease producing
pathogens, and it is they who constitute the real danger to the health of the public.
In case of sewage, the routine bacteriological tests as performed on water supply samples are
generally not performed, because of the high concentration of bacteria present in it. But at the
times of epidemiological investigations, certain tests may be useful for separating the pathogenic
bacteria. The bacteriological counts may also be useful where the treatment processes are likely to
be affected adversely by bactericidal industrial wastewaters.

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Table 2-1 Summary of typical domestic wastewater characteristics
Concentration
Contaminants
Unit Weak Medium Strong
Total solids (TS) mg/l 350 720 1200
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/l 250 500 850
Fixed mg/l 145 300 525
Volatile mg/l 105 200 325
Suspended solids mg/l 100 220 350
Fixed mg/l 20 55 75
Volatile mg/l 80 165 275
Settleable solids mg/l 5 10 20
BOD5, 20oc mg/l 110 220 400
TOC mg/l 80 160 290
COD mg/l 250 500 1000
Nitrogen (total as N) mg/l 204 40 85
Organic mg/l 81 153 35
Free ammonia mg/l 12 25 50
Nitrites mg/l 0 0 0
Nitrates mg/l 0 0 0
Phosphorus (total as P) mg/l 4 8 15
Organic mg/l 13 3 5
Inorganic mg/l 3 5 10
Chlorides mg/l 30 50 100
Sulfate mg/l 20 30 50
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/l 50 100 200
Grease mg/l 50 100 150
Total coliforms No/100 ml 106 - 107 107- 108 107- 109
Volatile organic compounds µg/l < 100 100 - 400 > 400
Source: Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy Inc., Wastewater Engineering, 3rd edition.
2.2 Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewater
Contaminants in wastewaters are usually a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds.
It is usually impractical, if not nearly impossible to obtain complete chemical analysis of most
wastewaters.
However, since it is comparatively easy to measure the amount of oxygen used by the bacteria as
they oxidize the wastewater, the concentration of organic matter in the wastewater can easily be

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expressed in terms of the amount of oxygen required for its oxidation. The most important standard
methods for analysis of organic contaminants are:
1. Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
This is the theoretical amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic fraction of the wastewater
completely to carbon dioxide and water. The equation for the total oxidation of, say, glucose is:
With C = 12, H = 1 and O = 16, C6H12O6 is 180 and 6O2 is 192; we can thus calculate that the
ThOD of, for example, a 300 mg/l solution of glucose is ∗ 300 = 321 mg/l. Because
wastewater is so complex in nature its ThOD cannot be calculated, but in practice it is
approximated by the chemical oxygen demand.
2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of a raw water or a wastewater is determined by performing
a laboratory test on the given wastewater with a strong oxidant like dichromate solution; and the
theoretical computations of COD are only performed on water solutions prepared with the known
amounts of specific organic compounds in laboratory situations to compare the theoretical and test
results, and to establish the limitations of the test procedures.
The laboratory determination of COD, as said above, lies in using a strong oxidant like potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or potassium permanganate (KMnO4) solution to stabilize the organic
matter to determine the molecular oxygen used from the oxidant solution in oxidizing the organic
matter present in the given wastewater.
In order to perform this test, a known quantity of wastewater is mixed with a known quantity of
standard solution of potassium dichromate, and the mixture is heated. The organic matter is
oxidized by K2Cr2O7 (in the presence of H2SO4 (helps to digest/break down the complex
molecules)). The resulting solution of K2Cr2O7 is titrated with standard ferrous ammonium
sulphate [Fe(NH4)2.(SO4)2.6H2O)], and the oxygen used in oxidizing the wastewater is determined.
This is called the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and is a measure of organic matter present in
sewage.
The advantage of COD measurements is that they are obtained very quickly (within 3 hours), but
they have the disadvantages that they do not give any information on the proportion of the
wastewater that can be oxidized by bacteria, nor on the rate at which bio-oxidation occurs.
3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Oxygen demand of wastewaters is exerted by three classes of materials:

(1) Carbonaceous organic materials usable as a source of food by aerobic organisms
(2) oxidizable nitrogen derived from nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen compounds which
serve as food for specific bacteria (e.g., Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter).

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(3) Chemical reducing compounds, e.g., ferrous ion (Fe2+), sulfites (SO32-), and sulfide (S2-)
which are oxidized by dissolved oxygen.
For domestic sewage, nearly all oxygen demand is due to carbonaceous organic materials and is
determined by BOD dilution test. For effluents subjected to biological treatment, a considerable
part of the oxygen demand may be due to nitrification.
BOD Dilution Test
Procedure is given below.
1. Prepare several dilutions of the sample to be analyzed with distilled water of high purity.
Recommended dilutions depend on estimated concentration of contaminants responsible for
oxygen demand. For highly contaminated waters, dilution ratios (ml of diluted sample/ml of
original sample) may be of 100:1. For river waters, the sample may be taken without dilution
for low pollution streams, and in other cases dilution ratios of 4:1 may be utilized.
2. Incubation bottles (250ml to 300ml capacity), with ground-glass stoppers are utilized.
In the BOD bottle one places:
(a) the diluted sample (i.e., the “substrate")
(b) a seed of microorganisms (usually the supernatant liquor from domestic sewage),
and (c) Nutrient solution for the microorganisms.
This solution contains sodium and potassium phosphates ammonium chloride (nitrogen and
phosphorus are elements needed as nutrients for microorganisms). The pH of the solution in
the BOD bottle should be about 7.0 (neutral). Phosphate solution utilized is a buffer. For
samples containing caustic alkalinity or acidity, neutralization to about pH 7 is made with
dilute H2SO4 or NaOH prior to the BOD test.
For each BOD bottle a control bottle which does not contain the substrate is also prepared.
Bottles are incubated at 20°c for 5 days. Light must be excluded from the incubator to prevent
algal growth that may produce oxygen in the bottle. The DO content before the incubation and
after the incubation is thus determined. The difference between concentrations of dissolved
oxygen (mg/liter) in control bottle and in sample bottle corresponds to the oxygen utilized in
biochemical oxidation of contaminants.
When the dilution water is not seeded:
Where, DO1 – dissolved oxygen of the diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/l
DO2 – dissolved oxygen of the diluted sample after 5 day incubation at 20ºc, mg/l

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DOS1 – dissolved oxygen of seed control before incubation, mg/l DOS1 – dissolved
oxygen of seed control after incubation, mg/l f – fraction of seeded dilution water
volume in sample to volume of seeded dilution
water in seed control
P – fraction of wastewater sample volume to total combined volume
As pointed out earlier, this test is conducted to determine the oxygen demand for the first five days
on a number of samples, and their average value is taken as the BOD5 at the test temperature.
If the oxygen supply is made available for periods more than 5 days, it is found that the oxygen is
consumed rapidly for 6 or 7 days, and then slows down until the end of about 20 days or more.
This value is called ultimate BOD denoted as BODu.
Thereafter, it may again accelerate for some time, and again slow down to a very low rate for an
indefinite period. The first demand during the first 20 days occurs due to the oxidation of organic
matter, and is called carbonaceous demand or first stage demand or initial demand. The latter
demand occurs due to biological oxidation of ammonia, and is called nitrogenous demand or
second-stage demand.
A typical BOD curve (BOD vs. incubation time) for oxidation of carbonaceous materials is shown
in Figure 2-2 In fact, a sanitary engineer is more concerned with the first stage demand, since the
oxygen consumed in its satisfaction is not recoverable. Hence, the term BOD is usually used to
mean the first stage BOD, i.e. the demand due to the presence of carbonaceous matter alone.
Figure 2-2 Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials
a. Ratio of COD and BOD

The value of BODu is generally lower than that for COD obtained by the standard dichromate
oxidation method. The reasons are that:
(1) many organic compounds which are oxidized by K2Cr2O7 are not biochemically oxidizable

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(2) certain inorganic ions such as sulfide (S2-), thiosulfates (S2O32-), sulfites (SO32-), nitrites (NO2-
), and ferrous ion (Fe2+) are oxidized by K2Cr2O7, thus accounting for inorganic COD which
is not detected by the BOD test.
b. Effect of Seeding and Acclimation of Seed on the BOD Test

One of the most frequent reasons for unreliable BOD values is utilization of an insufficient amount
of microorganism seed. Another serious problem for industrial wastes is acclimation of seed. For
many industrial wastes, the presence of toxic materials interferes with growth of the
microorganism population. BOD curves obtained exhibit a time lag period.
Figure 2-3 Lag period in BOD test

Low BOD values are obtained if adequate corrective action is not taken. It becomes necessary to
acclimate the microorganism seed to waste. This is achieved by starting with a sample of settled
domestic sewage which contains a large variety of microorganisms, and adding a small amount of
industrial effluent. Air is bubbled through this mixture. The operation is performed in bench scale
reactors of either continuous or batch type.
The process is repeated with gradual increase in the proportion of industrial waste to domestic
sewage, until a microbial culture acclimated to the specific industrial waste is developed. This may
be a long and difficult procedure for very toxic industrial wastewaters. When an acclimated culture
has been developed, the BOD curve does not present a lag period.

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c. Effect of Presence of Algae on the BOD Test
Presence of algae in the wastewater being tested affects the BOD test. If the sample is incubated
in the presence of light, low BOD values are obtained owing to production of oxygen by
photosynthesis, which satisfies part of the oxygen demand. On the other hand, if incubation is
performed in darkness, algae survive for a while. Thus, short-term BOD determinations show the
effect of oxygen on them. After a period in the dark, algae die and algal cells contribute to the
increase of total organic content of the sample, thus leading to high BOD values. Therefore, the
effect of algae on the BOD test is difficult to evaluate.
2.3 Mathematical Model for the BOD Curve
It is desirable to represent the BOD curve by a mathematical model. From kinetic considerations,
the mathematical model utilized to portray the rate of oxygen utilization is that of a first-order
reaction. Figure 2-4 reveals that the rate of oxygen utilization, given by the tangent to the curve at
a given incubation time decreases as concentration of organic matter remaining unoxidized
becomes gradually smaller.
The rate at which BOD is satisfied at any time, (i.e. the rate of deoxygenation) depends on
temperature and also on the amount and nature of organic matter present in sewage at that time.
Figure 2-4 1st stage BOD curve

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Thus, at a certain temperature, the rate of deoxygenation is assumed to be directly proportional to
the amount of organic matter present in sewage at that time (there is proportionality between the
rate of oxygen utilization and that of destruction of organic matter by biological oxidation); i.e.
Now, L is the organic matter present at the start of BOD reaction, (expressed as oxygen
equivalent) and Lt is the organic matter left after t days; which means that during t days,
the quantity of organic matter oxidized = L - Lt.
If Yt represents the total amount of organic matter oxidized in t days (i.e. the BOD of t days),
then we have

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Hence, the ultimate first state BOD (Yu) of a given sewage is equa1 to the initial oxygen equivalent
of the organic matter present in this sewage (L). This is a fixed quantity, and does not depend upon
the temperature of oxidation.
The value of KD however, determines the speed of the BOD reaction, without influencing the
ultimate BOD, as shown in Figure 2-5:
Figure 2-5 BOD exertion as a function of KD

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The figure shows that the coefficient of deoxygenation is different at different temperatures, but
finally, Yu is constant.
It is found to vary with temperature of sewage, and this relationship is approximately given by the
equation
Where, KD(20°) = Deoxygenation constant at 20°c. Its numerical value varies between (0.05 to 0.2)
per day depending upon the nature of the organic matter present in sewage.
Simple compounds such as sugars and starches are easily utilized by the micro-
organisms, and have a high KD rate, while complex molecules such as phenols
are difficult to assimilate and hence have low KD values. Some typical KD
values are given in Table 2-2.
KD(T) = Deoxygenation constant at temperature Tºc.
Table 2-2 Typical values of KD at 20°c for various types of waters and wastewaters
Water type KD value per day
Tap waters < 0.05
Surface waters 0.05 - 0.1
Municipal wastewaters 0.1 - 0.15
Treated sewage effluents 0.05 - 0.1
Equation 2.8 shows that KD will be higher at higher temperatures, which means that the speed at
which BOD is consumed in the oxidation of the organic matter, is higher at higher temperatures.
This means that the entire carbonaceous organic matter will get oxidized quickly and in lesser time
at higher temperatures.
Equation 2.6 is called the first stage equation of BOD reaction, and is represented graphically by
the curve OAB of Figure 2-6.
Figure 2-6 Combined BOD curve

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By comparing Figure 2-4 and Figure 2-6, it can be seen that the curve of Figure 2-6 is nothing but
the reciprocal of curve in Figure 2-4. This is because the oxygen used in satisfying BOD is in direct
ratio of the amount of organic matter oxidized, which means reciprocal of the curve of
Figure 2-4.
The portion AC of the curve of Figure 2-6 represents the nitrification stage, which follows the
carbonaceous stage, so that the BOD curve for the complete oxidation is represented by OAC.
Note: The equations given above are only for the important first stage BOD, and have nothing to
do with the second stage BOD, with which we are not concerned here.
Laboratory estimation of KD value
The BOD rate constant KD used in eqn. (2.6) can be computed from BOD values measured at
various times. The sewage samples are tested for BOD at different times (t), such as after 0.5, 1.0,
1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0 days. A graph is now plotted between the values of time t in days on X-axis,
Where, KD = rate constant per day

A = slope of the line.
B = intercept of the line on Y-axis.

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Example 2-1
Compute
(a) the theoretical oxygen demand; and
(b) the organic carbon concentration of a water that contains the following chemical compounds:
(i) glucose (C6H12O6) = 200 mg/l ; and
(ii) benzene (C6H6) = 25 mg/l
(c) What is the formula weight of the organic matter in this solution?
Example 2-2
The BOD5 of a wastewater is 150mg/l at 20°c. The k value is known to be 0.23 per day. What
would BOD8 be, if the test was run at 15°?
Example 2-3
The 5 day 30°c BOD of sewage sample is 1l0mg/l. Calculate its 5 days 20°c BOD. Assume the
deoxygenation constant at 20°c K20 as 0.1.
Example 2-4
Calculate 1 day 37ºc BOD of sewage sample whose 5 day 20°c BOD is 100 mg/l. Assume K D at
20°c as 0.1.
Example 2-5
The BOD5 of a waste has been measured as 600mg/l. If K = 0.23/day, what is the ultimate BOD u
of the waste. What proportion of the BODu would remain unoxidised after 20 days.
Example 2-6
The following observations were made on a 3% dilution of waste water.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) of aerated water used for dilution = 3.0 mg/l
Dissolved oxygen (DO) of diluted sample after 5 days incubation = 0.8 mg/l
Dissolved oxygen (DO) of original sample = 0.6 mg/l.
Calculate the BOD of 5 days and ultimate BOD of the sample assuming that the deoxygenation
coefficient at test temp. is 0.1.

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3- PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT
METHODS
3.1 Preliminary Treatment
Preliminary treatment consists solely in separating the floating materials (like dead animals, tree
branches, papers, pieces of rags, wood, etc.), and also the heavy settleable inorganic solids. It also
helps in removing the oils and greases, etc. from the sewage. This treatment reduces the BOD of
the wastewater, by about 15 to 30%. The processes used are:
- Screening for removing floating papers, rags, clothes, etc
- Grit chambers or Detritus tanks for removing grit and sand; and
- Skimming tanks for removing oils and greases
3.1.1 Screening
Screening is the very first operation carried out at a sewage treatment plant, and consists of passing
the sewage through different types of screens, so as to trap and remove the floating matter, such
as pieces of cloth, paper, wood, cork, hair, fiber, kitchen refuse, fecal solids, etc. present in sewage.
These floating materials, if not removed, will choke the pipes, or adversely affect the working of
the sewage pumps. Thus, the main idea of providing screens is to protect the pumps and other
equipments from the possible damages due to the floating matter of the sewage.
Screens should preferably be placed before the grit chambers (described in the next article).
However, if the quality of 'grit' is not of much importance, as in the case of land fillings, etc.,
screens may even be placed after the grit chambers. They may sometimes be accommodated in the
body of the grit chambers themselves.
1. Types of Screens, their Designs and Cleaning

Depending upon the size of the openings, screens may be classified as coarse screens, medium
screens, and fine screens.
(i) Coarse screens are also known as Racks, and the spacing between the bars (i.e. opening
size) is about 50 mm or more. These screens do help in removing large floating objects from
sewage. They will collect about 6 liters of solids per million liter of sewage. The material
separated by coarse screens, usually consists of rags, wood, paper, etc., which will not
putrefy, and may be disposed of by incineration, burial, or dumping.
(ii) In medium screens, the spacing between bars is about 6 to 40 mm. These screens will
ordinarily collect 30 to 90 liters of material per million liter of sewage. The screenings
usually contain some quantity of organic material, which may putrefy and become offensive,
and must, therefore, be disposed of by incineration, or burial (not by dumping). Rectangular
shaped coarse and medium screens are now-a-days widely used at sewage treatment plants.
They are made of steel bars, fixed parallel to one another at desired spacing on a rectangular
steel frame, and are called bar screens. The screens are set in a masonry or R.C.C. chamber,
called the screen chamber.
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Now-a-days, these screens are generally kept inclined at about 30 to 60° to the direction of flow,
so as to increase the opening area and to reduce the flow velocity; and thus making the screening
more effective. While designing the screens, clear openings should have sufficient total area, so
that the velocity through them is not more than 0.8 to 1m/sec. This limit placed on velocity limits
the head loss through the screens, and, thus, reduces the opportunity for screenings to be pushed
through the screens.
The material collected on bar screens can be removed either manually or mechanically. Manual
cleaning is practiced at small plants with hand operated rakes. The inclined screens help in their
cleaning by the upward stroke of the rake. Large plants, however, use mechanically operated rakes,
which move over the screens, either continuously or intermittently.
The cleaning of screens by rakes will be hindered by cross bars, if at all provided. They are,
therefore, generally avoided.
Screens are sometimes classified as fixed or movable, depending upon whether the screens are
stationary or capable of motion.
Fixed screens are permanently set in position. A most commonly used bar type screen is shown in
Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 Fixed bar type coarse or medium screen

Movable screens are stationary during their operating periods. But they can be lifted up bodily and
removed from their positions for the purpose of cleaning. A common movable bar medium screen
is a 3-sided cage with a bottom of perforated plates. It is mainly used in deep pits ahead of pumps.
(iii) Fine Screens have perforations of 1.5 mm to 3 mm in size.
The installation of these screens proves very effective, and they remove as much as 20% of the
suspended solids from sewage. These screens, however, get clogged very often, and need frequent
cleaning. They are, therefore, used only for treating the industrial wastewaters, or for treating those
municipal wastewaters, which are associated with heavy amounts of industrial wastewaters. These
screens will considerably reduce the load on further treatment units. Brass or Bronze plates or
wire meshes are generally used for constructing fine screens. The metal used should be resistant
to rust and corrosion
The fine screens may be disc or drum type, and are operated continuously by electric motors.
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Figure 3-2 Reinsch-Wurl screen (disc type fine screen)

Example 3-1
Estimate the screen requirement for a plant treating a peak flow of 6.0 million liters per day of
sewage.
Solution
Assuming that the velocity through the screens (at peak flow) is not allowed to exceed 0.8m/sec,
The net area of screen openings required
Using rectangular steel bars in the screen, having 1cm width, and placed at 5cm clear spacing, The
gross area of the screen required:
Hence, a coarse screen of 1.2 m2 area is required.

While designing the screen, we have also to design its cleaning frequency. The cleaning frequency
is governed by the head loss through the screen. The more the screen openings are clogged, more
will be the head loss through the screen. Generally, not more than half the screen clogging is

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allowed. To know whether the screen has been clogged and needs cleaning, we can check or
measure the head loss.
The head loss through the cleaned screen and half-cleaned screen can be computed as follows:
Velocity through the screen = 0.8m/sec. Velocity
above the screen
This shows that when the screens are totally clean, the head loss is negligible i.e. about 1.3cm
only; whereas, the head loss shoots up to about 15cm at half the clogging. The screens should
therefore be cleaned frequently, as to keep the head loss within the allowable range.
2. Comminutors
Comminutors or Shredders are the patented devices, which break the larger sewage solids to about
6mm in size, when the sewage is screened through them. Such a device consists of a revolving
slotted drum, through which the sewage is screened (Figure 3-3). Cutters mounted on the drum,
shear the collected screenings against a comb, until they are small enough to pass through 5 mm
to 10 mm wide slots of the drum. These are usually arranged in pairs to facilitate repairs and
maintenance. Comminutors are of recent origin, and eliminate the problem of disposal of
screenings, by reducing the solids to a size which can be processed elsewhere in the plant. They
should always be preceded by grit chambers to prevent their excessive wear. Such devises are
used only in developed countries like, and generally not adopted in our country.

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Figure 3-3 Comminutor or shredder
3. Disposal of Screenings
The material separated by screens is called the screenings. It contains 85 to 90% of moisture and
other floating matter. It may also contain some organic load which may putrefy, causing bad smells
and nuisance. To avoid such possibilities, the screenings are disposed of either by burning, or by
burial, or by dumping. The dumping is avoided when screenings are from medium and fine
screens, and are likely to contain organic load, as pointed out earlier. The screenings may also
sometimes be broken up by a Comminutor and then passed on to the grit chamber.
Burning of the screenings is done in the incinerators, similar to those used for burning garbage.
The process of burning is called Incineration. The screenings are first dried with sun's heat by
spreading on ground or by compressing through hydraulic or other presses, so as to reduce the
moisture content to about 60%. The incineration is carried out at temperatures of about 760 to
815°c. This will avoid bad smells.
The screenings may also be disposed of by burial. The process is technically called composting.
In this process, the screenings are buried in 1 to 1.5m deep trenches, and then covered with 0.3 to
0.45m of porous earth. In due course of time, oxidation-reduction of screenings will take place,
and the contents can be used as manure.
Another method of disposing of the screenings is by dumping them in low lying areas (away from
the residential areas) or in large bodies of water, such as sea. Dumping in sea will be suitable only
where strong forward currents do exist to take the dumped material away from the shore line. The
dumping on land for raising low lying areas is also adopted only when screenings are from the
course screens and not from the medium or fine screens, and as such not containing much organic
load.
Digestion of screenings along with the sewage sludge in a sludge digestion tank has also been
tried, but not found successful.
3.1.2 Grit Removal Basins

Grit removal basins, such as Grit chambers or Grit channels or Detritus tanks are the sedimentation
basins placed in front of the wastewater treatment plant. The grit chamber remove the inorganic
particles (specific gravity about 2.65 and nominal diameter of 0.15 to 0.20mm or larger) such as
sand, gravel, grit, egg shells, bones, and other non-putresible materials that may clog channels or
damage pumps due to abrasion, and to prevent their accumulation in sludge digesters.
Grit chambers are, in fact, nothing but like sedimentation tanks, designed to separate the intended
heavier inorganic materials by the process of sedimentation due to gravitational forces, and to pass
forward the lighter organic material. (The organic material is not allowed to settle in this process,
as otherwise, the organic matter gets entangled with the inorganic matter, causing septicity of
sewage and requiring unnecessary labor and expenses for disposal of removal.) Actually, grit will
also include smaller mineral particles that may settle, as well as nonputrescible organic matter,
such as rags, coffee grounds, vegetable cuttings, ash clinker, wood pieces, and tea leaves. Even
though, some of the grit components, such as coffee grounds are organic, they are essentially non-

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biodegradable over time spans involved here in grit collection and disposal. The quality and
quantity of grit in the sewage determine the design factors and choice of grit removal method.
The amount of grit collected is a function of the removal device, its operation, and the quantity of
grit in the sewage, and therefore, it varies over a wider range. The grit quantity may vary between
0.004 - 0.037m3/1000m3 of sewage for separate sewage system; while this may range between
0.004 - 0.180 m3/1000 m3 for combined sewage system.
Generally, grit chambers are designed to remove all particles with a nominal diameter of 0.02mm
having settling velocity of about 2.3cm/s (at 10ºc); although some grit removal devices are
designed to remove 0.15mm sand particles having settling velocity of about 1.3cm/s (at 10°c). It
is not at all desirable to remove any organic matter in grit chambers, because no further treatment
of removed grit is provided. The grit chamber must hence, be designed to scour the lighter organic
particles, and while the heavier grit particles remain settled.
Grit chambers or Grit channels, as they are sometimes called, are designed to have constant
velocity horizontal flow at varying discharges. The constant velocity is achieved by providing a
velocity control section, such as a proportional flow weir at the effluent end of a rectangular
chamber; or a parshall flume (venturi flume) in a parabolic (or V) shaped chamber, as discussed
below:
i. Constant Velocity Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers
Such a grit channel is an enlarged channel or a long basin, in which the cross-section is increased,
so as to reduce the flow velocity of sewage to such an extent that the heavy inorganic materials do
settle down by gravity, and the lighter organic materials remain in suspension, and, thus, go out
along with the effluent of the grit basin. The important point in the design of the grit basins is that
the flow velocity should neither be too low as to cause the settling of lighter organic matter, nor
should it be so high as not to cause the settlement of the entire silt and grit present in sewage. The
flow velocity should also be enough to scour out the settled organic matter, and reintroduce it into
the flow stream. Such a critical scouring velocity is, infact, given by the modified Shield's formula,
which states that
Critical scour velocity
For grit particles of 0.2mm (d), the above formula gives critical velocity values of 0.11 to
0.25m/sec. This fixes the limits for optimum flow velocity for design of grit basins. In practice, a
flow velocity of about 0.25 to 0.3m/sec is adopted for the design of grit basins.
In order to prevent large increase in flow velocity at peak hours due to increased discharge, and
thus, to avoid the scouring of the settled grit particles from the bottom, it is preferable to design
the grit chambers for DWF (Dry weather flow), and to provide additional units for taking increased
discharge at peak hours. If, however, a single unit is to be designed, or there are large variations
in discharge, then the grit chamber is designed for generating optimum velocity at peak discharge
and a velocity control section, such as a proportional flow weir or a parshall flume venturi flume),

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is provided at the lower (effluent) end of the grit channel, which helps in varying the flow area of
the section in direct proportion to the flow, and thus, helps to maintain a constant velocity in the
channel (within the permissible limits of ±5 to 10% over the designed value), even at varying
discharges.
When a proportioning flow weir is used as a velocity control device, then a rectangular
crosssection is required for the grit channel; but however, when a parshall flume is used as a
velocity control device, then a parabolic cross-section is required for the grit channel, in order to
keep the flow velocity constant, as shown in Figure 3-4(a) and (b).
Figure 3-4 Velocity control sections for horizontal grit channels
1. Design of a Rectangular Grit Chamber provided with a Proportioning Weir at Effluent

End
The depth and detention time provided for a grit basin are inter dependent, and are based on the
considerations of settling velocity of inorganic particles through water. A detention time of about
40 to 60 seconds is generally sufficient for a water depth of about 1 to 1.8m. After fixing the depth
and the detention time, we can easily design the dimensions of a rectangular chamber, as its length
will then be equal to velocity * detention time.
As stated earlier, generally two to three separate chambers in parallel (as shown in Figure 3-5)
should be provided; one to pass the low flow, and the other to pass (along with the first of course)
the high flow. This will also help in manual cleaning of the chambers, as one unit can work, while
the other is shut down for cleaning.

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Figure 3-5 Modem rectangular grit chamber (not showing scraper arrangements)
The grit chambers can be cleaned periodically at about 3 weeks interval, either manually,
mechanically or hydraulically hand cleaning is done only in case of smaller plants (of capacity less
than about 4.5 million liters per day), while mechanical or hydraulic cleaning is adopted for larger
plants. In manual cleaning, grit is removed by shovels, etc., by hand; in mechanical cleaning, grit
is removed with the help of machines; and in hydraulic cleaning, grit is removed by the force of
water jet directed from a central point and removed through the pipes in the side walls or bottom
of the chamber.
The removed grit may contain some organic matter, and can be washed prior to its disposal, if
necessary, by using certain patented machines, and the wash water returned to the plant influent.
Washed grit may still contain about 1 to 5% of putrescible organic matter.
The silt and grit, etc. removed by the grit chambers can be easily disposed of either by burial or
burning (incineration) or for raising law lying areas by dumping. It cannot be used for preparation
of concrete, as it contains sufficient organic matter.
Example 3-2
A grit chamber is designed to remove particles with a diameter of 0.2mm, specific gravity 2.65.
Settling velocity for these particles has been found to range from 0.016 to 0.022m/sec, depending
on their shape factor. A flow through velocity of 0.3m/sec will be maintained by proportioning
weir. Determine the channel dimensions for a maximum wastewater flow of 10,000cu m/day.
Solution
Let us provide a rectangular channel section, since a proportional flow weir is provided for
controlling velocity of flow.
Horizontal velocity of flow = Vh = 0.3m/sec.
Settling velocity is between 0.016 to 0.022 m/sec, and hence let it be 0.02m/sec.

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Q = velocity ∗ crosssection = V ∗ A
Where, Q = 10,000cu m/day = 0.116m3/sec Therefore,
0.116 = 0.3 ∗ A
A m
Assuming a depth of 1m, we have the width (B) of the basin as
1 ∗ B = 0.385
B = 0.385m ≅ 0.4m
Settling velocity
Vs = 0.02m/sec
Depth of the basin 1
Detention time = == 50sec
Settling velocity 0.02
Length of the tank = V ∗ Detention time = 0.3m/s ∗ 50s = 15m
Hence, use a rectangular tank, with dimensions:
Length (L = 15m) Width (B = 0.4m) and Depth (D = 1.0m)
Example 3-3
Design a suitable grit chamber cum Detritus tank for a sewage treatment plant getting a dry weather
flow from a separate sewerage system @4001/s. Assume the flow velocity through the tank as
0.2m/sec and detention period of 2 minutes. The maximum flow may be assumed to be three times
of dry weather flow.
Solution
The length of the tank
= Velocity ∗ Detention time = 0.2 ∗ (2 ∗ 60) = 24m
Assuming that each detritus tank is designed for passing Dry Weather Flow (DWF), The
discharge passing through each tank
= 400l/s = 0.4m /sec
Therefore, Cross-sectional area required
Assuming the water depth in the tank to be 1.2m,

The width of the tank
Area of cross section 2
m
Hence, use a Detritus tank with 24m*1.7m*1.2m size.
At the top, a free-board of 0.3m may be provided; and at the bottom, a dead space depth of

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0.45m for collection of detritus may be provided.
Thus, the overall depth of the tank = 1.2 + 0.3 + 0.45 = 1.95m.
The tank will be 1.7m wide up to 1.5m depth, and then the sides will slope down to form an
elongated trough of 24m length and 0.8m width at the bottom with rounded corners, as shown in
figure below.
2. Design of Parabolic Grit Chamber provided with a Parshall Flume i. Parshall

Flume
A parshall flume, also called a venturi-flume, is a horizontally constricted vertical throat in an open
channel, as shown in Figure 3-6. Such a venturi-flume, as we know, can be used as a discharge
measuring device, and also as a velocity control device. This device is made use of for its latter
purpose in a grit channel. .
The venturi-flume, as a velocity control device, is preferable (to the proportional flow weir, etc.,
as it involves negligible head loss, and can also work under submerged conditions for certain
limits.

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Figure 3-6 Parshall flume
These limits of submergence are: 50% in case of 0 .15m throat width, and 70% for wider throat
widths up to 1m. Another advantage of a venturi-flume is, that: one control section can be installed
for 2 to 3 grit chambers. Moreover, the venturi-flume is a self cleaning device, and there is no
problem of clogging.
The discharge passing through a parshall flume of the type shown in Figure 3-6 is related to the
water head (i.e. upstream water depth) by the formula:
Where, W = the width of the throat in m

Q = Flow in m3/sec
Ha = Depth of flow in upstream leg of flume at one third point in m.
The above equation is applicable to flumes of 0.3m to 3m in width.
Typical design dimensions for parshall flumes are given in Table 3-1.

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Table 3-1 Standard dimensions for parshall flumes (with respect to Figure 3-6) in cm
Flow range maximum in
Throat width W A A1 C C1 F G K N
106 l/sec
Up to 5 7.5 46.0 45.0 17.5 25.5 15.0 60.0 2.5 5.6
5 - 30 15.0 61.0 60.0 31.5 39.1 30.0 60.0 7.5 11.3
30 - 45 22.5 86.5 85.0 37.5 56.6 30.0 75.0 7.5 11.3
45 - 170 30.0 135.0 132.2 60.0 83.1 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
170 - 250 45.0 142.5 139.7 75.0 101.0 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
250 - 350 60.0 150.0 147.2 90.0 118.8 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
350 - 500 90.0 165.0 161.9 120.0 154.7 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
500 - 700 120.0 180.0 176.6 150.0 190.6 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
700 - 850 150.0 210.0 206.0 210.0 262.5 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
850 - 1400 240.0 240.0 235.3 270.0 334.4 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
ii. Parabolic Grit Channel
In order to maintain a constant horizontal flow velocity ( ) through a grit channel, we have to
ensure that the cross-sectional area of the channel changes with the changed discharge in direct
proportion to the change in discharge. Thus, if x is taken along the width side and y is taken along
the depth side of a channel x-section, then the cross-section must be such that
For a parshall flume, n = 1.5,

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Example 3-4
Design a grit chamber for a horizontal velocity of 25cm/sec and a flow which ranges from a
minimum of 25000m3/day to a maximum of 100,000m3/day. Average flow is 62500m3/day.
Solution
For all discharges, we can easily work out, ‘A’ values corresponding to peak, maximum, average,
and minimum discharges. Therefore,

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Where, HL is the energy or head loss in jump

Assuming that the head loss in control section (HL) is 10% of the velocity head in the control
section, we have

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The discharge through the control section is:
Let us use throat width W = 0.15m.

For other flow conditions:

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Using the above used two formulas,
Knowing A at various discharges, already computed, we can find B at different discharges, because
D is known at different discharges.
The values of B are, thus, calculated for other discharges, as shown in table below.
*Limited to 1.5m.
With B and D values, computed in col. (6) and (7) of the above table, we can draw the parabolic
section, which is approximated to a practical trapezoidal section, as shown in Figure 3-7.

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Figure 3-7 Grit channel section
3. Detritus Tanks
Detritus tanks are nothing but rectangular grit chambers, designed to flow with a smaller flow
velocity (of about 0.09m/sec) and longer detention periods (about 3 to 4 minutes) so as to separate
out not only the larger grit, etc., but also to separate out the very fine sand particles, etc. Due to
this, a large amount of organic matter will also settle out along with the inorganic grit, sand, etc.
This organic material is then separated from the grit by control of currents in the tank through
baffles, or by controlled aeration of the flow through the tank. The rising air bubbles will then
separate the lighter organic matter from the descending grit. The grit is removed continuously by
means of scraper mechanism. All other details of detritus tanks remain the same as those of a
rectangular grit chamber.
3.1.3 Tanks for Removing Oils and Grease

1. Skimming Tanks
Skimming tanks are sometimes employed for removing oils and grease from the sewage, and
placed before the sedimentation-tanks. They are, therefore, used where sewage contains too much
of grease or oils which include fats, waxes, soaps, fatty acids, etc. These materials may enter into
the sewage from the kitchens of restaurants and, houses, from motor garages, oil refineries, soap
and candle factories, etc. They are, thus, normally present in large amounts in the industrial
wastewaters.
If such greasy and oily matter is not removed from the sewage before it enters further treatment
units, it may form unsightly and odorous scums on the surface of the settling tanks, or interfere
with the activated sludge treatment process, and inhibit biological growth on the trickling filters.
These oil and greasy materials may be removed in a skimming tank, in which air is blown by an
aerating device through the bottom. The rising air tends to coagulate and congeal (solidify) the
grease, and cause it to rise to the surface (being pushed in separate compartments), from where it
is removed.

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The typical details of a skimming tank are shown in Figure 3-8. It consists of a long trough shaped
structure divided into two or three lateral compartments by means of vertical baffle walls (having
slots in them) for a short distance below the sewage surface, as shown. The baffle walls help in
pushing the rising coagulated greasy material into the side compartments (called stilling
compartments). The rise of oils and grease is brought about by blowing compressed air into the
sewage from diffusers placed at the bottom of the tank.
The collected greasy materials are removed (i.e. skimmed off either by hand or by some
mechanical equipment. It may then be disposed of either by burning or burial.
Sewage enters the tank from one end, flows through longitudinally, and finally goes out through a
narrow inclined duct, as shown. This is so narrow that the suspended heavier particles are carried
up its slope and out of the tank. A detention period of about 3 to 5 minutes is usually sufficient,
and the amount of compressed air required is about 300 to 6000m3 per million liters of sewage.
The surface area required for the tank can be found out by using the formula:
Where, q = rate of flow of sewage in m3/day

Vr = minimum rising velocity of greasy material to be removed in m/minute
= 0.25m/minute in most cases
The efficiency of a skimming tank can be increased considerably (three to four times) by passing
chlorine gas (2mg/liter of sewage) along with the compressed air. Chlorine may also be added as
a solution with the sewage discharge, just ahead of the air diffuser plates. The action of chlorine
is to destroy the protective colloidal effect of protein, which holds the grease in emulsified form.
Figure 3-8 Skimming tank
2. Vacuators
Grease can also be removed from the sewage by vacuum floatation method, by subjecting the
aerated sewage to a vacuum pressure of about 0 - 25cm of mercury for 10 to 15 minutes in a
vacuator. This causes the air bubbles to expand and move upward through the sewage to the

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surface. The rising bubbles lift the grease and the lighter waste solids to the surface, where they
are removed through skimming troughs. Heavier solids settle to the tank bottom, where they are
collected and carried away for sludge treatment and disposal.
3. Disposal of Skimmings
The oil and greasy material removed as skimmings from the skimming tanks or vacuators can be
disposed of either by burning or burial. It is generally too polluted to be of any economic use.
However, it may sometimes be converted in to soap lubricants, candles and other non-edible
products. It may sometimes be digested in digesters, which prove beneficial only if the mineral
oils are less in amount, and vegetable and organic matters predominate. The latter digest easily,
and produce gases of high fuel value.
3.2 Primary Wastewater Treatment
Primary treatment consists in removing large suspended organic solids. This is usually
accomplished by sedimentation in settling basins.
The liquid effluent from primary treatment, often contains a large amount of suspended organic
material, and has a high BOD (about 60% of original).
Sometimes, the preliminary as well as primary treatments are classified together, under primary
treatment.
The organic solids which are separated out in the sedimentation tanks (in primary treatment) are
often stabilized by anaerobic decomposition in a digestion tank or are incinerated. The residue is
used for landfills or soil conditioners.
3.2.1 Sedimentation
1. Necessity of Sedimentation in Treatment of Wastewaters
As discussed in the previous pages, the screens and the grit chambers do remove most of the
floating materials (like paper, rags, cloth, wood, tree branches, etc.) and the heavy inorganic
settleable solids from the sewage. However, a part of the suspended organic solids which are too
heavy to be removed as floating matters, and too light to be removed by grit chambers (designed
to remove only the heavy inorganic solids of size more than 0.2 mm and of sp. gravity 2.65) are
generally removed by the sedimentation tanks. The sedimentation tanks are thus designed to
remove a part of the organic matter from the sewage effluent coming out from the grit chambers.
In a complete sewage treatment, the sedimentation is, in fact, carried out twice; once before the
biological treatment (i.e. primary sedimentation) and once after the biological treatment (i.e.
secondary sedimentation). When chemical coagulants are also used for flocculating the organic
matter during the process of sedimentation, the process is called chemical precipitation or
sedimentation aided with coagulation. This is generally not used in modern days, as discussed,
later.
Other sewage treatment units which work on the principle of sedimentation are: Septic tanks,
Imhoff tanks, etc. Septic tanks and Imhoff tanks combine sludge digestion with sedimentation,

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whereas the sludge deposited in primary as well as in the secondary settling tanks, is separately
digested in the sludge-digestion tanks.
2. Types of Settling
Depending on the particles concentration and the interaction between particles, four types of
settling can occur, see also Discrete Flocculent Hidered
Compression
Figure 3-9:
1. Discrete particle settling

The particles settle without interaction and occur under low solids concentration. A typical
occurrence of this type of settling is the removal of sand particles.
2. Flocculent settling
This is defined as a condition where particles initially settle independently, but flocculate in
the depth of the clarification unit. The velocity of settling particles is usually increasing as the
particles aggregates. The mechanisms of flocculent settling are not well understood.
3. Hindered/zone settling
Inter-particle forces are sufficient to hinder the settling of neighboring particles. The particles
tend to remain in fixed positions with respect to each others. This type of settling is typical in
the settler for the activated sludge process (secondary clarifier).
4. Compression settling
This occurs when the particle concentration is so high that so that particles at one level are
mechanically influenced by particles on lower levels. The settling velocity then drastically
reduces.
Discrete Flocculent Hidered Compression

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Figure 3-9 Settling phenomena in a clarifier
Settling of Discrete Particles (Type I Settling)
Sedimentation is the physical separation of suspended material from water or wastewater by the
action of gravity. It is a common operation for water treatment and found in almost all wastewater
treatment plants. It is less costly than many other treatment processes.
The very fundamental principle underlying the process of sedimentation is that the organic matter
present in sewage is having specific gravity greater than that of water (i.e. 1.0). In still sewage,
these particles will, therefore, tend to settle down by gravity; whereas, in flowing sewage, they are
kept in suspension, because of the turbulence in water. Hence, as soon as the turbulence is retarded
by offering storage to sewage, these impurities tend to settle down at the bottom of the tank offering
such storage. This is the principle behind sedimentation.
The design of sedimentation basins is thus totally dependent upon the settling velocity of the
sewage solids. The design of an ideal settling basin is based on the removal of all particles that
have a settling velocity greater than a specified settling velocity.
The settling velocity of a discrete solid particle is mathematically computed and analyzed on the
basis of the theory of sedimentation, which is discussed below:
i. Theory of Type I Settling

The settlement of a particle in water brought to rest is opposed by the following factors:
(i) The velocity of flow which carries the particle horizontally.

The greater the flow area, the lesser is the velocity, and hence more easily the particle will
settle down.
(ii) The viscosity of water in which the particle is travelling.
The viscosity varies inversely with temperature. Warm water is less viscous and, therefore,
offers less resistance to settlement. However, the temperature of water cannot be controlled
to any appreciable extent in "water or wastewater purification processes" and hence this factor
is generally ignored.
(iii) The size, shape and specific gravity of the particle.
The greater is the specific gravity, more readily the particle will settle. The size and shape of
the particle also affect the settling rate. For example, the weight and volume of the spherically

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Derivation of Stoke's Law

When a solid particle settles down in water, its downward settlement is opposed by the drag force
offered by the water. The effective weight of the particle (i.e. actual weight buoyancy) causes the
particle to accelerate in the beginning, till it attains a sufficient velocity (v ) at which the drag force
becomes equal to the effective weight of the particle. After attaining that velocity, the particle falls
down with that constant velocity (v ).
Now, the drag force offered by the fluid is given by Newton's law, as v
Note: This drag force increases

with the increasing velocity till it
becomes equal to the effective
weight of the particle; and at that

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time, v becomes equal to vs. The
effective weight of the particle
The above Stoke's equation is valid for particles of size less than 0.1mm; in which case, the viscous
force predominates over the inertial force, leading to what is known as streamline settling.

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If, however, the settling particles are larger than 0.1mm, the nature of settling tends to become
turbulent, with a transition zone in between. It has been established that turbulent settling occurs
for particle size greater than 1.0mm, whereas settling remains transition settling for particle sizes
between 0.1mm to 1.0mm.
The relation between coefficient of drag (CD) and Re for these three types of settling are as follows:
(a) For streamline settling (d < 0.1mm) Here Re < 1; and
This equation is known as Newton's equation for turbulent settling.

The above formulas represent the theoretical settling velocities of discrete spherical particles. The
actual settling velocities in the sedimentation basins will be much less than those calculated by
these formulas, because of the non-sphericity of the particles, the upward displacement of the fluid
caused by the settling of other particles, and convection currents.
Based upon experiments, Hazen has formulated a table (Table 3-2) giving the values of the settling
velocities (popularly called hydraulic settling values) for different sized particles in still liquids at
10ºc.

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Table 3-2 Hydraulic settling values in mm/sec in still liquids at 10ºc
Settling velocity in mm/sec
Diameter of particles
Type of material Particles of Sp. gravity Particles of Sp.
in mm
2.65 gravity 1.20
Course sand 1.00 100 12.0

0.80 83 9.6
0.60 63 7.2
Medium sand 0.50 53 6.0
0.40 42 4.8
0.30 32 3.6
0.20 21 2.4
Fine sand 0.15 15 1.8
0.10 8 1.2
0.08 6 0.53
Very fine and 0.06 3.8 0.30
0.05 2.9 0.21
0.04 2.1 0.13
Silt 0.03 1.3 0.076
0.02 0.62 0.034
0.015 0.35 0.019
0.010 0.154 0.0084
0.008 0.098 0.0054
0.006 0.055 0.0030
Fine silt 0.005 0.0385 0.0021
0.004 0.0247 0.0013
0.003 0.0138 0.00076
0.002 0.0062 0.00034
Clay
0.0015 0.0035 0.00019
0.001 0.00154 0.000084
0.0001 0.0000154 0.00000084
0.0001
Fine clay
Colloidal clay
At higher temperatures such as 26°c (i.e. average temperature prevailing in our country), the value
of settling velocity will be about 50% more than these values.
The above experimental values have also been expressed in mathematical form as modified
Hazen's equation for transition zone, given by:
For particles between 0.1 and 1mm, the above equation yields the following:

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For inorganic solids, G = 2.65;
Settling velocity for inorganic solids
Example 3-5
Estimate the settling velocity in wastewater at a temperature of 25 c of spherical silicon particles

with specific gravity 2.67 and average diameter of:
(i) 0.04mm Answer: 0.162cm/sec
(ii) 0.4mm Answer: 7.56cm/sec
3. Sedimentation Tanks
The clarification of sewage by the process of sedimentation can be affected by providing
conditions under which the suspended material present in sewage can settle out. This is brought
about in specially designed tanks called sedimentation tanks.
Out of the three forces which control the settling tendencies of the particles, the two forces i.e. the
velocity of flow and the shape and size of the particles are tried to be controlled in these settling
tanks. The third force i.e. the viscosity of sewage or the temperature of sewage is left uncontrolled
as the same is not practically possible.
The velocity of flow can be reduced by increasing the length of travel and by detaining the particle
for a longer time in the sedimentation basin. The size and the shape of the particles can be altered
by the addition of certain chemicals in water. These chemicals are called coagulants, and they
make the sedimentation quite effective leading to the settlement of even very fine and colloidal
particles. However, their use is not made in plain sedimentation (or generally called sedimentation)
but is being made in the process called chemical precipitation or sedimentation with coagulation.
Sedimentation basins are thus designed for effecting settlement of particles by reducing the flow
velocity or by detaining the sewage in them. They are generally made of reinforced concrete and
may be rectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
(Figure 3-10) are generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral flow (Figure 3-11).

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Figure 3-10 Rectangular sedimentation tank
Figure 3-11 Circular sedimentation tank
The capacity and other dimensions of the tank should be properly designed, so as to affect a fairly
high percentage of removal of the suspended organic material. A plain sedimentation tank under
normal conditions may remove about 60 to 65% of the suspended solids, and 30 to 35% of the
BOD from the sewage.
i. Types of Sedimentation Tanks

Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously.
The Intermittent settling tanks called quiescent type tanks are simple settling tanks which store
sewage for a certain period and keep it in complete rest. After giving it a rest of about 24hours,
during which the suspended particles settle down to the bottom of the tank, the cleaner sewage
from the top may be drawn off and the tank be cleaned off the settled silt. The tank is again filled
with raw sewage to continue the next operation. This type of tank, thus, functions intermittently
as a period of about 30 to 36 hours is required to put the tank again in working condition. This

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necessitates the commissioning of at least two tanks. Such tanks are generally not preferred,
because a lot of time and labor is wasted and more units are required. They have, therefore, become
comp1etely obsolete these days.
In a continuous flow type of a sedimentation tank, which is generally used in modem days, the
flow velocity is only reduced, and the sewage is not brought to complete rest, as is done in an
intermittent type. The working of such a tank is simple, as the wastewater enters from one end,
and comes out from the other end. The velocity is sufficiently reduced by providing sufficient
length of travel. The velocity is so adjusted that the time taken by the particle to travel from one
end to another is slightly more than the time required for settlement of that particle. The theory
and design of such a tank is discussed below in details.
ii. Design of a Continuous Flow Type of a Sedimentation Tank

In the theory which is applied to the design of such sedimentation basins, it is assumed that the
sediment is uniformly distributed as the sewage enters the basin. In Figure 3-12, let the wastewater
containing uniformly distributed sediment enters the rectangular tank with a uniform velocity V.
If Q is the discharge entering the basin, the flow velocity V is given by:
Where, B = Width of the basin, and

H = Depth of sewage in the tank
Figure 3-12 Elevation of a rectangular sedimentation tank

In the settling zone, every discrete particle is moving with a horizontal velocity V and a downward
vertical velocity Vs. The resultant path is given by the vector sum of its flow velocity (V) and its
settling velocity (Vs).

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Assuming that all those particles, whose paths of travel are above the line BD, will pass through
the basin, we have from geometric considerations:
For example:
Hence,
- All particles having V = 0.4cm/sec will be removed

- Only 50 % of the particles having V = 0.2cm/sec will be removed
- Only 25% of the particles having V = 0.1cm/sec will be removed and so on.
It, therefore, follows that the quantity i.e. the discharge per unit of plan area is a very important
term for the design of continuous flow type of settling tanks; and is known as overflow rate or
surface loading or overflow velocity.

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The efficiency of a sedimentation tank indicates the overall percentage removal of suspended
matter at a given overflow rate .
Prediction of efficiency of basin requires a settling column analysis from which the cumulative
frequency distribution curve may be obtained Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-13 Cumulative particles removal versus settling velocity curve
- 40,000 and 50,000liters/m2/day for plain primary sedimentation tanks

- 50,000 and 60,000liters/m2/day for sedimentation tanks using coagulants as aids
- 25,000 to 35,000liters/m2/day for secondary sedimentation tanks
Decreasing the overflow rate will lead to the settlement of even those particles which are having
lower values of their settling velocities. Hence, smaller particles will also settle down, if the
overflow rate is reduced. Further, with a given Q, the overflow rate can be reduced by increasing
the plan area of the basin. It therefore, follows that an increase in the plan area (i.e. width x length)

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will increase the efficiency of sedimentation tank; and theoretically speaking, depth does not have
any effect on the efficiency of sediment removal. However, it is important for practical
considerations, and also for making allowance for deposition of sludge and silt.
Usual values of effective depth (i.e. depth excluding the bottom sludge zone) range between 2.4
and 3.6m (generally not exceeding 3m).
Another important term, which is used in connection with the design of sedimentation basins, is
its detention time or detention period or retention period. The detention time (t) of a settling tank
may be defined as the average theoretical time required for the sewage to flow through the tank. It
is, this, the time that would be required for the flow of sewage to fill the tank, if there was no
outflow. In other words, it is the average time for which the sewage is detained in the tank. Hence,
it is the ratio of the volume of the basin to the rate of flow (i.e. discharge) through the basin.
Therefore,
Detention time, t, for a rectangular tank
Where, d = Diameter of the tank

H = Vertical depth at wall or side water depth.
The detention time for a sewage sedimentation tank usually ranges between 1 to 2 hours. The lower
value of detention period (i.e. 1 hour) is generally adopted when the activated sludge treatment is
used in secondary treatment after the sedimentation; and the higher and more normal value (i.e. 2
hours) is generally adopted when the trickling filters are used as the secondary treatment.
Larger detention periods will result in higher efficiency; but too long a period induces septic
conditions, and should be avoided. However, if the secondary sedimentation is to be avoided, a
longer detention period of about 2 hours to 3 hours may be adopted.
The width of the tank is normally kept at about 6m, and not allowed to exceed 7.5m. The length
of the tank is generally not allowed to exceed 4 to 5 times the width. The cross-sectional area of
the sedimentation tank is such as to provide a horizontal flow velocity of about 0.3m/minute. The
total amount of flow from the tank within 24 hours generally equals the maximum daily flow of
sewage.
The maximum diameter of a circular tank may be kept 60m or so.
Example 3-6
A clarifier is designed to have a surface overflow rate of 28.53 m3/m2/d. Estimate the overall
removal with the settling analysis data and particle size distribution in cols. 1 and 2 of Table 1.
The wastewater temperature is 15 c and the specific gravity of the particles is 1.20.

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Table 1: Results of settling analysis test and estimation of overall solid removal
Particle size in mm Weight fraction < size, % Settling velocity in mm/sec
0.1 12 0.968
0.08 18 0.620
0.07 35 0.475
0.06 72 0.349
0.05 86 0.242
0.04 94 0.155
0.02 99 0.039
0.01 100 0.010
Settling velocities versus cumulative distribution curve is given in the figure below.
Referring the figure:

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Answer: F = 0.92 = 92%
iii. Short Circuiting in the Sedimentation Tanks

For the efficient removal of sediment in the sedimentation tanks, it is necessary that the flow is
uniformly distributed throughout the cross-section of the tank. If currents, on the other hand, permit
a substantial portion of the water to pass directly through the tank without being detained for the
intended time, the flow is said to be short circuited. Properly designed inlets and outlets near the
entrance and the exit may reduce the short circuiting tendencies, and distribute the flow more
evenly. Moreover, relatively narrow tanks are less affected by inlet and outlet disturbances, and
by currents caused by breezes.
But however, in actual practice, certain amount of short circuiting will always exist, and, therefore,
the actual average time taken by a batch of water in passing through a settling tank (called flowing
through period) will always be less than the detention period, which is the corresponding
theoretical time. The ratio of the 'flowing through period' to the 'detention period' is called the
Displacement efficiency.
Flowing through period
Displacement ef iciency (%) = (3.28)
Detention period
Note: In order to counteract the effects of short circuiting, it may be necessary to keep a high
detention period or a smaller surface loading than that obtained from the theoretical considerations
for obtaining the desired results. iv. Constructional Details of the Sedimentation Tanks
Figure 3-14 Zones of a rectangular horizontal continuous flow sedimentation tank
a. Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

In order to reduce short circuiting and to distribute the flow uniformly proper arrangement must
be made for smooth entry of water. A most suitable type of an inlet for a rectangular settling
tank is in the form of a channel extending to full width of the tank, with a

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submerged weir type baffle wall, as shown in
Figure 3-16.
Figure 3-15 Section of a submerged type or a weir type inlet

A similar type of outlet arrangement is also used these days. It consists of an outlet channel
extending for full width of the tank and receiving the water after it has passed over a weir, as
shown in

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Figure 3-16.
Outlet arrangement consists of
i. weir, notches or orifices ii.

effluent trough or launder iii.
outlet pipe
Weir loading: The outlet weirs drawn off wastewater and take it out without disturbing the
quiescent conditions in the tank. Weir loading influences the removal of solids in sedimentation
tank, particularly in secondary settling tanks where flocculated solids are settled. For all primary
settling tanks weir loading should not be greater than 100m3/d/m. for average flow is
recommended. For secondary settling tanks in activated sludge process, weir loading should not
be greater than 150m3/d/m. performance of sedimentation tanks can be improved by merely
increasing their weir length.
Weir loading rates are limited to prevent high approach velocities near the outlet. Weirs frequently
consist of V-notches approximately 50mm in depth, placed 150 – 300mm on centers, with a baffle
in front of the weir to prevent floating material from escaping the sedimentation basin and clogging
the filters.
Figure 3-16 Weir type outlet
b. Baffles
Baffles are required to prevent the movement of organic matter and its escape along with
the effluent; and to distribute the sewage uniformly through the cross-section of the tank,
and thus to avoid short circuiting. Both inlets and outlets are, therefore, protected by
hanging baffles, 0 to 90 cm in front of them, and submerged 45 to 60 cm below the flow
line, as shown in Figure 3-10. Some other arrangement of placing baffles may be designed,
but it should not be too complicated. Moreover, too many baffles may result in
concentration of currents and is as bad as too fewer baffles are.

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c. Skimming Troughs
When the amount of oils and greasy matter present in sewage is small, it is generally
uneconomical to provide a separate skimming tank. In such cases, a skim trough is
generally provided in the sedimentation tank itself, near its outlet end, as shown in Figure
3-10.
In manually operated tanks, the skimming that float to the surface may be pushed into the
trough by squeezes with hand. Whereas, in mechanically operated tanks (such as in Figure
3-10), the skimming may be pushed by the same scraper blades which collect the sludge
while moving along the bottom, and push the skimming into the end trough, when they
move near the surface along with the endless chain to which they are attached.
d. Cleaning and Sludge Removal
The suspended organic solids contained in sewage, settle down at the bottom of the
sedimentation tank, and have to be removed periodically. The removal of the deposited
sludge before it becomes stale and septic is necessary not only because it reduces the
capacity of the tank and its detention period, but also because it leads to the evolution of
foul gases formed due to the anaerobic decomposition of the settled organic matter. The
sedimentation tanks are, therefore, cleaned from time to time at frequent intervals, either
manually or they are provided with mechanical arrangements for cleaning.
Modern sedimentation tanks, however, are generally provided with mechanical cleaning devices.
For example, in Figure 3-10, the sludge is scraped by scrapers and brought to the hopper at the
outlet end, and is removed daily or often. The scrapers can work either continuously or at any
desired intervals of time. Similarly, in a circular tank (Figure 3-11), the sludge is scraped and
brought to the centre, and likewise removed. For tanks without mechanical sludge removing
equipment, an additional minimum depth of about 0.8 to 1.2 m should be provided for storage of
settled materials, and is called sludge zone.
Example 3-7
Design a suitable rectangular sedimentation tank (provided with mechanical cleaning equipment)
for treating the sewage from a city provided with an assured public water supply system, with a
maximum daily demand of 12 million liters per day. Assume suitable values of detention period
and velocity of flow in the tank. Make any other assumptions, wherever needed.
3.2.2 Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation (Type II Sedimentation)

1. Chemical Precipitation and Coagulation
Very fine suspend particles, present in wastewaters, which cannot be removed in plain
sedimentation, may sometimes, be settled by increasing their size be changing them into
flocculated particles. For this purpose, certain chemical compounds (like ferric chloride, ferric
sulphate, alum, chlorinated copperas, etc.) called coagulants are added to the wastewaters, which

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on thorough mixing form a gelatinous precipitate called floc. The fine mud particles and other
colloidal matter present in wastewaters get absorbed in these floes forming the bigger sized
flocculated particles. The process of addition and mixing of chemicals is called coagulation. The
coagulated sewage is then made to pass through sedimentation tank where the flocculated particles
settle down and get removed.
The characteristics and efficiency of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment are given
in Table 3-3.

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Table 3-3 Properties of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment
B.O.D. SS removed
removed as pH value
Dosage
Name of as percentage percentage required
.No. required Remarks
coagulant of total of total for proper
in ppm
present present functioning
This coagulant is widely used for

Ferric sewage treatment, wherever,
l. 80 - 90 90 - 95 25 - 35 5.5 to 7.0
chloride coagulation is adopted.
Ferric sulphate has been found to be

more effective than chlorinated
Ferric copperas, if used in conjunction with
2. sulphate 60 80 35 - 40 8.0 to 8.5 lime. Hence ferric chloride and ferric
with lime sulphate are mainly used, as coagulants
in sewage.
It is generally not used in sewage

3. Alum 60 80 40 - 90 6 to 8.5 although used for treating water supplies
on a large scale.
5.5 to 7.0 and This coagulant is effective for producing

Chlorinated 70 - 80 9.0 to 9.5 sludge for activated sludge process.
4. 80 - 90 35 - 80
copperas
2. Merits and Demerits of Coagulation Process in Sewage Treatment

As pointed out earlier, the coagulation process is generally not adopted in modern sewage
treatment plants, mainly because of the following reasons:
1. More advanced methods of sewage treatment based on biological actions are available these
days, and they are preferred to coagulation.
2. The coagulation process has various disadvantages, such as discussed below:
(i) The biological secondary treatments used these days for treating sewage is complete in
themselves, and do not require coagulation. Moreover, coagulation rather makes some of
these processes more difficult.
(ii) The chemicals used in coagulation react with sewage, and during these reactions, they
destroy certain micro-organisms, which are helpful in digestion of the sludge, thus
creating difficulties in sludge digestion.
(iii) Cost of chemicals is added to the cost of sedimentation, without much use, and thereby
making the treatment costlier.
(iv) The process of coagulation and subsequent sedimentation produces larger quantities of
sludge than that produced in plain sedimentation, and thus adding to the problems of
sludge disposal.

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(v) The process of coagulation requires skilled supervision and handling of chemicals. In
view of all these disadvantages, the coagulation of sewage has become obsolete these
days. It may still, however, be adopted in certain special cases, such as:
(a) For treating sewage from industries, using some specific chemicals in their processes.
(b) It is particularly advantageous, where there is large seasonal variation in sewage flow or as an
emergency measure to increase the capacity of an overloaded plain sedimentation tank.

Table 3-4 Summery of preliminary and primary treatment unit functions and efficiencies
BOD Removal of Removal of
Type of Process or unit removal as SS and DS as Bacterial load as Disposal of residuals
S.No Purification effected percentage percentage of percentage of
Treatment employed
of original original original
l. Preliminary (a) Removal of floating Coarse and fine 5 - 10 2 - 20 10 - 20 Screenings can be disposed of easily, either by
Treatment materials dead animals, screens of burials or burnings.
like tree branches, pieces different designs
of rags, wood and other
large sized floating
materials.
(b) Removal of heavy
Grit chambers or 10 - 20 20 - 40 10 - 20 The grit can be easily disposed of either by
settleable inorganic solids.
Detritus tanks burials or burnings for raising low lying areas.
(c) Removal of fats and
greases The skimming contains unstable volatile
Skimming tanks or organic materials and have to disposed of by
20 - 30 20 - 40 10 - 20 first stabilizing them in digestion tanks by
Vacuators
anaerobic process.
2 Primary Removal of suspended (i) Sedimentation 30 - 35 60 - 65 25 - 75 Sludge containing organic material has to be
Treatment settleable organic tanks or stabilized first, in digestion tanks and the
solids digested material is then used as a manure or
soil builder.
4- SECONDARY/BIOLOGICAL AND TERTIARY WASTEWATER

TREATMENT
4.1 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment
Micro-organisms, such as bacteria, play an important role in the natural cycling of materials and
particularly in the decomposition of organic wastes. The role of micro-organisms is elaborated
further here because they are also important in the treatment of wastewater. Waste form humans
become a useful food substrate for the micro-organisms. In both natural and engineered treatment
systems micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and crustaceans play an essential role
in the conversion of organic waste to more stable, less polluting substances. They form what is
termed a 'food chain'.
In a natural water body, e.g. river or lake, the number and type of micro-organisms depends on the
degree of pollution. The general effect of pollution appears to be a reduction in species numbers.
For example in a badly polluted lake, there are fewer species but in larger numbers, while in a
healthy lake there can be many species present but in lower numbers.
Micro-organisms are always present in the environment and given the right conditions of food
availability, temperature and other environmental factors, they grow and multiply (Figure 4-1)
Figure 4-1Figure 4-1

Generalized representation of growth of micro-organisms
Micro-organisms require cellular building blocks, such as (carbon) C, (hydrogen) H, (oxygen) O,

(nitrogen) N, (phosphorus) P, and minerals for growth. These can be obtained through consuming
organic substances containing these elements, or from inorganic materials, such as carbon dioxide,
water, nitrate and phosphate. Micro-organisms also require energy. They obtain this through

respiration. In this process organic carbon is oxidized to release its energy. Oxygen or other
hydrogen acceptors is needed for the respiration process. Algae and photosynthetic bacteria can
also utilize energy from sunlight, while certain types of bacteria can utilize energy from chemical
reactions not involving respiration. The building blocks and energy are used to synthesize more
cells for growth and also for reproduction.
In the treatment of wastewater three types of overall processes are distinguished to represent the
conversion of organic wastes by micro-organisms. The classification is based on whether the
environment where the process takes place is aerobic, anaerobic or photosynthetic. Under aerobic
conditions (in the presence of oxygen), micro-organisms utilize oxygen to oxidize organic
substances to obtain energy for maintenance, mobility and the synthesis of cellular material. Under
anaerobic conditions (in the absence of oxygen) the micro-organisms utilize nitrates, sulphates and
other hydrogen acceptors to obtain energy for the synthesis of cellular material from organic
substances. Photosynthetic organisms use carbon dioxide as a carbon source, inorganic nutrients
as sources of phosphate and nitrogen and utilize light energy to drive the conversion process.
Micro-organisms also produce waste products, some of which are desirable and some undesirable.
Gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen are desirable, since they can be easily separated and do
not produce pollution. Gases such as hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans, although easily separated
require treatment for odour. Micro-organisms’ cellular materials are organic in nature and can also
cause pollution. It would be desirable if the cellular materials have undergone self oxidation
(endogenous respiration utilizing own body cells) to produce nonbiodegradable materials that are
relatively stable. Self-oxidation is achieved when there is no substrate/food available.
The microbiological conversion reactions of organic waste into cellular material can be
empirically represented as shown below.
(i) Conversion under aerobic conditions (see diagram below):
Under aerobic conditions ammonia is further oxidized to nitrate. Phosphorus and sulphur
contained in the organic substances are oxidized to phosphate and sulphate. These can be further
utilized by the micro-organisms for synthesis.
(ii) Conversion under anaerobic conditions (see diagram below):

Methane (CH4) is a useful gaseous by-product of anaerobic conversion, because it can be
combusted to produce heat/energy. On the other hand if it is released to the atmosphere without
being combusted, it contributes to the greenhouse gas effect.

(iii) Conversion under photosynthetic conditions:
As shown by the conversion reactions (the utilization of organic wastes for food by
microorganisms) the product is mainly the cellular material of the micro-organisms i.e. more
organisms are produced. The growth yield is the weight of micro-organisms produced per unit
weight of organic substances consumed by the micro-organisms. The growth yield depends on the
type of substrate and environmental conditions. The smaller the value of the growth yield the better
it is for waste treatment, because less sludge is produced which requires disposal. Its value is
usually between 0.2 and 0.5 for aerobic conversion, while the corresponding value for anaerobic
conversion is smaller.
4.2 Microbial Growth Kinetics
Prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria reproduce mainly by binary fission (i.e., each cell gives
two daughter cells). Growth of a microbial population is defined as an increase in numbers or an
increase in microbial mass. Growth rate is the increase in microbial cell numbers or mass per unit
time. The time required for a microbial population to double in numbers is the generation time or
doubling time, which may vary from minutes to days.
Microbial populations can grow as batch cultures (closed systems) or as continuous cultures (open
systems) (Marison, 1988a).

1. Batch Cultures
When a suitable medium is inoculated with cells, the growth of the microbial population follows
the growth curve displayed in Figure 4-2, which shows four distinct phases.
i. Lag Phase
The lag phase is a period of cell adjustment to the new environment. Cells are involved in the
synthesis of bio-chemicals and undergo enlargement. The duration of the lag phase depends on the
cells prior history (age, prior exposure to damaging physical or chemical agents, culture medium).
Figure 4-2 Microbial growth curve

For example, no lag phase is observed when an exponentially growing culture is transferred to a
similar medium with similar growth conditions. Conversely, a lag period is observed when
damaged cells are introduced into the culture medium.
ii. Exponential Growth Phase (Log Phase)

The number of cells increases exponentially during the log phase. The exponential growth varies
with the type of microorganism and growth conditions (e.g., temperature, medium composition).
Under favorable conditions, the number of bacterial cells (e.g., Escherichia coli) double every
Where µ - specific growth rate (h-1)

Xt - cell biomass or numbers after time t, and

Xo - initial number or biomass of cells

Using the natural logarithms on both sides of Eq. (4.1), we obtain
Cells in the exponential growth phase are more sensitive to physical and chemical agents than
those in the stationary phase.
iii. Stationary Phase

The cell population reaches the stationary phase because microorganisms cannot grow
indefinitely, mainly because of lack of nutrients and electron acceptors, and the production and
the accumulation of toxic metabolites. Secondary metabolites (e.g., certain enzymes, antibiotics)
are produced during the stationary phase. There is no net growth (cell growth is balanced by cell
death or lysis) of the population during the stationary phase.
iv. Death Phase

During this phase, the death (decay) rate of the microbial population is higher than the growth rate.
Cell death may be accompanied by cell lysis. The viable count of microorganisms decreases,
although the turbidity of the microbial suspension may remain constant.
2. Continuous Culture of Microorganisms

So far, we have described the growth kinetics of batch cultures. Maintenance of microbial cultures
at the exponential growth phase over a long period of time can be achieved by growing
continuously the cells in a completely mixed reactor in which a constant volume is maintained.
The most commonly used device is the chemostat (Figure 4-3), which is essentially a completemix
bioreactor without recycle. In addition to the flow rate of growth-limiting substrate, environmental
parameters such as oxygen level, temperature, and pH are also controlled. The substrate is added
continuously at a flow rate Q to a reactor with a volume V containing concentration X of
microorganisms. The dilution rate D, the reciprocal of the hydraulic retention time t, is given by:
Q 1
D= = 4.4
V t
Where D - dilution rate (time-1)
V - reactor volume (L)
Q - flow rate of substrate S (L/time), and
t - time

In continuous flow reactors, microbial growth is described by dX
Figure 4-3 Chemostat for continuous culture of microorganisms

During chemostat cultivation, equilibrium is established (steady state) at which the growth rate of
the cells equals the dilution rate. The higher the dilution rate, the faster the organisms are allowed
to grow. Above a given dilution rate the cells will not be able to grow any faster and the culture
will be washed out of the reactor. The chemostat thus offers the opportunity to study the properties
of organisms at selected growth rates.
Equation (2.26) and (2.27) shows that the supply rate of the limiting substrate controls the specific
growth rate, µ. At D > µmax, we observe a decrease in cell concentration and a washout of the
population. Cell washout starts at the critical dilution rate Dc, which is approximately equal to
µmax.
3. Other Kinetic Parameters

There are three important parameters in microbial growth kinetics: growth yield Y, specific growth
rate µ, and specific substrate uptake rate q.

A more simplified equation showing the relationship between the three parameters is the
following:
µ = Yq 4.7
Where µ - specific growth rate (time-1),
Y - growth yield (mg cells formed per mg of substrate removed), and
q – specific substrate uptake rate (mg/L/day).
i. Growth Yield
Where So and S - initial and final substrate concentrations, respectively (mg/L or mol/L),
Xo and X - initial and final microbial concentrations, respectively
Several factors influence the growth yield: type of microorganisms, growth medium, substrate
concentration, terminal electron acceptor, pH, and incubation temperature.
Yield coefficients for several bacterial species are within the range 0.4 – 0.6 (Heijnen and Roels,
1981).
For a pure microbial culture growing on a single substrate, the growth yield Y is assumed to be
constant. However, in the environment, particularly in wastewater, there is a wide range of
microorganisms, few of which are in the logarithmic phase. Many are in the stationary or in the
declining phase of growth. Some of the energy will be used for cell maintenance. Thus, the growth
yield Y must be corrected for the amount of cell decay occurring during the declining phase of
growth. This correction will give the true growth yield coefficient, which is lower than the
measured yield. Equation (4.7) becomes:
Where kd is the endogenous decay coefficient (day-1)
ii. Specific Substrate Uptake Rate q

The specific substrate uptake (removal) is given by
The in situ specific growth rate of bacteria in wastewater was measured using the labeled
thymidine growth assay (thymidine is a precursor of DNA in cells). In an aerobic tank, the specific
growth rate µ was 0.5 d-1 (doubling time td = 1.4d) whereas in an anaerobic tank µ was equal to
0.2 d-1 (td = 3.9d) (Pollard and Greenfield, 1997). In waste treatment, the reciprocal of µ is the
biological solid retention time c, that is
µ= 4.15
Thus
= Yq − k 4.16
4. Physical and Chemical Factors Affecting Microbial Growth
i. Substrate Concentration.
The relationship between the specific growth rate µ and substrate concentration S is given by the
Monod’s equation (Fig. 2.14a):
Where µmax - maximum specific growth rate (h-1)

S - substrate concentration (mg/L),
Ks - half-saturation constant (mg/L).

Ks is the substrate concentration at which the specific growth rate is equal to µ /2. Ks represents
the affinity of the microorganism for the substrate. µmax and Ks are influenced by temperature, type
of carbon source, and other factors.
Monod’s equation can be linearized using the Lineweaver–Burke equation:
Figure 4-4 shows a plot of 1/µ vs 1/S. The slope, y-intercept, and x-intercept are (Ks/µmax), (1/µmax),
and (-1/Ks), respectively. This plot allows the computation of Ks and µmax. Ks values for individual
chemicals found in wastewater are between 0.1 and 1.0 mg/L (Hanel, 1988).
Figure 4-4 Relationship between the specific growth rate µ and substrate concentration S
(A) Monod’s saturation curve; (B) Lineweaver–Burke plot ii.
Temperature
This is one of the most important factors affecting microbial growth and survival. Microbial
growth can occur at temperatures varying from below freezing to more than 100°c. Based on the
optimum temperature for growth, microorganisms are classified as mesophiles, psychrophiles,
thermophiles, or extreme thermophiles.
Microbial growth rate is related to temperature by the Arrhenius equation:

Where A - constant,
E - activation energy (kcal/mole),
R - gas constant, and T - absolute temperature (K)
Psychrophiles can grow at low temperatures because their cell membrane has a high content of
unsaturated fatty acids, which helps maintain membrane fluidity, whereas a high content of
saturated fatty acids help thermophiles function at high temperatures. The decreased m at high
temperatures is due to the thermal denaturation of proteins, particularly enzymes, as well as
changes in membrane structure, leading to alterations in cell permeability.
iii. pH
Biological treatment of wastewater occurs generally at neutral pH. In general, the optimum pH for
bacterial growth is around 7, although some may be obligately acidophilic (e.g., Thiobacillus,
Sulfolobus) and thrive at pH < 2. Fungi prefer acidic environments with a pH of 5 or lower.
Cyanobacteria grow optimally at pH higher than 7. Bacterial growth generally results in a decrease
of the pH of the medium through the release of acidic metabolites (e.g., organic acids, H 2SO4).
Conversely, some microorganisms can increase the pH value of their surrounding milieu (e.g.,
denitrifying bacteria, algae). pH affects the activity of microbial enzymes. It affects the ionization
of chemicals and thus plays a role in the transport of nutrients and toxic chemicals into the cell.
iv. Oxygen Level

Microorganisms can grow in the presence or in the absence of oxygen. There are divided into strict
aerobes, facultative anaerobes (can grow in the presence or in the absence of oxygen), and strict
anaerobes. Aerobic microorganisms use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor in respiration.
Anaerobic counterparts use other electron acceptors such as sulfate, nitrate, or CO2. Some
microorganisms are micro-aerophilic and require low levels of oxygen for growth. Through their
metabolism, aerobes may render the environment suitable for anaerobes by using oxygen.
Upon reduction, oxygen forms toxic products such as superoxide (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),
or hydroxyl radicals. However, microorganisms have acquired enzymes to deactivate them. For
example, H2O2 is destroyed by catalase and peroxidase enzymes, whereas O2- is deactivated by
superoxide dismutase. Catalase and superoxide dismutase-catalyzed reactions are represented by:
4.3 Biological Wastewater Treatment
Purpose:

The idea behind all biological methods of wastewater treatment is to introduce contact with
bacteria (cells) which feed on the organic materials in the wastewater, thereby reducing its BOD
content. In other words, the purpose of biological treatment is BOD reduction.
Typically, wastewater enters the treatment plant with a BOD higher than 200mg/L, but primary
settling has already reduced it to a certain extent (30 – 35% of the original) by the time it enters
the biological component of the system. It needs to exit with a BOD content no higher than about
20 - 30mg/L, so that after dilution in the nearby receiving water body (river, lake), the BOD is less
than 2 - 3mg/L.
Principle:
Simple bacteria (cells) eat the organic material present in the wastewater. Through their
metabolism, the organic material is transformed into cellular mass, which is no longer in solution
but can be precipitated at the bottom of a settling tank or retained as slime on solid surfaces or
vegetation in the system. The wastewater exiting the system is then much clearer than it entered.
A key factor is the operation of any biological system is an adequate supply of oxygen.
Indeed, cells need not only organic material as food but also oxygen to breath, just like humans.
Without an adequate supply of oxygen, the biological degradation of the waste is slowed down,
thereby requiring a longer residency time of the wastewater in the system. For a given flow rate
of wastewater to be treated, this translates into a system with a larger volume and thus taking more
space.
4.4 Types of Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment
The common methods of biological wastewater treatment are:

a) Aerobic processes such as trickling filters, rotating biological contactors, activated sludge
process, oxidation ponds and lagoons, oxidation ditches,
b) Anaerobic processes such as anaerobic digestion, and
c) Anoxic processes such as denitrification.
The major biological wastewater treatment processes are shown in Table 4-1.

Table4-1 Major biological treatment processes used for wastewater treatment

Type Common name Use
Aerobic Processes
Suspended growth Activated Sludge Process

- Conventional (Plug flow) Carbonaceous BOD
- Step aeration, Modified aeration “
- Contact Stabilization “
- Extended Aeration, Oxidation Ditch “ + Nitrification
Aerated Lagoons Carbonaceous BOD
Aerobic Digestion High
Rate Algal Ponds Carbonaceous BOD
Attached growth Trickling Filters
- Low rate Carbonaceous BOD
- High rate “ Rotating
Biological Contactors (RBC) “
Anaerobic Processes
Suspended growth Anaerobic Digestion
- Standard rate Stabilization
- High rate Single “
Attached growth Anaerobic Contact Proc. Carbonaceous BOD
Anaerobic Filter Process “
Anaerobic Lagoons “
Anoxic Processes
- Suspended growth Denitrification

Fixed film
4.4.1 Trickling Filters

The conventional trickling filters and their improved forms, known as high rate trickling filters
are now almost universally adopted for giving secondary treatment to sewage. These filters, also
called as percolating filters or sprinkling filters, consist of tanks of coarser filtering media, over
which the sewage is allowed to sprinkle or trickle down, by means of spray nozzles or rotary

distributors. The percolating sewage is collected at the bottom of the tank through a well-designed
under-drainage system. The purification of the sewage is brought about mainly by the aerobic
bacteria, which form a bacterial film around the particles of the filtering media. The action due to
the mechanical straining of the filter bed is much less. In order to ensure the large scale growth of
the aerobic bacteria, sufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied by providing suitable ventilation
facilities in the body of the filter; and also to some extent by the intermittent functioning of the
filter.
The effluent obtained from the filter must be taken to the secondary sedimentation tank for settling
out the organic matter oxidized while passing down the filter. The sewage influent entering the
filter must be given pre-treatments including screening and primary sedimentation.
Construction and Operation of Trickling Filters
Trickling filter tanks are generally constructed above the ground. They may either be rectangular
or more generally circular (Figure 4-5and Figure 4-6). Rectangular filters are provided with a
network of pipes having fixed nozzles which spray the incoming sewage in to the air which then
falls over the bed of the filter, under gravity.
The circular filter tanks on the other hand, are provided with rotary distributors having a number
of distributing arms (generally four arms are used). These distributors rotate around a central
support either by an electric motor, or more generally by the force of reaction on the sprays. Such
self-propelled reaction type of distributors (Figure 4-7) is now-a-days preferred and used. The rate
of revolutions varies from 2RPM for small distributors to less than RPM for large distributors.
The advantage of having two or more arms is not only to get reaction sufficient to rotate the entire
mechanism but is also to pass the fluctuating demands by taking low flows in two arms, and the
remaining two arms coming into operation only at the times of higher flows. The distributing arms
should remain about 15 to 20cm above the top surface of the filtering media in the tank.

Figure 4-5 Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter
Figure 4-6 Photographic view of a conventional circular trickling filter with rotary distributors

Figure 4-7 Photographic view of rotary distributors
There is an important difference between the action of rotary distributors and that of spray nozzles.
With a rotary distributor, the application of sewage to the filter is practically continuous; whereas
with spray nozzles, the filter is dosed for 3 to 5 minutes, and then rested for 5 to 10 minutes before
the next application. In any case, however, dosing tanks with siphons, receiving sewage from the
primary clarifiers and supplying it to the filters at regular intervals, are used. The dosing tank for
a filter with circular distributors will, however, be designed to have a smaller capacity (i.e. about
1 to 3 minutes detention capacity), as against a higher capacity (of about 5 to 10 minutes detention
capacity) for filters with spray nozzles.
The filtering media, as pointed out earlier, consists of coarser materials like cubically broken
stones or slag, free from dust and small pieces. The size of the material used may vary between 25
to 75mm. The filtering material should be washed before it is placed in position. The quality of
the stone used should be such as not to be easily affected by acidic sewage, and should be
sufficiently hard. Its resistance to freezing and thawing is another important property, especially
for northern regions. Usually, stones from rocks like granite or limestone may be used.
The depth of the filtering media may vary between 2 to 3 meters. The filtering material may be
placed in layers; with coarsest stone used near the bottom, and. finer material towards the top. The
walls of the filter tank are made honey-combed or otherwise provided with openings for circulation

of air, all through: Sometimes, instead of constructing the supporting walls, the filtering material
may be stacked above the ground with its natural angle of repose, so as to ensure better circulation
of air from the surrounding atmosphere.
Sometimes, forced ventilation, by forcing the air vertically upwards through the filter by the use
of fans or other mechanical equipment, may be used; but it has not been found to increase the
capacity of well-constructed trickling filters.
A satisfactory ventilation is achieved when properly designed under drains having adequate
openings are provided under the filter bed. Besides ensuring satisfactory drainage, such drains,
will also ensure satisfactory ventilation and aeration of the filter bed. Vitrified clay blocks (Figure
4-8) are generally used as under-drains. These blocks have top openings of such size that the stone
can be placed directly on them, and yet they furnish flow channels -with' sufficient capacity for
the heaviest hydraulic loading. These blocks are laid on a reinforced concrete floor, (about 10 to
15cm thick) which is sloped gently (at about 1 in 300) towards the main effluent rectangular
channel.
Figure 4-8 Under drains

This main effluent channel may be provided adjoining the central column of the distributor as
shown in Figure 4-8 and Figure 4-8; or may be provided along the circular periphery of the filter.
The flow in this channel has characteristics similar to the flow in a wash-water trough of a rapid
sand filter used in water supplies. The slope of the channel should be sufficient to ensure a flow
velocity of about 0.9 m/sec. The depth and the width of this central channel should be such that
the maximum flow is carried below the level of the under-drains.
Types of Trickling Filters
Trickling filters can be broadly classified into:
(1) Conventional trickling filters or standard rate or low rate trickling filters
(2) High rate filters or High rate trickling filters
Strictly speaking, all what we have spoken so far is about conventional or standard rate trickling
filters. The high rate filters of modern advancements, also function on the same lines, and are
having the same constructional details, but with the difference that provision is made in them for
recirculation of sewage through the filter, by pumping a part of the filter-effluent to the primary
settling tank, and re-passing through it and the filter. The high rate filters make it possible to pass
sewage at greater loadings, thus requiring lesser space and lesser filter media. The process of
'recirculation' and its use in making high rate filters shall be discussed thoroughly later.

Merits and Demerits of trickling filters
The various advantages of the trickling filters are:

(i) Rate of filter loading is high, as such requiring lesser land areas and smaller quantities
of filter .media for their installations.
(ii) Effluent obtained from the trickling filters is sufficiently nitrified and stabilized. They
can remove about 75% of BOD and about 80% of suspended solids. The effluent can,
therefore be easily disposed of in smaller quantity of dilution water.
(iii) Working of tricking filters is simple, and does not require any skilled supervision.
(iv) They are flexible in operation, and they can, therefore, withstand the application of
variety of sewages having different concentrations and compositions. Even if they are
overloaded, they can recoupe after rest.
(v) They are self-cleaning.
(vi) Mechanical wear and tear is small, as they contain less-mechanical equipment.
(vii) Moisture content of sludge, obtained from trickling filters, is as high ~ 99% or so.
(viii) Trickling filters have been found to operate more efficiently in warm weather, and
produce an effluent appreciably lower in BOD. Hence, they are of immense-use in hot
countries.
The disadvantages of the trickling filters are:
(i) The head loss through these filters is high making automatic dosing of the filters necessary
(through siphonic dosing tanks). The total head loss through such a filter will be equal to
the head loss through the circular distributor [about 45 to 58 cm] plus the loss in the feed
piping and in the siphon as well as the entrance loss. Generally, these extra losses will
total to at least 15 cm.
(ii) Cost of construction of trickling filters is high.
(iii) These filters cannot treat raw sewage, and primary sedimentation is a must.
(iv) These filters pose a number of operational troubles such as given below:
(a) Fly nuisance
The filter fly which develops in the filter particles, may prove to be nuisance, as the
same may be carried away into the habitation.
(b) Odour nuisance
Odors, generally, do not prevail in trickling filters using rotary distributors; but however,
when fixed nozzles are used, H2S and other odorous gases are frequently released from
the sprays into the atmosphere.
(c) Ponding trouble

Sometimes, the voids in the filter media get clogged due to heavy growth of fungi and
algae. This may result in ponding of the sewage over the filter bed.
Design of Trickling Filters
The design of the trickling filter primarily involves the design of the diameter of the circular filter
tank and its depth. The design of the rotary distributors and under-drainage system is also involved
in the filter design.
The design of the filter size is based upon the values of the filter-loadings adopted for the design.
This loading on a filter can be expressed in two ways:
(i) By the quantity of sewage applied per unit of surface area of the filter per day
This is called hydraulic-loading rate and expressed in million liters per hectare per day. The
value of hydraulic loading for conventional filters may vary between 22 and 44 (normally
28) million liters per hectare per day. The hydraulic loading can still be increased to about
110 to 330 (normally 220) M.L/ha/day in the high rate trickling filters.
(ii) By the mass of BOD per unit volume of the filtering media per day
This is called organic loading rate, and expressed in kg of BOD5 per hectare meter of the
filter media per day. The value of organic loading for conventional filters may vary between
900 to 2200 kg of BOD5 per ha-m. This organic loading value can be further increased to
about 6000 - 18000 kg of BOD5 per ha-m in high rate trickling filters.
With an assumed value of organic loading (as between 900 to 2200kg/ha-m), we can find out the
total volume of the required filter, by dividing the total BOD5 of the sewage entering the filter per
day in kg by the assumed value of the organic loading. The organic loading can thus, decide the
volume of the filter.
The hydraulic loading, on the other hand, gives us the area of the filter required; when the total
sewage volume entering the filter per day is divided by the hydraulic loading, (assumed between
22 and 44 Ml/ha/day).
Knowing the volume and area of the cylindrical filter, we can easily find out its diameter and
depth.
It may also be mentioned here that the filter diameter and depth is designed for average value of
sewage flow. The rotary distributors, under-drainage system, and other connected pipe lines etc.
are, however, designed for peak flow and of course checked for the average flow. Moreover, since
the rotary distributors are available indigenously only up to 60m in length, it is desirable to keep
the diameter of the filter tank up to a maximum of 60m. If the required filter diameter is more
than 60m, then it is better to use more units of lesser diameter.
Performance of Conventional Filters and Their efficiencies

The effluent obtained from a conventional trickling filter plant is highly nitrified and stabilized.
The BOD is reduced to about 80 to 90% of the original value. The BOD left in the effluent is
generally less than 20ppm or so. The sludge obtained in the secondary clarifier is thick, with
moisture content of about 92%. It is heavy and easily digestible. The filter is very flexible, and can
even take intermittent shock loads without any detrimental effects. Hence, a conventional or
standard rate filter plant is very useful to medium towns and industrial cities requiring full
treatment of sewage.
The efficiency of such a conventional filter plant can be expressed by the equation evolved by
National Research Council of U.B.A., and given by:
Where, = Efficiency of the filter and its secondary clarifier, in terms of percentage of applied
BOD removed
u = Organic loading in kg/ha-m/day applied to the filter (called unit organic loading) This
equation shows that the BOD removed by the filter plant depends upon the organic loading
adopted. Greater is the loading, lesser is the efficiency and thus lesser BOD is removed. This
equation holds good when there is no recirculation.
Recirculation of Treated Sewage

Recirculation of sewage is an essential and important feature of high rate filters. The recirculation
consists in returning a portion of the treated or partly treated sewage to the treatment process.
Usually the return is from the secondary settling tank to the primary settling tank or to the dosing
tank of the filter as shown in Figure 4-9. Sometimes, the effluent from the filter itself before it
enters the secondary clarifier may be sent back to the primary clarifier.
Primary clarifier Trickling filter
Secondary clarifier
Figure 4-9 Single Stage commonly adopted Recirculation Process

In some other cases, and to obtain better efficiency, two stage recirculation processes may be
adopted. A two stage recirculation process consists of having two filters arranged in series, as
shown in Figure 4-10. Various other combinations are possible.
Figure 4-10 Two stage commonly adopted recirculation process
Recirculation improves the operating results of filters, because of the following reasons:
(i) Recirculation allows continuous dosing of the filters, irrespective of the fluctuations in flow.
(ii) Recirculation equalizes and reduces loading, thereby increasing the efficiency of the filter.
(iii) Recirculation provides longer contact of the applied sewage with the bacterial film on
the contact media, thereby seeding it with bacteria, and accelerating the biological oxidation
process.
(iv) The influent remains fresh all the time and also helps in reducing odors. The fly nuisance is
also comparatively less.
It may, however, be noted that although the effluent would greatly be reduced in its BOD content
because of the re-circulated flow, yet a large volume of sewage through the filter tends to wash off
the filter before nitrification has had time to take place, resulting in loss of nitrates in the effluent,
thereby slightly lowering the quality of the effluent. For this reason, a high rate filter plant with
single stage recirculation may not show as good results as those obtained from a conventional
trickling filter plant. For comparable or better results, two high rate filters are constructed and
operated in series, as shown in Figure 4-10 As pointed out earlier, various recirculation schemes
may be used, the most common being to pump back apart of the effluent from each filter to the
influent of the same filter.

Efficiency of High Rate Filters

The efficiency of high rate filters depend upon the volume of the re-circulated flow (in comparison
to the volume of raw sewage) and also upon the organic loading.
The ratio of the volume of sewage re-circulated (R) to the volume of raw sewage (I) is called
recirculation ratio, and is an important feature in obtaining the efficiency of the filter plant (or to
work out the required degree of treatment for obtaining certain efficiency), The recirculation ratio
is connected to another term called recirculation factor (F) by the relation:
V - Filter volume in hectare meters

F - Recirculation factor
In a two stage filter, the efficiency achieved in the first stage will be obtained by the previous
equation; and in the second stage, it is obtained as:
Final efficiency in the two stage filter
Where, Y' - Total BOD in effluent from first stage in kg/day

V' - Volume of second stage filter in ha-m
F' - Recirculation factor for the second stage filter
‘- Final efficiency obtained after two stage filtration
These equations are very important, as they form the basis of designing high rate filters.

Example 4-1
a. Design suitable dimensions of circular trickling filter units for treating 5 million liters of
sewage per day. The BOD of sewage is 150mg/l.
b. Also design suitable dimensions for its rotary distribution system, as well as the underdrainage
system.
Solution
Total BOD present in sewage to be treated per day
= 5 ∗ 150kg = 750kg
Assuming the value of organic loading as 1500kg/ha.m/day(900-2200)
total BOD
volume of filtering-media = oranic loading
750𝑘𝑔
= = 0.5ha. m = 5000m3
𝑘𝑔
1500
ℎ𝑎. 𝑚
Assuming the effective depth of filter as 2m(1.4-2.8m)
5000m3
surface area of the filter (𝐴𝑠 ) = = 2500m2
2𝑚
Using a circular trickling filter of diameter 40m,
The number of units required
Total area required 2500
= =π ≈ 2 units
Area of one unit ∗ 402
4
Check for Hydraulic loading
The surface area of the filter bed required can also be worked out by assume the value of
hydraulic loading as, 25 million l/ha/day.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
5000𝑚3
𝐴𝑠 = = 2000𝑚2
25 ∗ 103 𝑚3/104 𝑚2
 The 𝐴𝑠 chosen is 2500m2, which is greater than 2000 m2, and hence safe.
 Hence, 2 units each 40m diameter and 2m effective depth (i.e. 2.6m overall depth), can be
adopted. An extra third unit as stand-by may also be constructed.
Design of Rotary Distributors
Rotary distributors, as said earlier, are to be designed for peak flow, which may be considered as
2.25 times the average flow.
𝑄𝑝 = 2.25 ∗ 5ML/day
= 11.25ML/day
= 0.13m3 /sec

 This flow is divided into

two filter units; and,
therefore,
𝑄𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.065m3 /sec
 Assuming that the velocity
at peak flow is 2m/sec
through the central column
of the distributor,
𝐷𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
0.065 1
= √ ∗ π = 0.2m
2
4
Note: check the velocity through
the column at average flow, as it
should not be less than 1m/sec
Check for velocity at average flow
Discharge through each unit at average flow
= ML/day = 2.5ML/day = 0.029m /sec

Velocity at average flow
Since the velocity at average flow becomes slightly less than the minimum permissible of 1m/sec,
we should reduce the adopted diameter slightly. Let us use 0.19m diameter, then The velocity at
average flow
0.029
𝑉𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑔. = π = 1.023m/sec > 1𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 ; 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
∗0.192
4
The velocity at peak flow will then be
Hence, we may use a central column of 0.19m in diameter. If, however, the central column of
0.19m in diameter is not available, we may permit 0.2m (8") diameter central column, as the
velocity at average flow is quite near the allowable minimum value.
Design of Arms
Let us use rotary reaction spray type distributor with 4 arms.
0.065
Then, the discharge per arm, 𝑄𝑎𝑟𝑚 = m3 /sec = 0.016m3 /s
4
Diameter of filter used = 40m (assumed previously).
filter diam𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 40−2
Arm length = −1= = 19m
2 2

We can use each arm of 19m length with its size reducing from near the central column towards
the end. The first two sections, each of 6m length, and the third section of 7m length, can be used.
The flow in the arms has to be adjusted in the proportion of the filter area covered by these lengths
of arm. Therefore, the area covered by the different lengths of arm is calculated first.
Let A1, A2, and A3 be the circular filter areas covered by each length of arm, starting from the
central column. Allowing for 0.3m diameter in centre to be used for central column, etc., these
areas would be:
A1 = π(r22 − r12 ) = π(6.152 − 0.152 ) = 118.69m2
A2 = π(12.152 − 6.152 ) = 344.77m2
A3 = π(202 − 12.152 ) = 792.5m2
Total area of filter (A) = π(202 − 0.152 ) = 1256m2 Check!
Proportionate areas served by each section of arm (numbered from the centre towards the end) are
worked out as:
A1 118.69
1st = = ∗ 100% = 9.45%
A 1256
A2 344.77
2nd = = ∗ 100% = 27.45%
A 1256
A3 792.5
3rd = = ∗ 100% = 63.1%
A 1256
Full discharge through an arm, i.e., 0.016m3/sec, will flow through the first section, and this will
go on reducing through the second and third sections.
(i) Design of 1st section
𝑄𝑎𝑟𝑚1 = 0.016m3/s, and Assuming the velocity through the arm as 1.2 m/s
0.016
The area of arm required, 𝐴𝑎𝑟𝑚1 = = 0.0133m2
1.2
0.0133
Arm Diameter require, 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑚1 = √ π = 0.13m = 130mm
4
(i) Design of second section
Discharge through the 2𝑛𝑑 section
𝑄𝑎𝑟𝑚2 = (100 − 9.45)% ∗ 0.016 = 0.0145m3 /s
Q 0.0145
𝐴𝑎𝑟𝑚2 = = = 0.012m2
V 1.2
0.012
𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑚2 = √ π = 0.124m = 124mm
4
(i) Design of third section
𝑄𝑎𝑟𝑚3 = (100 − 9.45 − 27.45)% ∗ 0.016 = 0.010m3 /sec

0.010
𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑚3 = √ π = 0.103m = 103mm
1.2 ∗ 4
Each arm length can thus be made of three sections, i.e. first 6m from centre to be 130mm diameter,
next 6m of 124mm diameter, and the last 7m of 103mm diameter. If economy is not much affected,
and or if different sized pipes are difficult to join, then the entire arm length may be kept of 130mm
diameter; or the first 12m may be kept of 130mm diameter, and the last 7m of 103mm diameter.
Design of Orifices
Each arm section will be provided with different no. of orifices, depending upon the Q to be passed
through each section.
Total discharge through each arm = 0.016m3/sec.
𝑄𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = Cd ∗ A ∗ √2gh
Assuming that 10mm diameter orifices are provided with coefficient of discharge (Cd) being 0.65,
with an assumed water head (h), causing flow, as 1.5m,
π
𝑄𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 0.65 ∗ ∗ (0.01)2 ∗ √ 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 1.5 = 2.768 ∗ 10−4 m3 /s
4
Total discharge through each arm 0.016
𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = = ≈ 58
Discharge through each orifice 2.768 ∗ 10−4
Number of orifices through the second section
Number of orifices through the third section
Spacing of orifices can be

6
In the first section, 5 number in 6m length, i.e. 5 = 1.2m
6
In the second section, 16 numbers in 6m length, i.e. = 0.375m
16
7
In the third section, 37 numbers in 7m length, i.e. 37 = 0.189m
Design of Under-drainage System
Total discharge through each filter unit at peak flow = 0.065m3/sec.

Let us design the under-drainage system with a central rectangular channel, fed by radial laterals
discharging into the channel. The under-drain block lengths, containing semi-elliptical openings,
can be used as laterals.
The size and slope of the rectangular effluent channel should be such as to allow, say a velocity of
1m/sec through it (min. = 0.9m/sec).

Discharge 0.065
𝐴𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 = = = 0.065m2
velocity l
Assume 0.225m width,
0.065
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 = = 0.288m ≈ 0.3m
0.225
The slope of the bed of this channel S, is given by:
1
Q = n ∗ A ∗ R2/3 ∗ S1/2
Where, n = Manning's Coefficient = 0.018 (assumed)
A = 0.225m ∗ 0.3m = 0.0675m2
A 0.0675
R= = = 0.082
P (0.225 + 0.3 + 0.3)
1
0.065 = ∗ 0.0675 ∗ (0.082)2/3 ∗ S1/2
0.018
0.065
S1/2 =
0.706
1
S=
117.9
Hence, use a central effluent channel, 0.225m (9") in width and 0.3m (12") in depth below the
bottom level of laterals. The channel may be laid at a slope of 1 in 118.
The under-drain block lengths can be placed in rows, discharging into the effluent channel. The
radial under-drains may be laid at a slope of 1 in 40.
Let us use 10cm (4") diameters, semi-circular under-drain blocks. These laterals should be
designed to run approximately half-full, so as to ensure proper ventilation. Let us assume that
laterals run at a depth of 0.3D, where D is the diameter of circle of which the lateral section is a
semi-circle. Then
Velocity at average flow:

Hence, use 40 semi circular radial laterals, of 10cm diameter each discharging into the effluent
channel (at a slope of 1 in 40).
Example 4-2
The sewage is flowing @ 4.5Million liters per day from a primary clarifier to a standard rate
trickling filter. The 5-day BOD of the influent is 160mg/l. The value of the adopted organic loading
is to be 160 gm/m3/day, and surface loading 2000 l/m2/day. Determine the volume of the filter and
its depth. Also calculate the efficiency of this filter unit.
Solution


Hence,
Comparison of Conventional and High rate Trickling Filters

Table 4-2 Conventional vs high rate trickling filters
S. No Characteristics Conventional filters High rate filters
Depth of filter Varies between 1.6 to 2.4m Varies between 1.2 to 1.8m
1
media
Size of filter 25 to 75 25 to 60
2
media
3 Land required More land area is required as the Less land area is required as the
filter loading is less. filter loading is more.
4 Cost of operation It is more for treating equal It is less for treating equal quantity
quantity of sewage of sewage.
5 Method of Continuous application, less Continuous application, more
operation flexible requiring less skilled flexible, and more skillful
supervision. operation is required.
6 Types of effluent The effluent is highly nitrified The effluent is nitrified up to
produced and stabilized, with BOD in nitrite stage only and is thus less
effluent ≤ 20ppm stable, and hence it is of slightly
inferior quality. BOD in effluent
30ppm.
7 Dosing interval It generally varies between 3 to It is not more than 15 seconds, and
10 minutes. The sewage is the sewage is thus applied
generally not applied continuously
continuously but is applied at
intervals.
8 Filter loading
values
(i) Hydraulic Varies between 20 to 44ML per Varies between 110 to 330ML per
loading hectare per day hectare per day
(ii) Organic Varies between 900 to 2200kg Varies between 6000 to 18,000kg
loading of BOD5 per ha-m of filter of BOD5 per hectare meter of
media per day. filter media per day
9 Recirculation Not provided generally Always provided for increasing
system hydraulic loading

10 Quality of Black, highly oxidized with Brown, not fully oxidized with
secondary sludge slight fine particles fine particles
produced
4.4.2 Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process provides an excellent method of treating either raw sewage or more
generally the settled sewage. The sewage effluent from primary sedimentation tank, which is, thus
normally utilized in this process is mixed with 20 to 30 percent of own volume of activated sludge
which contains a large concentration of highly active aerobic micro-organisms.
The microorganisms utilize the absorbed organic matter as a carbon and energy source for cell
growth and convert it to cell tissue, water, and oxidized products (mainly carbon dioxide, CO2).
Some bacteria attack the original complex substance to produce simple compounds as their waste
products. Other bacteria then use these waste products to produce simpler compounds until the
food is used up.
The mixture of wastewater and activated sludge in the aeration basis is called mixed liquor. The
biological mass (biomass) in the mixed liquor is called the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)
or mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). The MLSS consists mostly of
microorganisms, non-biodegradable suspended organic matter, and other inert suspended matter.
The microorganisms in MLSS are composed of 70 to 90 percent organic and 10 to 30 percent
inorganic matter (Okun 1949, WEF and ASCE 1996a). The types of bacterial cell vary depending
on the chemical characteristics of the influent wastewater tank conditions and the specific
characteristics of the microorganisms in the flocs. Microbial growth in the mixed liquor is
maintained in the declining or endogenous growth phase to insure good settling properties.
The mixture enters an aeration tank where the micro-organisms (coated around the sludge solids)
and the sewage are intimately mixed together with a large quantity of air for about 4 to 8 hours.
Under these conditions, the moving organisms will oxidize the organic matter and the suspended
and colloidal matter tends to coagulate and form a precipitate which settles down readily in the
secondary settling tank. The settled sludge (containing micro organisms) called activated sludge
is then recycled to the head of the aeration tank to be mixed again with the sewage being treated.
New activated sludge is continuously being produced by this process and a portion of it being
utilized and sent back to the aeration tank whereas the excess portion is disposed of properly along
with the sludge collected during primary treatment after digestion.
The effluent obtained from a properly operated activated sludge plant is of high quality usually
having a lower BOD than that of a trickling filter plant. BOD removal is up to 80 - 95 percent, and
bacteria removal is up to 90 - 95 percent. Moreover, land area required is also quite less. But,
however, in this process, a rather close degree of control is necessary in operation to ensure that
(i) an ample supply of oxygen is present
(ii) there is intimate and continuous mixing of the sewage and the activated sludge
(iii) the ratio of the volume of activated sludge added to the volume of sewage being treated
is kept practically constant

Moreover, there is the problem of obtaining activated sludge at the start of a new plant. Hence,
when a new plant is put into operation a period of about 4 weeks may be required to form a suitable
return sludge and during this period almost all the sludge from the secondary sedimentation tank
will be returned through the aeration tank. A new plant may also sometimes be seeded with the
activated sludge from another plant so as to quickly start the process in the new plant.
Various Operations and Units of an Activated Sludge Plant

1. Aeration Tanks of an Activated Sludge Plant
A typical flow diagram for a conventional activated sludge plant is shown in Figure 4-12. As
pointed out earlier, the removal of grit and larger solids by screening in grit chambers and primary
sedimentation tanks is generally considered necessary before aeration. The pre-removal of these
settleable solids is helpful in preventing deposits on aeration devices, and thereby not reducing
their efficiencies. Moreover, such materials, if not pre-removed may settle down in the aeration
tank and by decomposition interfere with the treatment process. Accordingly, grit removal,
screening, and primary sedimentation are considered necessary for a conventional activated sludge
process.
Figure 4-11 Flow diagram for a conventional AS plant giving high degree of treatment
From the primary sedimentation tank, the sewage flows to the aeration tank and is mixed with the
activated sludge. The aeration tanks or aeration chambers are normally rectangular tanks 3 to
4.5m deep and about 4 to 6m wide. The length may range between 20 to 200m and the detention
period between 4 to 8 hours for municipal sew ages. Air is continuously introduced into these
tanks.
Methods of Aeration: There are two basic methods of introducing air into the aeration tanks,

(1) Diffused air aeration or Air diffusion

(2) Mechanical aeration
(1) Diffused Air Aeration
In the diffused air aeration method, compressed air under a pressure of 35 to 70kN/m2 (0.35 to
0.7kg/cm2) is introduced into the aeration chamber through diffusion plates or other devices are
called diffusers. The main criteria for selection of a particular diffuser are that it should be capable
of diffusing air in small bubbles, so as to provide the greatest possible efficiency of aeration. Porous
plates and porous tubes made of quartz or crystalline alumina (Aluminum oxide) are generally used
as diffusers. Plates are generally square in shape with dimensions of 30cm x 30cm and they are
usually 25mm thick. These plates are fixed at the bottom of aeration tanks. Tube diffusers are
generally 60cm long with internal diameter of 75mm and thickness of wall equal to 15mm. These
tubes are suspended in the aeration tank, and can be taken out for cleaning, without emptying the
tank. The effective areas for the above standard plate and tube diffusers work out to 780cm2 and
1160cm2, respectively.
Two types of aeration tanks are generally used. In one design, the tank is formed into a succession
of ridges and furrows (Figure 4-12) and air is forced upward through diffuser plates placed at the
bottom of the furrows. Such a tank is called the ridge and furrow type of aeration tank.
Figure 4-12 L-section of a ridge and furrow type of an aeration tank
Another popular design is the spiral flow type of aeration lank (Figure 4-13). In this tank, air is
introduced near the side of the tank in such a way that spiral flow results in the tank; as shown.
The compressed air, in such a tank, can be supplied either through a plate diffuser or a tube
diffuser, although tube diffusers are most widely used. This type of tank requires small quantity
of compressed air at low pressure. Spiral motion set up by the compressed air, released through
the tube diffusers, causes the required aeration.

Figure 4-13 Cross-section of a spiral flow type of an aeration tank
Quantity of air required in diffused aerators:

In order to determine the capacity of the air compressor, it is necessary to determine the quantity
of air that will be required. On an average, it may be assumed that about 4000 to 8000m 3 of free
air will be required per million liters of sewage being treated. But this provision depends on the
strength of sewage and various other factors. With respect to the BOD removal, the usual rate
adopted is 100m3/day of air per kg of BOD removed. Since only about 5% of oxygen in the air is
actually involved in the biochemical action, the modern practice in design is to rationally calculate
the oxygen requirement of the given wastewater and select aerator accordingly.
Volume of returned activated sludge:
The volume of returned activated sludge from secondary clarifier to the aeration tank mainly
depends upon the extent of BOD desired to be removed. It is usually expressed as percentage of
flow of sewage as where QR is the returned sludge rate in m3/d and Q is the sewage inflow rate
in m3/d. Simple variation with the extent of desired BOD removal is shown in Table 4-3 below:
Table 4-3 Variation with the extent of BOD removal
Extent of BOD removal Quantity of returned sludge as
desired in ppm percentage of sewage flow
150 25
250 30
400 35

300 40
500 48
600 53
(2) Mechanical Aeration

The air-diffusion method, as pointed out above, a lot of compressed air (90 to 95%) gets wasted,
as it simply escapes through the tank without giving oxygen to the sewage; although it helps in
bringing about the required agitation of sewage mixture. In order to affect economy, atmospheric
air is brought in contact with the sewage in the mechanical aeration method. In this mechanical
aeration method, the sewage is stirred up by means of mechanical devices, like paddles, etc.
(called surface aerators) ; so as to introduce air into it from the atmosphere by continuously
changing the surface of sewage by the circulation of sewage from bottom to top. The only
important requirement in this method is to have thorough agitation of sewage, so as to bring it in
intimate contact with the atmosphere.
The aeration period depends on the mechanical process adopted for agitation. It generally varies
between 6 to 8 hours. The quantity of the returned sludge, in mechanically aerated aeration tanks,
is usually about 25 to 30 percent of the flow of sewage.
Figure 4-14 Section of a mechanical aerator
Sometimes a rectangular tank may also be used; but in that case, it must be divided suitably, into
square units. At the centre of the tank, a hollow uptake tube is suspended from the top with a
distance of about 15cm from the bottom of the tank. A steel cone with spiral vanes is provided at
the top of the uptake tube and it is driven by a motor placed at the top of the tank. The cone is

revolved at a high speed (60 rpm) which sucks the mixed liquor through the uptake tube by
creating suction at the bottom, and sprays it at the surface towards the sides in the tank.
Numerous air bubbles are formed in this process, which bring about satisfactory aeration of
sewage. Sewage also gets thoroughly mixed up with the activated sludge during its downward
journey.
The mechanical aerators have gained considerable popularity in recent years. Their simplicity
and ease of maintenance has resulted in their increasing popularity, especially for smaller plants.
They are, however, sensitive even to slight variations in water levels.
3. Secondary Sedimentation Tank of an Activated Sludge Plant

From the aeration tank, the sewage flows to the final sedimentation tank. This tank will normally
be of the general type (like a primary tank), with certain modifications. Since, there are no floating
solids here; provisions for the removal of scum or floatage are not needed. The suspended particles
in the aeration tank effluent are light in weight, and are thus markedly influenced by currents.
Therefore, in these secondary settling tanks, a considerable length of overflow weir is desirable,
to reduce the velocity of approach. Good design should provide a, weir overflow rate, not,
exceeding 150m3/day per lineal meter of weir. This value is based on average flow of sewage and
not to the mixed liquor flow.
Solids loading are another important factor, which governs the design of secondary basin. This is
because of the fact that in the secondary tank, hindered settling occurs and hence the settling
velocity of discrete particles may not govern its design, as in the case of a primary sedimentation
tank. The solids loading rate based on mixed liquor flow to the settling tanks, may be kept at
about 100-150 kg/m2 per day at average flow, and should not exceed 250 kg/m2 per day at peak
flows. Such rates ensure adequate sludge thickening and concentrated sludge returns.
The surface area for activated sludge settling tanks should be designed for both overflow rate and
solids loading rate, and larger value adopted.
The detention period for such a sedimentation tank may be kept between 1 − 2 hours, as the
same is usually found to give optimum results.
The length to depth ratio of these tanks may be kept at about 5 for circular tanks, and 7 for
rectangular ones. The depth may be kept in the range of 3.5 to 4.5m.
Since final settling is always required in an activated sludge plant, so as to provide the return
activated sludge, duplicate secondary settling tanks are generally considered necessary.
Design considerations involved in an activated sludge plant

1. Aeration Tank Loadings
The important terms which define the loading rates of an activated sludge plant, include:
(i) Aeration Period (i.e. Hydraulic Retention Time - HRT)

(ii) BOD loading per unit volume of aeration tank (i.e. volumetric loading)
(iii) Food to Micro-organism Ratio (F/M Ratio)
(iv) Sludge age
(i) The Aeration Period or HRT
The aeration period (t) empirically decides the loading rate at which the sewage is applied to the
aeration tank. For continuous flow aeration tank, this value is determined in the same manner as
it is determined for an ordinary continuous sedimentation tank as:
Where,
t = aeration period in hours V = Volume of aeration tank Q = Quantity of wastewater flow into
the aeration tank excluding the quantity of recycled sludge
(ii) Volumetric BOD Loading
Another empirical loading parameter is volumetric loading, which is defined as the BOD5 1oad
applied per unit volume of aeration tank. This loading is also called organic loading.
Volumetric BOD loading or Organic loading
This loading is quite similar to the BOD loading rate per cum of filter volume, as used and adopted
in biological filtration.
(iii) Food (F) to Micro-organisms (M) Ratio
F/M ratio is an important rational organic loading rate adopted for an activated sludge process. It
is a manner of expressing BOD loading with regard to the microbial mass in the system. The BOD
load applied to the system in kg or gm is represented as food (F), and the total microbial suspended
solid in the mixed liquor of the aeration tank is represented by M.

Daily BOD load applied to the aerator system in gm

F/M ratio =
Total microbial mass in the system in gm
If Yo (mg/l) represents the 5 day BOD of the influent sewage flow of Q m3/day, then eventually,
The BOD applied to the Aeration system = Yo mg/l or gm/m3 Therefore,
BOD load applied to the aeration system
= F = Q ∗ Y gm/day (i)
The total microbial mass in the aeration system (M) is computed by multiplying the average
concentration of solids in the mixed liquor of the aeration tank called Mixed Liquor Suspended
Solids (MLSS) with the volume of the aeration tank (V).
M = MLSS ∗ V
=X∗V (ii)
Where, Xt is MLSS in mg/l
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get
F F Q Y
ratio = = ∗ 4.26
M M V X
F/M ratio for an activated sludge plant is the main factor controlling BOD removal. The lower the
F/M value the higher will be the BOD removal in the plant. The F/M ratio can be varied by varying
the MLSS concentration in the aeration tank.
(iv) Sludge Age

The sludge age is an operation parameter related to the F/M ratio. It may be defined as the average
time for which particles of suspended solids remain under aeration. It, thus, indicates the
residence time of biological solids in the system. While aeration periods (i.e. liquid retention
times) may be as short as 3 to 30h the residence time of biological solids in the system is much
greater and is measured in days.
While sewage passes through the aeration tank only once and rather quickly, the resultant
biological growths and the extracted waste organics (solids) are repeatedly recycled from the
secondary clarifier back to the aeration tank, thereby increasing the retention time of solids. This
time is called Solids Retention Time (SRT) or Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) or Sludge
Age.
The most common method of expressing sludge age usually represented by c in days, is to
express it as the ratio of the mass of MLSS in the aeration tank relatively to the mass of suspended
solids leaving the system per day.
Sludge age ( c)
Mass of suspended solids (MLSS) in the system (M)
= 4.27

Mass of solids leaving the system per day

For a conventional activated sludge plant with the flow (Q), concentrations of solids (Xt), and
BOD5 (Y), as marked in Figure 4-15, We can easily write:
(a) Mass of solids in the reactor
= M = V ∗ (MLSS)
=V∗X
Where, Xt is MLSS in the aeration tank (in mg/l). (b)
(i) Mass of solids removed with the wasted sludge per day
=Q ∗X (i)
(ii) Mass of solids removed with the effluent per day
= (Q − Q ) ∗ X (ii)
Therefore, (b) Total solid removed from the system per day
= (i) + (ii)
=Q ∗ X + (Q − Q ) ∗ X
Thus:
V∗X
Sludge age = θ = 4.28
Q ∗ X + (Q − Q ) ∗ X
Where, Xt = Concentration of solids in the influent of the aeration tank called the MLSS, mg/l
V = Volume of Aerator
Qw = Volume of wasted sludge per day.
XR = Concentration of solids in the returned sludge or in the wasted sludge in mg/l
Q = Sewage inflow per day
XE = Concentration of solids in the effluent in mg/l
When the value of XE (suspended solids concentration in the effluent of activated sludge plant)
is very small, then the term ((Q − Q ) ∗ X in the above equation can be ignored, leading to:
V∗X
θ= 4.29
Q ∗X

Figure 4-15 Flow chart of conventional activated sludge plant
In addition to using sludge retention time (θc ) as a rational loading parameter, another rational
loading parameter which has found wider acceptance is the specific substrate utilization rate (q)
per day, and is defined as:
Y−Y
q=Q∗ 4.30
V∗X
Under steady state operation, the mass of wasted activated sludge is further given by
Q ∗X = y ∗ Q(Y − Y ) − K ∗ X ∗ V 4.31
Where, y = maximum yield coefficient
microbial mass synthesized
=
mass of substrate utilized
Ke = Endogenous respiration rate constant (per day)
The values of y and Ke are found to be constant for municipal waste waters, their typical values
being:
y = 1.0 with respect to TSS (i.e. MLSS)
= 0.6 with respect to VSS (i.e. MLVSS)
Ke = 0.06 (per day)
From the above equations, we can also work out as:
= = yq − K 4.32
Since both y and Ke are constants for a given wastewater, it becomes necessary to define either
θc or q.

The θc value adopted for the design controls the effluent quality and settleability and drainability
of the biomass. Other parameters which are affected by the choice of θc values are oxygen
requirement and quantity of waste activated sludge.
Example 4-3
An average operating data for conventional activated sludge treatment plant is as follows:
(1) Wastewater flow, Q = 35000m3/d
(2) Volume of aeration tank, V = 10900m3
(3) Influent BOD, Yo = 250mg/l
(4) Effluent BOD, YE = 20 mg/l
(5) Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), Xt = 2500mg/l
(6) Effluent suspended solids, XE = 30mg/l
(7) Waste sludge suspended solids, XR = 9700mg/l
(8) Quantity of waste sludge, Qw = 220m3/d
Based on the information above data, determine:

(a) Aeration period (hrs)
(b) Food to microorganism ratio (F/M) (kg BOD per day/kg MLSS)
(c) Percentage efficiency of BOD removal
(d) Sludge age (days)

Solution
2. Sludge Volume Index (SVI)

The term sludge volume index or sludge index is used to indicate the physical state of the sludge
produced in a biological aeration system. It represents the degree of concentration of the sludge
in the system, and hence decides the rate of recycle of sludge (QR) required to maintain the desired
MLSS and F/M ratio in the aeration tank to achieve the desired degree of purification. SVI is
defined as the volume of sludge occupied in ml by one gm of solids in the mixed liquor after
settling for 30 minutes, and is determined experimentally.
The standard test which is performed in the laboratory to compute SVI of an aeration system
involves collection of one liter sample of mixed liquor from the aeration tank from near its
discharge end in a graduated cylinder. This 1 liter sample of mixed liquor is allowed to settle for
30 minutes and the settled sludge volume (Vob) in ml is recorded as to represent sludge volume.

This volume Vob in ml per liter of mixed liquor will represent the quantity of sludge in the liquor
in ml/l.
The above sample of mixed liquor after remixing the settled solids is further tested in the
laboratory for MLSS by the standard procedure adopted for measuring the suspended solids in
sewage. Let this concentration of suspended solids in the mixed liquor in mg/l be Xob. Then SVI
is
Sludge Recycle and Rate of Return Sludge

The MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is controlled by the sludge recirculation rate and the
sludge settleability and thickening in the secondary sedimentation tank. The relationship between
sludge recirculation ratio with Xt (MLSS in tank) and XR (MLSS in returned or
wasted sludge) is given as:
The settleability of sludge is determined by sludge volume index (SVI), which is determined in
the laboratory.
If it is assumed that the sedimentation of suspended solids in the laboratory is similar to that in
the sedimentation tank, then:
where, SVI value in mg/l

Then,

Values of return sludge ratios adopted in different types of activated sludge systems are shown
in Table 4-4. Its value for conventional sludge plant varies between 0.25 and 0.50.
The return sludge has always to be pumped and the pump capacity should be designed for a
minimum return sludge ratio of 0.50 to 0.75 for large plants and 1.0 to 1.5 for smaller plants
irrespective of the theoretical requirement. The required capacity should be provided in multiple
units to permit variation of return sludge ratio as found necessary during the operation of the plant.
Wasting of Excess Sludge (Qw)
We know that the sludge generated in the aeration tank has to be partly discharged and wasted out
of the plant to maintain a steady level of MLSS in the system. The excess sludge quantity will
increase with the increasing F/M ratio and decrease with temperature. In the case of domestic
sewage, Qw will be about 0.50 - 0.75kg per kg BOD removed for the conventional sludge plants
(having F/M ratio varying between 0.4 and 0.3).
Excess sludge may be wasted either from the sludge return line or directly from the aeration tank
as mixed liquor. The latter procedure is usually preferred since the concentration of suspended
solids will then be fairly steady in the waste discharge making the control easy.
In conventional plants, the wasted sludge is taken directly to a sludge thickner and digester or to
the primary settling tank for its disposal along with the primary sludge. In extended aeration
plants, however, the excess sludge is directly taken to the sludge drying beds.
Modifications of the Basic Activated Sludge Process
In the basic activated sludge process also called conventional aeration process, the re-circulated
activated sludge is added to the inlet end of the aeration tank as a single dose. The regime flow
employed in the aeration tank is plug flow and not mixed flow. Plug flow implies that the sewage
moves down progressively along the aeration tank essentially unmixed with the rest of the tank
contents. The other type of flow regime called complete mixed flow involves the rapid dispersal
of the incoming sewage throughout the tank and is adopted in the extended aeration process. In
a conventional aeration tank (of plug flow type), the F/M ratio and the oxygen demand will be

the highest at the inlet end, and will then progressively decrease. In the complete mix system on
the other hand, the F/M ratio and oxygen demand will be uniform throughout the tank.
The plug flow regime is achieved in such an activated process by employing a long and narrow
configuration of the aeration tank with length equal to 5 to 50 times the width. The sewage and
the mixed liquor are let in at the head of the tank and withdrawn at its end. Because of the plug
flow regime, the oxygen demand at the head of the aeration tank is high and then tapers down.
However, air is supplied in the process at a uniform rate along the length of the tank. This leads
to either oxygen deficiency in the initial zone or wasteful application of air in the subsequent
reaches.
The conventional system is always preceded by primary settling. The plant itself consists of an
aeration tank, a secondary settling tank, a sludge return line and an excess sludge waste line
leading to digester. The BOD removal in this process is 85 - 92%.
The main limitations of the conventional system are that:
(i) the aeration tank volume requirement is high;
(ii) there is a lack of operational stability at times of excessive variation in the rate of inflow
or its BOD strength
In order to overcome such difficulties posed by a conventional system plant, and to meet specific
treatment objectives, several modifications of the conventional system have been suggested by
modifying the process variables.
The important modified processes are:

(i) Tapered aeration process; (iv) Complete mix process;
(ii) Step aeration process; (v) Modified aeration process;
(iii) Contact stabilization process; (vi) Extended aeration process
In spite of its various limitations, the conventional system for historical reasons, is the most
widely used type of the activated sludge process. Plants up to 300MLD capacity have been built
in diameter. In addition to conventional activated sludge plants, the complete mixed plants and
the extended aeration plants have also been found a wider acceptance in modern days, particularly
for obtaining high BOD removals in smaller capacity plants.
i. Tapered Aeration Process

This process involves a very little modification of the conventional process, and ensures higher
air supply at the inlet and in the initial length of the tank, as compared to the downstream length.
The process is surely based on the fact that as the mixed liquor progresses through the aeration
tank, its air requirement goes on reducing. Therefore, in a tapered aeration plant, compressed air
is supplied at higher rates near the inlet end of the tank, and is gradually decreased as sewage
moves towards the outlet end of the tank. Such a process therefore helps us in ensuring optimal
application of air in the aeration tank.

Ordinarily, 45% of air is supplied to the first one-third length of the tank, 30% to the second
onethird length of the tank, and the rest 25% to the remaining one-third length of the tank.
Number of diffuser plates is thus varied accordingly. Such a modification to the conventional
activated plants using diffused air aeration, has now-a-days become a common feature, and is
invariably adopted in all modern designs. The loading parameters of such a plant do not materially
differ from a conventional one, and are given in Table 4-4.
ii. Step Aeration Process

In the step aeration process, the sewage is introduced along the length of the aeration tank in
several steps, while the return sludge is introduced at the head, as shown in Figure 4-16.
Figure 4-16 Flow chart of step-aeration process

Such an arrangement results in a uniform air requirement along the entire length of the tank, and
hence the uniform air supply of the conventional plants, can be efficiently used. The process
enables an appreciable reduction in the aeration tank volume, without lowering the BOD removal
efficiency. Step aeration method has considerable capacity to absorb shock organic loadings. The
method has found application for larger plants of capacities up to about 1000MLD.
The loading parameters of such a plant are given Table 4-4.
iii. Contact Stabilization Process or Biosorption Process
In this process, the sewage and recycled or returned sludge are mixed and aerated for a
comparatively shorter period of 0.5 to 1.5 hour in a special mixing tank, called contact tank. This
mixing will allow the suspended and dissolved organic matter to be sorbed to the activated sludge
floc. The sorbed organics and flocs are removed in the secondary settling tank, where the effluent
from the contact tank enters. These settled sorbed organics and flocs are then transferred to a
sludge aeration tank (called stabilization tank or aerodigester) where the organics are stabilized
over a period of about 3 to 6 hours before it is fed back into the contact aeration tank. The stabilized
sludge is then mixed with the influent wastewater again, and the process is repeated. The flow
diagram for this process is shown in Figure 4-17, and the loading parameters are given in Table
4-4.

Figure 4-17 Contact-stabilization process
The contact stabilization process is quite effective in the removal of colloidal and suspended
organic matter, but it is not very effective in removing soluble organics. The method is well suited
for the treatment of fresh domestic sewage, containing only a low percentage of soluble BOD.
Compared to the conventional system, the contact stabilization process has greater capacity to
handle shock organic loadings, because of the biological buffering capacity of the sludge
reaeration tank. The process also presents greater resistance to toxic substances in the sewage as
the biological mass is exposed to the main stream of sewage containing the toxic constituents
only for a short time.
The air requirements of the process are the same as for the conventional system, the air supply
being divided equally between the contact aeration tank and the sludge re-aeration tank. However,
the total aeration tank volume required for both the aeration tanks is only about half of the volume
required in the single conventional sludge aeration tank. The process therefore presents an
effective method of up rating the existing conventional plants where sewage characteristics are
satisfactory. Moreover, the total aeration time is considerably reduced and the plant capacity is
thereby increased.
The process has found application in medium sized plants with capacities up to 40 MLD.
iv. Complete Mix Process

Complete mix activated sludge plants were developed particularly for smaller cities, where the
hourly variations in sewage were quite high, and as such conventional plants were experiencing
serious problems of biological instability.
In such a plant, the plug flow regime of a conventional plant is replaced by a completely mixed
flow regime. Such a flow regime can be achieved by thorough mixing of sewage and return
sludge. Sewage and return sludge are therefore distributed uniformly along one side of the
aeration tank, and the aerated sewage is withdrawn uniformly along the opposite side. Mechanical
aerators are installed in the centre of a circular or square aeration tank, which may be used in such
a plant. Such mechanical aerators must have adequate mixing capacity to ensure thorough mixing
of sewage and return sludge. The flow chart for such a plant is shown in Figure 4-18 and the
loading parameters of such a plant are given in Table 4-4.

Figure 4-18 Flow chart of a complete mix plant
The complete mix plant possesses capacity to hold much higher MLSS concentration level in the
aeration tank; say 3000 to 4000mg/l as against 1500 to 3000 mg/l of a conventional plant. This
helps in adopting smaller volume for the aeration tank. The plant has an increased operational
stability at shock organic loadings, and also increased capacity to treat toxic biodegradable
wastewaters like phenols. Such a plant is less liable to upsets by slugs of flows of toxic
wastewaters.
Such plants have been widely used for smaller plant capacities of less than 25 MLD, particularly
for the towns where municipal and industrial wastewaters flow together.
v. Modified Aeration Process

When an intermediate quality of effluent containing higher BOD is permissible, such as at a place
where effluent is to be used for farming, this modified aeration plant may be adopted, as it leads
to substantial savings in construction and aeration costs.
Such a process does not need any primary sedimentation tank, as is invariably required in a
conventional plant. The process ensures short aeration period, high volumetric loading, high F/M
ratio, low percentage of sludge return, low concentration of MLSS, as reflected in Table 4-4. The
BOD removal is also low say only 60 - 75% or so. The process has been employed mainly in
large plants with capacities above 200 MLD.
vi. Extended Aeration Process

The flow scheme of an extended aeration process and its mixing regime are similar to that of the
complete mix process. Primary sedimentation is frequently avoided in this process, but grit
chamber or comminutor is often provided for screenings.
As its name suggests, the aeration period is quite large and extends to about 12 - 24 hours, as
compared to 4 to 6 hours in a conventional plant. The loading parameters for such a process are
already given in Table 4-4. The process permits low organic loading, high MLSS concentration,
and low F/M ratio. The BOD removal efficiency is also quite high, to say about 95 - 98% as
compared to 85 - 92% of a conventional plant.

The air or oxygen requirement is of course quite high, which increases the running cost of the
plant considerably. The plant, however, offers another advantage as no separate sludge digester is
required here, because the solids undergo considerable endogenous respiration and get well
stabilized over the long detention periods adopted in the aeration tank. The sludge produced is,
thus, capable to be directly taken to the sludge drying beds. Also, the excess sludge production is
minimum. The operation is also simpler due to the elimination of primary settling and separate
sludge digestion. Such a process is quite suitable for small communities having sewage flows of
less than 4 MLD or so.

WEE – 3192 Module 201
Table 4-4 Characteristics and design parameters of different activated sludge systems
kg O2 Air
Volumetr
MLVS BOD requirem
ic SRT reqd.
ML S F HR Retur remov ent in m3
Process Flow Loading n per kg
SS T (day al
type regime kg BOD5 per kg of
mg/l MLS M hrs s) c Sludg percen
BOD5 remov BOD5
S 3
e t
per m ed removed
ratio
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Conventio Plug 1500 to 0.8 0.4 4 to 0.3 to 5 0.25 85 to 0.8 to 40 to 100
nal 3000 to 6 0.7 to8 to 0.5 92 1.0
0.3
Taperd Plug 1500 to 0.8 0.4 4 to 0.3 to 5 to 0.25 85 to 0.7 to 50 to 75
aeration 3000 to 6 0.8 8 to 92 1.0
0.3 0.5
Step Plug 2000 to 0.8 0.4 3 to 0.7 to 5 to 0.25 85 to 0.7 to 50 to 75+
aeration 3000 to 6 1.0 8 to 92 1.0
0.3 0.75
Contact Plug 1000 to 0.8 0.5 0.5 1.0 to 5 to 0.25 85 to 0.7 to 50 to 75
stabilizatio 3000* to to 1.2 8 to 1.0 92 1.0
n 3000 to 0.3 1.5
6000** *
3 to
6**
Complete Comple 3000 to 0.8 0.5 4 to 0.8 to 5 to 0.25 85 to 0.8 to 50 to 75
mix te mix 4000 to 5 2.0 8 to 0.8 92 1.0
0.3
Modified Plug 300 to 0.8 3.0 1.5 1.2 to 0.2 0.05 60 to 0.4 to 25 to 50
aeration 800 to to 3 2.4 to to 75 0.6
1.5 0.5 0.15
Extended Comple 3000 to 0.5 to 0.1 12 0.2 to 10 0.5 to 95 to 1.0 to 100 to 135
aeration te mix 5000 0.6 8 to 0.4 to 1.0 98 1.2
to 24 25
0.1
* in contact aeration
** in sludge aeration tank
+ divided equally between contact aeration tank and sludge re-aeration tank
AMU/WTI Page 114
WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G Page 115

Size and Volume of the Aeration Tank

Equations (4.28) and (4.31) can also be combined to yield:
This equation can be used to calculate the volume of the aeration tank (V) for an assumed value
of Xt (MLSS concentration in aeration tank) and a selected value of c. Alternatively, the tank
volume can be determined from Eq(4.27) for an assumed value of F/M ratio and tank MLSS (Xt).
It can be seen that economy in reactor volume can be achieved by assuming a higher value of Xt.
However, it is seldom taken to be more than 5000g/m3 (i.e. mg/L). A common range is between
1000 to 4000 g/m3 (see Table 4-4). Considerations which govern the upper limit are:
(i) initial and running cost of sludge recirculation system to maintain a high value of MLSS;
(ii) limitations of oxygen transfer equipment to supply oxygen at required rate in a small reactor
volume;
(iii) increased solids loading on secondary clarifier which may necessitate a larger surface area to
meet limiting solid flux;
(iv) design criteria for the tank and minimum HRT (t) for the aeration tank for stable operation
under hydraulic surges
Except in the case of extended aeration plants and completely mixed plants, the aeration tanks
are designed as long narrow channels. This configuration is achieved by the provision of round
the-end baffles in small plants when only one or two tank units are proposed; and by constructing
long and narrow rectangular tanks with common intermediate walls in large plants when several
units are proposed.
In extended aeration plants (other than oxidation ditches) and in complete mix plants, the tank
shape may, however, be kept circular or square when the tank capacity is small, and rectangular
with several side inlets and equal number of side outlets when the plant capacity is large.
The width and depth of aeration channel for conventional plants depend upon the type of aeration
equipment used. The depth controls the aeration efficiency and usually ranges from 3 to 4.5m.
The higher value of depth of 4.5m is found to be more economical for plants of more than 50MLD
capacity. Beyond 70 MLD, duplicate units are preferred. The width controls the mixing and is
usually kept between 5 to 10 m. Width-depth ratio should be adjusted between 1.2 and 2.2. The
length should not be less than 30m and not ordinarily longer than 100m in a single section length
before doubling back. The horizontal velocity should be around 1.5m/min. Excessive width may
lead to settlement of solids in the tank. Triangular baffles and fillets are used to eliminate dead
spots and induce spiral flow in the tanks. The free-board in the tank is generally kept between 0.3
-
0.5m.
While designing the aeration tanks, due consideration should also be given to the need of
emptying them for maintenance and repair of aeration equipment. Intermediate walls should be

designed for empty conditions on either side. The method of dewatering should be considered in
the design and provided for during construction.
The inlet and outlet channels of the aeration tank should be designed for empty conditions on
either side. The method of dewatering should be considered in the design and provided for during
construction. The inlet and outlet channels should be designed to maintain a minimum velocity
of 0.2m/s to avoid deposition of solids. The channels or conduits and their appurtenances should
be sized to carry the maximum hydraulic load to the remaining aeration tank units when anyone
unit is out of operation.
The inlet should provide for free fall into aeration tank when more than one tank unit or more
than one inlet is proposed. The free fall will enable positive control of the flows through the
different inlets. Outlets usually consist of free fall weirs. The weir length should be sufficient to
maintain a reasonably constant water level in the tank. When multiple inlets or multiple tanks are
involved and the inlets should be provided with valves, gates or stop planks to enable regulation
of flow through each inlet.
Oxygen Requirement of the Aeration Tanks
Oxygen is required in the activated sludge process in the aeration tank for oxidation of part of the
influent organic matter, and also for endogenous respiration of the microorganisms in the system.
The total oxygen requirement may be computed by using the equation
The above formula represents the oxygen demand for carbonaceous BOD removal and does not
account for nitrification. The extra requirement of oxygen for nitrification is theoretically found
to be 4.56kg O2/kg NH3 - N oxidized to NO3 - N.
The total oxygen requirement per kg BODs removed for different activated sludge processes are
given in Table 4-4 in col. (11). The amount of oxygen required for a particular process will
increase with the range shown in the table, as the F/M value decreases.
The aeration facilities of the activated sludge plant shall be designed to provide the calculated
oxygen demand of the waste water against a specific level of DO in the wastewater. The aeration
devices, besides supplying the required oxygen demand, shall also provide adequate mixing or
agitation, so that the entire MLSS present in the aeration tank will become available for the
biological activity. The recommended DO concentration in the aeration tank is in the range of 0.1

to 1.0mg/L for conventional activated plants; and is in the range of 1 - 2mg/L for extended
aeration type of activated plants; and shall be above 2mg/L when nitrification is required in the
activated sludge plant.
Aerators are rated on the basis of the amount of oxygen (kg) that they can transfer to the tap water
under standard conditions at 20°c, 760mm Hg barometric pressure and zero DO per unit of energy
consumed.
The oxygen transfer capacity (N) under field conditions can be calculated from the standard oxygen
transfer capacity) (Ns) by the formula:
Where, N = Oxygen transferred under field conditions in kg O2/kWh

Ns = Oxygen transfer capacity under standard conditions in kg O2/kWh
Ds = Dissolved oxygen-saturation value for sewage at operating temperature
DL = Operation DO level in aeration tank, usually 1 to 2 mg/L T
= Temperature in °c.
α = Correction factor for oxygen transfer for sewage, usually 0.8 to 0.85
Oxygen may be supplied either by surface aerators or by diffused air aeration systems employing
fine or coarse diffusers. In diameter, surface aerators are preferred because of easier maintenance.
The oxygen transfer capacities of surface aerators, and fine and coarse diffused air systems, under
standard conditions, lie between 1.2 - 2.4, 1.2 - 2 and
0.6 - 1.2kg O2/kWh respectively.
Example 4-4
Design a conventional activated sludge plant to treat domestic sewage with diffused air aeration
system, given the following data:
Population = 35000
Average sewage flow = 180 l/c/d
BOD of sewage = 220mg/l
BOD removed in primary treatment = 30%
Overall BOD reduction desired = 85%
Solution
Daily sewage flow
= Q = 180 ∗ 35000 l/day = 6300m /day
BOD of sewage coming to aeration
= Y = 70% ∗ 220mg/l = 154mg/l

BOD left in effluent

= Y = 15% ∗ 220mg/l = 33mg/l
BOD removed in activated plant
= 154 − 33 = 121mg/l
Efficiency required in Activated plant
= = 0.79
From Table 4-4, for efficiency of 85 - 92%, we use F/M ratio as 0.4 to 0.3 and MLSS between
1500 and 3000. Since efficiency required is on lower side, we can use moderate figures for F/M
ratio and MLSS.
So let us adopt F/M = 0.35
Similarly adopt MLSS (Xt) = 2000 mg/l
Using
F Q∗Y
=
M V∗X
V = volume of aeration tank
(i) Check for Aeration period or HRT (t)

Using
t h
= 5.28 h (within the limits of 4 to 6 h)… … ok
(ii) Check for SRT ( c)
From equation
Where, V = 1386m3
Xt = 2000mg/l
y = yield coefficient = 1.0 with respect to MLSS
Q = 6300m3/d
Ke = Endogenous respiration constant = 0.06d-1
Yo = BOD of influent in aeration tank = 154mg/l

YE = BOD of effluent = 33mg/l

Substituting the values, we get
days ≈ 5 days … ok! as it lies between 5 and 8 days

(iii) Check for volumetric loading
Using equation
(iv) Check for Return sludge ratio (for SVI ranging between 50 - 150ml/gm Let us
take 100ml/gm.
Using equation
(i.e. within the prescribed range of 25 to 50%) …ok!

We will, for conservative purposes, however provide 33% return sludge, giving SVI = 125, ok.
The sludge pumps for bringing recirculated sludge from the secondary sedimentation tank will
thus have a capacity = 33% * Q = 33% * 6300m3/d = 2100m3/d.
Tank Dimensions
Adopt aeration tank of depth 3m and width 4.5m. The total length of the aeration channel required
m, take 105m
Provide a continuous channel, with 3 aeration chambers, each of 35m length. Total width of the
unit, including 2 baffles each of 0.25m thickness = 3 * 4.5m + 2 * 0.25 = 14m.
Total depth provided including free-board of 0.6m will be 3 + 0.6 = 3.6m.
Overall dimensions of the Aeration tank will be 35m * 14m * 3.6m.

Rate of Air Supply Required
Assuming the air requirement of the aeration tank to be 100m3 of air per kg of BOD removed,
Air required i.e. blower capacity
Let standard diffuser plates of 0.3m * 0.3m * 25mm size, releasing 1.2m3 of air/min/m2 with 0.3mm
pores may be used. Then, the total No. of plates required
; take 500
Design of Secondary sedimentation Tank

Adopting a surface loading rate of 20m3/day/m2 at average flow of 6300m3/day,
(i) Surface area required
Note: lf weir loading exceeds the permissible value; we may provide a trough instead of a single
weir at the periphery.
Hence, provide 20 m diameter secondary settling tank.

Design of Sludge Drying Beds

In order to design sludge drying beds, the quantity of excess wasted sludge will be calculated by
using the equation (9.48 a) as:
Note: This secondary sludge volume of 280m3/d shall be taken to sludge drying beds, along with
the primary sludge. The volume of primary sludge can be calculated if the concentration of
suspended solids in sewage is known along with knowing the degree of removal of suspended
solids in primary settling. Since SS of sewage is not given in this question, the quantity of primary
sludge cannot be worked out; and hence the design of sludge drying beds cannot to be done with
the given data.
Advantages and Disadvantages of an Activated Sludge Plant
The chief advantage of the activated sludge process is that it offers secondary treatment with
minimum area requirements, and an effluent of high quality is obtained. The conventional process
was somewhat difficult to operate and needed a lot of supervision. However, the modifications
described earlier, have made the process less difficult to operate than formerly, with the result
that most secondary treatment plants being installed today are of these types.
Compared to the trickling filter plant, the capital cost of an activated sludge plant is less, but the
operating cost is more mainly because of high power consumption for operating air compressors
and the sludge circulation pumps. Generally, the power requirement in an activated sludge plant
varies between 55 to 110 HP per million liters of sewage. Loss of head through the plant is also
quite less, and there is no fly or odor nuisance here, as is there in a trickling filter plant. However,
if there is a sudden increase in the volume of sewage or if there is a sudden change in the character
of sewage, adverse effects are produced on the working of the process, producing inferior effluent.
Moreover, the quantity of sludge obtained is larger, and needs suitable thickening and disposal.
Activated Sludge Process Vs Trickling Filter Process

As discussed earlier, the conventional biological or secondary treatment of sewage is usually

carried out, either by using trickling filters or by using an activated sludge process. The basic
difference between an activated sludge process and the action involved in a trickling filter is that;
whereas in a trickling filter, the bacterial film coating the grains of the filter media is stationary
and likely to become clogged after sometime; in the activated sludge process, on the other hand,
the finer suspended organic particles of sewage (settled as activated sludge) are themselves coated
with the bacterial film, which is kept moving by the constant agitation. In the activated sludge
process, therefore, the sludge floc are coated with bacteria, and they act like free moving
organisms, which are being continuously swept through the sewage, and which in their search for
food and work, oxidize the organic matter present in sewage in a much more efficient way than
that carried out in a filter by the bacteria coated around the particles of filter media. As such, it
can be stated that an activated sludge process is more efficient than a trickling filter.
The quality of the effluent obtained in a conventional activated sludge plant is also better than
that of a trickling filter plant. But since a conventional activated sludge plant requires a lot of
skilled attendance and supervision during its operation, the modified activated sludge processes
are generally used these days.
Moreover, the modern plants are operated more rapidly at higher rates than those adopted in
conventional plants, with shorter detention periods in the aeration tanks (2 to 3 hours), smaller
amounts of air (3.13 m3/m3 of sewage treated), and lesser amount of returned sludge (10 to 25% of
sewage flow). Such a high rate activated sludge plant can produce sufficiently good quality effluent
(removing 70 to 80% of suspended solids, and 80 to 85% of BOD from sewage), with the results
lying in between those obtained by a conventional activated sludge plant and a high rate trickling
filter plant; although the available finances and the technical development of a country is another
major guiding factor.
In addition to giving a slightly better effluent, other advantages offered by an activated sludge plant
are:
(i) Lesser land area is required;
(ii) the head loss in the plant is quite low;
(iii) there is no fly or odor nuisance;
(iv) capital cost is less; and
(v) greater flexibility of operation permitting control on the quality of effluent is possible. .
The disadvantages of the activated plant, on the other hand, are also laudable, as:
(i) high cost of operation with greater power consumption;
(ii) a lot of machinery to be handled;
(iii) the sudden change in the quantity and character of sewage may produce adverse effects on
the working of the process, thus producing inferior effluent ;

(iv) bulking of sludge is a common trouble, which has to be controlled, especially when industrial
wastewaters with high carbohydrate content or antiseptic properties are present. In any case,
if such bulking is not there comparatively larger sludge volume is to be handled; and
(v) the quantity of returned sludge has to be adjusted every time, as and when there is a change
in the quantity of sewage flow thus making the operation a little cumbersome.
Since these advantages and disadvantages weigh against each other, it is therefore, suggested that
before recommending any of these two methods, the following factors must be thoroughly
studied.
(i) availability of land for installing the treatment;
(ii) availability of suitable method of sludge disposal;
(iii) cost and availability of power;
(iv) availability and cost of machinery and its spare parts required for installing the plant;
(v) degree of flexibility required in the operation of the process;
(vi) the quality and quantity of sewage, and the chances of variation in its quality and quantity;
and wear and tear of civil works and machinery employed in the process. Moreover,
detailed estimates for both types of treatments should also be prepared for a particular
project. The pros and cons of both methods for that project should also be reviewed and
thoroughly considered. A final decision is then taken, keeping in consideration the
economy as well as the comparative merits and demerits of each method, and their effects
on the desired aims. Normally, it is found that for towns or small cities with medium sized
plants, trickling filters are better, whereas in big cities with large sized plants, the activated
sludge plant is better.
4.4.3 Secondary Sedimentation

Secondary Settling Tanks or Humus Tanks
It was pointed out earlier also that a filter, in fact, does remove only a very small percentage of
the finely divided suspended organic matter present in sewage, while the majority of this organic
matter undergoes a change of character, only due to the biological oxidation and nitrification
taking place in the filter. Due to this aerobic oxidation and nitrification that takes place in the
filter, the organic solids are converted into coagulated suspended mass, which is heavier and
bulkier, and would thus settle down by gravity, if allowed to do so in sedimentation tanks. The
effluent of the filter is, therefore, passed through a sedimentation tank, called Secondary clarifier
or Secondary settling tank or Humus tank. A secondary clarifier is a general term used for the
tank, which is used for settling the effluent from a filter or from an activated sludge process.
However, the word Humus tank specifically refers to the secondary settling tank, used for settling
the filter effluent, because humus is produced in the filters only.
A secondary clarifier used for settling the effluents from the filters is similar to a primary settling
tank, with a detention period of 1.5 to 2 hours, and over-flow rate ranging between 40,000 to
70,000 liters per sq. m. of plan area per day. Ordinary rectangular tanks with horizontal flow

(Figure 3-10) or circular tanks with spiral flow (Figure 3-11) may be used. Sometimes, a third
type, i.e. hopper bottomed vertical flow type tanks (such as shown in
Figure 4-19 are also used, especially for the secondary clarifiers. They are circular tanks with
deep conical hoppers, with diameter as well as height ranging between 7.5 to 9m. They are very
costly, and as such, not generally used these days, and ordinary rectangular tanks with horizontal
flow are generally preferred even for secondary clarification.
Figure 4-19: Hopper-bottomed conical vertical flow type sedimentation tank
The secondary clarifiers provided for settling the effluent from the high rate filters (provided with
recirculation of its filtered-settled sewage), will have larger capacities, so as to provide adequate
settling time for the total rate of flow, and in addition, should be provided with necessary
recirculation devices.
The sludge settled at the bottom of the humus tanks should be continuously and rapidly removed,
and sent to the digestion tanks, either directly or through primary clarifiers.
4.4.4 Rotating biological contractors

The Rotating Biological Contractor's process of secondary wastewater treatment has been
recently developed and does not fit precisely in to either the trickling filter or the activated sludge
categories, but does employ principle common to both of them. A rotating biological contractor
(CRBC) is a cylindrical media made of closely mounted thin flat circular plastic sheets or discs
of 3 to 3.5m in diameter, 10mm thick, and placed at 30 to 40mm spacing mounted on a common
shaft. Thinner materials can be used by sandwitching a corrugated sheet between two flat discs
and welding them together as a unit, as shown in Figure 4-20:

Figure 4-20: Rotating Biological Contractors placed in series

The RBC's are usually made in up to 8m length, and may be placed in series or parallel in a
specially constructed tank(s), through which the wastewater is allowed to pass. The RBC's are
kept immersed in wastewater by about 40% of their diameter. The RBC's are rotated around their
central horizontal shaft, at a speed of 1 - 2rpm by means of power supplied to the shaft.
Approximately 95% of the surface area is thus alternately immersed in the wastewater and then
exposed to the atmosphere above the liquid.
When the process is operated, the microorganisms of the wastewater begin to adhere to the rotating
surfaces and grow there, until the entire surface area of the discs gets covered with 1 to 3mm layer
of biological slime. As the discs rotate, they carry a film of wastewater into the air, where it trickles
down the surface of the discs, absorbing oxygen. As the discs complete their rotation, this film
mixes with the wastewater in the tank, adding to the oxygen of the tank and mixing the treated
and partially treated wastewater. As the attached microorganisms pass through the tank, they
absorb other organics for breakdown. The excess growth of microorganisms is sheared from the
discs, as they move through the wastewater tank. The dislodged organisms are kept in suspension
by the moving discs. This suspended growth finally moves down with the sewage flowing through
the tank to a downstream settling tank for removal. The effluent obtained is of equal or even better
quality than what is obtained from other secondary treatments. The quality of the effluent can
further be improved by placing several contractors in series along the tank. The method can thus
provide a high degree of treatment, including biological conversion of ammonia to nitrates.
As is evident, a given set of discs (i.e. an RBC) serves the following purposes:
(i) They provide media for buildup of attached microbial growth.
(ii) They bring the growth of microbes in contact with the wastewater.
(iii) They aerate the wastewater and the suspended microbial growth in the wastewater tank.
In this process, the attached growths are similar in concept to a trickling filter, except that here
the microorganisms are passed through the wastewater, rather than the wastewater passing over
the microbes, as happens in a trickling filter. This method realizes some of the advantages of both
the trickling filter and the activated sludge process.
The sludge produced in the process contains about 95 - 98% moisture and may amount to about
0.4kg per kg of BOD5 applied. The theoretical model of the process is similar to that for trickling

filter, but actual design is still empirical and based on the data from the successful working plants
and as developed by the process manufacturers.
The hydraulic loading rates may vary between 0.04 - 0.06m/day, and organic loading rates between
0.05 - 0.06kg BOD/m2 per day, based upon the disc surface area.
Sloughing of biological solids is more or less continuous and the effluent contains a relatively
constant concentration. The solids settle well and clarifier surface overflow rates of about
33m3/m2 per day are reported to be satisfactory.
Kinetics in RBC
Kinetic equation of RBC is based on substrate removal:


The above equation represents the performance of RBC.

Example:
A municipality with a design population of 6900 persons is to have a rotary biological
contactor plant designed. Pertinent data are average flow = 100gal/cap/day
(380lit/cap/day), influent BOD5 = 200mg/l, primary clarifier removes 33% BOD5, total
effluent BOD5 = 20mg/l, and number of stages = 4. If a pilot plant study gave a k value of
1.16gal/day-ft2 (47.3l/d-m2).
Determine:
i. The design hydraulic loading
ii. The BOD5 after each stage
iii. The disk area per stage
iv. The total disk area

4.4.5 Waste Stabilization Pond
1. Introduction
Mara (1976) describes WSP as large shallow basins enclosed by earthen embankments in
which wastewater is biologically treated by natural processes involving pond algae and
bacteria. WSP comprise a single series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds or
several of such series in parallel. A long hydraulic retention time is necessary because of
the slow rate at which the organic waste is oxidized. Typical hydraulic retention times
range from 10 days to 100 days depending on the temperature of a particular region.
WSP are considered as the most effective and appropriate method of wastewater treatment
in warm climates where sufficient land is available and where the temperature is most
favorable for their operation. WSP are employed for treatment of a range of wastewaters,
from domestic wastewater to complex industrial wastes. The design of WSP depends on
the treatment objectives. It may be designed to receive untreated domestic or industrial
wastes, to treat primary or secondary treatment plant effluents, excess activated sludge.
Anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds are the three major types of pond in a WSP
system. These ponds are normally arranged in series to achieve effective treatment of raw
wastewater. Anaerobic and facultative ponds are employed for BOD removal, while
maturation ponds remove excreted pathogens.
A series of anaerobic and facultative ponds can treat wastewater to a sufficient degree to
allow it to be used in a restricted way for irrigating crops. It has been argued that such pond
systems remove nematode eggs significantly by sedimentation (WHO, 1989). Maturation
ponds are normally used if the treated wastewater is to be used for unrestricted crop
irrigation complying with WHO guidelines of less than 1000 faecal coliforms (FC) per
100ml (WHO, 1989). Maturation ponds have also been used when stronger wastewaters
with high concentrations of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) are to be treated prior to
surface discharge.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste Stabilization Ponds

Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are shallow man-made basins into which wastewater
flows and from which, after a retention time of several days (rather than several hours in
conventional treatment processes), a well-treated effluent discharged. The advantages of
WSP systems, which can be summarized; as simplicity, low cost and high efficiency, are
as follows:

a. Simplicity
WSP are simple to construct: earthmoving is the principal activity; other civil works are
minimal – preliminary treatment, Inlets and outlets, pond embankment protection and, if
necessary, lining pond. They are also simple to operate and maintain: routine tasks
comprise cutting the embankment grass, removing scum and any floating vegetation from
the pond surface, keeping the inlets and outlets clear, and repairing any damage to the
embankments, only unskilled, but carefully supervised, labor needed for pond O&M. b.
Low cost
Because of their simplicity, WSP are much cheaper than other is wastewater treatment
processes. There is no need for expensive, electromechanical equipment (which requires
regular skilled maintenance), nor for a high annual consumption of electrical energy.
c. High Efficiency
BOD removals > 90% readily obtained in a series of well-designed ponds. The removal of
suspended solids is less, due To the presence of algae in the final effluent. Total nitrogen
removal is 70 – 90%, and total phosphorus removals 30 – 45%. WSP are particularly
efficient in removing excreted pathogens, whereas in contrast all other treatment processes
are very inefficient in this, and require a tertiary treatment process such as chlorination
(with all its inherent operational and environmental problems) to achieve the destruction
of fecal bacteria.
A general comparison b/n WSP and conventional treatment processes for the removal of excreted
pathogens is shown in the table below
Table1.2 Removals of excreted pathogens achieved by waste stabilization ponds and conventional
treatment processes
Excreted pathogens Removal in WSP Removal in conventional treatment
Bacteria Up to 6log unites a 1 - 2log units
Viruses Up to 4 log unites 1 - 2log units
Protozoan cysts 100% 90 - 99%
Helminth eggs 100% 90 - 99%
a
1log unit = 90%removal; 2 = 99%; 3 = 99.9% and so on
Sources: feachem et al.1983

3. Disadvantages of Waste Stabilization Ponds

The major disadvantage of WSPs is the large area that is required (2 - 5 m2 /capita), the
potentially high algal content of the effluent, evaporation losses, the potential odour and
mosquito nuisance and the sensitivity of algae to toxic matter present in raw municipal
sewage.
4. Types of Pond
1. Anaerobic Ponds
Anaerobic ponds are unmixed basins designed to enhance the settling and biodegradation
of particulate organic solids by anaerobic digestion. Pond depth is usually between 3 to 5
meters and the HRT for ponds treating municipal sewage is between 1 - 3 days. For
industrial applications, HRT may increase to 20 days. In cold climates, anaerobic ponds
mainly act as settling ponds, whereas higher sewage temperatures enhance the anaerobic
degradation process (hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis). At
higher temperatures BOD is therefore more effectively removed, especially the
BODdissolved. Typical TSS removal percentages range between 50 and 70%. BOD
removal rate is increase with temperature and range between 30 and 75%.
i. Treatment Mechanisms
BOD removal is the combined effect of sedimentation and biological degradation.
Biological degradation is due to the anaerobic degradation of complex organic material. In
case the influent contains sulphate or nitrate, also sulphate reduction and denitrification is
occurring. Through these latter two processes bacteria sustain their growth by using
chemically bound oxygen to oxidize organic matter. However, the main process occurring
in anaerobic ponds is the anaerobic degradation process. After hydrolysis of particulate
organic matter, fermenting bacteria convert the readily biodegradable organic substrate into
volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Higher VFAs are further decomposed, mainly into acetic acid
and H2, the typical substrate for the strict anaerobic methanogens. Effective anaerobic pond
management has to avoid VFA accumulation and the associated drop in pH as methanogens
are very sensitive to pH values less than 4 - 5. This problem is only encountered in
anaerobic ponds treating concentrated industrial wastewaters, since the high concentration
of organic material may lead to rapid VFA production and accumulation. The buffering
capacity of industrial wastewater may not be sufficient to keep the pH in the desired range.
In anaerobic ponds treating municipal sewage the pH is not a critical parameter since the
buffering capacity of municipal sewage is sufficient to stabilize the pH.

Figure 4-21: Treatment Mechanisms in Anaerobic Pond ii.
Preliminary treatment
Anaerobic ponds require some preliminary treatment of municipal sewage. Usually coarse
screening is applied to remove large pieces of wood, plastic etc. that could clog pipes or
channels connecting the various ponds. In addition grit should be removed in a grit channel
to prevent accumulation of the grit in the anaerobic pond that would reduce the active pond
volume and increase the required de sledging frequency.
A) Screening
The influent is best split minimum into two influent Channels with a course screen. And it
is recommended to add a fine screen to prevent the accumulation of unsightly plastic, on
the pond surface. The screens are to be raked manually, and should be enough to prevent
frequent clogging of the screens.
B) Grit Channels
Two Grit channels are recommended. When one channel is in operation, the other one can be
manually, emptied.
C) Sludge Drying Beds

The size of sludge drying bed is based on the accumulation of sludge produced per year,
i.e. (sludge accumulation rate x population equivalent). Commonly sludge beds are loaded
with 30cm of sludge per drying cycle.

2. Facultative Ponds
Facultative ponds are the second treatment step in a pond system. In facultative ponds the
anaerobic pond effluent is further treated, aimed at further BOD, nutrient and pathogen
removal. Facultative ponds are usually 1.5 - 2.5m deep. The HRT for ponds treating
anaerobic effluent varies between 5 and 30 days. Facultative ponds are most widely used
for treatment of municipal wastewater following aerated or anaerobic ponds. Filtered
effluent BOD values range from 20 to 60mg/l, while TSS levels vary from 30 to 150mg/l.
Facultative ponds are normally followed by maturation ponds to further polish its effluent.
i. Processes
The aquatic environment of facultative ponds is a complicated ecosystem where a large
number of interacting processes are occurring simultaneously. In facultative ponds the
waste stabilization is the result of both oxidation of organic matter by aerobic and
facultative bacteria as well as anaerobic processes in the anaerobic bottom layer. The name
‘facultative’ is actually derived from the fact that the top layer of facultative ponds is
aerobic due to oxygen production by algae and the bottom layer is anaerobic due to the
absence of algae activity. The management principle of facultative ponds is to balance the
oxygen input by photosynthetic algae and surface re aeration to the oxygen demand exerted
by organic matter oxidation. The basic symbiosis underlying the concept of facultative
ponds is that the oxygen produced by algal photosynthesis in the top layer is used for the
decomposition of organic matter in deeper layers by heterotrophy. This symbiotic
interrelationship is referred to as ‘Algae-Bacteria Symbiosis’.
To sustain algae growth and photosynthesis the supply of macro-nutrients (N.P.K) is
essential. A BOD/N/P ratio of 100/5/1 is generally recommended to satisfy the basic needs.
ii. BOD Removal Mechanisms

The consumption of oxygen produced by photosynthesis and re aeration is mainly due to
bacterial oxidation of BOD and ammonium. The two main mechanisms for BOD removal
not involving oxygen are sedimentation and anaerobic digestion. Sedimentation results
only in temporary storage of BOD in the sludge layer. This BOD is removed while the
pond is desludged. Part of the sludge BOD is however anaerobic ally transformed into
methane gas. The methane gas and its associated BOD leave the pond system via escaping
gas bubbles or by diffusion.

Figure 4-22: BOD removal mechanisms in a facultative pond
3. Maturation Ponds
Maturation ponds are shallow ponds in which an active algal biomass is maintained
throughout the entire depth of the system so that during daytime large amounts of oxygen
are produced. Further stabilization of organic matter and nutrient removal accomplished
mainly through aerobic bacteria, while pathogen, destruction realized via a complex
interaction of various environmental factors.
Maturation ponds are entirely aerobic and 1 - 1.5m deep. Faecal coliform and virus dieoff
rates may reach over 3 to 4 log units. Cysts and ova of intestinal parasites are more resistant
but as they have relative densities higher than one they may effectively settle to the pond
bottom where they eventually die-off.
BOD removal in maturation ponds is much slower than in facultative ponds, since the most
easily degradable substances consumed already. In addition, experimental results showed
no correlation between BOD removals in maturation ponds with temperature or retention
time (Mara et al., 1992). For design purposes, it recommended to assume 25% BOD
removal (based on BOD influent-total and BOD effluent-soluble) in maturation ponds
(Mara and Pearson, 1992). The high amount of algal biomass in the effluent represents a
high-suspended matter concentration, which may exceed the final effluent quality
guidelines. Typically the oxygen demand exerted by these suspended algal material is
around 0.5 - 0.6mg BOD5/mg algal TSS.
The major application for maturation ponds is to polish or upgrade facultative pond
effluents and achieve substantial microbial reductions to allow safe use of the effluents in
agriculture or aquaculture.
i. Removal of Pathogenic Microorganisms
Pathogen removal occurs in anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds, but only
maturation ponds are designed on the basis of required removal rates for pathogens. It is in
maturation ponds that the environmental conditions are most harmful for pathogens.

Pathogens present in municipal sewage four groups of pathogenic micro-organism can be

distinguished: bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminthes. Faecal coliforms are a group of
bacteria that is commonly used as an indicator for contamination with faecal material.
Contamination with faecal material means potentially contamination with pathogenic
bacteria like Salmonella, Shigella or Vibrio cholerae. The non-pathogenic group of faecal
coliforms (FC) is used as an indicator because of practical and safety reasons.
Both helminth eggs and protozoan cysts are removed by sedimentation. Their removal is
therefore mostly affected by retention time. Waste stabilizations pond systems with total
HRT of 15 - 62 days. Concentrations in the influent were up to 73 and 6200 cysts/liter for
Giardia and Cryptosporidium respectively.
It is not possible due to health hazards to analyze for bacterial pathogens in standard
monitoring program. Therefore so-called indicator organisms are used, of which the most
common is the group of faecal coliforms (FC), itself not pathogenic. One characteristic
of this indicator is that it is just as persistent as or more persistent than the real pathogens.
So, if faecal coliforms have been removed completely, it is safe to assume that bacterial
pathogens are absent.
A distinction can be made between FC removal and decay (decay is sometimes called die-
off). Removal is defined as the reduction of the faecal coliform count in the pond effluent
as compared to the influent. FC that has been removed not necessarily has decayed, since
they may be attached to solids that settled to the sediment. Removal is due to a combination
of several processes:
• Adsorption to particles and subsequent sedimentation
• Grazing by other micro-organisms (protozoa)
• Natural decay

Figure 4-23: Typical scheme of a waste stabilization system
5. Physical Design of WSP
1. Pond Location
Ponds should be located at least 200m (preferably 500m) downwind from the community
they serve and away from any Likely area of future expansion. Odour release, even from
anaerobic ponds, is most unlikely to be a problem in a well-designed and properly
maintained system, but the public May need assurance about this at the planning stage, and
a minimum distance of 200 m normally allays any fears. There should be vehicular access
to the ponds and, so as to minimize earthworks, the site should be flat or gently sloping.
The Soil must also be suitable. Ponds should not be Located within 2km of airports, as any
birds attracted to the ponds may constitute a risk to air navigation. To facilitate wind-
induced mixing of the pond surface layers, the ponds should be located so that its length
lies in the direction of the prevailing wind direction. In particular in summer time when
stratification is at its greatest this wind induced mixing has to be optimal.
2. Preliminary Treatment
Adequate screening and grit removal facilities must be installed at all but very small
systems (those serving < 1000 people). Adequate provision must be made for the hygienic

disposal of screenings and grit; haulage to a sanitary landfill or onsite burial in trenches is
usually the most appropriate method.
3. Pond Geometry
There has been little rigorous work done on determining optimal pond shapes. The most
common shape is rectangular, although there is much variation in the length-to-breadth
ratio. Clearly, the optimal pond geometry, which includes not only the shape of the pond
but also the relative positions of its inlet and outlet, is that which minimizes hydraulic short-
circuiting. In general, anaerobic and primary facultative ponds should be rectangular, with
length-to-breadth ratios of 2 – 3 to 1 so as to avoid sludge banks forming near the inlet.
Secondary facultative and maturation ponds should, wherever possible, have higher length-
to-breadth ratios (up to 10 to 1) so that they better approximate plug flow conditions. Ponds
do not need to be strictly rectangular, but may be gently curved if necessary or if desired
for aesthetic reasons. A single inlet and outlet are usually sufficient, and these should be
located just away from the base of the embankment in diagonally opposite corners of the
pond (the inlet should not discharge centrally in the pond as this maximizes hydraulic short-
circuiting). The use of complicated multi-inlet and multi-outlet designs is unnecessary and
not recommended. To facilitate wind-induced mixing of the pond surface layers, the pond
should be located so that its longest dimension (diagonal) lies in the direction of the
prevailing wind. If this is seasonally variable, the wind direction in the hot season should
be used, as this is when thermal stratification is at its greatest. To minimizes hydraulic
short-circuiting, the inlet should be located such that the wastewater flows in the pond
against the wind. The minimum freeboard that should be provided is decided on the basis
of preventing waves, induced by the wind, from overtopping the embankment. For small
ponds (under 1 ha in area) 0.5m freeboard should be provided; for ponds between 1 ha and
3 ha, the freeboard should be 0.5 - 1m, depending on site considerations.
4. Pond Configurations
Configurations can includes either series or parallel operations the advantages of series
operation is improved treatment because of reduced short circuiting and the advantages of
parallel configuration is that the loading can be distributed more uniformly over a large
area combinations of parallel & series operation can be accomplished along with
recalculation.
5. Inlet and Outlet Structures

There are a wide variety of designs for inlet and outlet structures, and provided they follow
certain basic concepts, their precise design is relatively unimportant. Firstly, they should
be simple and inexpensive; while this should be self-evident, it is all too common to see
unnecessarily complex and expensive structures. Secondly, they should permit samples of
the pond effluent to be taken with ease. The inlet to anaerobic and primary facultative ponds
should discharge well below the liquid level so as to minimize shortcircuiting (especially

in deep anaerobic ponds) and thus reduce the quantity of scum (which is important in
facultative ponds). Inlets to secondary facultative and maturation ponds should also
discharge below the liquid level, preferably at mid-depth in order to reduce the possibility
of short-circuiting. The outlet of all ponds should be protected against the discharge of
scum by the provision of a scum guard. The take-off level for the effluent, which is
controlled by the scum guard depth, is important as it has a significant influence on effluent
quality. In facultative ponds, the scum guard should extend just below the maximum depth
of the algal band when the pond is stratified so as to minimize the daily quantity of algae,
and hence BOD, leaving the pond.
6. Process Design of WSP
1. Effluent Quality Requirements

The general WHO guideline standards for the discharge of treated wastewaters into inland
surface waters are given in the environmental (protection) Rules. The more important of
these for WSP design are as follows:
Parameter Effluent limit
BOD 30 mg/l
Suspended solids 100 mg/l
Total N 100 mg N/l
Total ammonia 50 mg N/l
Free ammonia 5 mg N/l
Sulphide 2mg/l
pH 5.5 – 9.0
2. Design Parameters
The four most important parameters for WSP design are temperature, net evaporation, flow
and BOD. Faecal coliform and helminth egg numbers are also important if the final effluent
is to be used in agriculture or aquaculture.
i. Temperature and Net Evaporation

The usual design temperature is the mean air temperature in the coolest month (or quarter).
Another design temperature commonly used is the air temperature in the coolest period of
the irrigation season. Net evaporation has to be taken into account in the design of
facultative and maturation ponds, but not in that of anaerobic ponds, as these generally
have a scum layer which effective prevents significant evaporation. The net evaporation

rates in the months used for selection of the design temperatures are used; additionally a
hydraulic balance should be done for the hottest month ii. Flow
The mean daily flow should be measured. It must be estimated very carefully since the size
of the ponds, and hence their cost, is directly proportional to the flow. The wastewater flow
should not be based on the design water consumption per caput, as this is unduly high since
it contains an allowance for losses in the distribution system. A suitable design value is 80
percent of the in-house water consumption, and this can be readily determined from records
of water meter readings. If these do not exist, the actual average 24-hour wastewater flow
from outfall drains can be measured; or alternatively the design flow may be based on local
experience in sewered communities of similar socio-economic status and water use
practice.
iii. BOD
The BOD may be measured using 24-hour flow-weighted composite samples. If wastewater does
not yet exist, it should be estimated from the following equation:
Where Li = wastewater BOD, mg/l

B = BOD contribution, g/c/d
q = wastewater flow, l/c/d
Values of B vary between 30 and 70g/c/d, with affluent communities producing more BOD
than poor communities. As suitable design value for Ethiopia is 45g per caput per day
(source; Adopted from Addis Ababa Water Sewerage Authority report 2003)
iv. Faecal Coliforms
Faecal coliform numbers are important if the pond effluent is to be used for unrestricted
crop irrigation or for fishpond fertilization. Grab samples of the wastewater may be used
to measure the faecal coliform concentration if the wastewater exists. The usual range is
107- 108 faecal coliforms per 100 ml, and a suitable design value is 5*107 per 100 ml.
v. Helminth Eggs
Helminth egg numbers are also important when pond effluents are used for restricted crop
irrigation (irrigation of all crops except salads and vegetables eaten uncooked) or fishpond
fertilization. Composite samples may be used to count the number of human intestinal
nematodes eggs. The usual range is 100 - 1000 eggs per liter.
vi. Loading and Retention Time

Any pond treatment system requires steady effluent flow to encourage the rapid and
continuous growth of bacteria involved in the biological breakdown of effluent it is

essential that the daily loading into the ponds be kept to the design standards of the pond
system. A very large load may flush out important bacteria, eventually leading to system
failure. Variation in loads will alter the retention time. Any attempt to extend the time that
effluent remains within the pond system will increase the amount of disease-causing
microorganism die-off. The concentration of microorganisms within the effluent will be
reduced and the effluent will be of higher quality before discharge into a waterway.
7. Operation and Maintenance of WSPs
1. WSP start-up
Before commissioning a WSP system, any vegetation growing in the empty ponds must be
removed. The facultative ponds and maturation ponds are commissioned before the
anaerobic ponds so as to avoid odour release when the anaerobic pond effluent discharges
into empty facultative ponds. The facultative ponds and maturation ponds should ideally
be filled initially with fresh surface water or groundwater to permit the development of the
required algal and heterotrophic bacterial populations. If freshwater isn’t available, then
the facultative pond can be filled with raw wastewater and allowed to rest in batch mode
for 3−4 weeks to allow the microbial populations to develop. Some odour release may be
expected during this period. Once the facultative ponds and maturation ponds have been
commissioned, the anaerobic ponds are filled with raw wastewater and, if possible,
inoculated with active biomass (sludge seed) from another anaerobic bioreactor. The
anaerobic ponds are then loaded gradually up to their design load over a period of 2 − 4
weeks (the time depends on whether the anaerobic pond was inoculated with an active
sludge seed or not). The pH of the anaerobic pond has to be maintained at around 7 − 7.5
during the start-up to allow for the methanogenic archaeal populations to develop.
If the pH falls below 7 during this period, lime should be added to correct it.
2. Routine Maintenance
Once the ponds have started functioning in steady state, routine maintenance is minimal but
essential for good operation. The main routine maintenance activities are:
 Removal of screenings and grit from the preliminary treatment units
 Periodically cutting the grass on the pond embankments
 Removal of scum and floating macrophytes from the surface of facultative ponds and
maturation ponds. This is done to maximize the light energy reaching the pond algae,
increase surface re-aeration, and prevent fly and mosquito breeding
 If flies are breeding in large numbers on the scum on anaerobic ponds, the scum should
be broken up and sunk with a water jet
 Removal of any material blocking the pond inlets and outlets
 Repair of any damage to the embankments caused by rodents or rabbits (or other
burrowing animals)

 Repair of any damage to fences and gates
3. Desludging and Sludge Disposal

Anaerobic ponds required desludged when they are one third full of sludge (by volume).this
occurred every n years where n is given by
Where Li = influent BOD, mg/l

Q = flow, m3/d
V = anaerobic pond volume, m3
The permissible design value of v increases with temperature, but there are too few
reliable data to permit the development of a suitable design equation. (Mara and Pearson,
1986 and Mara et al., 1997) recommend the design values given in Table 3.1 which may
be safely used for design purposes in Ethiopia. These recommendations were based on
those of Meiring et al. (1968) that λV should lie between 100 and 400g/m3/d, the former in
order to maintain anaerobic conditions and the latter to avoid odour release (see also Mara
and Mills, 1994).

Table 2.1 Volumetric loading (g/m3/d)
Temperature (0C) Volumetric loading (g/m3d) BOD removal (%)
< 10 100 40
10 - 20 20T - 100 2T + 20
20 - 25 10T + 100 2T + 20
> 25 350 70
Source: Mara and Pearson, 1986 and Mara et al., 1997
Once a value of V has been selected, the anaerobic pond volume is then calculated from
Where A = facultative pond area, m2

The variation of permissible design value for with latitude is given by (Arceivala et al., 1970).
This relationship can be expressed mathematically as:

Where: D = pond depth, m (usually 1.5m), Qm = mean flow, m3/day

The mean flow is the mean of the influent and effluent flows ( and ), the latter being the former
less net evaporation and seepage. Thus equation 2.8 becomes:
c. Maturation Ponds

i. Faecal Coliform Removal

The method of Marais (1974) is generally used to design a pond series for faecal coliform
removal. This assumes that faecal coliform removal can be modeled by first order kinetics
in a completely mixed reactor. The resulting equation for a single pond is thus:
Ni = number of feacal coliform per 100 ml influent

kT = first order temperature dependent rate (day-1)
n = number of maturation ponds (each pond the same hydraulic retention rate) A
series of n maturation ponds should have total HRT of 5 days.
The value of kT is highly temperature dependent. (Arthur, 1983) Found
that:
Thus k changes by 19% for every change in temperature of 1°C (Table 4-5).
Table 4-5: Values of the k for faecal coliform removal at various temperatures
T(0C) ( ) T(0C) ( )
11 0.54 21 3.09
12 0.65 22 3.68
13 0.77 23 4.38
14 0.92 24 5.21
15 0.09 25 6.20

16 1.30 26 7.38
17 1.74 27 8.77
18 1.84 28 10.47
19 2.18 29 12.44
20 2.6 30 14.6
Source :( Arthur, 1983)

ii. Helminth Egg Removal
Analysis of egg removal data from ponds in Brazil, India and Kenya (Ayres et al.1992) has
yielded the following relationship which is equally valid for anaerobic, facultative and
maturation ponds:
Table 4-6: Design values of helminth egg removal (R %) for hydraulic retention times (θ)
θ R θ R θ R θ R
1.0 74.67 3.2 90.68 6.0 97.06. 12 99.61
1.2 76.95 3.4 91.45 6.5 97.57 13 99.70
1.4 79.01 3.6 92.16 7.0 97.99 14 99.77
1.6 80.87 3.8 92.80 7.5 98.32 15 99.82
1.8 82.55 4.0 93.38 8.0 98.60 16 99.86
2.0 84.08 4.2 93.66 8.5 98.82 17 99.88
2.2 85.46 4.4 93.40 9.0 99.01 18 99.90
2.4 87.72 4.6 94.85 9.5 99.16 19 99.92
2.6 87.85 4.8 95.25 10 99.29 20 99.93
2.8 88.89 5.0 95.62 10.5 99.39
3.0 89.82 5.5 96.42 11 99.38

Source: Ayres et al.(1992)

iii. Nutrient Removal

Pano and Middlebrooks (1982) present equations for ammonical nitrogen (NH3+ and NH4+)
removal in individual facultative and maturation ponds. Their equation for temperatures
below 20oC is:
Ci
Ce = 4.62
{1+[(A/Q)(0.0038 + 0.000134T)exp ((1.041 + 0.044T)(pH−6.6))]}
And for temperatures above 20𝑜 𝐶:

Ci
Ce =
𝐴
{1 + [5.035 ∗ 10 − 3 ∗ 𝑄 ] [exp(1.54 ∗ (𝑝𝐻 − 6.6))]}
Where:
Ce = ammonical nitrogen concentration in pond effluent (mg N/l)
Ci = ammonical nitrogen concentration in pond influent (mg N/l)
A = pond surface area (m2)
Q = wastewater flow rate (m3/day)
T = temperature (°C)
Reed (1985) presents an equation for the removal of total nitrogen in individual facultative and
maturation ponds:
Where C = total nitrogen concentration in pond effluent, mg N/l

C = total nitrogen concentration in pond influent, mg N/l
T = temperature, oC (range: 1 - 28oC)
θ = HRT = hydraulic retention time, d (range 5 - 231 d)
The pH value used in equations 3.20 - 3.22 may be estimated from:
pH = 7.3exp(0.0005A) 4.64
Where A = influent alkalinity, mg CaCO3/l
Equations 3.20 - 3.22 are applied sequentially to individual facultative and maturation ponds in
the series, so that concentrations in the effluent can be determined
iv. Phosphorus
There are no design equations for phosphorus removal in WSP. Huang and Gloyna (1984)
indicate that, if BOD removal in a pond system in 90 percent, the removal of total
phosphorus is around 45%. Effluent total P is around two-thirds inorganic and one third
organic.

9. Hydraulic Balance
To maintain the liquid level in the ponds, the inflow must be at least greater than net evaporation
and seepage at all times. Thus:
Q ≥ 0.001A ∗ (e + s) 4.65
Where Qi = inflow to first pond, m3/d

A = total area of pond series, m2
e = net evaporation (i.e. evaporation less rainfall), mm/d
s = seepage, mm/d
Seepage losses must be at least smaller than the inflow less net evaporation so as to
maintain the water level in the pond. The maximum permissible permeability of the soil
layer making up the pond base can be determined from Darcy’s law:
Where k = maximum permissible permeability, m/s

Qs = maximum permissible seepage flow (= Qi – 0.001Ae), m3/d
A = base area of pond, m2
Δl = depth of soil layer below pond base to aquifer or more permeable stratum, m
Δh = hydraulic head (= pond depth + Δl), m
If the permeability of the soil is more than the maximum permissible, the pond must be
lined. A variety of lining materials is available and local costs dictate which should be used.
The following interpretations may be placed on values obtained for the in situ coefficient of
permeability:
- k > 10-6 m/s: the soil is too permeable and the ponds must be lined
- k > 10-7m/s: some seepage may occur but not sufficiently to prevent the ponds from filling
- k < 10-8 m/s: the ponds will seal naturally
- k < 10-9 m/s: there is no risk of groundwater contamination
- (If k > 10-9 m/s and the groundwater is used for potable supplies, further detailed
hydrogeological studies may be required).

Design Example on Waste Stabilization Pond

Data:
- Site characteristics and conditions
- Town of 20,000 population
- Consumption of 150l/c/day and wastage of 85%
- No significant infiltration into sewer system
- Average BOD production of 45g BOD/c/day
- Measured influent concentration of 4*108 FC/100ml
- Clay bottom (hydraulic conductivity 10-7m/s) - Climate of the area (Latitude = ± 16°S)
Maximum monthly temperature 33°c (September)
Minimum monthly temperature 27°c (June/July)
Total annual rainfall 1143mm
Maximum monthly rainfall 206mm (November)
Minimum monthly rainfall 15mm (August)
Requirements
- Sludge remove in anaerobic ponds only once every two years
- Design each pond with a freeboard of 0.5m
- The treated effluent must have a BOD concentration below 20mg/l and should be reusable
for agricultural purposes (use standards according to WHO)
Task:
- Design a conventional WSP system (anaerobic + facultative + maturation ponds).
- Provide for each pond the dimensions (L, W and D), the volume, surface area and the
residence time.
- Calculate Cin and Cout from each pond.
Preliminary calculations:

• Influent BOD-load Li:

L = 0.045kgBOD/capita. day ∗ 20,000 = 900kgBOD/day
• Clay bottom with low hydraulic conductivity

- Limited infiltration (10-7m/s = 0.36mm/h = 8.64mm/day)
- No lining is necessary
• Precipitation and evapo(transpi)ration will influence the system but since no detailed data are
available this aspect will not be considered.
- Precipitation causes dilution (concentration reduction) but also increases the flow rate and
hence the hydraulic residence time decreases (efficiency reduces)
- Evaporation causes increase in concentration but also decreases the flow rate and hence
the HRT increases (efficiency increase).
Anaerobic pond
Calculations done at 27°c (coldest temperature) = worst case scenario Arthur
(1983):
Volumetric loading rate at 27°c = 0.35kg BOD /m3/day

Required volume:
Resulting hydraulic residence time (HRT):

𝑉 2571m3
𝜃= = = 1.01day (after two years sludge accumulation)
𝑄 2550m3 /day
4171m3
= = 1.64 day (no sludge present in the pond)
2550m3 /day
Resulting mid-depth surface area 𝐴𝑠 for standard pond depth of 4m:
4171
𝐴𝑠 = = 1043m2
4
Pond shape: normally square (equal length and width)
Slope: usually 33% for stability reasons (0.33m vertical rise per 1m of horizontal progress)
Side of square at half depth
m
Side of square at the water surface
= side at half depth + (2 ∗ (0.5 ∗ depth) ∗ inverse slope)

= 32 + (2 ∗ 2 ∗ 3) = 44m → area = 1936m2

Side of square including 0.5m freeboard
= 44 + (2 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 3) = 47m → area = 2209m2
0.5m
1 4m
Expected BOD removed: 70%

Ce = 353 − (0.7 ∗ 353) = 𝟏𝟎𝟔mg BOD/l
Effluent load:
Le = 0.106 kg BOD/m3 ∗ 2550m3 /day = 𝟐𝟕𝟎kg BOD/day
Facultative Pond:
Calculations done at 27°c (coldest temperature) = worst case scenario
Design: based on surface loading rate s (BOD/ha/day)
Use Arthur (1983) formula: s = (20 ∗ T) − 60
= (20 ∗ 27) − 60 = 480kg BOD/ha/day ~ 500kg/ha/d
270kg BOD/day
𝑚𝑖𝑑_𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑠 = = 0.54ha = 5400m2
500kg BOD/ha/day
Resulting volume if standard pond depth of 1.8m
𝑉 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 = 5400 ∗ 1.8 = 9720𝑚3
V 9720
HRT = = = 3.8 days
Q 2550
Usually rectangular pond with aspect ratio 2:1 (L = 2 * W), slope 33% is adopted.
5400m = L ∗ W = (2 ∗ W) ∗ W = 2W
V = 52m and L = 104m (at half depth)
W = 57.5m and L = 109.5m (at water surface)
W = 60.5m and L = 112.5m (including free board)
Expected BOD removal: 80%
Effluent BOD concentration: 106 – (0.8*106) = 21.2mg/ BOD/l Effluent
load: 0.0212kg BOD/m3 * 2550 m3/day = 54.1kg BOD/day

Maturation pond:
𝑁𝑖
𝑁𝑒 =
(1 + 𝑘𝑇 ∗ 𝐻𝑅𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑐 ) ∗ (1 + 𝑘𝑇 ∗ 𝐻𝑅𝑇𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ) ∗ (1 + 𝑘𝑇 ∗ 𝐻𝑅𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑛 )𝑛
Where:
Ne = 1000 FC/100ml (required by WHO for agricultural reuse)
Ni = 4*108 FC/100ml (given concentration)
k T = k 20°c ∗ θ(T−20) = 2.6 ∗ (1.19)27−20 = 8.8 day −1 (Arthur, 1983)
 HRT anaerobic = 1.01 day (worse case, if full of sludge)
 HRT facultative = 3.8 days
Calculate Ne for different numbers of maturation ponds in series and check whether or not Ne is
below the standard.
HRT maturation =?
Number of maturation ponds =?
Determine via trial and error procedure
- Arthur: a series of maturation ponds with a total HRT of 5 days
- WHO: 1 maturation pond of 5 days or several maturation ponds of 3 days
Calculate Ne for different numbers of maturation ponds in series and check whether or
not Ne is below the standard.
n HRT per pond Ne (Arthur) HRT per pond Ne (WHO)

1 5 26,102 FC/100ml 5 422,483 FC/100ml
2 2.5 2,220 FC/100ml 3 63,921 FC/100ml
3 1.67 304 FC/100ml 3 6,030 FC/100ml
Retain Arthur solution, select three ponds, each with a HRT of 1.67 days.
4*108 FC/100ml
𝑁𝑒 =
(1 + 8.8𝑑−1 ∗ 1.01𝑑) ∗ (1 + 8.8𝑑−1 ∗ 3.8𝑑) ∗ (1 + 8.8𝑑 −1 ∗ 1.67𝑑)3
310𝐹𝐶
= … 𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 304 … … 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒‼
100𝑚𝑙
Volume per pond:
V = 1.67 days ∗ 2550m3 /day = 4258m3
Take standard depth of 1.5m
Normally L:W = 2:1
V = 38m and L = 76m (at half depth)
W = 42.5m and L = 80.5m (at water surface)

W = 45.5m and L = 83.5m (including free board)
42.5m
38m 1
1.5m 3
Figure 4-24: Sectional view of maturation pond

4.4.6 Constructed Wetlands

1. General
Constructed wetlands (CWs) are planned systems designed and constructed to employ
wetland vegetation to assist in treating wastewater in a more controlled environment than
occurs in natural wetlands. Hammer (1990) defines constructed wetlands as a designed,
manmade complex of saturated substrate, emergent and submerged vegetation, animal life,
and water that simulate wetlands for human uses and benefits. Constructed wetlands are an
“eco-friendly” alternative for secondary and tertiary municipal and industrial wastewater
treatment. The pollutants removed by CW’s include organic materials, suspended solids,
nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals and other toxic or hazardous pollutants. In municipal
applications, they can follow traditional sewage treatment processes. Different types of
constructed wetlands can effectively treat primary, secondary or tertiary treated sewage.
However wetlands should not be used to treat raw sewage and, in industrial situations, the
wastes may need to be pre-treated so that the biological elements of the wetlands can
function effectively with the effluent. CW’s are practical alternatives to conventional
treatment of domestic sewage, industrial and agricultural wastes, storm water runoff, and
acid mining drainage.
2. Types of Constructed Wetlands

Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment can be categorized as either Free Water Surface
(FWS) or Subsurface Flow (SSF) systems.
i. Free Water Surface Systems (FWS)

These systems consist of basins or channels, with some sort of subsurface barrier to prevent
seepage, soil or another suitable medium to support the emergent vegetation, and water at
a relatively shallow depth flowing through the unit. The shallow water depth, low flow
velocity, and presence of the plant stalks and litter regulate water flow and, especially in
long, narrow channels minimize short circuiting. In FWS systems, the flow of water is
above the ground, and plants are rooted in the sediment layer at the base of water column
(Figure 1).
ii. Subsurface Flow Systems (SSF)

These systems are essentially horizontal trickling filters when they use rock media. They
have the added component of emergent plants with extensive root systems within the
media. Systems using sand or soil media are also used. In SSF systems, water flows though
a porous media such as gravels or aggregates, in which the plants are rooted
(Figure 2).

Figure 4-25: Emergent vegetation in FWS Constructed Wetlands
Figure 4-26: Emergent macrophyte treatment system with horizontal SSF

There are two types of SSF systems: horizontal flow SSF (HSSF) and vertical flow SSF (VSSF).
FWS systems are very appropriate for polishing secondary and tertiary effluents, and for
providing habitat. The environment in the FWS systems is generally aerobic at, and near,
the surface, tending toward anoxic conditions near the bottom sediment. The microbial film
grows on all available plant surfaces, and is the main mechanism of pollutant removal.
FWS usually exhibits more biodiversity than does SSF systems.
The objective of using CWs is to remove organic matter, suspended solids, pathogenic
organisms, and nutrients such as ammonia and other forms of nitrogen and phosphorus.
The growing interest in wetland system is due in part to recognition that natural systems
offer advantages over conventional activated sludge and trickling filter systems.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Constructed Wetlands
Constructed wetlands are (1) relatively inexpensive to construct and operate, (2) easy to
maintain, (3) provide effective and reliable wastewater treatment, (4) relatively tolerant of

fluctuating hydrologic and contaminant loading rates (optimal size for anticipated waste
load), and (5) provide indirect benefits such as green space, wildlife habitats and
recreational and educational areas. The disadvantages are (1) the land requirements (cost
and availability of suitable land), (2) current imprecise design and operation criteria, (3)
biological and hydrological complexity and our lack of understanding of important process
dynamics, (4) the costs of gravel or other fills, and site grading during the construction
period, and (5) possible problems with pests.
4. Site Selection i. Topography
A constructed wetland can be constructed almost anywhere. The emergent plant species
used can tolerate winter freezing much better than aquatic plant systems. In Ontario,
experimental systems have been built in heavy clay soils (Listowel) and in an abandoned
mine-tailing basin (Cobalt). Because grading and excavating represent a major cost factor,
topography is an important consideration in the selection of an appropriate site.
ii. Soil Permeability for Free Water Surface Systems
In selecting a site for free water surface wetland the underlying soil permeability must be
-6 -7
considered. The most desirable soil permeability is 10 to 10 m/s (0.14-0.014 in/hr). Sandy
clays and silty clay loams can be suitable when compacted. Sandy soils are too permeable
to support wetland vegetation unless there is a restrictive layer in the soil profile that would
result in a perched high ground water table. Highly permeable soils can be used for small
wastewater flows by forming narrow trenches and lining the trench walls and bottom with
clay or an artificial liner. In heavy clay soils, additions of peat moss or top soil will improve
soil permeability and accelerate initial plant growth.
iii. Hydrological Factors
The performance of any constructed wetland system is dependent upon the system
hydrology as well as other factors. Precipitation, infiltration, evapotranspiration (ET),
hydraulic loading rate, and water depth can all affect the removal of organics, nutrients,
and trace elements not only by altering the detention time, but also by either concentrating
or diluting the wastewater. A hydrologic budget should be prepared to properly design a
constructed wetland treatment system. Changes in the detention time or water volume can
significantly affect the treatment performance (4).
For a constructed wetland, the water balance can be expressed as follows:
dV
Qi − Qo + P − ET = [ dt ]
Where,
Qi - influent wastewater flow, Qo- effluent wastewater flow,

P - precipitation, volume/time ET - evapotranspiration, volume/time
V - volume of water, and t – time
 Ground-water inflow and infiltration are excluded from the above equation
because of the impermeable barrier.
 if the system operates at a relatively constant water depth (dV/dt = 0), the
effluent flow rate can be estimated using the above equation.
Ground-water inflow and infiltration are excluded from the above equation because of the
impermeable barrier. Historical climatic records can be used to estimate precipitation and
evapotranspiration. Empirical methods such as the Thornthwaite equation can be used to
estimate evapotranspiration. Pan evaporation measurements may be useful if the wetlands
will contain a significant percentage of open water areas. Then, if the system operates at a
relatively constant water depth (dV/dt = 0), the effluent flow rate can be estimated using
the above equation.
5. Design Approaches for Constructed Wetlands

The characteristic wastewater parameters to be treated by the CW include BOD, COD,
suspended solids (SS), nitrogen compounds, phosphorus compounds, heavy metals, and
pathogenic 40 organisms. Three approaches have been used to design constructed
wetlands. An empirical approach is based on two different “rule of thumb” approaches
(Reed et al., 1995; Kadlec and Knight 1996). Both Reed et al. (1995) and Kadlec & Knight
(1996) consider wetlands as attached-growth biological reactors, therefore using a first-
order plug flow kinetics model as the basis for their performance equations. The removal
of soluble BOD in the SSFCW is due to microbial growth attached to the plant roots, stems,
leaf litter and substrates. Both Reed et al. (1995) and Kadlec and Knight (1996) admit that
BOD5 removal in SSFCW can be described with first-order plug flow kinetics. First-order
kinetics simply means that the rate of removal of a particular pollutant is direct proportional
to the remaining concentration at any point within the wetland cell.

WSEE– 3122 Module 2015 EC
Two idealized mixing theories may be applied:
• Completely mixed reactor -- The concentration is the same as the effluent concentration at
any point in the reactor;
• Plug flow -- The concentration of the reactant decreases along the length of the flow path
through the reactor.
Plug flow obviously provides a more appropriate description of the flow pattern in constructed
wetlands.
Reed’s method for the design of constructed wetlands
The equations of Reed et al. (1995) are based on the first-order plug flow assumption for those
pollutants that are removed primarily by biological processes, including biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), ammonia (NH4) and nitrate (NO3). Reed suggests separate equations for total
suspended solids (TSS) and total phosphorus (TP). For the removal of pathogenic organisms in
constructed wetlands, he suggests the same approach as that used for waste stabilization ponds.
The design equations based on Reed et al. (1995) are as presented below:
For removal of BOD, NH4 and NO3 in constructed wetlands:
Where As = treatment area of the wetland (m2),

Ce = outlet effluent pollutant concentration (mg/l),

Ci = influent pollutant concentration (mg/l),
HLR = hydraulic loading rate (cm/day),
KR = rate constant at reference temperature (day-1),
KT = Rate constant at temperature TW (day-1), L
= length of the wetland (m),
n = porosity (percent, expressed as decimal
fraction), Q = average flow rate through the wetland
(m3/day), t = hydraulic residence time (day-1), TW =
water temperature (°C),
TR = reference temperature (°C),
Vf = volume of wetland available for water flow
(m3), W = width of the wetland (m), y = depth of
the wetland (m),
θR = temperature coefficient for rate constant, and
Vv and V are the volume of the voids and total volume, respectively
The parameters for the design of the two types of constructed wetlands based on the Reed et al.
(1995) equation (Table 4.7).
Table 4.7 Temperature coefficient for rate constant for Reed et al. (1995a ) design equations

For Pathogen Removal:

Reed argues that the mechanisms for pathogen removal are essentially the same in both waste
stabilization ponds and constructed wetlands. Where pathogen removal has been investigated in
constructed wetlands, Equation 4.72 has proven to be conservative; hence, it is useful as a
predictor:
Where Ce = effluent faecal coliform concentration (number/100 mL),

Co = influent faecal coliform concentration (number/100
mL), KT = temperature dependent rate constant (day-1), n
= number of cells in series, and t = hydraulic residence
time (days)
The reliance of this formula on the number of cells in series tends to suggest that, for optimal
pathogen removal, the number of cells should be maximised.
For TP removal:
In both SSF and FWS wetlands:
The bed cross-sectional area and bed width is independent of temperature and organic loading,
since they are controlled by the hydraulic characteristics of the media.

Table 4.8: Overview of pollutant removal mechanisms in FWS wetland

Pollutant Removal Processes
Organic material (measured as Biological degradation, sedimentation, microbial uptake
BOD)
Organic contaminants (e.g., Adsorption, volatilization, photolysis, and biotic/abiotic degradation
pesticides)
Suspended solids Sedimentation, filtration
Nitrogen Sedimentation, nitrification/Denitrification, microbial

uptake, volatilization
Phosphorous Sedimentation, filtration, adsorption, plant and microbial uptake
Pathogens Natural die-off, sedimentation, filtration, predation, UV degradation,

adsorption
Heavy metals Sedimentation, adsorption, plant uptake
Water Depth in FWS Systems

The water level in the system and the duration of flooding can be important factors for the selection
and maintenance of wetland vegetation. Water depth can range 4 to 18in . For warm water
conditions the range is from 4 to 8in.
6. Pre-Application Treatment
To reduce capital and operating costs, minimal pretreatment of wastewater prior to discharge to a
wetland is desirable. However, the level of pretreatment will also influence the quality of the final
marsh effluent, and therefore effluent quality objectives must be considered. Preceding wetland
treatment with a conventional primary treatment plant is capital intensive and impractical unless
such a facility is already in existence. Based on studies at Listowel, some reduction of SS and BOD
is desirable to reduce oxygen demand and prevent sludge accumulations in the upper reaches of
the marsh. Phosphorus reduction by chemical addition is recommended in the pretreatment step
when phosphorus is required.
7. Vegetation
The major benefit of plants is the transferring of oxygen to the root zone. Their physical presence
in the system (the stalks, roots, and rhizomes) penetrate the soil or support medium, and transport
oxygen deeper than it would naturally travel by diffusion alone(1). Perhaps most important in the
FWS wetlands are the submerged portions of the leaves, stalks, and litter, which serve as the
substrate for attached microbial growth. It is the responses of this attached biota that is believed

responsible for much of the treatment that occurs. The emergent plants most frequently found in
wastewater wetlands include cattails, reeds, rushes, bulrushes and sedges.
8. Physical Design Factors i. System Configurations
Studies at Listowel have demonstrated the importance of a long Aspect ratio (length-to-width) to
insure plug flow hydraulics. In the plug-flow, hydraulics is assumed as the major form of transport.
Internal flow distribution must therefore be achieved by using high length-to-width ratios or by
internal berming or barriers.
ii. Outlet Structures
The configuration of the outlet structure for a constructed wetland depends on the character of the
receiving water and the number of subunits in the constructed wetland. The outlet structure for the
surface flow type of wetland is shown in Figure 3-1, and includes a trench and outlet pipe with
adjustable level for water level control in the wetland. Outlet structure controls must be able to
control depth of water in the wetlands especially for winter ice conditions where deeper wetland
conditions are required to maintain treatment levels. Outlet structures must be constructed to
prevent ice damage and closed control points during freezing weather.
Figure 4-27: Typical cross section FWS system iii.
Vector Control in FWS Wetlands
FWS wetlands provide an ideal breeding environment for many insect pest species, particularly
mosquitoes. With FWS wetlands mosquito control is essential
The method used to control mosquito includes shocking with mosquitofish, use of biological
control and encouragement of predators.
iv. Harvesting of Vegetation
For free water surface systems, dry grasses are sometimes burned off annually to help maintain
the hydraulic profile of the wetland, and avoid build-up of grassy hillocks, which encourage
channelization. Harvesting of plant biomass is normally not regarded as a practical method for
nutrient removal. Harvesting may be desirable to reduce the excessive accumulation of litter that

could shorten the life span of a FWS wetland. The harvested vegetation can be used for the
preparation of compost.
9. Design Procedures
The procedure for process design of FWS constructed wetlands involves the following steps:
1. Determine the limiting effluent requirements for BOD, TSS, and nitrogen or phosphorus.
2. Determine the allowable effluent BOD by subtracting 5mg/l for BOD relate to plant decay.
3. Select an appropriate apparent BOD removal rate constant and correct for the critical
temperature.
4. Calculate the detention time achieve the desired level of BOD removal.
5. If BOD and TSS are the only parameters to be removed, the organic loading rate should be
checked, and the large of the two areas should be selected.
6. Determine the detention time required for nitrogen or ammonia removal.
7. Select the largest detention time for design, based on the limiting design parameter.
8. Determine the required area. Increase the area by 15 to 25 % for a factor of safety.
9. Select an aspect ratio consistent with the site constraints and determine the dimensions of
the wetland.
10. Check the headloss to ensure adequate head between the influent and effluent ends

4.2 Tertiary Treatment Processes
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality
before it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.). More than one
tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is
always the final process. It is also called effluent polishing.
i. Filtration
Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter Filtration over activated carbon,
also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins
ii. Lagooning
Lagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large
manmade ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic and colonization by native
macrophytes, especially reeds, is often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as
Daphnia and species of Rotifera greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates.
iii. Nutrient removal
Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release
to the environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn
encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause
an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable
and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of
oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the
bacteria to decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins
that contaminate drinking water supplies. Different treatment processes are required to remove
nitrogen and phosphorus. iv. Nitrogen removal
The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia to
nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen
gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria.
The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas
(nitroso referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO3−),
though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter (nitro referring the formation of a

nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the environment almost exclusively by
Nitrospira spp.
Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities to
form. It is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all
be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge process (if designed well) can do the job the
most easily. Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an electron donor is
needed. This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from faeces), sulfide, or an
added donor like methanol. The sludge in the anoxic tanks (denitrification tanks) must be mixed
well (mixture of recirculated mixed liquor, return activated sludge [RAS], and raw influent) e.g.
by using submersible mixers in order to achieve the desired denitrification. Sometimes the
conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment. Many sewage
treatment plants use axial flow pumps to transfer the nitrified mixed liquor from the aeration zone
to the anoxic zone for denitrification. These pumps are often referred to as Internal Mixed Liquor
Recycle (IMLR) pumps.
v. Phosphorus removal
Phosphorus removal is important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water
systems. (For a description of the negative effects of algae, see Nutrient removal). It is also
particularly important for water reuse systems where high phosphorus concentrations may lead to
fouling of downstream equipment such as reverse osmosis.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus
removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs),
are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20
percent of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated
water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron (e.g.
ferric chloride), aluminum (e.g. alum), or lime. This may lead to excessive sludge production as
hydroxides precipitates and the added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical phosphorus removal
requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological removal, is easier to operate and
is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal. Another method for phosphorus
removal is to use granular laterite.
Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a phosphate-rich sludge, may be stored in a land fill or
resold for use in fertilizer.
vi. Disinfection
The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to substantially reduce the number
of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness of
disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type
of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other
environmental variables. Cloudy water will be treated less successfully, since solid matter can

shield organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short
contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common
methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium
hypochlorite.Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in waste water treatment
because of its persistence.
Chlorination remains the most common form of waste water disinfection in North America due to
its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that chlorination of
residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic
or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of
chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual chlorine
is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated, adding to
the complexity and cost of treatment.
Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals. Because no
chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms that later consume it, as
may be the case with other methods. UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of
bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction. The key
disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and replacement and
the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not shielded from
the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect microorganisms from
the UV light). In the United Kingdom, UV light is becoming the most common means of
disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics
in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving water. Some sewage treatment
systems in Canada and the US also use UV light for their effluent water disinfection.
Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a high voltage potential resulting in a
third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and
oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic
microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has
to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is generated
onsite as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination. A
disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and the
requirements for special operators.
vii. Odour Control
Odours emitted by sewage treatment are typically an indication of an anaerobic or "septic"

condition.Early stages of processing will tend to produce smelly gases, with hydrogen sulfide
being most common in generating complaints. Large process plants in urban areas will often treat
the odours with carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses of chlorine, or
circulating fluids to biologically capture and metabolize the obnoxious gases.Other methods of
odour control exist, including addition of iron salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate, etc. to
manage hydrogen sulfide levels.

References
1. Peavy, H.S., Rowe and Tchobanoglous. (1985), “Environmental Engineering”,
McGraw Hill
2. Metcalf and Eddy Inc., (2003), “Wastewater Engineering - Treatment and Reuse”, 4th
Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
3. Karia G.L., and Christian R.A., (2001), “Wastewater Treatment Concepts and Design
Approach”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
4. Lee C.C., and Lin S.D., (1999), “Handbook of Environmental Engineering
Calculations”, McGraw Hill, New York.

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Water Supply and

Module No: WSEE-3122

2- CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER ....................................................................7

3- PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS...........26

4- SECONDARY/BIOLOGICAL AND TERTIARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT ........66

5- SEWAGE EFFLUENT DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES .................................................... .167

6- SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL .................................................................... 185

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 1

Table 1-1 Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment

Biodegradable Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, biodegradable

Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogenic organisms in

Refractory These organics tend to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment.

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 2

Suspended solids Screening and comminution P

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 3

(i) aerobic decomposition

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 4

1.2 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 2

c. Describe ways of treating wastewater

1.3 Wastewater Treatment Standards

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 3

1.4 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems

Depending on the contaminants to be removed, an almost limitless number of process

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 4

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 5

Figure 1-1 Flow chart for wastewater treatment processes

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 6

2.1 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristic of Wastewater

Wastewater is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 7

1. Total Solids, Suspended Solids and Settleable Solids

(i) Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton, fiber, starch, sugar, etc.

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 8

Figure 2-1 Imhoff cone

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 9

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 10

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 11

8. Presence of Fats, Oils and Greases

9. Sulphides, Sulphates and Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 12

11. Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

12. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 13

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 14

2.2 Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewater

WRU/IOT/WSEE Moltot G. Page 15

1. Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)

2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Oxygen demand of wastewaters is exerted by three classes of materials:

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Figure 2-2 Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials

a. Ratio of COD and BOD

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b. Effect of Seeding and Acclimation of Seed on the BOD Test

Figure 2-3 Lag period in BOD test

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