ICAO Training Needs Assessment

Data Gathering Methods and Instruments

Introduction

As discussed on the ICAO TNA website, there are different ways – or methods – available to gather data
during a TNA. Each one has advantages and disadvantages so that there is no pure method that can “do
it all”. Which to select and use depends on the context of the TNA, the kinds of decisions to make and
existing conditions. For example, methods that take longer to prepare and use aren’t efficient when
time is short.

The key guiding question to ask to select methods is therefore “How can I most effectively and
efficiently get the data I need to make good decisions?”

The 5 most common methods for data gathering are,

(a) Document reviews
(b) Interviews
(c) Focus groups
(d) Surveys
(e) Observation or testing.

While each has many possible variations, we will discuss their typical use here.

Basic Principles

Here are some basic principles to keep in mind when selecting methods.

1. Consider the characteristics of your target population. A target population is the group of people
directly concerned by a TNA. For example, in an organization of 500 people, a TNA may only involve
those 50 – the target population – who are directly affected by a problem.

To select methods for a TNA, review the level of education and employment categories of your
target population:
(a) The level of education affects the type of questions to ask during an interview or in a survey.
Surveys, for example, require being able to read and write to answer. A target population with a
lower level of education may not understand a survey and respond improperly. In order to be
useful, the methods selected must be accessible to participants.
(b) Employment category also affects how we communicate with the target population. Job level
may influence the choice of methods (using interviews with senior managers and executives, for
example) or the language used (different vocabularies for different professions).

Other conditions may exist that affect how people react during a TNA. For example, it is often better
to interview (sometimes quite informally) disgruntled employees and “hear them out” than sending

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a survey. Interviews help establish more personal rapport that shows attention and interest, and
helps get to the bottom of things.

2. Use more than one method. Whenever possible, use more than one method to reach more
participants and validate your data. This helps gain a broader or deeper understanding of the
problem investigated and “triangulate” your data. Triangulation happens when different methods
yield similar data. When a needs assessor gets similar answers from different methods, s/he can feel
more confident that the data is complete and valid.

As a rule of thumb, use different methods to gather data until it becomes repetitive (the same or
similar data is found) or predictable (it is highly likely that any new data will confirm what is already
known). When this happens, you can feel confident of “having the data”.

3. Consider time, costs, and other constraints. Be real: methods that can’t be used are worthless. Ask
yourself how long it will take to write, distribute recover and analyze a questionnaire, for example?
Can it be done within the time available? Is it realistic to interview each member of a larger target
population located at different work sites?

Be real and work with existing conditions, BUT… don’t give up too easily and conclude something
won’t work before considering it. Beware of personal preferences for using methods. Look for
options and be open to compromise before deciding about methods.

General Rules

The following general rules summarize Table 1 and provide quick reminders of things to consider when
selecting methods.

1. ALWAYS look first for documents that may explain what’s happening. Documents sometimes exist
that describe a problem well and provide valuable leads about solutions. Review them before
deciding about other methods: what is found in documents can help decide what is missing and how
best to get it.

2. Use interviews to interact with senior managers and executives.

3. Use interviews to create more personal rapport. This can be important when working under difficult
conditions or when there is significant discord in an organization.

4. Use interviews or focus groups instead of surveys when the level of education is low.

5. Use interviews to reach a smaller number of participants, surveys for larger ones.

6. Use focus groups to extend interviews to groups and reach more participants.

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7. User observation or testing when the expected performance is clearly defined in an existing
standard. For example, use interviews to explore how change may affect a job, and observation to
evaluate job performance.

8. Use Information Communication Technologies (ICT - computers and their networks) to reach a
dispersed population. ICT allows distributing surveys to larger (or dispersed) groups, or interviewing
participants at a distance. Be sure, however, that everything works well: computer problems (real or
perceived) can seriously affect data gathering and the quality of the answers obtained.

9. Complement your data gathering using appropriate methods with informal discussions and
observations. Good needs assessors pay close attention to what happens around them and use what
they learn. In the end, short, informal conversations about problems at work may be more insightful
than the best survey.

10. Avoid becoming fixated with using one method or another. Be flexible and adapt to existing
conditions. Keep in mind that the best method is one that works!

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Methods Definition

Table 1 describes the different methods that can be used to gather data during a TNA and offers hints on how to use them.

Table 1: Summary of Data Gathering Methods and their Use

Method Advantages / Disadvantages Comments

Surveys / Advantages Surveys are often used to collect numerical data. For example, when
questionnaires (a) Can reach a large population. respondents select numbers on a scale to answer questions. They can also
(b) Many possible variations in their design and use. include open questions that require writing an answer. Which to use
(c) Can be completed anonymously. depends on different conditions, like level of education. Respondents with
(d) Can be made easy to complete. a limited education may not be able to write longer answers.
(e) Can be used to gather quantitative and qualitative data.
Interviews can be used to select questions for a survey. After conducting a
few of interviews, typical answers or comments are identified and
Disadvantages
converted into questions for a survey.
(a) Can be difficult and time consuming to develop.
(b) Influenced by education (reading level) and culture. Example: during some interviews employees indicate that they don’t have
(c) Can become annoying when not focused or too long. the tools they needed to perform well. This information could become the
(d) Requires follow up to get a good response rate. following survey question: “Select a number on a scale of 1 to 5 that best
(e) Often can’t check incomplete or problematic answers. reflects how you feel about your work tools (1 = Not available; 5 = we
(f) Often ignored when overused. have all that we need).
Knowledge and Advantage Observation or testing are appropriate when there is a clear best way to
skills testing 1. Relatively easy to prepare when a good job task analysis is available. perform a job, that can be measured specifically (existing standard). For
2. Focused on job performance. example, when a job requires following the same procedure or applying
3. Can take advantage of available subject matter expertise. similar thinking. They can be difficult to use when jobs require adaptive
4. Results are more easily quantifiable and comparable. behavior (adjusting performance depending on conditions).
Tests must be checked and validated before they are used. This means
Disadvantages
trying them with some participants, making adjustments and then using
1. Tests are often intimidating or stressful, and can affect performance.
them with all other participants.
2. Good tests require more work to develop than often expected.
3. Essential knowledge and skills must be clearly reflected to be valid. Tests must be short and specific, with only as many questions as needed
4. Can disrupt normal activities. to assess the whole performance. They must also reflect real job
5. Tests measure the ability to perform, not the motivation to do so. conditions.

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Method Advantages / Disadvantages Comments

Observation Advantages Observations are about visually confirming what’s going on. They can be
1. Allows investigating work under real conditions. highly structured and use check lists, for example, to rate what is
2. Can be discreet and conducted without disrupting work. observed, confirm the procedure followed or tools used.
3. Allows seeing actual performance rather than what is reported.
Observations can also be open and rely on notes from experts familiar
4. Allows uncovering unexpected issues that must be addressed.
with the job and with doing observations. Good notes are essential: the
5. Takes interaction, collaboration or team work into account.
quality of notetaking directly affects the quality of the data gathered.
Disadvantages As a rule of thumb, use formal observation (with check lists, for example)
1. Time consuming with larger groups. to check job performance and less formal ones to investigate general
2. Influenced by the quality of observations and note taking. Observers behavior (to assess motivation, for example).
must be trained and use good instruments to record what they
observe.
3. The results of one observation cannot be generalized to other
observations (individual performances). More observations are
therefore needed to confirm how more employees perform.
4. Can be difficult to set up (e.g. permissions or scheduling).
5. Being observed can change how some perform so that what is
observed does not reflect typical performance.
6. Some may refuse to be observed or be uncomfortable and resistant.

Document review Document review This method involves finding and reviewing documents ranging from
/ critical incident letters of complaint, industry reports, policy documents or more strategic
analysis Advantages ones, to better understand the problem.
1. Uses existing information.
The critical incident report typically describes an important event that is a
2. Less influenced by changes or unforeseen circumstances.
problem or that otherwise negatively affects the organization. For
3. Unobtrusive: no need to disrupt work underway.
example, reports about accidents or emergencies.
4. Allows identifying job performance standards that can be applied
locally. Unless documents can’t be found or are clearly not useful, every TNA
5. Can provide leads to explore (people to interview, for example). should identify and review relevant documents. Whenever possible, the
6. Can provide a historical perspective to better understand current information obtained from documents should be validated and any
events. serious difference between what different sources report should be
7. Considers both internal and external documents. reconciled.

Disadvantages
1. Available documents are not always good sources of information.
Better documents may not be available (or shared).

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Method Advantages / Disadvantages Comments

2. Can be time consuming to review all documents.

Critical incident

Advantages
1. Can provide insight into the causes of problems.
2. Reports real events.

Disadvantages
1. Must be well reported to be useful. Bad reports can be misleading.
2. Can be difficult to analyze and understand after the fact.
3. May require consulting experts to confirm findings.
Interviews Advantages Interviews are one-on-one conversations to explore ideas, opinions,
1. Allows for face-to-face contact and observing behavior. values or other points of view. Some interviews can be quite structured,
2. Allows exploring and clarifying opinions, or dealing with the use specific questions and record answers in non-equivocal terms (like
unexpected. yes/no). Other interviews are more open and allow exploring issues as
3. Helps engage participants in the TNA process. they arise. Regardless of the approach used, it is essential to take good
4. Helps explore / confirm other data / information (for example, the notes that truly reflect the interview.
information obtained from documents).
Interviews are particularly useful to,
Disadvantages • Investigate issues in depth.
1. Can be time consuming and depend on the availability of individuals. • Explore ideas, opinions and attitudes.
2. Individuals can’t always identify or express true needs. • Explore sensitive topics that some may not want to discuss in public.
3. Some may use this opportunity to vent frustrations or discuss other
issues. Interviews alone are not always effective to explore issues that affect
4. Interviewers must be skilled and well prepared. larger groups. Samples can be used instead if they represent the
5. Interviewing many can be time consuming and expensive. population well. For example, interviewing 5 employees that represent
6. Requires careful sampling when dealing with a large population. well the characteristics of a larger group of 20 may be enough to identify
7. Interviewers sometimes ‘take over’ and negatively affect the important issues.
interview.
Focus groups Advantages. Focus groups are essentially group interviews. They are structured and led
1. Allow interviewing more individuals within a limited amount of time. differently than interviews, but yield similar data. Focus groups are
2. Allows participants to discuss important issues with their peers. particularly useful to,
3. Helps with team building by shifting the focus from the individual to
(a) Engage a group in generating, discussing and refining ideas.
the group.
4. Allow comparing and sifting through ideas towards consensus. (b) Confirming group opinions, values and tendencies.

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Method Advantages / Disadvantages Comments

(c) Explore topics more deeply than can be done during individual
Disadvantages interviews.
1. Time consuming and subject to the availability of individuals. (d) Creating ownership of problems and solutions.
2. Can lead to conflict (if not well facilitated) or affected by existing
(e) Reach more participants than possible with interviews alone.
conflicts between individuals or groups.
3. Not everyone wants to discuss issues with others (or share
information).
4. Requires a skilled group leader to manage group dynamics and
achieve good results.