WWF Plastics Report Final 2nov2020

SOUTH AFRICA
PLASTICS: FACTS
AND FUTURES
MOVING BEYOND POLLUTION MANAGEMENT
TOWARDS A CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY
IN SOUTH AFRICA
Authors
Zaynab Sadan (WWF) and Lorren de Kock (WWF)
Editorial team
Tatjana von Bormann (WWF), Fiona Piller and
Sue Ras (WWF)
Reviewers
Dr Pippa Notten (The Green House), Prof Linda Godfrey
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research),
Annabé Pretorius (Plastix 911) and Reinhardt Arp (WWF)
Text editing
Marlene Rose
Indexer
Tessa Botha
Design and layout

NextMind.co.za
Cover photo
Polyco
Cover photo caption

An informal waste reclaimer carries plastic chairs and bags
filled with recyclable plastic bottles to sell at a buyback
centre in Cape Town, South Africa.
Citation
Sadan, Z. and De Kock, L. Plastics: Facts and Futures:
Moving beyond pollution management towards a circular
plastics economy in South Africa. WWF South Africa,
Cape Town, South Africa
© Text 2020 WWF South Africa
If you would like to share copies of this report, please do so

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Available online at
www.wwf.org.za/report/plasticsfactsandfutures
Published in 2020 by WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature

(formerly World Wildlife Fund), Cape Town, South Africa.
Any reproduction in full or in part must mention the
title and credit the above-mentioned publisher as the
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Eva Mokoena, a South African informal waste reclaimer,

drags a sack, filled up with recyclables, at the Palm Springs
landfill on the outskirts of Johannesburg, South Africa, on
28 June 2019.
WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 2
KEY MESSAGES 4
WWF'S WORK IN PLASTICS 5
THE CURRENT PLASTICS ECONOMY 6
A CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY 7
SECTION 1: A COMPLEX MATERIAL, A COMPLEX PROBLEM 8

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PLASTIC 10
IN SUMMARY 17
SECTION 2: STAGES IN THE PLASTICS LIFE CYCLE 18

STAGE 1: PRODUCTION 20
STAGE 2: CONSUMPTION AND USE 22
STAGE 3: COLLECTION 30
STAGE 4: TREATMENT 35
STAGE 5: SECONDARY MARKETS 42
IN SUMMARY 44
SECTION 3: PLASTICS, NATURE AND PEOPLE 46

THE “TAKE-MAKE-WASTE” ECONOMIC MODEL IS NOT SUSTAINABLE 47
SOURCES, FLOWS AND IMPACTS OF PLASTICS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 48
IMPACTS ON ANIMALS AND PEOPLE 57
IMPACTS ON THE ECONOMY 62
IN SUMMARY 63
SECTION 4: ACTORS AND ACTIONS 64

THE PLASTICS VALUE CHAIN 66
DIRECT STAKEHOLDERS 68
INDIRECT STAKEHOLDERS 77
NATIONAL POLICIES AND REGULATIONS 82
SOUTH AFRICA'S INVOLVEMENT IN GLOBAL INITIATIVES AND VOLUNTARY AGREEMENTS 88
IN SUMMARY 93
SECTION 5: ACTIONS FOR A CIRCULAR PLASTICS FUTURE 94

DRIVING CHANGE TOWARDS A CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY 96
EXAMINING THE TRADE-OFFS AND MAKING THE HARD DECISIONS 98
ENSURING ACCOUNTABILITY 101
UNLOCKING INVESTMENT 102
SUPPORTING LOCAL INDUSTRY 104
BARRIERS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR SECTORS AND STAKEHOLDERS 106
IN SUMMARY 113
GLOSSARY114
REFERENCES116
LIST OF BOXES, FIGURES AND TABLES 122
INDEX123
©️ Michele Spatari / WWF

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AMCEN African Ministerial Conference on the Environment
AU African Union
BPA Bisphenol A
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DEFF Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries
DSI Department of Science and Innovation
DTIC Department of Trade, Industry and Competition
EPR extended producer responsibility
EPS expanded polystyrene
GHG greenhouse gas
HDPE high-density polyethylene
HIPS high-impact polystyrene
IndWMP Industry Waste Management Plan
IWMP Integrated Waste Management Plan
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCSA Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment
LDPE low-density polyethylene
LLDPE linear low-density polyethylene
MIC material identification code
MRF material recovery facility
NRCS National Regulator for Compulsory Specifications
NWMS National Waste Management Strategy
OPRL on-pack recycling label
ORASA Organics Recycling Association of South Africa
PBAT polybutylene adipate terephthalate
PC polycarbonate
PET polyethylene terephthalate
PHA polyhydroxyalkanoates
PLA polylactic acid
PP polypropylene
PPE personal protective equipment
RDI Research, Development and Innovation
SAPRO South African Plastics Recycling Organisation
SAWIS South African Waste Information System
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
UNEP UN Environment Programme

Plastic beverage bottles found in Blue Lagoon at the
Umgeni River Mouth in KwaZulu-Natal, a popular tourist
attraction for bird watchers and nature lovers. © Eddie van Os
3
KEY MESSAGES
Plastic meets a multiplicity of needs in our society while also
posing significant environmental, social and economic risks.
The way in which plastic is produced and used needs to be
fundamentally redesigned.
1. Plastic is a complex material that provides value across several industries, yet its strength and
durability have resulted in widespread persistence in the environment, threatening human health and
the health of our marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. These negative externalities, once
quantified, reveal the true costs of plastic.
2. Tackling the plastic pollution challenge requires a life cycle approach – failures occurring at each stage
of the plastics life cycle all contribute to the problem.
3. South Africa consumes both locally produced and imported fossil-fuel-based plastic raw material,
which is often cheaper than recycled material. There are significant climate change impacts at every
stage of the value chain, from production to disposal. Projected expansion in plastic production
to meet the exponential increase in consumption will significantly increase the plastics sector’s
contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, from 4% in 2015 to 15% by 2050.
4. Plastic packaging is a plastic leakage hotspot. More than half – 52% – of plastic raw material produced
in and imported into South Africa is used for packaging applications.
5. Plastic leakage in the form of litter and illegal dumping is symptomatic of a weak and fragmented
waste management system. This is a result of the inadequate collection and sorting infrastructure,
combined with a lack of capacity in municipalities.
6. Plastic pollution in the marine environment is a transboundary issue. Most plastic in the ocean comes
from land-based sources and gets transported across national borders via waterways and atmospheric
and ocean currents.
7. The circular economy model provides the framework in which to guide collective action. Plastic
recycling is only one of a suite of interventions required across the plastics life cycle. Others include
elimination of unnecessary and problematic plastic items, product design for reuse and new product
delivery models such as own-container dispensing schemes.
8. South Africa has a well-developed plastic recycling sector; however, it is facing huge challenges,
worsened by the limitations imposed by the COVID-19 lockdown regulations. The price of oil is
also a considerable factor that contributes to the instability of the recycling system in South Africa
and globally.
9. A preventative approach that tackles the plastic pollution crisis at the source will be critical, instead of
solely focusing on mitigating the impacts after the fact.
10. All actors in the plastics value chain have a role to play dealing with the plastic pollution challenge.
While there are various policies and actions in place, little can be achieved without deep collaboration,
accountability and transparency. Critical decisions need to be made in the short term, including
the alignment towards a common vision, the fast-tracking of a mandatory extended producer
responsibility scheme underpinned by time-bound national targets, and supporting a new global
treaty to address plastic pollution.

WWF'S WORK IN PLASTICS
WWF works in partnership with key stakeholders across the South African
plastics value chain to promote a transition to a circular plastics economy,
reduce plastic leakage into nature and ensure that plastic remains at its
highest value.
Sustainable production and consumption require greater

accountability and transparency and behaviour change in all
ABOUT THIS REPORT
stages of the plastics life cycle. The Plastics: Facts and Futures report provides an overview
of the plastic pollution challenge in South Africa and proposes
WWF identifies three primary points of leverage:
the necessary interventions to address it.
1. Strengthening policy instruments
This report is aimed at researchers, industry actors,
• Supporting the development and implementation of policymakers and interested individuals. It explores the
effective national and regional1 policy and regulations environmental and socio-economic impacts of plastic
according to circular economy principles pollution in the South African context, with a focus on plastic
packaging as a major contributor. There are also plastic
• Advocating for a new global treaty to address plastic products beyond packaging that need to be given attention in
pollution Africa and South Africa and these are identified in the report.
These products include hygiene products such as sanitary
2. Accelerating market transformation
towels and nappies, cigarette butts and certain types of fishing
• Supporting collective action to shift market practices to gear, all of which are not currently well managed and add to
reduce virgin plastic consumption and move towards plastic leakage into nature.
circularity for plastic products and packaging through
The Plastics: Facts and Futures report aims not only to
product redesign and manufacturing innovation, new
consolidate the mounting evidence to highlight the risks of a
product delivery and circular business models
business-as-usual path but also to provide ideas for first steps
3. Promoting best available scientific practice and and identify the levers to deliver significant positive impact
knowledge transfer in this complex system. This complexity means that no single
organisation can solve the plastic pollution challenge by itself
• Conducting and assimilating research to support best and that an inclusive, collaborative process with multiple
practices for product and packaging design, certification stakeholders across the plastics value chain is needed,
and labelling guidelines with a strong focus on prevention rather than mitigating
impacts once they have already occurred. Addressing the
• Sharing our learnings with local and regional partners plastic pollution crisis must not be done at the expense
of other increasing environmental problems, but if done
right, addressing plastic pollution will result in net positive
environmental outcomes for our planet across a range of
environmental and social stressors.
For ease of reference, we have included a Glossary as well as

an Index at the back of the report.
1 “Regional” here refers to the African continent.
5
THE CURRENT PLASTICS ECONOMY
South Africa’s current plastics economy is almost entirely based on the
linear “take-make-waste” approach.
South Africa’s linear model is illustrated through the large dependency on virgin material for its plastics production and presents
several barriers to the transition to a circular plastics economy. Almost half the goods consumed are designed for a short lifespan,
and landfilling or open dumping are the primary waste treatment methods. However, the first milestones towards circularity
are present in the form of the struggling recycling economy, which is characterised by the vulnerable and under-supported
informal waste collection, sorting and recycling sector. A visual representation of the current material flow* tracks the volumes of
unnecessary and unmanaged plastic scrap and waste generated in the current approach.
MATERIAL FLOW IN THE CURRENT LINEAR PLASTICS ECONOMY
POLYMER PRODUCTION MANUFACTURING USE END OF LIFE

& TRADE & TRADE
S A LVAG E D F R O M
R E C YC L ED PLASTIC
IN USE
LAND
3
FILL
D O M E S T I C V I R GIN PLASTIC
1 RECYCLING
AND
DURABLES &
STR
SHORT-LIVED GOODS COMPLIANT LANDFILL S
EE
DURABLES &
T
SHORT-LIVED GOODS NON-COMPLIANT L A N D F I L L
IMPORTED VIRGIN PLASTIC
OPEN DUMP
I M P O R T E D F I N I S HED GOODS
DS & PACKAGING
SEMI-FINISHED GOO
EX P
ORT LIT
ED
GO TE
OD
2
S
4
R
Primary barriers to achieving a circular plastics economy
The current economic cost of virgin The plastic production system is A weak and already strained waste
1 plastic does not account for the 2 largely dependent on fossil-fuel-based 3 management system is supported by
negative impacts of plastic pollution on virgin materials and unsustainable, a marginalised but growing informal
nature and people. non-circular design of products and waste sector.
packaging.
There are several but disjointed There is a lack of a cohesive and

4 initiatives throughout the plastics value 5 trusted local evidence base and a lack
These challenges at a
chain with a narrow focus on end-of- of sector-wide collaboration and trust
pipe solutions. between industry and civil society, and systems level and at
with government. each life-cycle stage cause a
cluster of negative impacts
on the environment and
human well-being.
*All data flows refer to 2018 values based on calculations and estimates extrapolated from the
following data sources: Plastics SA, 2019a; Von Blotnittz et al., 2018; UN Comtrade, 2019.

A CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY
By 2030, South Africa can make progress towards a circular plastics economy.
This ideal state for South Africa in 2030 is founded on the principles of circular design, innovative reuse and refill schemes, a
thriving recycling economy and established markets for secondary resources. A visual representation of the ideal material flow**
helps us start envisaging the milestones that will close the gap between our current and the ideal state.
PLASTICS MATERIAL FLOW IN 2030 – THE IDEAL CASE
POLYMER PRODUCTION CONVERSION USE END OF LIFE SECONDARY

& TRADE & TRADE MARKETS
I M P O R T E D M AT
R E C YC LED PLASTIC IN USE
ERIAL
I M P O R T E D R E C YC L E D PLASTIC DURABLES
FOR
REUSE
REC
BIO-BASED VIRGIN PLASTICS I COLLECTED FOR RECYCLING
RECYCLING
YC L
G
FO R R E C YC L I N G
IN
FOSSIL-BASED VIRGIN PLASTICS II ED
ECT
C O LL EX P
I M P O R T E D F I N I S H ED GOODS SHORT-LIVED GOODS O
III
I S H E D G O O D S & PACKAGING
RT
SEMI-FIN EX P O R T E D S H
ED
ORT
DUR
-LI
ABLE
VE
D GO
S
O DS
I
Locally produced bio-based plastics All durables and
from agricultural wastes with relevant short-lived goods are Waste collection services
product certification reusable or collected and have integrated informal
recycled or composted. waste reclaimers with
II
Fossil-based virgin material is limited Default options available separation at source
as inputs into the system at retailers are all (s@s) at household level
All imported goods regulated through
III sustainable
mandatory EPR and nationally
agreed-upon standards, certification and
labelling
Necessary actions towards a circular plastics economy
Strengthen the regulatory Unlock investment for a circular

1 environment through mandatory 2 plastics economy through implementing
To be successful,
extended producer responsibility and an industry-wide strategy, supporting
other policy instruments, recognising the South African Plastics Pact, and these actions depend
the informal waste sector and increasing capacity, knowledge, on systems thinking,
supporting a new global legally binding infrastructure and innovation for deep collaboration and
treaty to address plastic pollution circularity shifts in mindset.
Ensure accountability through Support the local industry through

3 systems for local evidence sharing, 4 a level playing field, educated and
ambitious target setting and mobilised citizens and increased local
transparent reporting based on markets for recycled materials
accurate and trusted data
**All data flows are fictional estimates for an ideal future state of a circular plastics economy in South Africa.
7
SECTION 1
A COMPLEX
MATERIAL,
A COMPLEX
PROBLEM
The qualities that make plastics fundamental to our lives
– their malleability and resistance to degradation – also
make them persist in our environment for centuries.

An array of plastic litter items collected during a clean-up
event on Ganger Bay beach, Mouille Point, Cape Town. ©️ The Beach Co-op
9
A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
TO PLASTIC
Plastic is a versatile material used in PLASTIC PROPERTIES AND BENEFITS
a variety of applications in many of Plastics have revolutionised various industries and have
distinct advantages over alternative materials. Some of the
our daily activities. main desirable properties of plastics include:
• High strength-to-mass ratio

The term “plastic” originally meant “pliable and easily
shaped”. Plastic forms a large part of the category of materials • Colourability
called polymers, or long-chain molecules, which includes
• Insulating properties (acoustics, thermal and electrical)
plastics, textiles, adhesives, explosives and rubbers.
• Selective resistance to certain chemicals (depending on
Polymers can be found in nature or can be synthetically
the polymer type)
produced. Cellulose, the primary cell wall of green plants,
is an example of a naturally occurring polymer. Most of • Recyclability
the commercial polymers are synthetically produced from
ethylene and propylene gas, which are both product streams Because plastic is a lightweight material, the transportation of
of the refining process of fossil fuels such as crude oil, natural products of equal volume generates fewer carbon emissions
gas or coal in the petrochemical industry. than the same products packaged in heavier materials such as
glass and some metal. Plastic is also very durable and could
Ethylene and propylene gas are polymerised, sometimes result in less spoilage or breakage during transportation and
along with other chemicals, to produce a variety of polymers handling compared to paper or glass packaging. Maintaining
in powder form. These powders are then pelletised into what the integrity of the container safeguards the product, saves
is commonly known as nurdles before being sold to plastic resources and reduces the carbon and water footprints
converters. The plastic converters manufacture various associated with manufacturing that product.
plastic products and packaging from the nurdles, often
adding various additives to modify the physical and chemical The medical industry, for example, relies on plastic packaging
properties of the plastic. to ensure that equipment remains sterile. Medicines can also
be securely stored in plastic containers.
Some plastics are also produced from bio-based feedstocks
such as sugar cane, cassava, maize and wood wastes. The Plastic packaging plays a major role in creating a barrier for
natural starches and sugars from these feedstocks are preserving and ensuring the safety of food, which reduces
processed to form bio-propylene and bio-ethylene, which overall food waste.
are then polymerised in a similar way to the fossil-based
plastics. Other bio-based products such as lactic acid and MOST COMMON TYPES OF PLASTIC
hydroxyalkanoates can be polymerised to produce polylactic
acids (PLAs) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), which are The six most common types of plastic used for consumer
examples of biodegradable plastics. goods are listed in the sidebar on page 11. The types are
numbered one to six as part of the material identification
Plastics produced from fossil fuels are referred to as code (MIC). The material identification code is recognised
conventional plastics, whereas plastics produced from internationally and helps waste collectors, sorters and
bio-based feedstocks are referred to as bioplastics (not to be recyclers to identify the type of plastic.2 The material
confused with biodegradable plastics, see page 13). identification code can be found either within the plastic
product mould itself or on the product or packaging label.
It consists of a number inside a triangle with three chasing
arrows and an abbreviation for the type of plastic.
2 These material identification codes are not meant for consumers; a separate labelling system is required to give consumers specific disposal and recycling instructions (see Box 3).

BOX 1: THE UNIVERSAL RECYCLING LOGO
The universal recycling logo consists of the Möbius loop made up of three chasing
arrows. The chasing arrows represented on the material identification code are
often confused with this logo. PET: Polyethylene
terephthalate
The universal recycling logo indicates that the product or packaging item is
recyclable, whereas the material identification code only indicates the material
type; it does not mean that the material is recyclable. However, the universal recycling logo does
not indicate whether the material is currently being recycled in South Africa. This information is
important for consumers as they need to know which plastics should be sorted into the recycling
bin and which should go into the general waste bin destined for landfill.
HDPE: High-density
polyethylene
Changing the material identification code representation
To avoid the confusion between the universal recycling logo and the material identification code,
it is recommended that the material identification code be represented as a solid triangle instead
of the three chasing arrows. However, many plastic manufacturers still use the three arrows due to
the high costs of changing plastic moulds for rigid products.
PVC-P/PVC-U:
Polyvinyl chloride
plasticised (flexible) or
unplasticised (rigid)
LDPE/LLDPE: Low-
density or linear low-
density polyethylene
PP: Polypropylene
PS/HIPS: Polystyrene
(general or high-impact)
Takeaway
Lotus River,
cutlery
Gugulethu.
is made Clean-up
from PPby(MIC
City5),
of PS
Cape (MIC
Town
6) and ABS
(MIC
Stormwater
7). Thissupported
mixed material
by thestream
Litterboom
is difficult
Projectto and
recycle
the due to the
reasons
Pristine Eath
mentioned
Colletive.
on page 38 and 39. © George van der Schyff (The Prisitine Earth
© SamCollective)
Hobson // WWF-UK
WWF SA
11
BOX 2: NUMBER 7 PLASTICS – NOT RECYCLED IN SOUTH AFRICA
In theory, most plastics can be recycled if the correct infrastructure, technology and
end-markets exists. The clear exception is multilayer materials made up of more
than one type of plastic. These materials are not recycled in South Africa due to
economic implications and technical difficulties in separating the layers. Multilayer
materials are often represented by material identification code (MIC) 7.
MIC 7 plastics also represent less common plastic types such as polyamide (PA), polycarbonate (PC) and acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS). The tonnages of these materials recycled are small compared to the other plastic types.
Dealing with non-recyclables
Products and packaging made up of materials that are not reused or recycled in South Africa should be avoided where
possible, or infrastructure to recycle these materials should be put in place. If these materials cannot be avoided, then
technical difficulties to recycle or reuse them should be overcome, and the low demand for the recyclate (recycled
material) should be addressed.
BOX 3: SYMBOLS AND LABELLING – THE NEED FOR A STANDARD APPROACH

Although plastics may appear identical or similar to the naked eye, they have different physical properties and therefore
need to be sorted and recycled separately. There is also a varying demand for the different recycled plastics, therefore
each plastic type has a different economic value.
On-pack recycling labels (OPRLs) are needed to assist consumers in separating materials at source for recycling. The
use of various symbols on plastic packaging creates a great deal of confusion for consumers, who need to manage their
plastic recycling more effectively.
Improving on-pack recycling labels
Retailers and brands have a responsibility to educate consumers on what the labels mean and what to do with the
product and packaging after use. Retailers and brand owners can do the following:
• Make use of the evolving guideline for retailers and brand owners (see Box 13)
• Become involved in the discussions taking place on on-pack recycling labels within the South African Plastics Pact
to determine the applicable labels for the specific packaging placed on the market
• Ensure that on-pack recycling labels are clear, legible and easily understood
• Given the increase in use of biodegradable plastic alternatives, provide clear labels to guide consumers on how to
manage these items
• Give specific information about how to separate products that are recycled in South Africa (or not)
• Provide special instructions on whether to separate, wash or remove components such as lids, containers or stickers
• Use the universal recycling logo only if the material is currently recycled in South Africa, and update on-pack
recycling labels regularly if this changes

BIODEGRADABLE PLASTIC Biodegradable bioplastics
ALTERNATIVES AND THEIR UNINTENDED Biodegradable bioplastics cannot be recycled with
CONSEQUENCES
conventional plastics as this will contaminate
the recycling stream and compromise the
durability of the recyclate (recycled material).
Biodegradable and/or compostable materials are
erroneously regarded as a silver-bullet solution
Biodegradable materials are often not labelled
BIODEGRADABLE
clearly to distinguish them from conventional
for the persistence of plastic pollution. However, plastics. Polylactic acid (PLA) and polybutylene PLASTICS ARE
these materials should not be blindly adopted as a
solution but rather treated with caution on a case-
adipate terephthalate (PBAT) products are the NOT SUITABLE
most common biodegradable alternatives used for
by-case basis depending on the context. straws, coffee-cup linings, films, bags and cutlery. TO MIX WITH
Some of these products do not have certification CONVENTIONAL
for biodegradability or compostability in home
and industrial applications. Even when they do,
PLASTICS
The decision to move from
conventional plastics to biodegradable these certifications are not widely agreed upon and DESTINED FOR
alternatives should be evidence based, using adopted in South Africa, therefore commercial RECYCLING
methods such as Life Cycle Assessment to composting facilities are not currently accepting
make sure that the environmental impacts biodegradable plastics.
are not simply transferred from one area to
Increasingly, more and more biodegradable plastic
another.
alternatives are being imported into South Africa.
The perception is that these products are a solution
to the plastic pollution challenge. However, these
There are several types of alternatives to products have the potential to contaminate the
conventional plastics that visibly appear to be the plastic recycling stream and to add to the waste
same and are often confused with one another. destined for landfill and that which ends up in
This confusion adds to the risk of contamination nature.
or mixing of materials, causing difficulty in sorting
and treatment processes (recycling or composting).
Non-biodegradable bioplastics SOME
Bioplastics is a blanket term for plastic materials
that are either produced from bio-based
Non-biodegradable bioplastics can be recycled COMMERCIAL
feedstocks, are biodegradable, or features both
with conventional plastics. For example, a Valpré®
COMPOSTING
water bottle consists of 70% conventional PET
properties. Plastics that do not fall in this category
and 30% bio-based, non-biodegradable PET FACILITIES ARE
are conventional plastics.
produced from sugar cane imported from Brazil. NOT CURRENTLY
This blend can be recycled with other conventional
Biodegradable materials fully degrade only
PET bottles. ACCEPTING
under very specific conditions such as particular
temperatures, pressures, humidity and oxygen BIODEGRADABLE
concentration. If conditions are not ideal, these PLASTICS
materials will take longer to degrade fully. The “ORASA supports the use
end products are gases (carbon dioxide and/
or methane), water, biomass and mineral
of correctly certified and
components, which are not the same as good- clearly labelled compostable
quality compost. The degradation process
varies considerably across material types and products that do not
environments, and can take up to a year or more.
adversely affect compost or
soils. The processing of these
Items made from biodegradable products is at the discretion
plastics are not suitable for, and should
not be marketed as being able to degrade of the individual composting
in natural environments such as land,
landfill, freshwater or marine environments.
facility and will depend on
It is most likely that they will persist like the technology used.”
conventional plastics, behaving and posing
similar threats to ecosystems (see Section 3). – Organics Recycling Association of South Africa (ORASA)
13
Four things should be considered before and anti-corrosive properties of plastic materials, has been
introducing biodegradable products into banned in baby products and food packaging in South Africa
South Africa:3 since 2011.4 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which were
used in plasticisers in plastics and rubber products, as well as
1. The environmental and socio-economic impacts of
brominated flame retardants, are currently being phased out
the bio-based feedstock supply chain
in South Africa since regulation was passed in 2014.5
2. Implementation of national regulations for
compostability standards and certification
Additives to increase biodegradability
3. An Integrated Waste Management Plan for
the separation, collection and processing of Oxo-plastics/oxo-degradable/oxo-biodegradable plastics
biodegradable materials, including precautions contain additives, such as mineral salts, that speed up the
to prevent materials from contaminating the degradation process of plastics in the presence of oxygen.
conventional plastic recycling stream These materials are essentially conventional plastics that
degrade, or fragment, at a faster rate. Oxo-degradable plastics
4. Necessary infrastructure for industrial composting have been used for plastic carrier bags and other disposable
in accessible locations plastic packaging products. Although these products may be
visibly perceived to degrade completely, they could still carry
the risks associated with microplastics (see Box 4).
PLASTIC ADDITIVES AND THEIR The risks of these products are well documented in various
POTENTIAL DANGERS position papers. There is concern about the uncertainty of

the degradation time-frame under different environmental
Additives are substances added when plastic nurdles are conditions, contamination of existing plastic recycling
converted to products and packaging. Various additives are streams, formation of microplastics and insufficient
used to modify or enhance certain properties of plastics, infrastructure for collection and treatment.6 While some
depending on the application of the final product. However, European countries have already implemented restrictions or
some of these additives are toxic and can have a negative bans on oxo-degradable plastics, South Africa does not have
impact on the recyclability of a product. any legislation in this regard yet.
Examples of common additives include:

Additives and recycling
• Anti-microbial additives, which result in plastics on which
Different types of plastic additives affect different aspects of
no bacteria can survive
the mechanical plastic recycling process. Technical difficulties
• Slip additives, which reduce friction between two in material separation and processing could arise. Also, the
polymers (making it easier to open plastics lids) overall quality of the recycled product could be compromised
due to property changes in the material and potential build-up
• UV protection, which can be added so that a clear plastic of additives in the recycling loop.
will protect whatever is inside from ultraviolet radiation
Fillers, for example calcium carbonate, are used as a cost-
• Flame retardants, which are used in certain electrical and saving mechanism in plastics such as plastic carrier bags to
electronic equipment, as well as construction material reduce the amount of plastic used. This changes the overall
applications to prevent fire hazards density of the material, which makes it difficult to separate in
certain recycling operations that use density separators.
• Foaming agents, which are used in certain plastics such
as expanded polystyrene for more lightweight, cushioning Some additives, such as hazing agents, fluorescence agents
properties and oxygen scavengers, are added for visual and technical
effects and impact negatively on the recyclability of the
packaging.7 Oxo-degradable plastics affect the quality of the
Hazardous additives
recycled material due to the pro-degradation additive.
Additives containing persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
have a high environmental risk, therefore most of these
substances are currently controlled through legislation.
Bisphenol A (BPA), which was used to increase the strength
3 Adapted from CGCSA, 2020.

4 GN R879: Regulations in terms of the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act 54 of 1972.
5 GN R589: Regulations in terms of the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998.
6 WWF, 2020; CGCSA, 2020.
7 Packaging SA, 2017.

It is especially important to know the ultraviolet (UV) light and oxygen. This is called BECAUSE
risk of potential leaching, or migration, photodegradation. Mechanical abrasion in natural
of hazardous additives into foodstuffs mediums such as wind, sand or wave action PLASTIC IS
when it comes to food-grade applications also leads to material break-up. This process SO DURABLE,
(products that come into contact with food
for consumption). In order to mitigate the
takes much longer in freshwater or the ocean
environment, where there is less UV exposure.
IT DOES
risk of potential human and ecosystem NOT SIMPLY
Degradation rates depend on the conditions in
harm, responsible recyclers should have
the environment, with the result that plastic can DISAPPEAR ONCE
a process in place for quality control of
each batch of recycled material. One of the take as long as several decades or centuries to fully DISPOSED OF;
tests conducted is called the Registration, degrade. This is a stark reminder of the fact that
once disposed of, plastic does not simply disappear
IT CAN PERSIST
FOR DECADES OR
Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction
of Chemicals (REACH) assessment, which but persists for years in landfills or the natural
tests for the presence of any hazardous environment due to its durability. EVEN CENTURIES
chemicals.
Through these processes, larger plastics break IN LANDFILLS OR
down into smaller particles or fragments. Plastics
fragments are categorised according to size,
THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT
PLASTIC DEGRADATION AND THE into mega- (> 1 m), macro- (> 50 mm), meso-
(5–25 mm), micro- (1 µm–5 mm) and nanoplastics
BURDEN ON NATURE (< 1 µm). The majority of plastics found in the
environment are macro-, meso- and microplastics.
Plastic degradation in nature
After the useful life of a plastic product, it slowly

begins to degrade over extended periods of time,
years, decades or even centuries, depending on
the external environment. Plastics can degrade
in the natural environment through exposure to
City of Cape Town Stormwater department cleaning up

the Lotus River, supported by the Litterboom Project and
Pristine Earth Collective after a rainfall event. © George van der Schyff / Pristine Earth Collective
15
BOX 4: MICROPLASTICS AND THE RESULTANT POLLUTION
Microplastics (1 µm to 5 mm) can be categorised into two types, namely primary and secondary microplastics. Primary
microplastics are deliberately manufactured to a specific size, such as plastic nurdles, or microbeads found in personal-
care products such as toothpaste and face wash and some household cleaning products. Secondary microplastics form
through the breakdown (or fragmentation) of larger items. Sources include microfibres from textiles, dust from tyres and
plastic fragments formed by the degradation of plastic in the environment.
Research has shown that the process of degradation of plastics, which involves the breaking of long-chain polymers
into short-chain molecules, releases methane and other greenhouse gases into both air and water environments under
ambient conditions. However, a prediction of the estimated contribution of how much degrading plastics contribute to
overall greenhouse gas emissions is at an early stage of research.8
The degradation of plastics may also release toxins into the surrounding environment via two sources:
From the plastic itself: Some additives are known toxins and will be harmful if they leach out of the plastic as
it breaks down into soil and water or migrate from packaging into food. Potentially, this is not common as strict
precautions are in place to ensure the safety of food packaging and its additives through the REACH assessment
mentioned (see page 15). However, this may be a risk when it comes to children’s toys.
From the environment: Plastics attract persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from water, meaning that the
concentration of these pollutants on microplastics is many times higher than the concentration in the surrounding
water. Microplastics thus become increasingly toxic for marine species that ingest them (the ecological impacts of plastic
degradation are further discussed in Section 3).
8 Royer et al., 2018.
Plastic degradation during recycling

Plastic nurdles – the raw material of plastic products and
As in the rest of the world, South Africa’s
packaging – collected on a beach. Nurdles found on beaches
is usually a result of spillage at sea during shipping. recycling infrastructure is largely mechanical
as opposed to chemical recycling. This means
that plastic polymers are processed via physical
processes for size reduction (grinding and
shredding) and melting into plastic pellets
that are used for plastic manufacturing. Some
recyclers also include a wash-and-dry stage in
their processing to get rid of contaminants.
Plastic polymers degrade in quality with each

round of mechanical recycling, meaning that
long molecular chains break into shorter chains,
thus changing the properties of the material.
Degradation affects the impact strength and
viscosity of the material. This means that
plastics cannot be recycled indefinitely. Recycled
materials may also contain contaminants that
affect the smell and colour of the plastic, and
additives, which build up with each successive
cycle, potentially reaching hazardous levels.
This causes recycled material to be undesirable
for the manufacturing of food packaging
© Sam Hobson / WWF in particular.

A COMPLEX MATERIAL, A COMPLEX PROBLEM
IN SUMMARY
Understanding the complexities of plastic in
terms of its physical properties is the first step
towards addressing the resultant challenges that
it presents as a persistent pollutant.
1. A persistent pollutant despite its benefits: Plastic is a versatile,

durable, lightweight and relatively cheap material (when not including the
resultant environmental, social and economic costs of plastic pollution) and
is therefore used extensively in just about every industry. Although plastic
provides important benefits in many industrial and domestic applications,
it is a widespread and persistent pollutant, threatening the health of our
marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The complexity of how plastic is
produced, used and managed results in a complex plastic pollution problem.
2. Feedstocks: The majority of plastics are produced from fossil fuels, which
makes the plastics industry a carbon-intensive sector. While alternative
feedstocks are being explored, including waste and bio-based materials, the
sustainability of those supply chains need to be considered.
3. Biodegradable materials: There is a perception that biodegradable

materials are a silver-bullet solution to address the negative impacts of
plastic pollution. However, these materials are currently unsuitable for the
South African context due to the lack of infrastructure for effective separation,
collection and treatment in industrial composting facilities, as well as the lack of
certification and labelling standards. Biodegradable materials also pose the risk
of contaminating the conventional plastic recycling stream.
4. Additives: Plastic additives are used to modify the properties of the material
or save on cost; however, certain plastic additives are toxic and pose an
environmental and human health risk. Additives may also negatively affect the
recycling process and the quality of recycled material.
5. An essential service: Plastic packaging and products for medical use have
been in high demand, and played a vital role in hygiene and safety during the
COVID-19 lockdown period. Plastic manufacturing of these items has thus been
deemed an “essential service” and operations were allowed to continue.
17
SECTION 2
STAGES IN THE
PLASTICS LIFE
CYCLE
The growing global plastics production and
consumption rate has increased 200-fold
since the 1950s. This excessive production and
consumption of plastics will continue to increase
if we continue with business as usual.

“Bottled water is viewed by [South African] consumers not
simply as water but alternatively as a health beverage. Its
consumption is therefore lifestyle related.” – South African
National Bottled Water Association © Jonothan Chng
19
STAGE 1: PRODUCTION
The world is consuming more plastic than ever before. Plastic is a relatively
new material – production only started in the 1950s but has increased
exponentially since then.
A SNAPSHOT OF THE PLASTICS LIFE CYCLE IN SOUTH AFRICA IN NUMBERS ('000 TONNES)*
Production Consumption & use Collection Treatment Secondary markets
Imported finished, semi-finished products

& packaging (direct)
582 Exported virgin plastic
408
Local virgin 1 270 228
plastic Plastic products
754 & packaging in use
Exported
products &
Litter (8)
packaging (direct)
Uncollected
258 250 Open dumps
waste
Local recyclate 332 Sorting and processing
Locally manufactured 152
1 876 waste from recyclers
products & packaging
Compliant
227
Plastics at landfill
1 302
end of life
1 043 Collected Non-compliant Reuse and energy
297
Imported virgin 856 waste landfill recovery (4)
plastic Exported recyclate(11)
352 Recyclate for local use

11
*All volumes refer to 2018 values based on calculations and estimates extrapolated from the following data sources: Plastics SA, 2019a; Von Blotnittz et al., 2018; UN Comtrade, 2019.

A petrochemical refinery produces a variety of products from fossil
fuels, including the raw materials for conventional plastics. © Ashley Cooper / WWF
GLOBAL PLASTIC PRODUCTION AND

8,3
example, may have a global production value of
30% but a consumption value of about 20% as it
CONSUMPTION exports virgin plastic and finished goods.15
bn
As of 2016, a cumulative total of 8,3 billion
tonnes of plastic have been produced globally
PLASTIC PRODUCTION AND TRADE IN TONNES PRODUCED
over the past 65 years. Half of this was produced SOUTH AFRICA GLOBALLY OVER THE
in the 2000s.9 This saw an average growth rate of
4% every year since 2000. In South Africa, the primary plastic raw-material PAST 65 YEARS
producers are Sasol Polymers and Safripol
The global production in the year 2016 amounted (a division of KAP Industrial Holdings). There
to 396 million tonnes of plastic, which was the are also a number of plastic raw-material
equivalent of 53 kg of plastic per person. Global importers such as Dow Chemicals. In 2018,
plastic production is projected to increase by 40% 1 270 000 tonnes16 of virgin plastic were
by 203010 due to investments into new ethylene locally produced. Of that, 582 000 tonnes17
plants in the USA, Europe and China.11 About were exported and 688 000 tonnes were
100 companies produce all the polymers used in used for manufacturing locally. In addition,
plastic production worldwide, which points to a 856 000 tonnes18 of virgin plastic were imported
highly concentrated industry.12 Plastic polymer (see page 20).
producers and petrochemical companies are
often one and the same, representing some of the
biggest companies in the world.
Global plastic production is currently

concentrated in Asia, which is contributing 51%
of total production (with 30% in China alone).
Only 7% is produced in Africa and the Middle
East combined.13 However, due to plastics trade
dynamics, global consumption values14 per region
may differ from production values. China, for
9 Geyer et al., 2017.

10 De Wit et al., 2019.
11 CIEL, 2017.
12 Forrest, 2019.
13 PlasticsEurope, 2019.
14 Consumption values refer to what products are used in the country, including domestic production and imported goods, but excluding
exported goods.
15 Ryberg et al., 2018.
16 Local virgin plastic manufactured locally (Plastics SA, 2019) + exported virgin plastic (UN Comtrade, 2018).
17 UN Comtrade export data tariff codes 3901, 3902, 3903, 3904, 3905, 3905, 3906, 3907, 3908, 3909.
18 UN Comtrade import data for tariff codes 3901, 3902, 3903, 3904, 3905, 3905, 3906, 3907, 3908, 3909.
21
STAGE 2: CONSUMPTION AND USE
In South Africa, plastic consumption per capita is predicted to increase
over the next few years due to urbanisation, urban-rural migration and
an increase in middle-income households. Measures should be taken to
prevent tipping the scale to overconsumption, especially in
higher-income households.
In 2018, South Africa consumed 1 876 000 tonnes19 of locally converted manufactured plastic products and
packaging. In addition, 408 000 tonnes20 of finished and semi-finished plastic products were imported.
There are still a few data gaps for plastic consumption values in South Africa, specifically related to traded
goods. These goods include:
3%
• Indirect import or export of plastic through primary, secondary and tertiary plastic packaging for
goods not covered under plastic tariff codes
p.a. • Direct import and export of plastics that form part of goods not covered under plastic-related tariff
codes, such as electrical and electronic goods, automotive plastics, cosmetics, textiles, toys and
sporting goods
2010-2018
Over eight years, from 2010 to 2018, the total plastic consumption in South Africa (volumes converted into
PLASTIC products) increased by 24%, from 1 510 000 tonnes to 1 876 000 tonnes. This is an average increase of 3%
PRODUCTION IN per year.
SOUTH AFRICA
FIGURE 1: DOMESTIC POLYMER CONSUMPTION OVER EIGHT YEARS IN SOUTH AFRICA21
2 000 000
1 750 000
Tonnes
1 500 000
1 250 000
1 000 000
Virgin consumption Recycled consumption
19 Plastics SA, 2019a.

20 UN Comtrade import data for tariff codes 3916, 3917, 3918, 3919, 3920, 3921, 3922, 3923, 3924, 3925, 3926.

BOX 5: PLASTIC MANUFACTURING – AN ESSENTIAL SERVICE DURING COVID-19 LOCKDOWN IN
SOUTH AFRICA
During the COVID-19 Level 5 lockdown period in South Africa, only services categorised as essential were allowed to
operate; all others were forced to shut down. While plastic manufacturing is not necessarily an “essential service” on its
own, it supports the delivery of products and services in the retail and medical sector and thus forms part of category 24
of essential services as specified by the South African government.22 Plastic packaging for food, toiletries, medicine and
other grocery items saw a steady demand during the lockdown period, requiring packaging manufacturers to operate at
full capacity. This also meant that virgin plastic polymer producers and suppliers were deemed essential. Arrangements
were not clear for the plastic recycling industry, which supplies recycled material to plastic manufacturers. Only limited
plastic recyclers remained operational, differing across municipalities, while recycling collection, including buy-back
centres and informal waste collectors, were only allowed to operate under alert Level 4 and lower.23
The local plastic industry has also received a boost thanks to increased demand for medical products such as intravenous
bags, tubes, oxygen masks, gloves and protective gear, which previously had been imported in South Africa.24 Medical
waste is deemed hazardous and is therefore not recycled or treated with general waste. It is either treated using electro-
thermal technology before going to landfill, or is incinerated.25
22 See gov.za/Coronavirus/essential-services for the categories of essential services (as amended from time to time).
23 Under lockdown alert Level 5; this changed during Level 4.
24 Slater, 2020.
25 Le Roux, 2019.
SOUTH AFRICA’S PLASTIC MOST PLASTIC PRODUCTS ARE

CONSUMPTION PER PERSON MADE TO HAVE A SHORT LIFESPAN
The total plastic consumption in South Africa Almost half of the total plastic products
2018 PLASTIC CONSUMPTION
36
for 2018 was approximately 2 million tonnes,26 produced globally are designed for a lifespan
which amounts to 36 kg per person for 2018.27 of less than three years. Most of these products
This consumption value increased from are designed as packaging.31 However, plastic
1,6 million tonnes28 in 2017, which amounted
to 29 kg per person.29
is also used in a variety of sectors such as
building and construction, agriculture and kg
consumer electronics, where products have a PER PERSON
2
Total global plastic consumption in 2018 was longer lifespan.
estimated at 385 million tonnes30 (including
virgin and recycled material), with a per capita In South Africa, rigid and flexible packaging
Mt
consumption of 51 kg. South Africa’s average made up 52% of the plastics market sectors in
consumption figure is significantly lower than 2018.32 This was much higher than Europe’s
the global average. 39,9% and the global average of 26%.33 IN TOTAL
South Africa’s relatively higher percentage
of plastic packaging as a proportion of the
total plastic sector compared to global
Due to the major economic
figures may be attributed to the fact that the
inequalities in South Africa, the
manufacturing sector for non-packaging
plastic consumption per capita will
plastic products has not been developed to the
show major disparities between higher-
same extent as in other countries.
and lower-income households. It will
2018 PLASTIC CONSUMPTION
51
also differ at a regional scale between
urban and rural areas. More research is
needed to quantify this.
kg
PER PERSON
385
26 Total material converted into product plus imported plastic products minus exported plastic products.
27 Using 2018 mid-year population estimate of 57,73 million (StatsSA, 2018a).
28 Von Blottnitz et al., 2018.
29 Using 2017 mid-year population estimate of 56,52 million (StatsSA, 2017).
30
31
Conversio, 2019.
De Wit et al., 2019.
Mt
32
33
Plastics SA, 2019b.
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation et al., 2016.
IN TOTAL
23
Most plastic packaging has a lifespan for intended use of less than 1–3 years (see Figure 2) and is often
disposed of after a single use. This means that more than 50% of plastic products converted in South
Africa has a lifespan of less than three years. Sometimes this packaging is only used for a few days (or
even minutes, in the case of takeaway food applications) before disposal. This is largely a result of our
changing lifestyles, specifically when it comes to foodstuffs.
In contrast, applications such as plastic building and construction materials have a lifespan for
intended use of up to 30 years.34 Packaging therefore makes up the bulk of post-consumer plastic
waste generated every year.
FIGURE 2: AVERAGE PRODUCT LIFESPAN PER PLASTIC PRODUCT CATEGORY FOR SOUTH AFRICA (2018)35
1 200
Packaging
1 000
Total plastic production (kt)
800
More than 50% of plastic products converted
in South Africa have a lifespan of less than 3 years
600
400
Building and
construction
Consumer Agriculture
200
electronics
Automotive
Domestic ware
0 Mining and construction
Other sectors Furniture
0
0 10 20 30 40
Mean product lifetime (years)
OUR CHANGING LIFESTYLES AND A SURGE IN PLASTIC PACKAGING

As modern life becomes busier, there is little to 1 billion units of crisps, biscuits and chocolates
no time to prepare meals. As a result, there is are sold through formal retail markets in South
1
a greater demand for ready-to-eat foods, often Africa. This generates 1 600 tonnes of plastic
consumed in smaller portion sizes as snacks packaging waste that is not currently recycled in
~ bn UNITS
throughout the day. A study examining changing
consumption patterns has shown that an
South Africa.39 Although by weight the value is a
negligible fraction of the total waste generated in
average of 43% of adolescents worldwide drink the country, a huge concern is the total number
OF CRISPS, BISCUITS a carbonated soft drink at least once a day and of units (almost 1 billion) that will most likely
AND CHOCOLATES consume at least one fast-food meal per week.36 end up in landfills, open dumps or as litter.
ARE SOLD IN SOUTH Convenience foods require packaging to keep Another element of our changing lifestyles is
AFRICA EVERY YEAR,

pre-prepared foods fresh for longer and to make the growing number of small households, made
them easy to consume while on the go. Since up of three persons or fewer. In a 2018 survey,
AND MUCH OF THIS 1994, there has been a more than 50% increase more than a quarter of households consisted of a
PLASTIC PACKAGING in processed and packaged food available and
consumed in South Africa.37 In 2017 alone,
single person, and 62% of households contained
fewer than four persons.40 This is relevant to the
ENDS UP AS LITTER the South African crisps market increased by packaging discussion because a shift to smaller
10,4%.38 portion sizes of foodstuffs for smaller households
require more packaging compared to bulk foods
The flexible, lightweight packaging of on-the-go for larger households.
snacks is a growing concern. Every year almost

35 Adapted from De Wit et al., 2019b, using South African volumes sourced from Plastics SA, 2019a.
36 Beal et al., 2019.
37 Ronquest-Ross et al., 2015.
38 Nielsen, 2018.
39 The Moss Group, 2019.
40 StatsSA, 2019.

In the last two decades, cheaper and lightweight plastic Out-of-season and “out-of-region” or imported food products,
packaging has not only been used for new products but has whether being transported by ship or road, are also more
also replaced traditional reusable containers. Glass bottles, accessible now due to improved transit packaging.
which sometimes carried a deposit and could be returned to
the retailer or brand owner for a refund, have been replaced The ease and low cost of plastic packaging may be encouraging
by plastic ones for milk (HDPE plastic), edible oils and cool a few unintended consequences, such as:
drinks (PET plastic).
• Using more packaging than is necessary for food and
Packaging also enables a much wider range of foodstuffs to other consumer products
be marketed in supermarkets and through e-commerce. New
• Encouraging an eat-as-you go fast-food culture, which can
products in supermarkets include packaged ready-made,
be more expensive and less nutritious than traditionally
frozen or microwave meals, prepared ingredients for quick
home-prepared balanced meals
meals, and smaller volumes of products for a single serving
as opposed to bulk packaged goods. Moreover, the meals • Importing and transporting much more food over longer
and drinks served by fast-food restaurant chains or takeaway distances with corresponding negative environmental
counters in supermarkets are all accompanied by disposable impacts such as increased greenhouse gas emissions
cutlery, cups and containers with a lifespan of but a few
minutes.
BOX 6: “SINGLE-USE” AND “PROBLEM” PLASTICS

Single-use plastic The term “single-use” is therefore not very useful as it
only evaluates items based on the number of uses. It
The term “single-use” plastic includes a broad range of makes more sense to have a category to describe plastic
plastic products – largely plastic packaging – that have items that are unnecessary and that will most likely
a short useful lifespan and are made to be disposed of by contribute to pollution.
the consumer after using the product only once. These
items also correspond to those that are commonly found
in the natural environment as litter and therefore have a Problem plastics
negative connotation attached to them. Items belonging
WWF prefers not to use the term “single-use” but rather
to this category include straws, earbuds, crisps packets,
“problematic” or “unnecessary” plastic items (or “problem
sweet wrappers, disposable coffee and smoothie cups,
plastics”, for short). Problem plastics are identified by
takeaway cutlery and food tubs.
criteria defined in the Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s New
The definition and scope of the term “single-use” is not Plastics Economy:41
clear-cut, for various reasons:
1. The item is not reusable, recyclable or compostable.
• Plastic items used in the medical industry are also
2. It contains, or its manufacturing requires, hazardous
designed to be used only once for the sake of sterility
chemicals that pose a significant risk to human health
and hygiene, and are therefore necessary. These items
or the environment.
should not be categorised together with problematic
and largely unnecessary items. 3. It can be avoided (or replaced by a reuse model) while
maintaining utility.
• Some items, such as plastic carrier bags, may be used
more than once by some users (but not everyone). 4. It hinders or disrupts the recyclability or
compostability of other items.
• The plastics industry or businesses argue that
products that are collected and recycled should not be 5. It has a high likelihood of being littered or ending up
defined as “single-use” items as the material will be in the natural environment.
used again for another product.
41 The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2019a.
25
PLASTIC PACKAGING TRADE-OFFS: POSITIVE PROPERTIES VS NEGATIVE IMPACTS
LCAS CURRENTLY Plastic packaging provides major benefits. Particularly in the food sector, it ensures food safety, reduces
food loss and improves access to food by making it possible to keep food fresh during transport over
DO NOT ASSESS long periods and distances. But how do we measure whether these benefits are worth the negative
THE IMPACT OF environmental and socio-economic threats posed by the vast amounts of plastic packaging waste
PLASTIC LITTER generated?
ON HUMAN Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardised assessment tool that quantifies a range of environmental
metrics (such as carbon footprint, water-scarcity footprint, human health damage and ecosystem quality)
HEALTH AND across the entire value chain of a product. This methodology is often used in cases where decisions need to
BIODIVERSITY be made between alternative materials based on their environmental performance. In the case of plastic
packaging versus alternative materials, many Life Cycle Assessments have been conducted with results
favouring plastic.
Up until now, Life Cycle Assessments have revealed that the greatest environmental impact over the life
cycle of products packaged in plastic is associated with the product within the packaging. Unfortunately,
it needs to be noted that the current Life Cycle Assessment methodology does not capture the impacts of
plastic pollution in the marine, freshwater or terrestrial environments or on human health. A lack of data
and standardised assessment methods on plastics in the environment means that Life Cycle Assessment
is not yet able to assess the impacts of plastics “leaked” into the natural environment. Most Life Cycle
Assessment models assume that plastic is disposed of in sanitary landfills, recycled or incinerated because
there is no option (data set) for littering or plastic leakage into the environment with its subsequent
negative impacts. Thus, whereas Life Cycle Assessment results reflect the environmental impacts of
producing and disposing of plastics, e.g. in landfills, dumps and by burning it, they do not include
the biodiversity and potential human health impacts arising from littered plastics degrading in soils,
waterways and oceans.
The current industry rule of thumb is that packaging represents only 10% of the energy required to make
and deliver food to the consumer.42 Advocates for plastic point out that any reduction in that 10% should
not come at the expense of the other 90%. Rather, current packaging formats can be changed without
causing more food waste in the form of spoiled food. Decision-makers also tend to focus on carbon
footprint impacts only as these Life Cycle Assessment studies are relatively cheap and easy to perform
compared to more comprehensive Life Cycle Assessments that take into account a range of environmental
and socio-economic impacts.
Current ongoing research to better understand (and quantify) the impact of plastic in the
environment on ecosystems and human health, and to develop an indicator than can be used in
Life Cycle Assessment models, will ensure a better representation of the ecosystem and human
health impacts of plastic packaging in Life Cycle Assessment results.
Moving forward, the equation for determining the value of plastic packaging will need to include more
than the ability of plastic to extend the shelf life of products and the energy needed to transport the
packaged goods. The most obvious of these are the impact of chemicals used in production and of
plastic packaging on the natural environment.
42 Tullo, 2016.

CASE STUDY 1: GROCERY CARRIER BAGS
A Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment on grocery carrier bags in South Africa has been completed by the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) as part of the Waste Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Roadmap
programme.43 In the study, 16 types of carrier bags were assessed, including paper, polyester and biodegradable bags, in
terms of environmental and socio-economic performance. Overall, reusable plastic bags (particularly the 70 μm HDPE
bag with 100% recycled content) perform better than single-use bags, assuming that they are in fact reused as often as
possible.44 The best single-use bag is the common 24 μm HDPE bag, provided that it has 100% (or at least 75%) recycled
content. This study also developed a novel impact category for the associated impacts of plastic pollution based on the
persistence of the material in the environment.
PLASTIC CARRIER BAGS OFFERED BY SOME RETAILERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
43 Russo, et al. 2020.

44 These results are based on the assumption that each single-use bag will only be used once, and that each reusable bag will be reused continuously for one year.
CASE STUDY 2: WOOLWORTHS FRESH PRODUCE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

WWF South Africa in association with Woolworths conducted a study to better understand – and quantify – the trade-off
between the benefits plastics bring to fresh-produce supply chains and the environmental impacts of plastics. The study
was undertaken by The Green House.
High yields and efficiencies are achieved in modern farming methods, with fruit and vegetables increasingly grown in
plastic pots under plastic sheeting (in tunnels or greenhouses), while drip irrigation – with water delivered in plastic
pipes – dramatically decreases water consumption. Further up the supply chain, plastics used in getting fresh fruit
and vegetables to consumers improve shelf-life and reduce food losses during transport, retail and storage. However,
while the benefits of using plastics in fresh produce value chains are undeniable, so are the environmental impacts of
producing and disposing of plastics.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was chosen for the analysis. Although LCA results do not currently reflect the biodiversity
and human health impacts arising from plastic pollution in the environment, The Green House developed and applied an
interim measure in this study – a plastic footprint derived from the European Commission’s Circular Footprint Formula
(CFF) (part of their Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) guidance). The CFF-based plastic footprint recognises
that all plastics are not equal when it comes to their potential to become litter, by considering the inherent recyclability
of the different plastic types as well as their respective recycling markets in South Africa. Essentially, a weighting was
developed for the different plastic types that reflects not only whether they can be recycled but also whether they are
actually being recycled in South Africa.
27
Cucumbers and raspberries were chosen as the products for assessment. Two Western Cape farms supplied data for
the study, providing detailed inventories of all the many materials that go into producing and packing raspberries and
cucumbers. Woolworths provided data on the distribution and retail of the products, and facilitated a consumer survey
with 4 000 respondents.
1 kg
RASPBERRIES
= 160 g
NON-RECYCLED PLASTIC WASTE
OR 8
500 mℓ PLASTIC BOTTLES
(1 PET bottle weighs 20 g)
The degree of plastic use and the plastic footprint “hotspot” – the propensity of the plastic to become litter because
it is not being recycled in South Africa – of the value chain differs between cucumbers and raspberries (Figure 3).
As anticipated, both cucumbers and raspberries have high plastic use at the farming stage. Producing, packing and
distributing a kilogram of raspberries produces between 150 and 200 g of plastic waste, with just under a third of this
arising at the farming stage and more than half arising from consumption (as the stage in the value chain where the
packaging waste manifests).
However, when looking only at those plastic waste flows that are not recycled, the “hotspot” at consumption – the chance
that the plastic will end up in the environment – is even more pronounced. This is because a fair proportion of the farm
plastics are recycled at end of life, whereas the PET punnets in which raspberries are packaged are not currently recycled
in South Africa due to low economic feasibility and the lack of mechanical recycling technology available in South Africa.
The plastic waste generated across the life cycle of English cucumbers is markedly lower than that of raspberries.
Furthermore, the plastic sleeve wrapping of the cucumber is so light that the farming stage dominates the life cycle
plastic waste of the cucumber more considerably than for raspberries (with 80% of plastic waste arising at the
farming stage).
FIGURE 3: PLASTIC USE ACROSS THE LIFE CYCLE OF CUCUMBERS AND RASPBERRIES, PER KG OF FRESH PRODUCE SOLD
0,2
0,18
0,16
Plastic waste flows (kg)
0,14
0,12
0,1
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Raspberries Cucumbers Raspberries Cucumbers
total total non-recycled non-recycled
Farm and packhouse Packaging production Distribution Retail Consumption

So what does knowing the plastic use across the life cycle of a product tell us?
For raspberries, a comparison of growing raspberries in plastic tunnels versus under shade net showed that, despite
requiring more plastic, tunnel-grown raspberries had carbon and water-scarcity footprints less than half of raspberries
grown under shade net, and their potential impact on ecosystem health was lower by nearly 80%. This means tunnel-
grown raspberries need less water, pesticides, fertilisers and electricity. Thus, although high, plastic use at the farm stage
translates to clear environmental benefits. However, the benefits of the PET punnets are less clear, with relatively high
product loss indicated by the consumer survey and relatively high energy-related impacts at retail.
The results showed that for English cucumbers, the packaging adds extremely little to the plastic footprint (as well as
to the other environmental metrics considered in the study). However, greater reductions in the overall environmental
footprint can be achieved by focusing on the “hotspots” rather than on the packaging. Shelf-life trials conducted as part
of the study showed that wrapped cucumbers kept at 22 °C lasted well over the time-frame within which most consumers
consume a cucumber after purchase.
Avoiding refrigeration at retail has the potential of decreasing the carbon footprint of a cucumber by at least 25% (while
the wrapping adds less than 0,5% to the carbon footprint). Furthermore, keeping cucumbers at too cold a temperature
can cause cold damage and increase food loss. The high embedded plastic consumption across the cucumber value
chain, specifically at the farm stage, means the impacts of producing and disposing of the plastic wrapping (packaging)
is insignificant compared to preventing just 2,5% of the cucumber from being wasted.
Packaging that allows greater packing density in fridges (thereby decreasing electricity consumption in retail
fridges), that prevents berries getting squashed in consumers’ shopping bags and that is recycled at end of life would
address the plastic footprint and climate “hotspots” in the raspberry life cycle.
Raspberries from Haygrove farm in Cape Town are packed in

plastic punnets and crates to avoid damage during transport to
supply Woolworths stores. © The Green House
29
STAGE 3: COLLECTION
1,2
Only 9% of plastic ever made globally has been recycled,
Mt 12% has been incinerated and the rest either ends up in landfill
or in the natural environment.45
OF PLASTIC
WASTE 49
GENERATED BY THE WIDER WASTE PROBLEM

SOUTH AFRICANS Using 2010 waste generation data, a widely cited waste data in the National Waste Information
=
2017 study ranked the top 20 coastal countries in Baseline Report for 2011, and the South Africa
the world in terms of the volume of mismanaged State of Waste Report for 2017. These reports were
20
plastic at end of life. South Africa was ranked produced by the Department of Environmental
number 11 out of 192 coastal countries, and was Affairs (now the Department of Environment,
therefore identified as a significant contributor to Forestry and Fisheries) and use multiple sources
kg
marine plastic pollution.46 However, the accuracy and extrapolation of best available data.48
of the estimates used in this study is questionable
PER CAPITA 50 due to the lack of actual waste generation and

Plastic waste made up 2% of the total volume of
management data in most countries.
general waste51 (including municipal, commercial
Recent local research funded through the and industrial waste) (Figure 4), which was
Waste RDI Roadmap has indicated that the 55,6 million tonnes in 2017. The bulk of this was
estimated leakage of plastics47 into South African organic waste.52 The percentage of plastic in the
coastal waters is significantly lower than what was total waste stream is substantially lower than
estimated in the study by Jambeck et al. (2015). that reported in the 2018 UNEP Africa Waste
However, this does not detract from the urgency to Management Outlook report,53 which reports
address this problem in South Africa. 13% plastic waste for sub-Saharan Africa and 10%
globally. This may be attributed to the inclusion of
industrial wastes such as fly ash, bottom ash and
slag, as well as agricultural wood waste (as part of
Although the 2017 study uses data that organic waste) in the total waste tonnage. These
SOUTH AFRICA is almost a decade old, these are still items were added in the 2017 South Africa State of
the best available estimates. This highlights Waste Report but not in the UNEP Africa Waste
WAS RANKED the need for regularly updated and more Management Outlook report, thus skewing the
11TH IN THE accurate waste data globally. results.
TOP 20 COASTAL
COUNTRIES South Africa’s waste data is still largely inaccurate
WITH POOR due to inconsistent use of the South African Waste
MANAGEMENT Information System (SAWIS) by waste managers
and municipalities. In addition, there is a lack of
OF PLASTIC characterisation of waste at landfill sites, as well
WASTE as a lack of data for littering and illegal dumping.
However, there have been efforts to estimate

46 Jambeck et al., 2015.
47 Verster & Bouwman, 2020.
48 Plastic consumption minus 40% durable materials in use.
49 DEA, 2012 and 2018.
51 Excluding waste streams classified as hazardous waste in South Africa (DEA, 2018).
52 DEA, 2018.
53 UNEP, 2018a.

The Coastal Park Waste Landfill Site near Strandfontein is one of
only two active landfill sites in the City of Cape Town (the other is
Vissershok). This site sees up to 600 trucks of municipal rubbish,
garden waste or building rubble each day. ©️ Zaynab Sadan / WWF
31
11
FIGURE 4: BREAKDOWN OF GENERAL WASTE BUT WHERE DOES UNCOLLECTED
GENERATED IN SOUTH AFRICA IN 201754
~ kt
PLASTIC WASTE GO?
4%
In 2018, 35% of households in South Africa did not
OF PLASTIC
Paper
2%
5% Plastic
Glass receive weekly waste collection. However, this value
WASTE 7%
Metals
should not be directly translated to the amount of
LITTERED IN THE 8%
Construction
waste that is not collected due to the disparities
in regional and socio-economic per capita waste
ENVIRONMENT & demolition 35%
waste Organic generation values.56 These households either have
waste
IN 2017 9%
Non-
collection less than once per week (1,7%), have
communal waste dumps (3,5%), have their own
=
recyclable
municipal waste dumps (27,7%), dump rubbish anywhere
waste
30%
(2,0%) or use other means of disposal (0,5%).57
Other*
Households in urban areas are most likely to
*Other refers to commercial and industrial waste, bottom ash, fly ash
and dust, slag and other residues. have weekly collection services provided by
10
municipalities, while 81,6% of households in rural
areas rely on their own waste dumps.58 However,
A waste characterisation study for 2018 was households in high-density informal settlements
conducted across six waste facilities in the in urban and peri-urban areas often do not receive
bn City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality waste collection services at all and the littering and
(see Figure 5). Plastic waste accounted for 14%. dumping of waste in these areas into open fields,
SIMBA NIKNAKS This is comparable to the 13% for sub-Saharan streets and rivers are highly visible. It is unclear
PACKETS 60
Africa reported in the UNEP Africa Waste whether these households have been taken into
Management Outlook report. consideration in the household surveys by Statistics
South Africa.
FIGURE 5: WASTE CHARACTERISATION FOR THE There are many reasons for inconsistent waste
collection services, including the legacy of
CITY OF CAPE TOWN LANDFILL WASTE IN 201855 apartheid town and urban planning and the
4% 2%
resultant poor service provision in some areas.
Glass Metals Other factors that play a role are rural–urban
8% 31% migration, rapid rates of urbanisation, a lack
Other** Non-
recyclable
of funds and capacity in municipalities and the
municipal inability of vehicles to access areas in informal
waste
13% settlements.
Paper
Therefore, uncollected plastic will most likely end

up as litter or be illegally dumped along with other
household rubbish. A total of 29% of household
28% waste is not collected in South Africa.59
14% Organic
Plastic waste
**Other refers to hazardous wastes, tetrapak and e-waste. Illegal dumps
In 2017, Von Blottnitz, Chitaka and Rodseth61

estimated that of the 1 190 000 tonnes of plastic
There is currently no standard
entering formal and informal waste management
methodology or categorisation for
systems, 70% is disposed of in open dumps and
waste characterisation. An international
non-compliant landfills with a high risk of leakage
standard is required to aid comparison.
into the natural environment. Litter amounts to
approximately 11 000 tonnes. Contrary to popular
54 DEA, 2018.
55 GreenCape, 2019.
56 Rodseth et al., 2020.
57 StatsSA, 2019.
58 StatsSA, 2019.
60 1,06 g per 20 g crisps packet (The Moss Group, 2019).

belief, less than 1% of plastic reaching end of life human health issues in the respiratory, nervous,
enters the environment in the form of litter, whereas endocrine and circulatory systems of exposed
leakage rates from non-compliant landfills and open individuals. Dioxins in particular pose an additional
dumps are estimated at 30% and 80% respectively.62 threat of cancer.65
This amounts to approximately 275 000 tonnes of
COLLECTION AND INFORMAL WASTE
215
plastic leaking into the environment per annum or
RECLAIMERS
18% of plastic at end of life.
Plastic waste that is collected through formal k

INFORMAL
There is a deeply entrenched narrative municipal waste services will most likely go directly
that plastic pollution is a litter problem to landfill, which is the primary waste management
that will be solved through anti-littering solution in South Africa. However, before the waste RECLAIMERS
campaigns addressed at consumers. This is collected by the municipal waste collection service
narrative is flawed as it frames the plastic
pollution and broader waste management
(if such a service is being provided), informal waste
pickers or reclaimers do the rounds early in the
IN SOUTH AFRICA
problem in terms of its symptoms, not its day to collect recyclable materials directly from COLLECT, SORT AND
root causes. It further endorses the belief that the kerbside wheelie bins. They also collect from SELL RECYCLABLE
plastic and other valuable waste streams have landfills. Most of the approximately 46% of plastic
no value and thus should simply be disposed that was collected for recycling in 201866 probably MATERIALS,
of – but in a controlled way. came from informal waste reclaimers. They sort the INCLUDING PLASTIC,
TO EARN A
recyclable material and sell it to buy-back centres
While litter is a problem that needs solving so
(see Section 4) or directly to recyclers. This system
that we can care for nature and live in a clean
environment that we are proud of, the root
is referred to as “separation outside source” – the LIVELIHOOD67
“source” primarily being households.

cause of the plastic pollution challenge starts
with production and consumption. It requires
accountability across the full plastics value
chain, from producers all the way through to In light of the COVID-19 pandemic, waste
consumers. workers – including informal reclaimers,
waste collectors and sorters – as well as
recyclers were put at risk given that the virus
can be transmitted via waste materials from
Uncontrolled burning affects human health households with infected individuals. It is
crucial that households are educated and
Uncontrolled burning of plastic and other forms of supported to properly manage their waste
municipal solid waste is done in open-air conditions for safe disposal, in addition to stockpiling
with no control of gas emissions. Plastics may be recyclables while recycling operations
burnt for heat generation, separation of plastics are limited. It is therefore of increased
from scrap metals (in the case of copper wires) or importance that waste workers in both formal
as an alternative means of disposal when formal and informal sectors are provided with the
collection services are not available. The extent to necessary personal protective equipment
which uncontrolled burning occurs in South Africa while handling household waste.
is not well quantified; however, it is common and
poses several environmental and human health
risks.
Street reclaimers often have to travel long distances
Due to the variety of plastic types and additives, and earn an average of R50 per day.68 There have
various toxic gases are emitted when mixed been cases of exploitation of these reclaimers, who
plastics are burnt. These include dioxins, furans, are vulnerable due to their harsh working conditions
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and halogenated and the fluctuating prices of recyclable materials.
compounds, to name a few.64 These gases are known
to cause varying degrees of air pollution as well as
62 Russo et al., 2020.

63 DST, 2014.
64 Verma, 2016.
65 Verma, 2016.
67 Godfrey & Oelofse, 2017.
68 Blaauw et al., 2015; DEA, 2018.
33
In order to prevent the neglect and mistreatment CASE STUDY 3: KERBSIDE COLLECTION OF
RECYCLABLES
of the informal waste sector, South African
researchers together with the Department of
Environment, Forestry and Fisheries (DEFF) have
The City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality
formulated a set of guidelines for municipalities to
has a programme where recyclables are collected
integrate reclaimers into South Africa’s waste system.
by a formal contractor (WastePlan) at 170 000
These guidelines will come into effect in the coming
households. A “Willingness to Pay” survey was
years and will hopefully tackle issues of occupational
carried out throughout the Metro during 2015. Of the
health risks as well as compensation for their services.
8 000 initial respondents, 64% indicated that they
would be interested in a kerbside recycling collection
service such as Think Twice, and over 80% of them
During the COVID-19 Level 5 lockdown regulations in would be willing to pay a small fee for such a service.
South Africa in 2020, municipal waste collection services
were deemed to be an essential service and were allowed to Despite some challenges, including initial low
continue operations. However, the informal sector was not participation and delays in the tendering process,
allowed to operate, including waste reclaimers and buy-back WastePlan now collects recyclable waste from about
centres, whose livelihoods suffered during this period. This 83 000 households across the Cape Peninsula,
was illustrated through the dismissal of the urgent application diverting 1 143 tonnes of waste from landfill every
by Lawyers for Human Rights on behalf of informal waste month.71
reclaimers demanding recognition as essential service
workers.69 The City of Johannesburg has implemented a
mandatory s@s (separation-at-source) programme
However, this changed once Level 4 regulations came into since July 2018 in some areas of the city. This also
effect. The informal waste sector was then allowed to operate. requires residents to recycle their garden waste.
Additional initiatives70 were conducted to further support However, this programme has experienced a few
their work in the form of engaging with households to handle setbacks due to the City not including the informal
their waste safely, and providing access to and education waste pickers in the consultation process before
on personal protective equipment to waste reclaimers while project implementation.
collecting and sorting waste.
Furthermore, because the already unstable recycling system 71 wasteplan.co.za/residential-collection

became more vulnerable due to the low oil prices and
operations were limited during the COVID-19 lockdown,
waste reclaimers and buy-back centres struggled to find
markets for their collected recyclables. They were thus forced
to stockpile until sales could occur.
“Everyone talks recycling but no
Informal waste reclaimers play an important role
one is prepared to pay for it. It
in bridging municipal services in the waste value takes a lot more effort to produce
chain. Despite in some cases not having legal access
to waste, they provide a free service to households quality recycled material than
and municipalities that improves waste collection in
South Africa. However, due to the growing formal
to produce it from oil. Therefore
sector, and the preference of municipalities and it should come at a premium
businesses to rather contract with formal service
providers, the informal waste sector may be neglected, and not at a discount to virgin
which will have a significant impact on livelihoods in
this sector.
material if you require the same
quality as virgin.”
– Private-Public investment specialist
69 Krige, 2020.
70 undp.org/content/dam/south_africa/docs/Reports/The_UN/South_Africa_Emergency_Appeal_2020_28_Apr_2020_Final.pdf; knowledgehub.org.za/elibrary/COVID-19-national-public-hy-
giene-strategy-and-implementation-plan

STAGE 4: TREATMENT
In South Africa, the majority of plastic waste still ends
up in landfills – a result of a dominant linear economy of
“take-make-waste”.
SOUTH AFRICA IS STILL STUCK IN THE AGE

OF LANDFILL BOX 7: THE MISMANAGED STATE OF
As mentioned before, landfill is the primary waste LANDFILLS
management solution in South Africa. The plastic
Of South Africa’s major municipalities, only eThekwini
waste that is collected through formal municipal waste
Metropolitan Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal and the
services will most likely go directly to landfill. However,
City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng
most of these landfills do not meet compliance
have significant landfill airspace left.73 There is an urgent
standards. This could mean that the waste is not
need to divert plastic and other end-of-life materials
contained properly and can be transported off-site
away from landfill sites, most particularly those in the
again through wind and rainfall, a common occurrence
major metropolitan municipalities such as the City of
in South Africa. It was estimated that close to 40%
Johannesburg and the City of Cape Town, not only to
of plastic waste – 457 000 tonnes – ended up in
prolong the lifespan of these sites but also to shift away from
non-compliant landfills in 2017.72
a linear economic model of “take-make-waste”.
Compliant landfill management includes the use of the
There are 826 landfills in South Africa, which are managed
necessary infrastructure and activities, including:
by municipalities; 69 of them are unlicensed and thus
• Engineered lining necessary to prevent leachate operating illegally.74 However, the majority of landfills are
leaking into groundwater also suspected to operate outside of licensing conditions and
are therefore non-compliant. Non-compliance is often due
• Daily covering with sand to prevent uncontrolled to a lack of municipal funding and capacity.
transport of waste via wind and rain
In 2017, 73 out of the 156 landfill sites in the Western
• Fencing and maintaining a safe perimeter around Cape were closed or earmarked for closure.75 The City of
the site Cape Town now only has two operating landfill sites for
3,8 million people.
• Recording incoming waste volumes
Poor landfill management leads to the uncontrolled

73 DEA, 2018.
salvaging of waste, open burning, uncontrolled
74 DEA, 2016.
leachate and methane emissions, illegal dumping and 75 DEA, 2018.
the overfilling of sites that have already reached full
capacity.
To continue burying our waste in landfills is clearly

unsustainable in the long run. Overall waste generation
levels need to decline and materials we use need to remain
in the economy. Diversion from landfill of all these materials
post-use, such as plastics, is urgently needed.
72 Von Blottnitz et al., 2018. The ratio of recyclate (352 000 tonnes) to total
plastic consumption (2 056 000 tonnes).
35
DO WE RECYCLE AS MUCH PLASTIC IN SOUTH AFRICA AS WE SAY WE DO?
46%
The recycling industry is largely supported by the informal sector, which collects an estimated 80–90%
(by weight) of the total paper and packaging scrap collected in South Africa.76 However, due to the
economic drivers of the recycling industry, only scrap with monetary value is collected and consequently
recycled. Low-value scrap that is technically recyclable is not recycled in practice: if there are no buyers for
OF PLASTIC the material, the material is simply not collected.
SCRAP IS The current plastic waste and recycling data has come under some scrutiny since 2018, with other studies
COLLECTED FOR
presenting different results. Plastic recycling data is only recorded by large, formal plastic recyclers and a
few, not all, waste-sorting facilities. Municipalities do not currently report on volumes or characterisation
RECYCLING of individual waste streams; however, there are ongoing waste characterisation studies at various landfills
in South Africa. The reason for discrepancies between studies could be that different methodologies are
used to determine the recycling rate.
68%
Input recycling rate
Plastics South Africa reports the input recycling rate for 2018 as 46,3% for all plastics.77 This is the ratio of
plastics collected for recycling against the total plastic entering the waste stream. The input recycling rate is
calculated as follows: 78
OF THE
COLLECTED
MATERIAL 79
Total tonnage collected for recycling
x 100
Input recycling rate =
WAS ACTUALLY Total plastic waste
CONVERTED
TO RECYCLATE
IN 2018 Total plastic waste
Total plastic waste (1 122 000 tonnes)80 includes virgin and recycled material converted into plastic
packaging and products in South Africa. This amount excludes an estimated 40% of plastics in durable
applications manufactured in South Africa during 2018 for industries like building, mining and agriculture
(unlikely to be recycled after use of 20–30 years) as well as total imports and exports. All these variables
affect the accuracy of the current recycling rate.
Furthermore, of the 519 000 tonnes81 (46,3%) of plastics collected for recycling, only 352 000 tonnes
(67,8%) of the collected material is actually converted to recyclate (recycled material). The rest goes to
landfill or other waste disposal methods (energy recovery and reuse or repurpose applications) or are
exported.82 Total plastic waste is calculated as follows:83
84
Total plastic waste = Locally converted plastic (virgin + recyclate) − 40% durables still in use
76 Godfrey et al., 2016.

78 Plastics SA, 2019a; Pretorius, 2020.
79 Aligned with the EU recycling rate calculation methodology, as well as Paper, Glass and Metal packaging.
80 The figure of 1 122 000 tonnes reported by Plastics SA excludes the 408 000 tonnes of imported plastic products and packaging as well as the exported
228 000 tonnes. We estimate that the value of 1 302 000 tonnes is more in line with the plastic waste generation in 2018. Refer to the infographic
on page 20.
81 The value of 519 000 tonnes includes 152 000 tonnes of sorting and processing waste (the red bar under 'Treatment' in the diagram on page 20),
4 000 tonnes reuse and recovery, 11 000 tonnes exported recyclate and 352 000 tonnes recyclate used in local markets (all in the blue bar under
'Secondary markets' in the diagram on page 20).
84 As reported in the Plastics SA National Recycling Survey 2018, Figure 55, page 61 (Plastics SA, 2019a).

Output recycling rate
Another methodology involves using the output recycling rate (a ratio of recyclate against virgin material
converted). For South Africa, this was 22,8% in 2018. The output recycling rate is calculated as follows:85
Output recycling rate =

Total tonnage recyclate
Total virgin tonnage manufactured in South Africa

x 100
17%
OF PLASTIC
MATERIAL
FLOWING BACK
Average recycled content INTO THE
A methodology suggested by Von Blottnitz, Chitaka & Rodseth86 is to calculate an average recycled content ECONOMY
for plastics products. For South Africa, the average recycled content was 17% for 2018.87 Reporting on
the quantity of plastic that is effectively recycled into other plastic products (17%) would indicate what
percentage of the material is actually flowing back into the economy. The average recycled content is
calculated as follows:88
40%
Total tonnage recyclate
Average recycled content = x 100
Total plastic consumption (total virgin ~
tonnage manufactured in South Africa +
imported products and packaging)
OF PLASTIC
MATERIAL STILL
IN USE
Moving forward, a more robust and transparent methodology is needed to determine the
recycling rate to establish a clear baseline from which to measure progress and ensure
accountability. Reporting should include the data gaps identified to account for all plastics traded
internationally and leakage into nature, among other things. Data is particularly required for the
volumes of indirect plastic packaging imports and exports, as well as both the sources and volumes of
plastic litter and informal dumping.89
There are currently no International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards for
calculating a national material recycling rate (such as one for plastics) or a product recycling
rate (for particular products). It is recommended that a trusted organisation advocates for an
>
40%
OF PLASTIC IS
internationally recognised standard through ISO, to be adopted by national plastics industry bodies NOT RECYCLED
(such as Plastics SA). This will provide international agreement and guidance on calculating national
material or product recycling rates while also allowing for country comparisons and benchmarking. EVERY YEAR
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation is one such organisation that is currently developing an
international standard that could be taken up by the ISO.
An agreement on how to calculate and report on the plastic recycling rate is also necessary globally and
in South Africa.

87 Using material flows as described in Plastics SA, 2019a, including imports found in UN Comtrade database.
37
Tailings, or residue material that is non-recyclable,
are separated from other household recyclables at
the material recovery facility in Kraaifontein, and
7 BARRIERS TO RECYCLING IN SOUTH AFRICA

subsequently sent to landfill.
Recycling is a key element of circulating plastic material

in the economy. However, while all plastics are technically
recyclable, not all plastics are currently recycled in practice
in South Africa. Seven considerations determine whether an
item gets recycled.
Is it economically feasible to collect and

1 transport the items (by informal waste
reclaimers or waste management companies)?
Informal waste reclaimers will only collect plastic items

(and other recyclables) if these items have a monetary value
that makes it worth their time, energy and effort. Before the
unprecedented drop in the global oil price and the arrival of
COVID-19, which has driven down the price paid for plastic
scrap substantially, informal waste reclaimers generally
received R2/kg of plastic scrap.90 They would therefore rather
collect 20–25 2-litre PET cool drink bottles than 160 LDPE
bread bags or 1 640 100-gram polystyrene yogurt tubs for that
same R2/kg.91
Are the infrastructure and systems available to

2 recycle certain plastic types?
Certain plastic types are not recycled in certain regions of

South Africa because the infrastructure is not available. But
some plastic items are not recycled at all due to the lack of
capacity and recycling systems for dealing with those items.
There is currently no capacity to recycle PET thermoform
trays (clear sandwich clamshells and salad tubs) anywhere in
South Africa, even though PET bottles have a 63% recycling
rate.92 However, new technologies are currently under
exploration.
3 Is there an end-use market for the recyclate?
For the plastic scrap to have value, there needs to be a stable

end-market for the recyclate. If a market is not in place, the
reclaimed plastic items are likely to end up in the waste stream
destined for disposal to landfill or open dumps.
Even if an item can be recycled in South Africa, the value and

likelihood of the recyclate being sold depends on the demand
for the recyclate. A supplier (such as the buy-back centre)
taking PET beverage bottles to a recycler will receive
R3,50/kg. The share of the cost declines depending on the
number of middlemen in the chain, with a reclaimer being
paid less than R1/kg. An additional factor that determines the
price paid for post-consumer PET beverage bottles is when
recyclers have an oversupply over the end-of-year holiday
period and do not buy bottles for recycling. This is not an
isolated occurrence and can happen with any material type if
the end-use market is limited or failing.
© Fiona Piller / WWF 90 Pretorius, 2020.

92 PETCO, 2018.

Is the price of the recyclate This information is now being communicated
4
competitive with virgin materials? through product labelling, also known as on-pack
recycling labelling (OPRL). However, the on-pack
Globally and in South Africa, the demand for recycling labelling for plastic and other packaging
recyclate diminishes when the crude oil price,
0%
is not standardised in South Africa and varies
and therefore the price of virgin raw material, drastically across retailers and brands (see
drops. Manufacturing items from virgin plastic page 12 and page 70). Retailers and brand owners
is then cheaper than using the recyclate. Even in provide inconsistent and sometimes misleading
South Africa, where a high proportion of plastic information to the consumer. There is often
is produced from coal by Sasol, the coal price variation on the definition of recyclability and a
competes with the crude oil price. lack of information on whether recyclable items PET
According to a McKinsey report, when oil is below
actually get recycled in practice across regions in THERMOFORM
$65/barrel, the economics of mechanical recycling
South Africa.
TRAYS ARE
become more challenging.93 At the end of March
2020, the oil price reached a low of $20/barrel,94
The majority of consumers, especially in rural RECYCLED
areas and informal settlements, also do not have
causing significant challenges for the plastic direct access to recycling collection through
recycling sector globally, in and among other s@s (separation-at-source) programmes or
economic challenges.95 recycling drop-off centres, which further adds to
the challenge of recycling.
Unfortunately, the South African recycling industry
is facing challenging times with the closure of large Is the material contaminated
recycling facilities in 2019, including Transpaco’s 7 by residues such as oil, is it a
polyolefin recycling plant and Mpact’s PET bottle- combination of materials that cannot be
to-bottle recycling facility, both in Gauteng. The separated, or does it contain additives that
63%
Mpact plant closed down in November due to the render the product unrecyclable?
unprofitability of operations. This was attributed
to the non-competitive prices of recyclate Even if contaminated items are collected for
compared to virgin material,96 as well as other recycling, they will often not get recycled. Some
operational issues. recyclers do not have appropriate washing
Are sufficient volumes available to

facilities, or they do not want to risk contaminating RATE FOR
5 operate at the necessary economies
their recycling process. This is true for crisps
PET BOTTLE
packets and PET bottles used for edible oils,
of scale? which both contain oil residue that is difficult and RECYCLING
expensive to effectively wash or remove.
The capital investment for plastic recycling
equipment at the scale necessary to achieve a good Mixed or multilayer materials that are not easily
return on investment is often too high to justify the separated will not get recycled due to the technical
fluctuations of the volumes of material collected for difficulties or because it will be too expensive to
recycling and in the price for recyclate. The large attempt separation. This is true for all multilayer
degree of uncertainty makes it an unattractive plastic materials in South Africa such as pet-food
business model for investors and new entrants. bags, barrier shrink film for meat and dairy
products, and refill bags for certain detergents and
Are consumers able to correctly
6identify a product that can be
hand and dishwashing soaps.
recycled, and do they have access to Certain additives added during the manufacturing
recycling separation and drop-off sites? stage may also render the material unable to be
recycled. Calcium carbonate fillers might be added
Consumers play a particularly important role in
to such a level that plastic carrier bags cannot be
recycling. But the reality is that they are often
recycled, for example.
confused about, or do not know which items can
be recycled.
93 Hundertmark et al., 2018.

94 markets.businessinsider.com/commodities/oil-price?type=wti
95 Linked to the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as rising price of operational costs such as labour, electricity and others.
96 Arnoldi, 2019.
39
OTHER FORMS OF TREATMENT
Apart from mechanical recycling, plastic scrap can also be and a few non-commercial pyrolysis plants are being trialled
treated in other ways to prevent used plastic from leaking into for diesel production.98 These technologies are still novel
the environment. in the plastic recycling sector globally, and are still being
established.
Waste-to-energy facilities
Waste-to-energy operations include those that use plastic

As South Africa transitions away from fossil-fuel-
scrap directly as a fuel or produces a combustible fuel such
based energy and petroleum production into
as methane or other gases. Incineration is one such process
a low-carbon economy, adapting the existing local
if the heat energy is captured for use. There are currently
refining infrastructure for chemical recycling of plastics
no commercial, or large-scale, waste-to-energy facilities
should be investigated.
in South Africa.97 However, it is estimated that in 2019,
approximately 1 000 tonnes of plastic were processed in this
way in informal and trial or small-scale operations.
Chemical recycling
Chemical recycling of plastic uses pyrolysis or gasification

technology to convert plastic scrap back into the primary
polymers intended for reprocessing. Chemical recycling of
polyolefins is being trialled at a facility in the Eastern Cape

Workers at the material recovery facility in Kraaifontein near

Cape Town sorting household recyclables into separate
bags as the items move along a conveyor belt. © GreenCape

BOX 8: SHORT-TERM SOLUTIONS FOR UNRECYCLED PLASTICS
While all plastics may be technically recyclable, not all of them are recycled in South Africa due to the reasons mentioned
above. To find a use for items that cannot be recycled, some solutions, including ecobricks, plastic bricks and plastic
roads, have been or are currently being tested in the South African market.
Projects of this nature are often started with the best of intentions, but soon run into organisational or logistical
problems. Unless all possible scenarios are considered to ensure the longevity of the project, they remain short-sighted
solutions tackling the symptoms (e.g. unrecyclable plastic) of a much larger systemic problem.
Ecobricks
Ecobricks are made from dry, non-recycled plastics (such as crisps packets) that are stuffed into 2-litre cool drink bottles.
These non-load-bearing “bricks” are used for filler material and insulation in various indoor and outdoor buildings and
constructions. Ecobricks have seen a huge uptake from South African consumers as a sink (destination) for all their
non-recycled plastics.
However, due to the sheer number of ecobricks that projects were receiving, the lack of quality control over what was put
into the bricks and the extent to which they had been filled, ecobrick projects have stopped collection.
Once projects stop collecting ecobricks, the ecobricks will simply end up in landfills, with the unintended
consequence that high-value clear PET 2-litre bottles are removed from the recycling stream. If ecobrick projects
continue, lower-valued or brown- and green-coloured bottles can be used instead.
Furthermore, there are multiple concerns about the suitability of ecobricks as building material, particularly the
flammability risks and non-uniform weights and insulation properties.
Ultimately, ecobricks are not a sustainable long-term solution to the problem of unrecycled plastics as they do not
address the systemic problem of the production of plastic packaging and products that cannot be circulated back into the
economy through reuse or recycling.
Plastic bricks
Lightweight concrete blocks are currently being made from post-consumer expanded polystyrene mixed with concrete,
and used as low-cost building and construction material. Plastic bricks can be used for loadbearing walls, filler material
and concrete frames. They can be cemented and plastered similar to conventional bricks and provide improved noise
absorption.99
These bricks are different from ecobricks in that they are manufactured according to strict building standards for
flammability and strength. However, concerns have been raised about microplastic leakage and whether the bricks can
be reused after current structures are demolished.
Plastic roads
South Africa’s first plastic road was opened in December 2019 in Jeffrey’s Bay in the Eastern Cape, and another is being
constructed in KwaZulu-Natal. The 1 km stretch of road used 1,5 tonnes of waste plastic, replacing a portion of the
required bitumen.
However, mostly HDPE milk bottles100 are being used in the construction, which are currently recycled in South Africa
into packaging and agriculture products. Another concern is whether these roads will add to the leakage of microplastics
as the road wears.
99 Nkgadima, 2019.
100 Reynolds, 2019.
41
STAGE 5: SECONDARY MARKETS
The end-use market demand for recycled material is still one of the limiting
factors for growth of the plastic recycling sector in South Africa. This is
largely linked to the competitive price of virgin plastic.
DEMAND FOR PLASTIC RECYCLATE

Plastic recyclers approach plastic converters or manufacturers to sell their recyclate for feedstock that will be made into
products for various end-use markets. The price of recyclate is largely dependent on the operational costs of recycling. There is
no real demand for recyclate from converters when the price of virgin material is lower than that of recyclate. Furthermore, the
demand for recyclate also ultimately comes from retailers and brand-owners – the customers of plastic product and packaging
converters – who make decisions based on price, branding and marketing considerations.
Sustainability considerations for product and packaging design have only recently started to become part of these decisions, and
sometimes take lower priority. This is partly because sustainability departments in retail and brand-owner organisations work in
isolation and are not fully integrated with the rest of the organisation.
The end-use markets and common applications for recycled plastic (approximately 350 000 tonnes) in South Africa in 2018 are
illustrated in Figure 6. These volumes include all plastic types.
FIGURE 6: END-USE MARKETS AND COMMON APPLICATIONS FOR RECYCLED PLASTICS IN SOUTH AFRICA (2018)101 (TONNES)
Flexible packaging 67 297
LDPE plastic carrier bags, garbage bags and general packaging
Clothing and footwear 50 194

rPET polyester fibre for duvet inners, shopping bags, car carpet lining and PVC shoe soles and footwear
Agriculture 45 685
LDPE, HDPE and PVC irrigation piping; water troughs, fencing, etc.
Building and construction 39 183
Plumbing fittings and tiles
Rigid packaging 31 327
Crates
Furniture 26 791
Chairs and décor
Domestic ware and houseware 22 257
Buckets, basins and bowls
Exports 19 700
Other 15 428
Mining and engineering 13 583
Electric/electronic 11 249
Toll* 8 104
*Ex-factory materials such as start-up lumps, out-of-specification production,

screen waste, decoration faults, edge trim and trial production runs.

Quality of recyclate
One of the factors affecting demand for end-use recyclate is the quality of the recyclate compared THE DESIGN AND
to virgin material. This includes material properties such as strength and viscosity, potential PROCUREMENT
contaminants such as additives, as well as aesthetic properties such as colour and clarity.
OF SUSTAINABLE
The prioritisation of these quality indicators depends on the product market. Material properties are PLASTIC PACKAGING
SHOULD BE A
prioritised for irrigation pipes and tubing in the agricultural sector. Food-grade applications have
strict specifications and standards when it comes to food safety and human health. Recyclers are
required to use the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) PRIORITY ACROSS
assessment, which tests for the presence of any hazardous chemicals.
ALL RELEVANT
Aesthetics are prioritised when it comes to branding and marketing of products in the fast-moving DEPARTMENTS IN
consumer goods sector, especially in food applications. Recycled content can affect the colour and
clarity of plastic. While this is important from a brand perspective, aesthetics should not take priority
THE RETAILER AND
when it comes to including recycled content in products. Research into the consumer acceptance of BRAND-OWNER
products with recycled content should be further investigated.
ORGANISATION
Sustainability should not take the form of a specific departmental mandate, but should be
integrated into the mandates of all departments throughout the organisation.
Plastic bottles are compressed into bales for ease of transport for recycling. © Fiona Piller
43
STAGES IN THE PLASTICS LIFE CYCLE
IN SUMMARY
Tackling the plastic pollution challenge requires a life
cycle approach – failures occurring at each stage of
the plastics life cycle all contribute to plastic pollution.
Focusing on waste management alone is not enough to
address this systemic problem.
1. Virgin plastic: South Africa consumes both locally produced and imported fossil-
fuel-based plastic raw material, which is often sold cheaper than recycled material.
The price of oil is a huge factor contributing to the instability of the recycling system in
South Africa, and globally.
2. Changing lifestyles demand more packaging: The increasing trend of on-the-go

eating habits linked to our faster-paced lifestyles has led to increased use of plastic in
packaging, particularly in food applications.
3. Plastic packaging is the largest sector: Plastic packaging is beneficial to the fast-
moving consumer goods sector but has significant negative impacts on the environment
when leakage occurs.
4. Limited data availability: There is limited monitoring and reporting of

comprehensive data for the plastic material flows in South Africa. Gaps include data on
indirect plastic imports and exports,waste generation and leakage.
5. Weak municipal waste management systems: There are numerous waste

management challenges in South Africa, including the lack of infrastructure, leakage into
nature and insufficient capacity at municipalities, which need to be addressed. However,
interventions to address plastic pollution are needed throughout the plastics value chain
and should not solely focus on waste management.
6. High levels of leakage: South Africa has relatively high levels of post-consumer plastic
that is not disposed of properly due to inadequate capacity to deal with it. In a global
study, South Africa was identified as the 11th worst country in terms of unmanaged
plastics waste.102 However, recent local research has found that these results have
been overestimated. Even so, this does not detract from the growing waste crisis and
subsequent increasing plastic leakage into the environment.
7. Recycling is not the only solution: South Africa has a well-developed plastic
recycling sector, but recycling is not the only solution to achieve a circular plastics
economy. The evidence of continuing and increasing plastic pollution suggests
that improvements in recycling is only one solution. Others include elimination of
unnecessary and problematic plastic items, product design for reuse, and new product
delivery models such as own-container dispensing schemes.

A worker separates different materials at a recycling sorting centre
at the V&A Waterfront, Cape Town, wearing personal protective
equipment including gloves, a mask and an apron. © GreenCape
45
SECTION 3
PLASTICS,
NATURE AND
PEOPLE
The planet’s air, soil, freshwater and oceans
are contaminated with macro-, micro- and
nanoplastics. Some of the positive qualities of
plastic, such as its durability, are what cause long-
term problems when the plastic lands up in the
environment (where it can last up to 500 years).

THE “TAKE-MAKE-WASTE”
ECONOMIC MODEL IS NOT
SUSTAINABLE
Plastic leakage into nature is a symptom of our current “take-make-waste”
linear economy. This business-as-usual scenario is driven by profit, fuelled
by fossil-fuel extraction which contributes to climate change, sustained
by our convenience-seeking lifestyles and characterised by environmental
degradation.
Our pursuit of perpetual economic growth has created a global economic culture of consumerism and resulted in unimaginable
amounts of waste and pollution. This is becoming more and more visible in African cities with a growing population, a rapid rate
of urbanisation and a growing middle class, which anticipate a greater consumer market for goods, including plastic goods, and
thus an increase in the generation of plastic waste.103 These changing consumption patterns influence waste composition and
volumes, even outside the cities in small towns and rural areas where there is little to no waste management infrastructure.
To continue on this linear economic development pathway is inconceivable. It will only lead us further along the path
towards more waste and more pollution. The time is right to move towards a circular economy where plastic goods are
returned, reused, repaired and recycled to limit plastic leakage into the environment.
MOVING FROM A LINEAR TO A CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Recycle (chemical)
Recycle (mechanical)
Fossil-fuel-based
virgin materials Upcycle/downcycle
Returns/refill Reuse/repurpose
DESIGN MANUFACTURING WASTE DISTRIBUTION & RETAIL USE COLLECT & SORT Dumps
Returns/refill Reuse/repurpose Litter
Bio-based
materials Recycle
To be expanded
Compost To be reduced
103 UNEP, 2018a.
47
SOURCES, FLOWS AND
IMPACTS OF PLASTICS IN
THE ENVIRONMENT
Plastic is prevalent in many environments, from the crisps
packets in the gutter and the mountains of plastic garbage in
our landfills and illegal dumpsites, to the unsightly mounds of
washed-up plastic along our coastlines.
80% SOURCES OF PLASTIC POLLUTION FROM

The amount of unmanaged plastic at end of life
entering the environment, particularly the ocean,
has reached crisis level. Beach clean-up data as well LAND AND SEA
as open-water sampling in certain regions clearly
OF OCEAN point to packaging and other disposable plastic It is widely reported that 80% of marine plastic
items as the main contributors to plastic pollution. litter (or ocean plastic) comes from land-based
PLASTIC COMES Its durability means that plastic accumulates in sources,105 while the rest comes directly from
FROM LAND- the environment, where it can persist for hundreds sea-based activities. However, it is a challenge to
accurately quantify the plastic leakage from both
BASED SOURCES of years.
land- and sea-based sources. This is largely due
Plastic pollution is commonly framed from a to the lack of comprehensive global, regional and
marine litter lens because the ocean is one of the national monitoring data. Nevertheless, several
largest sinks (or destinations) of plastic at end of global assessments have been done to estimate
life. This plastic is transported from land via rivers, plastic leakage into the environment by using
stormwater drains or wastewater discharge, or top-down methodologies106 and broad assumptions
dumped directly into the ocean. Today, at least to provide an overview of the global status quo.
8 million tonnes of plastic find its way into the
oceans every year, equivalent to one garbage truck Globally and in South Africa, the bulk of land-
of plastic dumped into the ocean every minute.104 based sources of plastic leakage is unmanaged
solid waste, which includes plastic waste found
Nearly every component of the marine as litter, in open dumps and in non-compliant
environment is affected by plastic debris. Once landfills (see Box 7). This includes various types of
there, it is acted on chemically, physically and post-consumer plastic such as plastic packaging,
biologically. Exactly where a particular piece of sanitary wear and nappies, domestic ware and
plastic will end up is determined partly by its furniture, and shoes.
material properties and partly by the movement
of oceanic and atmospheric currents. Land-based sources of microplastics include
microfibres from textile washing, and microbeads
in cosmetics and personal-care products (face
washes and toothpastes). Other less-reported or
less-quantified land-based sources of microplastics
104 The Ellen MacArthur Foundation et al., 2016.

106 These studies are theoretical and are based on modelling the portion of plastics produced that leaks into the environment. They are not calibrated by
empirical evidence, i.e. by what is found to be actually present in the environment.

leakage include tyre abrasion, city dust and road-marking abrasion. With increased use of cars in the
major cities in South Africa, tyre wear is predicted to be a major source of microplastic leakage into the
environment.
Plastic leakages from sea-based sources include abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing nets, also
known as ghost gear, which is the largest sea-based source of plastic pollution.
BOX 9: FLOATING PLASTICS IS JUST THE TIP OF A MUCH LARGER
1 440
PLASTIC ICEBERG
There have been several reports and images in the media of an accumulation zone of plastics
and other marine litter, named the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, in the North Pacific Subtropical
Gyre.107 These are mainly plastics that float. GARBAGE
Plastics such as low- and high-density polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE) and polypropylene (PP), TRUCKS OF
which make up about 60% of total plastics production in South Africa, float in water. Denser
plastics, such as PET and PVC, sink, either being suspended in the water column or settling on
PLASTIC ARE
the seafloor. However, a PET bottle filled with air and closed with a bottle cap will also float, as DUMPED INTO
we often see in rivers. THE OCEAN
Micro-organism growth on plastic surfaces, known as biofouling, may also cause floating plastics EVERY 24 HOURS
to sink over time. A 3-month-old LDPE bag was found near the seafloor just off the coast of
South Africa with pelagic goose barnacles present on its surface, proving that biofouling causes the
rapid sinking of floating plastics.108
Although shorelines have the highest concentration of visible plastic in the ocean, shoreline
plastics are estimated to only account for around 5% of the total mass of plastic in the ocean. The
seafloor is postulated to be the ultimate sink, or end location, for the majority of plastics entering
the oceans.
A study that was done during 235 dermesal trawls – a fishing method to catch fish along, or just
above the seafloor – off the South African coast reported that 17% of the trawls contained litter.
Most of the litter was plastic items (88%), of which 22% by count was fishing-related items, the
rest was packaging. This indicates that most of the sources were from the closest urban centre,
Cape Town.109 It should be noted that this is only macroplastic litter; the seafloor may hold
millions of microplastics.
So, the plastic we see floating on the surface of the water, and on our beaches, is only a fraction of
what actually exists in the marine environment.
107 Lebreton et al., 2018.

108 Ryan, 2018.
109 Ryan et al., 2019a.
While there is some understanding of plastic litter on the seafloor based on dermesal trawl
surveys and multiple beach litter surveys, there is still a need to understand the fluxes of
plastics in the sea/midwater column, as well as transport through oceanic currents.
OCEAN CURRENTS, RIVERS AND DRAINS – KEY PATHWAYS FOR PLASTIC WASTE
While some of the litter in the streets, rivers and open fields is captured by informal waste reclaimers
or waste collectors as part of the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP), the bulk of it is not.
Unmanaged post-consumer plastic, along with many other waste types, is often discharged into rivers and
other freshwater environments (lakes and wetlands). River discharge may happen through transport via
49
stormwater drainage systems, wind transport or
direct dumping, in some cases. Installing lint filters in washing
machines is a low-effort intervention
South Africa has 10 major river systems flowing that washing machine manufacturers
through multiple towns and cities, often can implement. It requires little effort
crossing provincial boundaries (the Orange, from the end-user other than cleaning
PLASTIC POLLUTION Limpopo, Vaal, Thukela (Tugela), Olifants, out the filter regularly. But do all washing
TRANSPORTED BY Gamtoos, Great Kei, Komati, Great Fish and
Molopo rivers). Plastic from one community
machine brands sold in South Africa have
filter systems?
RIVERS AND OCEAN is transported to another together with all the
Furthermore, this intervention is an
CURRENTS IS A negative impacts that come with it. South Africa
end-of-pipe solution, and efforts should be
also shares six river basins (Incomati, Limpopo,
TRANSBOUNDARY Maputo, Orange-Senqu, Thukela and Umbeluzi) focused upstream at the yarn- and fabric-
ISSUE REQUIRING with six neighbouring states (Botswana, manufacturing stage.112 Research on and
the implementation of interventions
Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, eSwatini and
INTERNATIONAL Zimbabwe). The transport of plastic pollution to prevent microfibre production from
MEASURES AND via river systems thus becomes a transboundary textiles at the design and manufacturing
stages should be investigated.113
COOPERATION issue needing international measures and
cooperation.
Plastic pollution in the marine environment is

Microplastics have also been detected in
also transported via ocean currents. Particle
both bottled and tap drinking water. In 2018
tracer models110 can visually illustrate the
the Water Research Commission discovered
6
movement of floating plastic debris in coastal
microplastics in 83% of tap water samples
waters from anywhere in the world. Floating
from Gauteng and borehole water samples
>
plastic debris off the West Coast of South Africa,
from North West province.114 One of the
M for example, is transported and eventually gets
entrained in the South Atlantic Gyre.
recommendations of the study was the
banning of products with microbeads, which
MICROFIBRES Microplastics such as microfibres and the South African government is considering
RELEASED IN microbeads enter sewage systems and are through an amendment to the Foodstuffs,
Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act 54 of 1972.115
A 5 kg WASH captured to varying degrees in wastewater
treatment plants, depending on the
OF POLYESTER infrastructure available, before being discharged
Research on microplastics in soil ecosystems
is at an earlier stage. Microplastics are found
TEXTILES into the oceans. However, most wastewater
in sludge, wastewater irrigation and rain, and
treatment plants are not designed to filter out
can leach into the ground from mulching film.
materials as small as these microfibres.
Existing evidence shows that microplastics can
It is estimated that over six million microfibres influence soil biota at different trophic levels and
are released in a typical wash of 5 kg of polyester threaten human health through the food chain.116
textiles. This depends on factors such as
Lentil-sized plastic pellets or nurdles are a
loading, temperature and, most importantly,
source of primary micro- or mesoplastics that
the quality of the fabric in the first place. This
are leaked into the environment if mismanaged
value can decrease by 35% if a fabric softener
during processing and transport, particularly
or conditioner is used,111 but the detrimental
during the shipping of nurdles to be processed
impacts fabric softeners have on water treatment
elsewhere. When the nurdles land in the ocean,
plants need to be considered in this instance.
they are mistaken for food by marine animals
Some (not all) microfibres are caught in lint
and sea birds because they look like tiny eggs.
filters of washing machines, which are meant to
be cleaned out regularly by the user (who throws
the lint ball into the bin destined for landfill).
110 Van Sebille et al., 2012; plasticadrift.org

111 De Falco et al., 2018.
112 oceancleanwash.org/solutions/solutions-for-companies
113 Mermaids Ocean Clean Wash, 2019.
114 Bouwman et al., 2018a.
115 DEA, 2019.
116 He et al., 2018.

CASE STUDY 4: DURBAN HARBOUR PELLET SPILL
About 49 tonnes of plastic pellets or nurdles imported from a petrochemical company
company, Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), were spilled into the ocean near
Durban from a container ship due to a collision with a second ship during a storm on
10 October 2017.117 Most of the pellets, approximately 2,25 billion of them, were swept out
to sea and spread along the coast as far as the Western Cape and central Mozambique.
The accident sparked a major nurdle clean-up operation involving the Department of
Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Plastics SA, municipal authorities, commercial
service providers, NGOs and members of the public.
After a year, just more than half the nurdles had been collected on the African coast.
However, researchers at the University of Western Australia claim that the “Durban
nurdles” landed on beaches on the south coast of Australia and on Saint Helena island
in the Atlantic Ocean.118 This event not only gives an indication of the trans-oceanic
movement of plastic pollution in our oceans, but also starts the conversation on who
should be held responsible for spills across international boundaries.
To this day, not all the nurdles have been accounted for, and are either lost at sea or
ending up on distant coastlines.
117 He et al., 2018.

118 UWA, 2018.
© Kelvin Trautman
51
BETWEEN PLASTIC ACCUMULATING ON BEACHES
1994 AND 2012 Plastic waste accumulates on beaches through direct littering or transport via waterways. The “Dirty
BEACH LITTER Dozen” list (see Box 10) captures the most commonly found beach litter items. In addition, there are a few
IN CAPE TOWN anomalies including toiletries, nappies, cigarette butts and polystyrene pieces.
INCREASED BY
300%
Litter
Litter is growing faster than the human population. The number of litter items washing up on Cape
Town’s beaches increased by 300% from 1994 to 2012.119 Over the same period, the City of Cape Town’s
human population grew by 50%. Given that most litter comes from local, land-based sources, it means
Capetonians are now producing more litter per person than 20 years ago. Excessive non-recyclable and
problem (single-use) packaging consumption is driving most of this trend.120
Beach litter collection and sorting studies have been widely used as a way to intercept litter before it enters
the oceans, to increase awareness, and to track and monitor the amount and types of plastic litter entering
the marine ecosystem.
Beach litter studies along the coastline of South Africa by University of Cape Town researcher
Dr Peter Ryan, shows that macro- and mesoplastic litter found on sandy beaches are concentrated
around four urban-industrial centres, namely Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban (see
Figure 7). However, as Figure 7 shows, there is a surprising amount of plastic outside the main centres,
along a coastline mostly dotted with small towns and villages. Some beaches (namely, Woody Cape near
Alexandria and Olifantsbos near Cape Point) with peak litter loads also have a large proportion of legacy
litter and do not reflect current litter inputs. The data also revealed that most of the plastic litter was from
77%
local, land-based sources.121
FIGURE 7: CONCENTRATION OF PLASTIC PIECES FOUND ON 82 BEACHES ALONG SOUTH AFRICA’S

OF PLASTIC COASTLINE IN 2015122
LITTER ON
BEACHES
IS PLASTIC
PACKAGING
LEGEND
Durban
2 000 items.m -1
1 000 items.m -1
East London
500 items.m -1
Port Elizabeth
Cape Town 200 items.m -1
Mossel Bay
100 items.m -1
50 items.m -1
Breede River
Most litter items found on beaches in South Africa are plastics (94%), most of which is plastic packaging
(77%).123 In a 2017 study of beach litter collected from six sites around Cape Town, University of Cape Town
researchers found that plastic litter accounted for 94,5–98,9% by count, and 57–98,9% by weight of the
total collected beach litter. The majority of the top 10 identifiable items was associated with on-the-go food
packaging items, including polystyrene packaging, snack packets and straws.124
119 Ryan, 2018.

120 Ryan, 2018.
121 Ryan et al., 2018; Ryan, 2019b.
122 Ryan et al., 2018.
123 Ryan & Moloney, 2016.
124 Chitaka & Von Blottnitz, 2019.

Plastic straws picked up during a clean-up event on Ganger Bay
beach, Mouille Point, Cape Town. © The Beach Co-op
53
Cigarette butts and polystyrene pieces
BOX 10: THE DIRTY DOZEN The Dirty Dozen list (see Box 10) – a list of the top 12 most
commonly found beach litter items – excludes cigarette butts
The Dirty Dozen is a monitoring methodology that is and polystyrene pieces. This is due to the fact that these items
based on the most commonly found items on beaches are prevalent in such large quantities that they are difficult to
in South Africa. The list will need to be updated accurately count, and often skew the data if they are included.
from time to time as trends change. It includes
items such as sweet wrappers, cool drink bottles
Toiletries
and lids, straws, crisps packets and fishing line.
Figure 8 illustrates the cumulative number of items Earbuds, wet wipes and female sanitary wear all contain
collected on South African beaches over a two-year plastics to a certain degree. These items are found on beaches,
period by the Beach Co-op NGO and volunteers. This yet do not arrive the same way as on-the-go snack and
methodology was developed by University of Cape takeaway packaging and cigarette butts, which are littered
Town researcher, Dr Peter Ryan. on beaches or transported from the street via stormwater
drains. Cosmetic and toiletry items are often flushed down
the toilet and thus land on beaches via wastewater discharge
FIGURE 8: TOTAL NUMBER OF DIRTY DOZEN ITEMS into the ocean.
COLLECTED FROM 100+ BEACH CLEAN-UPS AROUND

SOUTH AFRICA (2017–2018)125
Brands advertise 100% cotton- or paper-based
products as “flushable”. This creates a habit in
the consumer to dispose of certain items by flushing.
They often do not realise that items from another brand
contain plastic or other materials, even though the items
may look similar.
SWEET WRAPPERS Regardless of whether products are made from cotton-

36 634 based materials or other alternatives to plastic, sanitary
and cosmetic products such as wet wipes, earbuds and
other toiletries should not be flushed along with toilet
COOL DRINK CAPS
32 875 paper, as they result in water pollution and blockages in
the water reticulation and wastewater systems. Retailers
and brand owners need to provide consumers with
accurate and responsible disposal instructions based
on best practice. Consumers must then dispose of these
STRAWS products safely and responsibly.
25 270
LOLLIPOP STICKS
20 785
Nappies
Another contributor to plastic on beaches is used nappies.

Globally and in South Africa, these items are disposed of in
CRISPS PACKETS
16 339 rivers and then wash down to the sea.126 This direct littering
behaviour is overwhelmingly attributed to a lack of formal
EARBUDS
13 446 waste management and informal dumping of waste in or near
CARRIER BAGS rivers in certain communities.
10 458
FISHING LINE The problem is taking on alarming proportions because

6 409 COOL DRINK WATER
BOTTLES
more and more people living in areas with insufficient to no
BOTTLES
6 195 4 307 appropriate waste management systems in place are using
CIGARETTE
LIGHT disposable nappies.
LIGHTERS
STICKS
1 582
893
125 The Beach Co-op, 2019.
126 Falanga, 2016.

CASE STUDY 5: PLASTIC DEBRIS IN STORMWATER DRAINS
The Overstrand Municipality in partnership with Marine Dynamics shark tour company and the Dyer Island
Conservation Trust has started “Project Storm”. The aim of this project is to tackle marine pollution via stormwater
drainage systems in the Gansbaai region, which is part of the Cape Whale Coast in the Western Cape. This project has
two parts. The first is an anti-littering and awareness-raising initiative through a paint stencil at various stormwater
drain inlets in the Gansbaai town area. This concept was borrowed from Knysna Municipality.
The second part of the project involved data collection and capturing of the number and types of debris caught in several
stormwater drain outlet nets. The project started in June 2019. After 17 collections, a total of more than 74 000 pieces of
debris were counted, amounting to 142 kg.
Cigarette butts accounted for the most number of items (46%) by count, followed by food wrappers and containers
(16%), which includes plastic bottles, cans, plastic straws, stirrers, crisps packets and sweet wrappers. Plastic bags
contributed the most by weight (27 kg or 20% of the total weight), followed by food wrappers and containers (12%) and
cigarette butts (10%).
FIGURE 9: NUMBER AND TYPE OF DEBRIS IN STORMWATER DRAIN OUTLETS, OVERSTRAND MUNICIPALITY (2019)
Plastic caps and lids
Nurdles
Polystyrene
Plastic bags
Paper packaging and pieces
Foil pieces
Microplastics
Plastic pieces
Food wrappers and containers
Cigarette butts
0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000 35 000
Food wrappers and containers (which include plastic water and cool drink bottles, crisps packets and sweet wrappers),
as well as plastic caps and lids are also on the Dirty Dozen list (see Box 10). Unfortunately, it is difficult to compare this
data to the Dirty Dozen, given the different methodologies and categories for data analysis.
A common methodology should be used when collecting this type of data so that litter from different sites can be
compared, for example beach litter to stormwater drain debris.
© Dyer Island Conservation Trust © Dyer Island Conservation Trust
A municipal worker paints a stencil at a stormwater drain Plastic and other debris in a stormwater drain net as part of Project Storm
outlet in Gansbaai, Western Cape. conducted by the Dyer Island Conservation Trust, Overstrand Municipality.
55
CLIMATE IMPACTS
The plastic sector is a direct and indirect Greenhouse gas emissions from virgin
contributor to the climate crisis throughout the plastic production in South Africa
value chain, from fossil-fuel extraction, transport,
refining and manufacturing to the management of In South Africa, there is no data available for
GLOBAL GHG plastic waste. greenhouse gas emissions from plastic conversion
EMMISIONS and the end-of-life management of plastics,
Global plastics life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) although these stages will undoubtedly contribute
FROM PLASTIC emissions for conventional fossil-fuel-based to additional greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions
plastics (see Figure 10) were calculated to be data is available for part of 131 the domestic plastic
3,8%
2015 1,7 Gigatonne (Gt) of CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq) production by one of South Africa’s primary
in 2015, which is comparable to Russia’s total plastic raw-material producers, Safripol (KAP
emissions in the same year (1,67 Gt). Russia is the Industrial Holdings). In 2019 Safripol produced
fifth largest greenhouse gas emitter in the world. 491 993 tonnes132 of polymer. The greenhouse gas
This equates to 3,8% of global emissions for 2015. emissions per tonne was 0,52 tonnes CO2-eq/
tonne and their total greenhouse gas emissions
15%
2050 This percentage is projected to increase nearly 254 021 tonnes CO2-eq. Thus Safripol’s emissions
fourfold over the coming decades. With the from polymers made up 25% of their total
petrochemical and plastic industries planning a greenhouse gas emissions, which could hold
massive expansion in production, emissions from significant carbon tax implications for the group.
plastics will reach 15% of the global carbon budget
by 2050.127
Current levels of greenhouse gas emissions in

the plastics life cycle are a threat to achieving
the global climate targets under the Paris
Agreement.128 Global estimates for emissions from
the three main stages in the plastics life cycle are as
follows:
• Production: 61%
• Conversion: 30%
• End-of-life management: 9%129
FIGURE 10: GLOBAL LIFE CYCLE GREENHOUSE GAS

EMISSIONS OF PLASTIC (2015)130
61% (1 085mt)
Resin
production
30% (535mt)
Conversion
9% (161mt)
End of life
127 The Ellen MacArthur Foundation et al., 2016.

128 CIEL, 2019.
129 Zheng & Suh, 2019.
130 Zheng & Suh, 2019.
131 Sasol’s GHG emissions data specifically for local polymer production was not available; polymers were reported under the category of base chemicals
which include solvents, fertilisers and explosives in conjunction with polymers. Furthermore, their reporting combines South African and North American
operations.
132 KAP Industrial, 2019a.

IMPACTS ON ANIMALS
AND PEOPLE
The ecological impacts of plastic pollution include direct
impacts on plant and animal life as well as indirect impacts
through accumulation in food chains.
A 2016 United Nations report documented that that 53 sharks of eight different species were found
over 800 animal species were affected by marine entangled with polypropylene (PP) strapping
debris via ingestion or entanglement133 – a figure around their bodies.138
69% higher than in a 1977 review. Another study
reports that at least 700 marine species were There have also been reports of Cape fur seals
affected by marine litter between the 1960s and entangled in string, monofilament line, fishing
800
2014. This is an underestimate as not all impacts net, rope, plastic straps, rubber O-rings and
have been reported in literature, with limited wire in several seal colonies along the Cape.139 A
>
reports from Africa and Asia.134 However, there is more recent study was conducted on the number
no evidence of impacts at a population level for any of entanglement cases of Cape fur seals over
of the species reported to date.135 the period 2000–2018, in the V&A Waterfront
harbour in Cape Town.140 The study reported a ANIMAL SPECIES
The impacts of both macro- and microplastics on total of 927 entanglement cases, 85% of which
terrestrial and marine environments contribute to were caused by plastic box-strapping, fishing HAD BEEN
biodiversity losses on land and in the oceans.136 line and raffia cord. All these items are related to AFFECTED BY
INGESTING OR
fishing activities. Other debris included nylon cord,
ANIMAL ENTANGLEMENT IN FISHING longline trace, rope, plastic bags and various items
BECOMING
GEAR, PLASTIC BAGS AND ROPE
of clothing.
ENTANGLED IN
The most visible impact of plastic pollution ANIMALS INGESTING PLASTIC MARINE DEBRIS
on animal species in marine environments is
entanglement. Over 4 000 cases of animals
Plastics are sometimes mistaken for food and are BY 2016
ingested by animals; this may lead to suffering
affected by plastic in marine environments globally
and eventual death because the respiratory and
were identified in the Ocean Conservancy’s
digestive organs become blocked.141 In the marine
25th anniversary International Coastal Cleanup
environment, the most commonly reported
Report.137 The majority of cases were reported to
example is that of sea turtles and dolphins
be caused by fishing gear, followed by plastic bags
mistaking plastic bags for jellyfish, one of their
and rope.
food sources. Sixty sharks in a KwaZulu-Natal
A study conducted in KwaZulu-Natal recorded study were reported to have ingested plastic,
the number of sharks that had become entangled mostly plastic packets and sheets.142 However,
or had ingested some form of plastic litter over a there is still limited information on commercially
23-year period (1978–2000). The study reported exploited marine species that have ingested
plastics.
133 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2016.

134 Gall & Thompson, 2015.
135 Ryan, 2019c.
136 UNEP, 2018b.
137 Ocean Conservancy, 2011.
138 Cliff et al., 2002.
139 Shaughnessy, 1980.
140 Basson, 2018.
141 UNEP, 2018b.
142 Cliff et al., 2002.
57
A Cape fur seal, Arctocephalus pusillus, with a constricting strip of
plastic stuck around its neck, South Africa. © Martin Harvey / WWF
Cases of land animals, such as goats and cows, ingesting plastic have also been
reported.143 Community members from a township in KwaZulu-Natal have also
reported their cattle dying due to plastic ingestion. This was confirmed by the local
veterinarian.
The negative health effects of ingestion include, but are not limited to:144
• Blockage of or injury to the digestive tract
• Decreased feeding and growth as a result of false satiation
• Transfer of toxic compounds from plastic particles such as hazardous plastic

additives, which may cause liver toxicity and endocrine disruption
• Suspected transfer of nanoplastics to organs
Macroplastics are also known to form a physical barrier to certain natural processes.
For example, plastic reportedly causes obstructions in the journey of tiny sea turtle
hatchlings (only 5 cm long) when making their way along the beach to the ocean.145
Macroplastics also reduce the exchange of oxygen and delivery of sediments to
the seafloor, with impacts such as reduced abundance and productivity of benthic © Andrew Milson / WWF
marine life.146
A dorado, Coryphaena hippurus,

caught off the Agulhas Bank with
pieces of plastic found in its gut – a
bottle cap, a button, a bottle neck,
a piece of nylon/polyester cord, a
piece of flexible plastic and other
unidentifiable items.
143 Plastic Soup Foundation, 2018; UNEP, 2018b.

144 Naidoo et al., 2019.
145 Aguilera et al., 2018.
146 Green et al., 2015.

BOX 11: NEW SPECIES NAMED AFTER Just as there is a Dirty Dozen list of the most
commonly found plastic items on beaches
PLASTICS in South Africa, so there should also be a list of the
most commonly found plastic items causing cases of
Previously, microplastics were found in sea ice in the entanglement and ingestion in terrestrial, marine and
Arctic and at the bottom of the Mariana Trench.147 freshwater systems in South Africa. This is known as
A recent study confirmed microplastics and fibres “hotspotting” and can be done in terms of common
present in the hindgut of amphipods in all nine deep- geographic locations, material or product. Hotspotting
sea trenches of the study.148 provides the evidence base to engage and address
industry sectors, activities, geographic locations, or
New research has uncovered the presence of plastic,
materials or products upstream to prevent impact down
PET microfibres in particular, in the hindgut of a
the line.
newly discovered species of deep-sea amphipod.
This species lives in the Pacific Ocean’s Mariana An analysis of entanglement of Cape fur seals,150
Trench between Japan and the Philippines, about for example, shows that the items causing the
6 900 metres deep in the ocean. The researchers entanglement comes from fishing activities in the
officially named the species Eurythenes plasticus in region. This indicates the sector that needs to be held
reference to the plastic it had ingested.149 accountable to take action to prevent further impact.
A HEALTH HAZARD FOR PEOPLE

147 Chiba et al., 2018.
148 Jamieson et al., 2019.
149 Weston et al., 2020.
Plastic can have an adverse effect on human health in various

ways. There can be direct exposure to plastic particles
themselves via ingestion and bioaccumulation in the food
chain, or through the associated toxic chemicals and gases
released from plastic particles and products.151
Microplastics in the food chain
It is a fact that humans are ingesting microplastics from the

food chain through bioaccumulation in many commercial
marine species, and other commodities such as tap and
bottled water,152 honey and salt samples (including one
South African brand).153 Although there is no definitive answer
yet about how the ingestion of microplastics may affect human
© Weston et al. health, the fact remains that we are ingesting them.
Published and controversial research154 estimates that we

ingest a credit card’s worth – 5 grams – of microplastics every
The newly discovered species, Eurythenes plasticus, which was week. Some researchers believe that this is an overprediction
named after plastics found in its hindgut.
by up to a factor of a thousand. Research is currently being
conducted on this topic. Even though the prevailing view is
that plastics simply pass through our digestive system, there
is new evidence that plastic particles may be accumulating in
human organs and tissues.155
150 Basson, 2018.

151 CIEL, 2019.
152 Bouwman et al., 2018b.
153 Karami et al., 2017.
154 Senathirajah et al., 2020
155 sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/08/200817104325.htm
59
Embedded toxins Harmful gases
The presence of toxins and persistent organic pollutants As mentioned on page 33, open-air and uncontrolled burning
(POPs) in certain plastic products, such as children’s toys, of solid waste causes respiratory problems.157 Due to the
have been found in samples from 26 countries.156 These highly variety of plastic types and additives, various toxic gases are
toxic pollutants come from flame retardants in electronic emitted upon burning of mixed plastics, including dioxins,
equipment, which is recycled to make the plastic toys. While furans, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and halogenated
there is uncertainty about the release of the pollutants from compounds, to name a few.158 These gases are known to cause
these toys, there is still considerable exposure risk with varying degrees of air pollution as well as human health
negative health impacts. issues in the respiratory, circulatory and nervous system and
the hormone production and heart of exposed individuals.
Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic organic compound, has Dioxins in particular pose an additional threat of cancer.159
also been banned in baby products and food packaging in
South Africa since 2011. Inhalation and skin contact of certain chemicals and gases
are also a human health risk during the production and
BPA mimics the structure and function of the oestrogen manufacturing stages of the plastics life cycle.160 These gases
hormone in the body and can influence bodily functions include benzene, styrene and other organic compounds,
including cell repair and reproduction, among other things. causing cancer, skin and eye irritation and respiratory
BPA was usually added to polycarbonate plastics (PC, MIC 5) problems, among others.
(see page 14) for the manufacture of water and baby bottles
and food storage containers, before being banned.
Contaminated solid waste
Another aspect of the impact of plastics on human health is

“Uncertainties and knowledge gaps
from the exposure to dirty or contaminated solid waste while undermine the full evaluation of
collecting plastic for recycling. Informal waste reclaimers,
including women, the elderly and illegal immigrants, are the health impacts, limit the ability
most vulnerable to this kind of exposure. They are key actors
in the waste value chain, but because they operate informally
of consumers, communities, and
and earn very little, they cannot afford personal protective regulators to make informed
equipment (PPE).
choices, and heighten both acute
and long-term health risks at all
Besides being recognised as key actors in the waste
value chain, informal waste reclaimers should
stages of the plastic lifecycle.”
be supported by municipalities with the correct PPE to – Center for International Environmental Law, 2019
safely handle waste on the streets and on landfills. This
is especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Open dumping of solid waste, a large proportion of which

is plastic scrap, on land and in waterways can become a
breeding ground for disease through pest infestation (mice,
flies and maggots) and spread vector-borne diseases (like
cholera or dengue fever) to nearby communities.
156 DiGangi et al., 2017.

157 UNEP, 2018a.
158 Verma et al., 2016.
159 Verma et al., 2016.
160 CIEL, 2019.

An equipment operator preparing plastic products for granulation at
a plastics recycling facility in Cape Town. © WWF
61
IMPACTS ON THE ECONOMY
Plastic pollution has a direct and indirect economic impact
in industries such as fishing, shipping and tourism. It affects
ecosystems and ecosystem services, which in turn has knock-on
economic impacts.
R4
UNEP has estimated the economic losses incurred drains. Additional costs (or economic losses) are
by fisheries, tourism and biodiversity as a result associated with damages to shipping vessels due
M of the impact of marine plastics (excluding
microplastics) at $8–13 billion per year.161
to blocked engines, port downtime during the
clean-up of the port, and resultant disruption of
TO CLEAN UP South Africa has more than 3 000 km of coastline
service for the shipping and maritime sectors.
AFTER THE and a tourism sector worth R125 million, The damage to cities, towns and villages from
STORMS IN contributing 2,9% to South Africa’s GDP. Research

shows that litter density of more than 10 large
flooding due to plastic and other solid waste
blocking stormwater drains has also been
DURBAN IN 2019 items per metre of beach would deter 40% of substantial. Coupled with this is the resultant
foreign tourists and 60% of local tourists from spread (and cost) of waterborne diseases.
returning to Cape Town.162 This could have a
considerable impact on the industry.
Over 12 million people are engaged in the fisheries The total economic value that is lost
sector in Africa.163 In South Africa, there are through damaged ecosystem services
approximately 29 000 subsistence fishers.164 The due to plastic pollution in South Africa is
impact of marine plastic pollution could pose not widely quantified and reported. More
a significant problem to livelihoods through a evidence is needed to create the economic
potential decrease in fish stocks as well as the case to determine the true cost of plastic
quality of the catch due to plastic ingestion. Small- pollution and encourage immediate
scale fishers in South Africa have found plastic action. Additionally, the responsibility for
items in the stomachs of some of their catch. these costs needs to be established and
the responsible party held accountable
The cost of cleaning up plastics accumulating in the through the appropriate policy responses.
environment adds significantly to the expenses of Further research and reporting in this
local authorities. The Department of Environment, regard is needed.
Forestry and Fisheries reports that the costs of
cleaning up litter and illegal dumping ranges
between 1% and 26% of municipal operating
expenditure for waste management.165 The value “The cost of inaction is
itself will vary according to the size and budget of
the municipality concerned. greater than the systemic
In Durban Harbour, the cost of clean-ups following transition required to a
heavy rainfall events in October 2017 amounted
to R1,25 million. In April and May 2019, costs of
circular plastics economy.”
R4,35 million were incurred over seven clean-up – Luc-Olivier Marquet, CEO of Unilever South Africa
events after severe storms. In November 2019
further storms occurred, which once again washed
plastic up on beaches from rivers and stormwater
161 UNEP, 2014.

162 Ballance et al., 2000.
163 Arabi & Nahman, 2019.
164 South African Government, 2014.
165 DEA, 2018.

PLASTICS, NATURE AND PEOPLE
IN SUMMARY
The impacts of plastic pollution reach all natural
environments, affect ecosystems and the economy
and are felt by all parts of society. Understanding
and quantifying these impacts are necessary for
driving evidence-based action.
1. Land-based sources: Plastic is prevalent in terrestrial, freshwater and marine

environments. Most plastic in the ocean comes from land-based sources and
gets transported through waterways and via atmospheric and ocean currents.
2. Biodiversity and ecosystems: Ingestion of and entanglement in plastic

leads to the injury and death of terrestrial, freshwater and marine animals.
3. Greenhouse gas emissions: The majority of plastics are produced from

fossil fuels with significant climate-change impacts at every stage of the value
chain, from production to disposal. Projected expansion in plastic production
to meet the exponential increase in consumption will significantly increase the
plastics sector’s contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions from 4% in
2015 to 15% by 2050.
4. Human health: Plastic can have a negative impact on human health

through direct exposure to plastic particles themselves via ingestion and
bioaccumulation in the food chain, or through the associated toxic chemicals
and gases released from plastic particles and products.
5. Socio-economic impacts: The socio-economic impacts of plastic pollution

are not well understood and quantified, yet threaten livelihoods and key
industries, including fisheries and tourism. Acknowledging and agreeing on the
true cost of plastic pollution and accountability throughout the plastics value
chain is key to addressing the challenge.
63
SECTION 4
ACTORS AND
ACTIONS
While we have known about the problem for
decades, plastic pollution and its environmental
impacts are currently receiving unprecedented
attention. There is now an increasing awareness
among governments, industry and consumers
that the way in which we currently produce,
consume and use plastic is simply not sustainable.

A cashier in one of Shoprite’s retail outlets wearing a face shield
and mask during the COVID-19 lockdown period. © Shoprite
65
THE PLASTICS VALUE CHAIN
Addressing the plastic pollution problem in South Africa requires actions
and collaborations across the entire plastics value chain. This requires
an understanding of the roles that each actor plays, the relationships
and interactions between them, and the initiatives that already exist
among them.
THE SOUTH AFRICAN PLASTICS VALUE CHAIN
PLASTIC POLYMER &

PACKAGING IMPORTERS
1 2 3 4 5
POLYMER PRODUCTION PACKAGING MANUFACTURING RETAIL & SALE USE WASTE MANAGEMENT
DIRECT STAKEHOLDERS
POLYMER PRODUCERS & PLASTIC CONVERTERS RETAILERS, BRAND OWNERS CONSUMERS WASTE COLLECTORS,
IMPORTERS & HOSPITALITY CONTRACTORS, RECYCLERS &
TREATMENT FACILITIES
Petrochemical companies Conventional plastic converters Large-scale retailers Shelf-facing consumers
(producers & importers) (local & international)
Formal and informal waste
Multinational & local collectors and buy-back centres
Bio-based plastic polymer Bio-based plastics converters brand owners
producers & importers
Material recovery facilities
Small-scale retailers
Biodegradable plastic
converters Recyclers
Online retailers
Municipalities
Hospitality & food services
INDIRECT STAKEHOLDERS
RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS INDUSTRY BODIES
PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY ORGANISATIONS (PROs) INFORMAL SECTOR REPRESENTATIVES LABOUR UNIONS
POLICIES, REGULATIONS AND INITIATIVES TO COMBAT POLLUTION FROM THE PLASTICS VALUE CHAIN
International partnerships Global agreement on National policies Global initiatives and

and frameworks plastic pollution and regulations voluntary agreements

The South African plastics value chain involves many locally, whereas other parts of the world (largely developed
stakeholders. It starts with a few producers, brand owners countries) choose to export their post-consumer plastics to
and retailers, and then widens out like a funnel to millions of developing countries for recycling, as it is easier than investing
consumers. The value chain is vast and involves many direct in recycling infrastructure and end-use markets.166
and indirect actors, from the government, industry, NGOs,
research institutions and the waste sector to consumers. This Plastic packaging makes up more than half of the plastics
makes it particularly complex. sector in South Africa, and is responsible for the largest
volumes of leakage into nature. While the plastics value chain
The South African plastics sector is well developed throughout includes all plastic products, the discussion that follows puts
the plastics value chain, from raw-material (polymer) particular emphasis on packaging.
production through to plastic recycling. South Africa is
fortunate to have a complete plastics value chain where the
raw material is produced, manufactured and sold locally,
in contrast to most African countries that primarily import
finished products. Furthermore, certain types of post-
consumer plastics can be recycled, sold and reprocessed
Plastic bottles in the production line of a manufacturing plant. © iStock by Getty Images
Copyright Credit © iStock by Getty Images
166 Marss et al., 2019
67
DIRECT STAKEHOLDERS
Direct stakeholders include polymer producers and importers; plastic
converters; retailers, brand owners, informal retailers and hospitality
services; consumers; and waste collectors, contractors, recyclers and
treatment centres.
POLYMER PRODUCERS AND IMPORTERS Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. These plants are often
small to medium-sized enterprises, with each plant employing
Sasol and Safripol (KAP Industrial Holdings) are the primary 130 people on average. Black Africans make up 66% of the
domestic producers of plastic polymers in South Africa. Sasol workforce, with jobs such as plant and machine operators
uses coal and imported oil167 to produce ethylene monomers and assemblers.172
as building blocks for its plastic polymer products, including
Some of the larger plastic converters include Berry Astrapak,
LDPE, LLDPE, PP and PVC (see page 11). Total production
Mpact, Nampak, PailPac and Polyoak.
amounted to 1,3 million tonnes in 2019,168 some of which
was exported. Sasol’s polymer production facilities are in
Secunda in Mpumlanga and Sasolburg in the Free State RETAILERS, BRAND OWNERS, INFORMAL
(for oil-based petrochemicals). RETAILERS AND HOSPITALITY SERVICES
Safripol produces PET, HDPE and PP, with production
outputs of 0,48 million tonnes for 2019.169 Safripol receives Retailers and brand owners
ethylene from Sasol to produce HDPE, and propylene
from SAPREF to produce polypropylene. The HDPE and Retailers and brand owners are the main consumers of plastic
PP production facilities are based in Sasolburg near the packaging for fast-moving consumer goods. Changing the
raw-material supply. Safripol imports terephthalate acid behaviour of this stakeholder group could have a ripple effect
for PET production, with facilities in Durban. across the entire value chain, especially on downstream reuse
and recycling activities.
Plastic polymer importers include Dow Chemicals, Brenttag
and Plastomark, among others. Retailers include small, large and online retailers.
Bio-based plastic feedstocks are imported into South There is a mix of local and multinational brand owners in
Africa and converted into products locally. A few bioplastic South Africa. Simba, National Brands Limited, Mondelēz
manufacturers include Bonnie Bio Bags, Prime Plus Packaging International and Tiger Brands together produce over 90%
and The Really Great Material Company, to name a few. of the snack category in number of units in South Africa.173
It is important to note that some of these companies in
PLASTIC CONVERTERS (MANUFACTURERS) South Africa are subsidiaries of large multinationals that
have already committed to targets towards sustainable
Plastics manufacturing in South Africa contributed packaging. Simba, for example, is owned by PepsiCo, which
approximately 2,7% to GDP in 2018 and makes a significant has committed to 100% reusable, recyclable and compostable
contribution to the manufacturing sector.170 packaging by 2025 (in addition to a number of other
packaging commitments).
There are 1 800 plastic product and packaging manufacturers,
more commonly known as plastic converters, employing
approximately 60 000 people.171 Most plastic converters
are based in Gauteng, followed by the Eastern Cape,
167 oec.world/en/profile/country/zaf
168 Sasol, 2019.
169 KAP Industrial, 2019b.
170 DTI, n.d.
171 Tsotsi & Jenkins, 2019.
172 Tsotsi & Jenkins, 2019.

Commitments and targets set by retailers and brand owners should filter through to the subsidiaries of large companies
in Africa through the initiation of the South African Plastics Pact (see Box 21) or other corporate pressures. There should
not be dual brand-owner standards for developed and developing countries.
BOX 12: PACKAGING DESIGN AND BRANDING

The use of plastic packaging, especially for the food and beverage category, provides a storing container, prolongs the
shelf-life of products and prevents food waste. Plastic packaging is also preferred to other materials such as glass or
metal because it is lightweight and cheaper by comparison. Packaging can also consist of multiple components such as a
bottle with a separate lid, or a tray and film, each made from different types of materials.
Brand owners and retailers are in control of the design of their packaging and order specific designs from plastic
converters. Besides preserving and protecting the product from degrading before reaching the consumer, packaging
design is also used for branding and marketing purposes. In addition, the packaging provides essential on-pack
information for health and food products. Often branding is the sole purpose of packaging and labelling items,
which may include the colouring of packaging material, adding logos, as well as labelling and other consumer-facing
information.
Rigid plastic packaging production comes with a high initial capital outlay with moulds costing in the range of
R100 000 to R20 million. A plastic converter will only invest in this cost if there is a sufficient off-take agreement to
make it economically viable. This is why plastics are produced in such high volumes, and why converters are so resistant
to changing additives and including recyclate: their machines are made to run within very narrow specification ranges.
All these packaging design and production decisions affect whether the
plastic packaging can be recycled or not. Packaging SA has developed a
Design for Recycling guideline, using a traffic-light system adopted from
Recoup in the UK. The traffic-light system rates packaging material types
on whether they are compatible with the current recycling collection and
operations in South Africa – green for compatible, orange for conditional compatibility and red for not compatible.
The guideline document and traffic-light system are primarily intended for use by packaging designers, sustainability
managers, line converters, printers (packaging branding and labels) and students. The guide was initially prepared
by Packaging SA, and is currently undergoing a wider stakeholder review process initiated by the Department of
Environment, Forestry and Fisheries under Operation Phakisa, to achieve the objectives of increasing the recyclability of
packaging and the recycled content in packaging.
The traffic-light system in the Packaging SA Design for Recycling Guideline is currently not based on recognised
recyclability definitions such as ISO 14021:2017 and ISO 18603:2013. Many of the packaging formats in the
guideline that are allocated to the green column (seen as being recycled in practice) are in reality not recycled at scale or
collected nationally. This brings the credibility and transparency of the guideline into question.
Another concern is whether this guideline is limited to packaging design for recycling only, without considering other
equally important circular interventions, including reuse and new product delivery systems. A new Circular Design
Guide174 was launched by The Ellen MacArthur Foundation and IDEO in 2020. Will South Africa take a few lessons from
this to move towards a circular design for plastic packaging?
174 IDEO & The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2020.
69
ON-PACK
RECYCLING BOX 13: ON-PACK LABELLING STANDARDS
LABELS INDICATE A group of leading retailers, convened by WWF, developed and started implementing
WHETHER THE standardised recycling instructions, known as on-pack recycling labels (OPRLs), which indicate
PACKAGING CAN whether the packaging can or cannot be recycled. The participating retail brands in this initiative
were Clicks, Food Lovers Market, Pick n Pay, SPAR, Shoprite and Woolworths. As it is rolled out,
OR CANNOT BE other companies are also expected to come on board. The OPRL standards and guidelines now fall
RECYCLED under the South African Plastics Pact (see Box 21) and work is ongoing.
Features of the new on-pack recycling labels
• Messaging that simply reads “Recycle” or “Not Recycled”
• To qualify as “Recycle”, packaging must be collected and recycled in practice and at scale in at
least one major metropolitan city in South Africa. This information will be reviewed regularly.
• The new information will appear on the packaging label whenever possible or in the pack
design (in the case of flexible packaging).
FIGURE 11: EXAMPLE OF THE NEW, STANDARDISED BINARY ON-PACK RECYCLING LABEL175
Special instructions
Packaging component
Recyclability icon
Packaging material
Is this recycled?
175 Le Roux, 2019.
The packaging will still include the current resin or material identification code (MIC) (three
chasing arrows with coded numbers and sometimes letters) (see page 11). These are intended
for industry actors, such as waste pickers, recyclers and sorters. However, many consumers
currently mistake these to mean that the packaging is recyclable (see Box 1), which is not the case.
This further highlights the need for clear, standardised consumer-targeted labelling.

BOX 14: WHAT IS PREVENTING BRAND OWNERS AND RETAILERS FROM TAKING ACTION?
The challenges faced by brand owners and retailers in providing sustainable packaging design to consumers include:
• Procurement of post-consumer recycled content in packaging: There is currently limited demand for
post-consumer recycled content in packaging and products from retailers and brand owners. Acknowledging that
post-consumer recycled (PCR) content in food packaging is a constraint, there are many other packaging formats176
that can easily have a high post-consumer recycled content, such as personal-care and detergent products. Other
plastic products to consider for post-consumer recycled content (that have a longer life span) are shopping trolleys,
hangers and crates, to name a few.
• Lack of communication with converters and recyclers: The design and procurement of packaging does
not generally stipulate a minimum post-consumer recycled content. As discussed in the previous point, there are
various packaging and product formats that can be a significant sink for post-consumer recycled content. Unless
instructed by retailers and brand owners, converters will favour cheaper feedstock, which is currently virgin plastic,
to maximise profit. In addition, recyclate affects production efficiencies compared to virgin plastic.
• Education on packaging design within organisations: When packaging technologists design packaging,
they often fail to take into account the end of life of the packaging. In most cases the marketing and branding
departments have the final say on packaging design. Preference is given to bright colours and new materials, which
generally cannot be recycled or reused.
• Money talks: From a financial perspective, retailers and brand owners prefer cheaper pricing on products and
packaging. Currently virgin plastic is substantially cheaper than recyclate, due to the low oil price and COVID-19,
and offers greater operational efficiencies at converters.
176 Including secondary and tertiary packaging (see Glossary).
It is important for brand owners and retailers, as a collective, to look beyond the current pricing and consider long-
term sustainability, as has been done before with plastic carrier bags. This should reflect and be integrated across
packaging design, procurement, branding and marketing, and departmental processes at retailers and brand owners.
Future regulation could also potentially be a risk to current procurement patterns.
Small-scale traders: Spaza shops, street hawkers, small grocers and bespoke traders
The small and micro informal retail sector consists of approximately 81 000 small, informal and independent retailers. These
include spaza shops, street hawkers and small grocers.177 Given the increasing unemployment rates, many people have shifted
to working in the informal sector. It is estimated to be worth around R360 billion a year, accounting for 30–50% of the food and
grocery sector.178 These small and micro-businesses often purchase their goods from wholesalers in the formal market and sell
these goods near public transport hubs such as train stations, taxi ranks and bus stops, accessing hundreds if not thousands of
local commuters every day.
These businesses sell a wide range of products, mainly in the food and beverage category, from staple food items such as bread,
milk and sugar, to on-the-go snack foods. Most of the snack products sold to informal markets are from South African brand
owners such as Truda Foods, IQ Foods, Frimax Foods and Elzea Snacks.
177 Greenberg, 2016.

178 Centre of Excellence for Food Security, www.foodsecurity.ac.za/news/small-informal-vendors-are-big-business
71
Recent brand auditing on litter in various wetlands and on beaches179 in South Africa (see Figure 12) showed that
South African snack brands make up the majority of snack category items leaked into the environment. This higher
leakage is linked to the absence of waste management services in informal communities, and the fact that snack packaging
formats have no value after disposal as they are not recycled.
It is crucial that these brands are part of the conversation when it comes to sustainable packaging design and commit to
targets as members of the South African Plastics Pact, as well as being part of extended producer responsibility.
FIGURE 12: SNACK FOOD LITTER BRAND AUDIT DATA FOR CASE STUDY 6: REUSE AND REFILL
WETLANDS AND BEACHES180 A reuse-and-refill model in South Africa is the
Gcwalisa (meaning “fill” or “refill” in Zulu)
2% 1%
RNT Snacks Ontrak dispensers, which allow customers to purchase
3% 1% food and homecare products in values from as little
Elzea Messaris
as R1. A pilot project using prototype dispensing
3% machines was trialled in Johannesburg in 2019 and
Willards 1%
Alibaba will hopefully be ready for the next phase of market
testing in 2020. Spaza owners can quickly provide the
7%
Frimax amount requested by customers because of on-board
computers with Internet of Things sensors measuring
13% 50%
IQ Foods Truda volume while dispensing. Goods are dispensed into
reusable containers, allowing brands to deliver
bulk into the informal channel and for shop owners
to distribute in micro-sizes without having to use
19%
Simba problem plastics.
There are shops across the country where consumers

bring their reusable containers to fill with grocery
At the expensive end of the market, there has also been an
items.181 There are also online shops such as the
emergence of alternative small-scale retail options such as
Zero Waste Store that use eco-friendly, plastic-free
Nude Foods, Shop Zero and other plastic-free or zero-waste
packaging. However, these are niche, high-end stores
stores, and farmer’s markets. These bespoke traders make use
that do not cater for the majority of the population.
of bulk buying and in-store dispensing of goods into reusable
Even so, some bigger retailers are offering selected
containers such as glass jars, which are provided or brought in
food items such as grains, nuts and sweets, among
by consumers themselves.
other things, at dispensing stations.
181 See lifelivedsimply.co/2019/04/23/zero-waste-shopping-in-south-africa for

a list (October 2019 update at time of writing).
179 Dyer Island Conservation Trust, 2019.

180 Research by Dr Peter Ryan of the University of Cape Town, as reported by The Moss Group, 2019. Brand audit data for 400 items found in wetlands and 200 items found on beaches.

Hospitality and food services Recent market research183 found that consumers “GREENWASHING”
are not looking to reduce consumption, but there
The hospitality and food services industry includes is a greater focus on alternative materials and HAPPENS WHEN
a broad range of businesses ranging from fast-
food chains, restaurants, coffee shops and hotels to
recycling. BUSINESSES
catering services. South African consumers give a low ranking to FALSELY MARKET
Hotels provide a host of toiletries and foodstuffs
the plastic pollution challenge compared to other THEIR GOODS
socio-economic challenges, with unemployment
that are packaged in small quantities for their rates and crime being the major concerns (see OR SERVICES
guests. These products are often replaced on a daily
basis even if only half used. Recently, some hotel
Figure 13). While this may read as socio-economic AS PROVIDING
chains have started to use refillable dispensers for
issues being prioritised over environmental issues
for many South Africans, it also highlights the false
ENVIRONMENTAL
toiletries to avoid using so much problematic and dichotomy between environmental and socio- BENEFITS
unnecessary packaging. economic issues.
Takeaway containers, including disposable coffee
cups and cutlery, are a major problem in this
sector. A few companies that are aware of the Consumers need to understand the
problem are switching to compostable or paper- link between socio-economic and
based alternatives. Consumers tend to celebrate environmental issues, and that solutions to
the actions of restaurant and fast-food chains, tackle the one must have the other in mind.
such as Spur, Wimpy and McDonald’s, which are
driving awareness and making small changes such
as switching to paper straws and alternatives to
plastic takeaway containers.182 Along with retailers,
these businesses have direct, first-hand interaction FIGURE 13: CONSUMER RANKING OF SOCIO-
with consumers and have a great opportunity and
responsibility to drive awareness and education ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN
about plastic pollution. SOUTH AFRICA IN ORDER OF MOST IMPORTANT TO
LEAST IMPORTANT184
There is a great risk of “greenwashing”, Unemployment

spreading misinformation to create
a false impression of the product and Crime
implementing “solutions” with unintended
negative consequences. Compostable straws, Poverty
for example, still pose the risk of ending up

in the environment with a similar impact Corruption
as conventional plastic straws because

there are no systems and infrastructure Economy
in existence to collect and compost the

materials (see Section 1). Drug and alcohol abuse
Climate change
CONSUMERS Plastic pollution
The trend to consume more convenience foods

is increasing. However, some consumers are
becoming increasingly aware of environmental
damage and thus changing their buying habits,
such as buying from zero-waste or plastic-free
stores.
182 Ocean Pledge, 2019.

183 Consumer research conducted via an online survey commissioned by WWF South Africa, conducted by Ocean Pledge and Ovatoyou in
November 2019. The survey had 1 923 respondents of mixed age, gender, race and income levels; 79% of the sample was based in Gauteng,
the Western Cape or KwaZulu-Natal.
73
Informal waste reclaimers bring their collected
recyclable waste to the buy-back centre in Stellenbosch. © Fiona Piller / WWF
BOX 15: WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO The widespread adoption of an on-pack
recycling label standard would be a start to
CONSUMERS TAKING ACTION? resolving consumer confusion and improving the
collection of recyclable material.
South African consumers experience five major barriers
to taking action against plastic pollution:
WASTE COLLECTORS, RECYCLERS,

• Education: Not being sufficiently informed and
falling victim to greenwashing
• Cost: Not being able to afford, or not being informed TREATMENT CENTRES AND MUNICIPALITIES
of the cost-saving potential of choosing reusable
alternatives to disposable plastic packaging Waste collectors and buy-back centres
• Convenience: Not wanting to change a habit or Primary waste collection in South Africa occurs
choose an alternative that requires effort or creates through a variety of channels, including informal waste
friction in their lives reclaimers and waste management companies. Some
of these companies are contracted by municipalities for
• Impact of individual actions: Sceptical that
waste collection and removal services, or do it privately
individual actions can make a significant impact, or
through public–private partnerships or contracts. Waste
not creating the link between individual action and
management companies in South Africa include Averda,
the issue
Enviroserv, WastePlan, Pikitup and DSW, among others.
• Being overwhelmed or experiencing feelings
When it comes to plastics, informal waste reclaimers
of guilt: These feelings can create paralysis or
usually only collect PET and HDPE bottles, as well as
inaction
some LDPE and PP packaging. However, they prefer
There are currently very few to no alternatives to the collecting heavier items (rigid packaging) and those
problematic packaging of products on offer at retailers. with the greatest monetary value per tonne compared
Alternatives could include dispensing systems, with to smaller, more lightweight items, which are not worth
consumers bringing their own containers. However, their while to collect.
these have not been adopted widely or at scale due to
Reclaimers then sell these items along with other
potential challenges such as user motivation to bring
recyclables such as cardboard and glass to buy-back
containers, brand protection and building up the required
centres or directly to recyclers themselves. Buy-back
distribution network.
centres act as middlemen in the collection network and
More than 60% of South Africans consumers claim to be aggregate higher volumes of materials, as recyclers prefer
concerned with whether an item can be recycled or not.185 to buy in higher volumes than what the average individual
While most respondents believe recycling is important, reclaimers collect on a daily basis.
many claim not to have the infrastructure or know-
how to recycle, and face the daily confusion of whether
something can or cannot be recycled in South Africa.

CASE STUDY 7: PACKA-CHING BY POLYCO
PACKA-CHING is an owner-operated mobile separation-at-source recycling service. It collects used
recyclable packaging material from the public in low-income and informal areas – those areas that are
often overlooked with regard to recycling education, recycling infrastructure and recycling services.
The aim is to decrease the amount of recyclable packaging entering landfills and being discarded in the
environment.
The first PACKA-CHING unit was launched in 2017 in Langa, Cape Town. Since then, PACKA-CHING has
expanded its operations to four units. At present it services the areas of Langa and Phillipi in Cape Town,
Western Cape; Thabazimbi in Limpopo; Buffalo City in the Eastern Cape; and Katlehong in Gauteng.
PACKA-CHING aims to have a total of 25 units operating across South Africa within the next five years.
Through its recycling operations, PACKA-CHING helps not only to clean up the environment but also
to uplift the communities in which it operates. By paying for recyclable packaging, PACKA-CHING
incentivises behaviour change by shifting perceptions of recyclable waste. Each kilogram of recyclable
material brought to a PACKA-CHING unit is weighed and paid for. PACKA-CHING shows people that used
packaging has value and selling recyclables becomes recognised as an income-generating activity.186
186 Polyco, 2020.
Langa residents lining up to sell their recyclable materials at the mobile PACKA-CHING buy-back unit. © Polyco
75
Tailings from the sorting process (front left) at a waste transfer facility at Kraaifontein MRF operated
by WastePlan. All this material (tailings and other waste from household collection) will go to landfill. © Andrea Weiss / WWF
Material recovery facilities self-regulating sector with very little regulatory
58
enforcement (tax, waste licences), which leads
Material recovery facilities (MRFs) (wet and to non-compliant companies competing with
dry) form part of the s@s (separation-at-source) responsible recyclers. There are also no subsidies
k
pilot programmes implemented by certain to hedge against price fluctuations188 with limited
municipalities. For dry material recovery facilities, support from the government, industry and
JOBS IN recyclables are collected from households and
are further sorted into material categories such
consumers.
RECYCLING as cardboard, metal, glass and different types There are more than 300 plastic recyclers in
COLLECTION of plastics. These recyclables are then sold to South Africa (see Figure 14). Most of them are
recyclers for further processing. concentrated in Gauteng, followed by KwaZulu-
Natal, the Western Cape, the Eastern Cape and
A wet or “dirty” material recovery facility is where North West province. In the Free State, Limpopo
8
recyclable materials are picked out from general and Mpumalanga there are fewer than 10 in total,
household waste where s@s does not occur. What and none in the Northern Cape.
is not currently recycled in South Africa is sent to
landfills from these material recovery facilities. Most recyclers process LDPE (approximately 125),
k These tailings (non-recyclable plastics and other HDPE (85) and PP (85), which shows a low barrier
materials) cost the waste management companies, to market entry. There are even fewer PS (12),
FORMAL JOBS such as WastePlan, which operates a dry material PET (10) and PVC (5) recyclers. 189
IN RECYCLING facility in Cape Town, up to R150 000 per month in
Recycling provides 7 892 formal jobs in recycling
disposal fees at landfill.
PLANTS plants and approximately 58 500 jobs190
throughout the collection network, which include
Recyclers waste reclaimers and small collection businesses.191
Plastic recycling in South Africa is governed purely
by economic drivers and free-market principles as
opposed to environmental factors, as is the case FIGURE 14: PLASTIC RECYCLERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
in Europe.187 Recyclers face challenges such as the
price of recyclables, which fluctuate dramatically
depending on supply and demand; the price of
crude oil, which makes virgin plastic cheaper or
more expensive; increasing operational costs GAUTENG
(labour, electricity, transport); being regarded as 170+
a high insurance risk; and uncertainty of incoming NORTH WEST 10+
feedstock volumes. KWAZULU-
NATAL
Capital costs to set up a facility to granulate, wash 60+
and pelletise incoming feedstocks are higher than

for conventional plastic converters and is thus not WESTERN CAPE EASTERN CAPE
seen as a favourable business opportunity. It is a 20+
40+
187 Plastics SA, 2018b.

189 Pretorius, 2019b.
190 This estimate varies, as other research reports up to 215 000 informal waste reclaimers in South Africa (Godfrey & Oelofse, 2017).
191 Plastics SA, 2018b.

INDIRECT STAKEHOLDERS
Indirect stakeholders in the plastics packaging value chain
include research institutions, government departments, civil
society organisation, industry bodies and labour unions.
RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS decisions on plastic carrier bags, taking into

account environmental as well as social impacts,
2017
Various research institutions have conducted and the use of post-consumer plastic in road PLASTIC
research independently or on behalf of the construction.193 PACKAGING IS
South African government. The Council for DEFINED AS A
PRIORITY
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is
hosting the implementation of the Waste Research, Bridging some of the data gaps
WASTE
Development and Innovation (RDI) Roadmap, mentioned in this report as well as
which includes various projects such as a Life Cycle establishing a centralised data repository is
Sustainability Assessment of plastic carrier bags. essential to guide actions to address plastic
Research in this space has only started picking up pollution. Actions based on accurate data
in the last five years and is becoming increasingly and the best available science, appropriate to
popular. the local context, are more likely to succeed.
The Waste RDI Roadmap was initiated to
provide strategic direction and manage and
coordinate South Africa’s investment in six
clusters of Waste RDI activity. The vision of
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
the Roadmap is to stimulate waste innovation The Department of Environment, Forestry
(technological and non-technological) and and Fisheries (DEFF) has a mandate to
human capital development through investment ensure that the environment and human health
in science and technology. In so doing, it wants are protected by providing measures for the
to maximise the diversion of waste from landfill prevention of pollution and ecological degradation
towards value-adding opportunities. These according to the National Environmental
opportunities include prevention of waste and Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008 (Waste Act).
the optimised extraction of value from reuse, The Waste Act and subsequent amendments
recycling and recovery in order to create significant entitle the Minister to enact regulations in respect
economic, social and environmental benefit.192 As of the design, composition or production of a
mentioned before, landfilling is still the primary product or packaging. This covers the composition
form of waste management in South Africa and of the packaging (volume and weight), reduction,
the implementation of the Waste RDI Roadmap reuse and recycling as well as the use of materials
is key to realising a circular plastics economy in that are less harmful to the environment. In light
the country. of this, in 2017 plastic packaging was defined as
a priority waste along with other streams such
In the 2018/19 year, R7 million was invested in
as e-waste and lighting. Since the dismissal of
Roadmap-managed research and development
the Section 28 Notice in December 2019 by the
grants to research institutions. In the fifth year
Minister of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries
of implementation, the trends consistently
(see page 85), plastic is now included in materials
demonstrate growth in research outputs and
where extended producer responsibility will be
students further increasing capacity in the sector.
applied in terms of section 18 of the Waste Act.
Two targeted projects that received grant funding
with a focus specifically on plastic was informing
192 DST, 2016.

193 Both studies were conducted by the CSIR.
77
The Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) (previously the Department of Science and
Technology) is responsible for facilitating, training and providing resources for science, technology and
innovation in support of South Africa’s development. The White Paper on Science, Technology and
Innovation,194 approved by Cabinet in March 2019, acknowledges that environmental challenges such
as climate change and biodiversity loss will increasingly shape policy and that the concept of a circular
economy will dominate future growth discourse. This transition to circular material management,
including plastic and others, is seen to address the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and also
place the country on a development pathway that avoids getting locked into resource-intensive industries
and practices. Circularity of the economy is also seen as a crucial concept towards achieving a greener
economy: it will address the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, create new markets to assist in the
transition to jobs of the future and keep South Africa’s industry relevant to trading partners.
The Department of Trade, Industry and Competition (DTIC) (previously the Department of
Trade and Industry) is responsible for commercial and industrial policy and has industry sector desks that
focus on developing and implementing high-impact sector strategies and policies to create decent jobs
and increase value-addition and competitiveness. These include the Industry Policy Action Plans (IPAPs),
now to be replaced with Master Plans currently under development. Plastics falls under the Plastics,
Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals and Cosmetics sector desk. The packaging market, which is the largest
consumer of plastic, is perceived favourably as it created relatively good opportunities for value-addition in
other high-value sectors of the South African economy.
The National Treasury has the mandate to coordinate macroeconomic policy and support the allocation
and utilisation of financial resources to promote economic development and social progress. This is done
through prioritising investment into infrastructure and industrial capital. Plastic has featured on the
National Treasury’s radar, specifically when it came to the plastic bag levy (see Box 16). National Treasury
may also play a role in the consideration of additional environmental levies for plastic products, as well
as possible management of or guidance on the financial element of a mandatory extended producer
responsibility mechanism implemented for plastic packaging as initiated through the Department of
Environment, Forestry and Fisheries.
CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS

Various evironmental and social civil society organisations are involved in advocacy work on plastic
pollution. Interventions are largely focused on clean-ups and raising awareness. Some examples include:
• Citizen science: Beach clean-ups and data collection of items commonly found on beaches, through
citizen science
• Ecobricking projects: The use of non-recyclable plastics used to fill 2-litre PET bottles to use as
building materials for schools, raised-bed gardens and seating (see Box 8)
• Awareness-raising campaigns: Plastic Free July, #RethinkTheBag, #StrawsSuck, etc.
Faith-based organisations
Faith-based organisations are committed to increasing awareness, understanding and action with
regard to eco-justice, sustainable living and climate change. Faith-based organisations such as the
Green Anglicans and the Southern African Faith Communities’ Environment Institute (SAFCEI) are
advocating for individuals and communities to turn the tide on the increasing levels of plastic pollution by
refusing problem plastics and calling on the government to ban these items.
194 DST, 2019.

INDUSTRY BODIES
Industry bodies or associations represent various stakeholder groups in the plastics value chain (see Table 1).
TABLE 1: SOME OF THE INDUSTRY BODIES IN THE PLASTICS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION SECTORS
INDUSTRY BODY STAKEHOLDER GROUP IT REPRESENTS
Plastics SA Virgin raw-material producers and plastic converters
Plastics Converters Association of SA (PCA) Plastic converters
Packaging SA Packaging producers including paper, glass, metal and plastic
Fast-moving consumer goods companies, including brand owners and

Consumer Goods Council of SA (CGCSA)
retailers, are the largest consumers of plastic packaging and products
South African Plastics Recycling Organisation (SAPRO) Plastic recyclers
Association of Rotational Moulders of South Africa (ARMSA) Rotational moulding195 plastic converters
South African Plastic Pipe Manufacturers Association (SAPPMA) Plastic pipe manufacturers
Industry bodies speak on behalf of the groups whose interests they represent at government consultations. They support industry
and the government with data, knowledge exchange and reporting needed for decision-making. Industry bodies may also
conduct public-facing education and awareness programmes, and promote plastics as the material of choice.
Producer responsibility organisations
Producer responsibility organisations typically organise, coordinate and manage extended producer responsibility (EPR)
schemes. Producer responsibility organisations in South Africa are organisations that voluntarily implement the producer
responsibility scheme for specific material streams, including plastic packaging, paper, e-waste and lighting.
TABLE 2: PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY ORGANISATIONS IN THE PLASTICS SECTOR
PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY ORGANISATION PLASTIC TYPE
The PET Recycling Company (PETCO) PET beverage bottles
Polyolefins: Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-density

Polyolefin Responsibility Organisation NPC (Polyco) polyethylene (LLDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and
polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene Association (PSA) (also merged with Expanded

Expanded polystyrene (ESP) and high-impact polystyrene (HIPS)
Polystyrene Association of Southern Africa)
Southern African Vinyls Association PVC
195 A plastic moulding technique used to manufacture hollow products such as tanks, bins and children’s toys.
79
Producer responsibility organisations collect, manage and disburse voluntary extended producer responsibility fees and ensure
that material collection targets are reached on behalf of their members, the plastic producers and converters. The extended
producer responsibility fees are typically used to support recyclers through short-term loans or grants. These fees are sometimes
also used for education and awareness programmes, pilot projects and to support the informal waste sector.
Informal sector representatives
Although informal waste reclaimers are not formally organised, there are two representative bodies, namely the African
Reclaimers Organisation, and the South African Waste Pickers Association (SAWPA). Both of these actors represent the interests
of informal waste reclaimers in public forums, and in some instances work collaboratively.
Labour unions
There is no dedicated labour union for workers in the plastics sector. However, the interests of these workers have been
represented across industrial workers’ unions listed in Table 3.
TABLE 3: INDUSTRIAL WORKERS’ UNIONS
WORKERS’ UNION INDUSTRIES THEY BARGAIN IN
Engineering, tyre, motor and auto industries

National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa (NUMSA)
(plastics falls in the engineering sector)
Industrial sectors including manufacturing engineering

United Association of South Africa (UASA)
(which includes plastics)
Engineering and electrical industries including the plastics, rubber and

Metal and Electrical Workers Union of SA (MEWUSA)
related industries

Pick n Pay trials a packaging-free zone for certain food items in its Constantia store, Cape Town. © Pick n Pay
81
NATIONAL POLICIES
AND REGULATIONS
South Africa’s policies and regulations governing plastic are
largely centred around waste management legislation, which
anchors the idea that plastic does not have value and is simply
an environmental liability that needs to be properly managed.
THE SOUTH AFRICAN PLASTIC BAG LEVY196

The South African public consumes approximately Spaza shops and street hawkers provide plastic
8 billion plastic carrier bags every year.197 In carrier bags that are not approved by the National
2003, the then Minister of Environmental Affairs, Regulator for Compulsory Specifications (NRCS).
Valli Moosa, introduced an environmental tax These bags often have a thickness below 24 µm,
which was levied on plastic bags. The intention was the limit specified by the NRCS, and are most
ADDING CALCIUM to reduce consumption to mitigate the increasing likely imported as local producers are required to
prevalence of plastic bags in the environment conform to NRCS requirements. These informal
CARBONATE and address the growing volumes of solid waste. businesses also do not pay the mandatory plastic
FILLER MATERIAL The levy was introduced along with a ban on bags bag levy and, unlike major retailers, often provide
TO PLASTIC with a thickness below 24 µm. Due to the charge

on bags at formal retailers, overall consumption
the bags free of charge to their customers.
ABOVE THE initially declined, but before long the cost of the With the current focus on plastic pollution and
ad hoc actions taken by retailers, there have
SPECIFIED carrier bags was included in household budgets and
been calls from Plastics SA to ring-fence the levy
consumption increased again.
MAXIMUM in order to invest in measures that support the
CONTENT The heavier gauge was intended to promote
recycling through the establishment of a non-profit
recycling industry. According to the Department
of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, the funds
ALLOWED organisation, Buyisa-e-Bag. The mandate of are used for the Compulsory Specification for
MAKES IT Buyisa-e-Bag was to promote waste minimisation Plastic Bags (VC8087) through the NRCS. Funds
and awareness initiatives in the plastics industry, can also be accessed for recycling activities through
UNRECYCLABLE expand collector networks and create jobs, as well the submission of an approved business plan to
as kick-start rural collection. In 2003, 3 cents per the National Treasury. It is unclear whether any
bag was levied to subsidise Buyisa-e-Bag, which successful projects using these funds have ever been
increased to 4 cents in 2010. Buyisa-e-Bag was implemented.
closed in 2011 due to maladministration with
financial losses estimated at R100 million. It was An additional obstacle to recycling came in the form
subsequently wound up and its functions absorbed of converters adding calcium carbonate to the bags
into the then Department of Environmental to cut costs while still meeting the minimum weight
Affairs.198 In April 2018, the levy per bag increased requirement, which renders the bags unrecyclable.
by 50% to 12 cents to address the high levels of This was addressed by the updated NRCS plastic
consumption, bringing in R241,3 million to the bag specification on the maximum calcium
fiscus compared to R41,2 million in 2004. The levy carbonate content allowed along with pressure
was increased to 25 cents per bag in 2020. from retailers to have a high level of recycled
content in carrier bags.
196 Commonly known as a levy but actually an environmental tax collected by the South African Revenue Service (SARS).
197 Dikgang et al., 2010.
198 DEA, 2011a.

In the last two years, this has led to a lower calcium carbonate content and higher post-consumer recycled
content in the bags, which means these bags can be recycled, provided that they are not contaminated and
that they are indeed collected for recycling.
With the new maximum filler content specified, all carrier bags at formal retailers can now be recycled in
practice. However, post-consumer recycled plastic content can vary from 100% at some retailers – which
one sees printed on the bags – to none. There are still various obstacles that need to be overcome in the
value chain. Retailers need to take a position to only use high levels of post-consumer recycled content in
their bags along with open and credible communication to and from their suppliers. The largest constraint
for the recycling industry in South Africa is the lack of end-market demand, therefore retailers have a
significant role to play in increasing the levels of post-consumer recycled content in their carrier bags. We
celebrate the retailers who use 100% post-consumer recycled content in their bags in support of a circular
plastics economy in South Africa (see also Case study 1 on page 27).
BOX 16: IS THE PLASTIC BAG LEVY PROMOTING THE CIRCULAR TRANSITION?
The increased use of recycled content in plastic bags is a major step forward in transitioning
to a circular plastics economy in South Africa, but this trend is under tremendous threat. The
main reason is the current extremely low oil price brought about by the COVID-19 crisis and the
geopolitical situation between oil-producing countries in the Middle East and Russia. This makes
the manufacturing of plastic bags from virgin plastic a much cheaper option than bags made from
recycled material. In addition, the levy per bag has increased to 25c from 1 April 2020, with a
subsequent increase in price at formal retailers.
With these recent developments, the levy in its current form is problematic for a number of
reasons:
• It has generally been unsuccessful in reducing the consumption of plastic bags.
• An increase in the levy may not result in any significant behavioural change on the part of
consumers, depending on the new retail price per bag charged by formal retailers.
• The blanket approach of taxing virgin and recycled content the same actually disincentivises
the use of recycled content, which is at present more expensive than virgin plastic.
In the face of the pressing need for an overall reduction in the consumption of plastic carrier bags,
the levy and other measures can indeed contribute towards that end. However, it could also be
used as a mechanism to “level the playing field” between circular plastic (recycled materials) and
virgin plastic.
A better approach would be to adjust the plastic bag levy to incentivise the use of recycled
content. And to change current consumer behaviour patterns, additional measures could
be considered, such as stocking the plastic bags inside the store instead of at the till-point, and
incentivising consumers to bring a reusable bag by offering discounts.
This would prevent making the mistake of perceiving a plastic bag levy as a significant win in the
fight against plastic pollution. Instead, it can be seen as one intervention in what needs to be a
suite of interventions right across the plastics value chain.
83
EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN WASTE The National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS)
is drawn up by the Department of Environment, Forestry
LEGISLATION LANDSCAPE and Fisheries to achieve the objectives of the Waste Act. The
last NWMS was published in 2011. The draft third NWMS201
In 2008, the National Environmental Management: was released for public comment in 2019 together with a
Waste Act 59 of 2008 was promulgated, leading on from State of Waste Report,202 which updates the National Waste
the National Waste Management Strategy and the White Information Baseline Report of 2012.
Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management.199
The Waste Act is guided by the waste hierarchy and aligns The development of an Integrated Waste Management
with circular economy principles to adopt an integrated Plan (IWMP) is a requirement for all levels of government
solution. The ultimate aim is to design waste out of the system responsible for waste management according to the
and, if waste is generated, to ensure that it is reused, recycled Waste Act.
or recovered before safe disposal.
Following 2008 there was a period categorised as a “flood

of regulation” in an effort to minimise the environmental Plastic is not currently a focus area in the IWMPs
and human health impacts associated with poor waste and the diversion of waste is constrained due to
management while, at the same time, striving to drive available capacity, competence and cost.
waste up the hierarchy.200 The National Environmental
Management: Waste Amendment Act 26 of 2014
was seen to rectify the shortcomings of the Waste Act.
Despite amendments to the Waste Act, however,

many obstacles still exist that make waste
diversion difficult, such as the definition of waste, which
triggers various compliance requirements for service
providers wanting to enter the waste reuse, recycling
and recovery sector.
199 DEA, 2011b.

200 Godfrey & Oelofse, 2017.
201 DEA, 2019b.
202 DEA, 2018.
BOX 17: POLICY AND LEGISLATION – A BARRIER TO COMBATING THE WASTE PROBLEM
The current South African legislative framework for waste recognises and defines waste as an environmental liability.
It is interesting to note that by-products are not considered waste in terms of the Waste Act, and “any portion of waste,
once re-used, recycled and recovered, ceases to be waste”.203
Waste is described in the Waste Act as “protection-based” and something that “needs controlling” via regulation, norms
and standards. Thus any effort for reuse, recycling or recovery of waste triggers extensive legislative requirements,
creating a huge barrier to entry into this space.204 Another element to this over-regulated environment is that
municipalities technically own waste and become gate-keepers of waste.
Furthermore, the Municipal Finance Management Act 56 of 2003 requires that all service providers must be contracted
for a three-year tender period. Waste management companies contracted by municipalities would not be able to pay
back their infrastructure costs over this period, which prohibits meaningful long-term waste management contracts.
203 Also see the definitions of “waste” in the National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act 24 of 2008 and the National Water Act 36 of 1998.
204 Oelofse & Godfrey, 2008; Godfrey & Oelofse, 2017.

The National Environmental Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008 Section 28 Notice was published on 6 December 2017.
This meant that packaging was declared a priority waste by the government and the plastics industry needed to submit an
Industry Waste Management Plan (IndWMP) to the government by September 2018. All producers were also required to
register with the government by 6 February 2018.
The IndWMPs for Paper and Packaging were submitted by Packaging SA as a Federation of Plans for each packaging material
stream. The pricing strategy for the IndWMPs according to section 13 of the Waste Act called for all extended producer
responsibility fees to be collected through the fiscus and then disbursed through the Waste Bureau. However, the submitted
IndWMPs for Paper and Packaging stated that the collection of funds was to remain with the industry and that the producer
responsibility organisations would disburse funds as necessary.
A response from the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries was not forthcoming and in December 2019 the
Section 28 Notice was withdrawn and all IndWMPs were dismissed by the Minister. None of the submitted plans complied with
the criteria in the Section 28 Notice, specifically with reference to the pricing strategy. The new approach to be undertaken is
extended producer responsibility as contemplated under section 18 of the Waste Act. It is expected that the Extended Producer
Responsibility Regulations for Paper and Packaging will be published in October 2020 for implementation in early 2021.
BOX 18: EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY – AN ENABLER IN COMBATING THE

WASTE PROBLEM
Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is a governance and financial mechanism to shift the responsibility for
the end-of-life management of products and materials to producers. There are two main intentions behind the
establishment of these kinds of systems:205
1. To share the physical, organisational and financial responsibility for waste management, including collection,
sorting and recycling, between producers and the government, thus reducing the burden on municipalities.
This creates more resourceful and effective schemes that would increase the end-of-life collection, reuse,
environmentally sound treatment and recycling of collected products.
2. To provide incentives for producers to ensure that plastic packaging is designed to be easily collected and recycled
or reused.
Producers (obliged companies) pay extended producer responsibility fees per tonne of material consumed to the
producer responsibility organisations. These funds are used to support collection and recycling operations while also
offering support for various projects.
As a result, the establishment of extended producer responsibility can contribute to:
• Artificially raising the value of plastic packaging and products, resulting in a higher probability of collection
• Introducing efficient collection schemes for specific waste streams, including plastic packaging
• Shifting the responsibility for post-consumer management of packaging to the producers who place the plastic
packaging on the market.
205 Watkins et al., 2017.
Extended producer responsibility schemes have positive effects up and down the value chain, making them an ideal
tool to push the economy towards circularity. To close the loop towards plastic circularity, it is necessary to reduce
the disposal of end-of-life plastics in landfills or the environment and the use of virgin feedstocks by replacing them with
recycled materials.
85
6
South Africa faces numerous challenges regarding waste management, even though sophisticated
legislation is in place. Constitutionally, the safe disposal of end-of-life products once they appear in
the municipal waste stream, including paper and packaging, is a core function of local government.206
However, a lack of enforcement and competing interests have led to ineffective implementation. Weak
ITEMS DOWN governance and a lack of funding, appropriate infrastructure (e.g. engineered landfills, weighbridges)
and technical capacity are a reality at local government level, especially in peri-urban and rural areas.
AND OUT? This is demonstrated in the compliance results from public waste management facilities.207 In 2017,
75 municipal waste sites were audited and only 22% had compliance levels of 70% and above, while
six sites had no data.
In addition, the much-needed transition to waste prevention and diversion to reuse, recycling and
recovery is more expensive relative to disposal to land, with the consequence that this (disposal to
1. STRAWS landfill and dumping) remains the dominant waste disposal technology in South Africa. This current
state of affairs has up until now constrained the growth of the recycling sector to only those waste
streams that are economically viable, e.g. ferrous metals, PET and paper.208 However, according to
the 2018 State of Waste Report,209 progress has been made since 2011. In 2011, 90% of waste
was landfilled whereas, according to the 2018 report, up to 40% of waste has since been diverted to
2. STIRRERS recycling and other uses.
The lack of data on waste and material flows has also hampered effective strategy and policy
development. The establishment of the South African Waste Information System (SAWIS) is
included in the Waste Act. SAWIS’s objectives are to provide data to effectively manage waste; develop
an Integrated Waste Management Plan, and provide information to the government and the public.
3. COTTON BUDS
The inaccurate reporting on SAWIS is a drawback as the national government needs to rely
on estimated figures from the Waste Baseline Report (2017) instead of actual figures for
planning and other purposes.
4. PLASTIC
PLATES, BOWLS,
CUPS AND
CUTLERY BOX 19: OPERATION PHAKISA – CHEMICALS AND WASTE ECONOMY
The Department of Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation hosts the implementation of
Operation Phakisa. This includes the Chemicals and Waste Phakisa, which is coordinated by
the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries.
The Chemicals and Waste Phakisa provides detailed plans for both local and national
5. EXPANDED interventions about waste management that align with the goals of the National Waste
Management Strategy. It aims to enhance South Africa’s chemicals and waste economy
POLYSTYRENE through increasing the commercialisation of the circular economy, especially waste. It
USED IN FOOD also wants to foster inclusive growth and, through this, reduce the negative environmental
and health impact of waste. The outcomes of the Chemicals and Waste Phakisa align with
PACKAGING the Department of Science and Innovation’s 10-year Waste Research, Development and
Innovation (RDI) Roadmap. The goal is to grow the waste sector from 0,62% of GDP to
1–1,5% of GDP in the next five years via a number of levers, including accelerating the waste
recycling economy and growing the waste-to-energy economy.
6. PLASTIC A work stream for Product Design and Waste Minimisation has been set up, looking at themes
that include food waste, packaging waste and refuse-derived fuel. Through the packaging
MICROBEADS IN
COSMETICS
206 Section 9 of the Waste Act 59 of 2008.

207 DEA, 2018.
208 Godfrey et al., 2016.
209 DEA, 2018.

waste theme, the aim is to create 2 400 jobs, divert 146 000 tonnes of packaging waste from
landfill and contribute an extra R36 million to overall GDP.
The aim within the packaging waste theme is to increase recycling through rethinking design and
formalising the extended producer responsibility mechanisms. This will be done by:
• Rethinking packaging design to ensure that it is recyclable and contains a minimum recycled
content
• Developing national packaging design guidelines and a grading system (see Box 12)
• Implementing a successful extended producer responsibility mechanism through a

Section 18 Notice, which will be promulgated in 2020 (see Box 18)
Adopting the waste hierarchy approach and supporting circular economy principles are
measures to address high unemployment, which is the case in South Africa. Creating an enabling
environment to establish a secondary resource economy in South Africa is forecast to generate
approximately 70 000 direct jobs, with a subsequent multiplier effect of two to three times for the
number of indirect and induced jobs.
‘Nude’ or unpackaged fresh produce is available for selected fruit and vegetables at Food Lovers Market stores. © Food Lovers Market
87
SOUTH AFRICA'S
INVOLVEMENT IN
GLOBAL INITIATIVES AND
VOLUNTARY AGREEMENTS
Numerous global and regional initiatives and voluntary
agreements have been established with different approaches
to solve the plastic pollution challenge.
INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES, PARTNERSHIPS AND FRAMEWORKS

Since 1972, South Africa has ratified several international treaties, forged partnerships and subscribed
to legal frameworks to combat plastic pollution in its terrestrial and marine environment. This is giving
South Africa a firm footing to voice its concerns in global forums, on the one hand, and gaining access to
the latest environmental considerations regarding the combating of plastic pollution, on the other. Various
initiatives and platforms exist and this list is not exhaustive.
2019
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal, which South Africa is party to, at its 14th Conference of the Parties, adopted a
decision to incorporate certain categories of plastic under its scope. This includes giving parties the right
to prohibit the import of plastic at end of life as well as requiring parties to obtain prior written informed
consent for the export of plastic of this nature. To be traded, waste plastic has to be clean and must
consist of single or clearly defined plastic polymer types that can be recycled. Mixed bales of rubbish are
not acceptable.
This decision obtained great media coverage and was seen as a statement from the 187 countries to
address the plastic pollution problem. Since then, the world has seen developing countries, specifically
the Philippines and Indonesia, sending back shipments of plastic scrap and waste to countries of origin,
including the USA, the UK and Australia.
South Africa became a signatory in May 1994. The Basel amendments will take effect from
1 January 2021.
2017 The G20 Action Plan on Marine Litter was agreed upon by the G20 countries (akin to the G7 Action
Plan of 2015). The action plan includes a commitment to “take action to prevent and reduce marine litter of
all kinds, including from single-use plastics and micro-plastics”.
South Africa is one of the G20 countries.

As global governance frameworks, however, these action plans have some inherent limitations,
the most evident being that they include only a limited number of states. Another notable
drawback is that they are not legally binding, and do not have compliance mechanisms, funding
systems or effective implementation support architectures.
2015
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted by all UN member states. A blueprint for
achieving this agenda took the form of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The SDGs that specifically relate to combating plastic pollution are:
• SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation

• SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth
• SDG 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure
• SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities
• SDG12: Responsible consumption and production
• SDG 13: Climate action
• SDG 14: Life below water
• SDG 15: Life on land
• SDG 17: Partnerships for the goals
2014
Several UN Environment Assembly (UNEA) resolutions have been made on marine litter and
microplastics from the first UNEA meeting in 2014. These resolutions called for strengthening the
UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP) role in taking action on marine litter and microplastics in
UNEA-1; establishing the Ad Hoc Open-Ended Expert Group on Marine Litter and Microplastics in
UNEA-3; and addressing single-use plastics in UNEA-4. Resolutions also call for greater collaboration and
coordination of efforts to address plastic pollution.
South Africa is part of the member states participating in the UNEA discussions.
2011
The Honolulu Strategy: Global Framework for Prevention and Management of Marine
Debris is a voluntary approach to connect marine litter programmes and foster collaboration among
them by sharing lessons learned and best practices. It is the recommended framework to be used for
UNEP’s GPA (see 1995 below).
South Africa is part of two Regional Seas Programme Conventions, namely the Abidjan and Nairobi
conventions, which places it in a unique position to coordinate initiatives through both platforms.
The Abidjan Convention is currently undergoing a regional assessment on marine litter to inform a
Regional Action Plan to address marine litter in member countries. The Nairobi Convention completed a
marine litter assessment in 2008 and is currently implementing its Regional Action Plan.
1995
The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-
based Activities (GPA) was set up in 1995 and is hosted by UNEP. The Global Programme of Action aims
to foster collaboration and coordination among states to prevent marine pollution from land-based sources
and encourage action at the national, regional and international level. The programme operates primarily
through the Regional Seas Programme.
The success of the GPA is debatable: for more than two decades after its establishment the
results have not been particularly convincing. Part of the reason for this could be that it lacks a
functioning compliance mechanism. It also does not provide sufficient funding for the implementation
of the objectives in developing countries.
89
1982
Part XII (Articles 192–237) of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS) aims
to protect and preserve the marine environment from land- and sea-based sources of marine pollution.
UNCLOS is a comprehensive convention that covers virtually all matters relating to the management and
use of the ocean.
South Africa ratified UNCLOS on 23 December 1997.
1978
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) aims to
prevent marine pollution from operational or accidental causes by ships.
South Africa accepted participation in MARPOL in February 1985.
1972
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter
(the London Convention) and the 1996 Protocol to the London Convention (the London Protocol) aim
to control pollution of the sea by dumping and to encourage regional agreements supplementary to
the Convention.
South Africa is a party to the London Convention.
AFRICAN PARTNERSHIPS
2020
President Cyril Ramaphosa is the chairperson of the African Union (AU) in 2020, presenting another
opportunity for leadership in the case where the AU has also called on African cities to commit to recycling
at least 50% of the urban waste they generate by 2023 and to grow urban waste recycling industries.210
2019
In 2019 the African First Ladies took the lead on the plastics front by hosting two high-level side events.
The first was on Banning Plastics towards a Pollution-free Africa Campaign, which resulted in the
Addis Ababa Communique to advocate the banning of plastics. The second was on Plastic Pollution
Solutions for Development in Africa to initiate the implementation of the Communique.
2016
The East African Legislative Assembly passed a Bill in 2016 to ban the manufacture, sale, import
and use of certain plastic bags across its six member states, with a combined population of approximately
186 million people.211 A total of 127 countries have put into force some type of legislation to ban the use,
manufacture, free distribution and import of plastic bags as at July 2018. African countries have been seen
to be leaders in this regard, with 37 countries regulating plastic bags in some way.
BOX 20: TOWARDS A NEW GLOBAL LEGALLY BINDING AGREEMENT ON PLASTIC POLLUTION
Acknowledging the current gaps in the existing strategies, policies and frameworks, WWF recognises and supports
the need for an effective global response to plastic pollution through the implementation of a new international legally
binding agreement. Such a treaty would make the issue of plastic pollution a joint global undertaking, setting clear
responsibilities for states and ensuring accountability for the growing production, consumption and leakage of plastics
into the environment.
The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) held in Durban in November 2019, saw
54 member states endorse a declaration calling for global action on plastic pollution. Among the options to be further
explored was a suggestion for a new global agreement to combat plastic pollution. African governments have now
joined the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Pacific Island
Countries and the Nordic states in their call for strong global action on plastic pollution.
The South African Minister of the Environment, Barbara Creecy, holds the AMCEN presidency for 2020/21, which is an
opportunity for South Africa to take the lead on a number of topics, including addressing the plastic pollution challenge.
210 UNEP, 2018a.

211 East African Legislative Assembly, 2016.

THE NEW PLASTICS ECONOMY AND THE SOUTH AFRICAN PLASTICS PACT
The New Plastics Economy is an ambitious global initiative to build momentum towards a plastics system that works. It applies
the principles of the circular economy and brings together key stakeholders to rethink and redesign the future of plastics, starting
with packaging. The New Plastics Economy Global Commitment is a shared vision agreed upon by businesses, governments and
organisations to address plastic pollution at source. It is led by The Ellen MacArthur Foundation together with UNEP to drive
engagement with governments and other key players.212
The New Plastics Economy also hosts a global Plastics Pact Network, which is a platform for multiple national implementation
initiatives. Each national initiative will be aligned with the common vision outlined in the Global Commitment, but will
set national targets and develop a roadmap to suit the local context. The South African Plastics Pact was launched by
WWF South Africa in partnership with the South African Plastics Recycling Organisation (SAPRO) and the UK’s Water and
Resources Action Programme (WRAP) in January 2020. It is the first national Plastics Pact in Africa and joins the global
Plastics Pact Network.
BOX 21: THE SOUTH AFRICAN PLASTICS PACT – A FIRST IN AFRICA

The South African Plastics Pact was launched in January 2020 and joined The Ellen
MacArthur Foundation’s Plastics Pact global network, aligned with the New Plastics Economy
vision. The first of its kind in Africa, the South African Plastics Pact joins France, the UK, the
Netherlands, Chile, Australia and the Pacific and the European Union to exchange knowledge
and collaborate to accelerate the transition to a circular economy for plastic.
The South African Plastics Pact is managed and implemented by GreenCape, with the founding members committed to a
series of ambitious targets for 2025 to prevent plastics from becoming waste or pollution.
At the date of publication, the South African Plastics Pact members are Berry Astrapack, the Clicks Group,
Clover, Coca-Cola Africa, Danone, Distell, HomeChoice, Myplas, Pick n Pay, Polyoak, Palletplast, RCL Foods,
SPAR, Spur Holdings, The Foschini Group, Tigerbrands, Tuffy, Unilever and Woolworths. Supporting
member organisations include the African Circular Economy Network, African Reclaimers Organisation,
the City of Cape Town, the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, Fruit South Africa,
the Institute of Waste Management of Southern Africa, the Polyolefin Responsibility Organisation,
the Polystyrene Association of South Africa, the PET Recycling Company, South African Bottled Water Association,
SAPRO and the Southern African Vinyls Association.
By 2025, all members commit to:
• Eliminate problematic or unnecessary plastic packaging through redesign, innovation or alternative (reuse) delivery
models
• 100% of plastic packaging to be reusable, recyclable or compostable*
• 70% of plastic packaging effectively recycled
• 30% average post-consumer recycled content across all plastic packaging
*In the case of compostables, this is applicable only in closed-loop and controlled systems with sufficient infrastructure
available or fit-for-purpose applications.
212 The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2019a.
91
In order to achieve these 2025 targets for a circular economy for plastic in South Africa, various activities are required:
• Some plastic items are problematic or unnecessary and need to be designed out.
• Reuse models can reduce the need for single-use packaging, while at the same time holding the potential for
significant user and business benefits.
• All plastics need to be designed to be reusable, recyclable or compostable in practice and at scale, with a concerted
effort on both the design and the after-use side.
By delivering on these targets, the South African Plastics Pact will help to boost job creation in the South African plastic
collection and recycling sector, and help to create new opportunities in product design and reuse business models.
Following the launch, GreenCape, with the support of WWF South Africa and WRAP, has developed the
South African Plastics Pact roadmap for 2025 towards collective action in the local market, with annual public
progress reporting.
ALLIANCE TO END PLASTIC WASTE

Another global initiative is the Alliance to End Plastic Waste (AEPW), which was founded by various global petrochemical
companies. The alliance aims to raise funds in order to invest in developing and scaling up solutions to manage plastic at end
of life, through education, innovation, clean-ups and investment in infrastructure in Southeast Asia. The fundraising and
investment target is $1,5 billion, to be provided by the member organisations over the next five years.213 Sasol is currently the only
African-owned company which is a member of the Alliance.
AFRICAN MARINE WASTE NETWORK

The African Marine Waste Network is a project under the Sustainable Seas Trust. It aims to prevent marine litter at source by
providing a platform for collaboration and knowledge sharing through its network of government bodies, industry and civil
society. Its current projects include developing and testing marine litter monitoring guidelines in collaboration with UNEP,
developing educational materials for schools, promoting enterprise development and providing research expertise in ghost gear
and microplastics.
CLiP
The Commonwealth Litter Programme (CLiP) aims to support four developing countries (the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu,
South Africa and Belize) in preventing plastic litter from entering the marine environment. CLiP is led by the UK through the
Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) and is funded by the UK Department for Environment, Food
and Rural Affairs (Defra).
THE AFRICAN CIRCULAR ECONOMY ALLIANCE

The African Circular Economy Alliance is a project hosted under the Platform for Accelerating the Circular Economy by the
World Resources Institute. It aims to share best practices, undertake collaborative projects and advocate for the circular economy
between countries at a ministerial level. The alliance was founded by Rwanda, South Africa and Nigeria in 2016, and joined by
Niger, Senegal, Malawi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2018.
213 AEPW, 2019.

ACTORS AND ACTIONS
IN SUMMARY
All actors in the plastics value chain have a role to play in
tackling the plastic pollution challenge. While there are
several policies and actions at play, little can be achieved
without collaboration and the alignment of these actions.
1. An expanding value chain: South Africa has an established plastics value chain which
contributes positively to GDP. Due to the increased demand for plastics locally, further expansion
in production is being explored without considering end-of-life implications.
2. Poorly aligned policy: Government departments such as the Department of Environment,

Forestry and Fisheries, the Department of Science an Innovation and the Department of Trade,
Industry and Competition, all have interests in plastics, but the policy strategies of these
departments are poorly aligned.
3. Implementation challenges: There have been ongoing changes to the National

Environmental Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008 to align with the waste hierarchy and support
a circular economy. However, challenges in implementation are due to a lack of capacity, funding
and infrastructure.
4. Research to change perceptions: There has been increasing research on waste and material
management in South Africa. The Department of Science and Innovation is funding projects
and research to build capacity in the waste sector and change the perception towards waste as
a secondary resource with considerable business opportunities and potential for job creation.
Research institutions and pilot projects can showcase innovation in the value chain with new
product delivery models and circular systems. Scaling up of these solutions are needed.
5. A lack of holistic action: In South Africa, regionally and globally, a number of strategies,
policies and legislation aimed at addressing plastic pollution have been developed. Bans on plastic
carrier bags have been the most common form of regulation in African countries. International
policy and strategies do not address the plastic pollution crisis holistically. Increasingly, there are
calls for a new intergovernmental legally binding agreement to address this.
6. Extended producer responsibility: Industry has been managing voluntary extended

producer responsibility (EPR) since the early 2000s; however, there has been several delays
in the implementation of mandatory extended producer responsibility in South Africa and the
development of binding targets for waste diversion from landfill.
7. New trends: Voluntary agreements and multisector collaborative platforms are a trend that
emerged during 2019 with the development and launch of initiatives such as the South African
Plastics Pact in January 2020.
8. Civil society organisations: More than ever before, civil society organisations and initiatives
are getting more attention and are creating awareness of the plastic pollution problem among
ordinary citizens.
93
SECTION 5
ACTIONS FOR
A CIRCULAR
PLASTICS
FUTURE
A business-as-usual approach to plastic
production and consumption is not compatible
with a sustainable environment and society. The
good news is that viable solutions already exist to
right the system, rapidly and at the required scale.

Fresh fruit and vegetables in a reusable net bag as an alternative to a plastic carrier bag. © cottonbro from Pexels
95
DRIVING CHANGE TOWARDS A
CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY
WWF focuses on four practical areas to drive systemic and collaborative
change towards a circular plastics economy that eliminates waste and
pollution: examining the trade-offs and making the hard decisions,
accountability based on accurate and trusted data, unlocking investment,
and supporting the local industry.
TOWARDS A CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY IN SOUTH AFRICA
1 Trade-offs and decision-making

• Align to a common vision ENVIRONMENT
• Strengthen plastics policy and regulation SOCIETY
• Support a legally binding international agreement
• Protect basic services and human dignity
2 Ensure accountability
Trade-offs and d
eci
• Develop evidence-sharing systems

sion-m king
stry
• Commit to time-bound national targets
indu
a
• Transparently report on progress

cal
CIRCULAR
Support lo
3 Unlock investment PLASTICS

n t a b ilit y
• Implement an industry strategy ECONOMY

• Support the South African Plastics Pact
ac
co u
Ensure
• Capacitate packaging technologists
• Fund new technology and business models
U nloc
• Scale up product delivery innovation

in v
es t m e n t
k
4 Support local industry

• Increase recycled content in plastic packaging
• Educate and mobilise for separation-at-source
• Develop mechanisms for levelling the playing field

“A transition to a circular In the content that follows, the four practical areas are
discussed in more detail along with the barriers and necessary
economy shifts the focus to actions to overcome them. The focus is on plastic packaging
and items used in consumer goods in South Africa. These
reusing, repairing, refurbishing, actions, some already identified and initiated by various
re-purposing and recycling and stakeholders, are the necessary starting points for building a
more circular and sustainable plastics system.
up-cycling. It requires industry
Sectors that produce and use plastic products that are prone
to redesign complete supply to leakage and cause significant environmental damage have
been identified in the text. These include marine-based sectors
chains for resource efficiency and (discarded fishing gear and waste dumped at sea) and sectors
circularity. We need to create responsible for the manufacture of sanitary wear, nappies
and cigarettes (cigarette butts). The scope of this report does
markets responding to shifts in not include actions for these sectors. There is a paucity of
data on marine-based sources of pollution in South African
consumption patterns, away waters, and WWF South Africa has not yet engaged with the
from traditional ownership tobacco industry in the country. However, various global
interventions have been published for these industries and
towards using, reusing, sharing WWF South Africa is planning engagements with the relevant
sectors in South Africa to find solutions.
and more circularity.”
– Mr Kgauta Mokoena, Chief Director: Chemicals and Waste Policy, Monitoring and
Evaluation, 2018 African Circular Economy Alliance event in Rwanda
A woman cutting plastic carrier bags into strips to make mats and other products. © iStock by Getty Images
97
EXAMINING THE TRADE-OFFS AND
MAKING THE HARD DECISIONS
The government and industry must implement and drive action in order to
deliver the required solutions to take forward – nationally, regionally and
globally. However, this requires that they together examine the trade-offs of
these actions and make the hard decisions upfront.
The plastics industry and various sectors that consume

plastics (fishing, tobacco, retailers, tourism and hospitality)
ALIGNING TO A COMMON VISION
find themselves in an uncomfortable position at present. The plastics life cycle is complex and no single organisation
On the one hand there is a rising consumer outcry on the or stakeholder can tackle the plastic pollution problem on
environmental impact of plastic; on the other hand, an their own. When stakeholders in the plastics value chain
unabated demand for the product due to its versatility and do not see the same solutions to this problem, it leads to a
affordability. The economic, social and environmental trade- stalemate within the sector. Cross-sectoral, multi-stakeholder
offs between plastic and alternative materials and systems, collaboration is required and, most importantly, the setting of
as well as virgin and recycled materials, need to be accurately a common agenda for collective action is a critical step. Given
quantified to realise lasting benefits. A clean environment is the many ongoing activities and interventions in the plastics
a socio-economic asset but it is imperative that, during this landscape, it is important that efforts are not duplicated.
process, any impact on jobs or livelihoods is compensated for.
This common vision should be founded on circularity and
We should change our mindset sustainability principles with a holistic systems thinking
approach. It needs to be reflected in and aligned with
away from the concept of waste the relevant policies and regulations across government
departments and levels, through investments in the necessary
management to sustainable and technology and infrastructure, as well as in initiatives led by
circular resource management. the government, industry and civil society organisations.
Examining the trade-offs and making these hard decisions STRENGTHENING PLASTICS POLICY AND
require an integrated solution and extensive funding
to address plastic and other waste streams (secondary
REGULATION
resources). A circular plastics economy must be established, Various policy instruments that incentivise sustainable
where plastic is valued and never becomes waste, and jobs are plastics production, consumption and disposal are urgently
sustainable. In other words, we should change our mindset needed. These instruments should include regulation,
away from the concept of waste management to sustainable certification and standards on plastics packaging including
and circular resource management. biodegradable and compostable plastics.
The collaboration between private industry and government A mandatory extended producer responsibility (EPR)
(national, provincial and local) via the mandatory extended scheme is a critical policy instrument to hold industry and
producer responsibility scheme and the integration of the government accountable. The aim should be to ensure
informal waste reclaimers at municipal and community level that the responsibility for plastic products put on the market
will be a crucial factor for future success. In addition, the extend beyond sales to the collection and processing of plastic
proposed transition to a circular plastics economy calls for packaging and products at end of life. The EPR scheme will
behaviour change at a sectoral level, which includes enhancing need to have a long-term and ambitious vision, including
institutional capacity. landfill diversion, collection and recycling targets for plastics,
and should align with separation-at-source targets for other
waste streams. It will need to be reinforced by additional local
government reforms to provide easier access for recyclers

and other secondary markets to plastic materials
after disposal. The informal waste sector should be
ALIGNING WITH AND SUPPORTING A
recognised and integrated in the mandatory EPR LEGALLY BINDING INTERNATIONAL
scheme.
AGREEMENT
An incentive for sustainable and circular design of
The steady pollution of the global commons
PLASTICS
plastic packaging should be included in the design
of the EPR scheme through modulated EPR fees.214 requires an international response at multiple SHOULD BE SEEN
Modulating fees is an instrument that puts the levels of governance. To address the systemic AS A SECONDARY
challenges across the plastics life cycle and
circular plastics economy into practice and should
the impact of plastic pollution across borders, RESOURCE, NOT
be seriously considered. However, the complexities
of designing a mechanism for fees adjusted to WWF supports the call for a new international AS WASTE
reward producers according to products designed legally binding agreement on plastic pollution
for local conditions will take time. In addition (see Box 20). African Ministers declared their
to EPR fee modulation, various information- support for a global response at the African
based policy instruments can further promote Ministerial Conference on the Environment
the sustainable and circular design of plastic (AMCEN), held in Durban in November 2019.
packaging and products. These include guidelines
As the chair of AMCEN and the African Union
on packaging design for circularity, eco-labelling,
(AU) for 2020, South Africa can provide
on-pack recycling labels (OPRLs) and inclusion
strong leadership through these institutions to
of recycled content and product standards and
initiate measures to support African countries
certification. In particular, standards, certification
to collectively deal with plastic production,
and regulation for biodegradable and compostable
consumption imports and end-of-life management.
plastics are urgently needed.
The recycling industry and producer responsibility
The unprecedented low price of virgin plastic, organisations can work together with the
a consequence of the low oil price due to government to share knowledge and benefit from
COVID-19 and other geopolitical pressures, has collaboration with other African countries. This
decidedly reduced the price competitiveness of support includes:
recycled plastic compared to that of virgin plastic
• Open trade of plastic at end of life between
in 2020. This has a significant negative impact
South Africa and African countries with
on the demand for recycled plastic, leading to
no recycling infrastructure to recycle and
closures of recycling facilities, the value of plastic
reprocess plastic for use in the African
scrap nearing zero and the loss of valuable jobs
economy, in line with measures outlined in the
and livelihoods in the informal and formal waste
amendment of the Basel Convention in May
sector. In order to “level the playing field”, it
2019 to control the transboundary movement
is recommended that economic or regulatory
of plastic waste
instruments be used, namely taxes or regulation on
a minimum recycled content in applicable products • Knowledge sharing and enabling investment in
and packaging.215 In order to incentivise and enable infrastructure in African countries
a market for circular plastics, tax exemptions on
products with recycled content (such as plastic • Facilitating regional collaboration under the
carrier bags) and subsidies to assist the waste and aegis of AMCEN and the AU to develop a
recycling sector need to be implemented. regional plastics policy to address unchecked
imports and the unsustainable production and
Overall, the narrative needs to shift away consumption of plastic, to ensure that African
from viewing plastic as “waste” and rather countries do not become the dumping ground
seeing it as a “secondary resource” in a circular of plastics waste from developed countries
plastics economy. It is essential that this shift
in perspective (and terminology) is reflected
in national policy to create more business
opportunities and circular material flow.216
214 EPR fees are set up (modulated) to reward producers (bonus) for designing products that mitigate their impact on the environment (products that can be
recycled) or disincentivise (malus) for placing less circular or environmentally friendly products.
215 As has been proposed in the EU Green Deal and the proposed UK Plastic Packaging tax (UK Government, 2020).
216 Germany is now referring to landfills as “asset stockpiles”, further enforcing the view that the government’s definitions concerning plastic after first use
must change from defining it as a material with liability to a valuable resource.
99
THE PROVISION OF PROTECTING BASIC SERVICES AND HUMAN DIGNITY
BASIC SERVICES The current poor performance of municipal solid-waste management departments needs to be
AND ACCESS TO addressed along with plans to improve waste collection coverage and rates. This should be done through
A CLEAN AND collaborating with informal waste reclaimers and integrating them into the waste management sector
at municipal and community levels. Steps must be taken to ensure that they are able to carry out their
POLLUTION-FREE services in a dignified manner and are compensated accordingly.
ENVIRONMENT ARE
The diversion of plastics and other valuable materials from landfill is crucial, as is the responsible
CONSTITUTIONAL disposal of the remaining materials in engineered landfills to minimise the leakage of waste into
RIGHTS the environment. This will go a long way in reducing illegal dumping, non-compliant landfills and
open burning.
South African municipal waste collectors using personal protective

equipment while collecting waste during the COVID-19 lockdown period. © iStock by Getty Images

ENSURING ACCOUNTABILITY
Once the hard decisions have been made by the government and industry,
progress towards a circular economy for plastics needs to be monitored and
publicly reported to ensure accountability. This requires bold leadership,
accurate data collection and transparency.
A trusted, centralised and accurate data repository is required Research into alternative materials and delivery models needs
to close the current data gaps in plastic pollution research to ensure that the unintended environmental and socio-
and the quantification of socio-economic and environmental economic impacts are taken into account by using Life Cycle
impacts. It is crucial to establish a baseline of the current Assessment or other credible methods. For example, a recent
plastics landscape in South Africa in order to understand Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment study conducted by the
where interventions are needed, and to measure progress CSIR on plastic carrier bags should be used by brand owners
towards targets to reach the desired state. Monitoring of and and retailers to make informed decisions about the future
transparent reporting on progress made towards these targets procurement of carrier bags.
will support ongoing interventions and assist in identifying
new areas of focus for industry and the government once COMMITTING TO AMBITIOUS, TIME-BOUND
NATIONAL TARGETS
the targets have been met. Adequate monitoring and
reporting will also drive accountability in a wider context by
reflecting the compliance of organisations with the regular
It is recommended that the relevant stakeholders in the
monitoring and reporting requirements of the UN Sustainable
plastics value chain commit to targets for collection,
Development Goals.
diversion from landfill, recycling and leakage prevention
DEVELOPING SYSTEMS FOR SHARING LOCAL for plastics, through regulation and voluntary agreements.
Ambitious targets to ensure the increasing circularity
EVIDENCE of plastic packaging have already been set by members
of the South African Plastics Pact (see Box 21). National
Collaboration between the government, industry, research ambitions should be further supported by regulation
institutions and civil society is needed to reach agreement that provides the framework for the development,
on a centralised and accurate data repository for baseline implementation, monitoring and evaluation of extended
data to map plastic material flows. This should include data producer responsibility (EPR) schemes (see Box 18) by
on production, direct imports (plastic resins, finished and producers, importers and brand owners. The EPR framework
semi-finished goods, scrap and packaging), indirect imports should have targets for collection, landfill diversion, recycling
(products containing plastic or packaged in plastic), and post-consumer recycled content to ensure that products
leakage, collection, diversion from landfill and recycling. are designed to be recycled and reused.
Agreed-upon monitoring and reporting methodologies also
need to be included. REPORTING ON PROGRESS IN A
While data exists on direct plastic imports using SARS tariff TRANSPARENT WAY
code 39, there is a significant data gap on imported indirect
plastic products that do not fall under code 39. This data is Progress made towards these time-bound targets to achieve
required to determine what proportion of the waste stream a circular economy for plastics will be measured from the
is made up of indirect plastic imports to ensure equitable established baseline and strengthen the importance of the
responsibility for this plastic at end of life. Leakage and data repository. It should be independently audited and
material flow data should be used to identify and prioritise publicly reported to ensure accountability. This data will be
various hotspots according to geographical area or for product used to monitor plastic material flows and leakage volumes
and packaging formats, and plastic types. This data should into the environment to determine the success of regulation,
also be used to develop product standards and terminology voluntary agreements and other supporting interventions.
for different plastic materials (bio-based, biodegradable,
compostable, conventional plastics) and additives in order
to improve transparency on material composition and of
product claims.
101
UNLOCKING INVESTMENT
Increasing the value of end-of-life plastics and scaling up novel
product delivery systems will ensure that the plastic material
remains within the economy and subsequently create much-
needed opportunities in a labour-intensive sector.
Investment for interventions across the plastics ensure that plastic remains in the economy. This
TAKE MAKE WASTE lifecycle will fast-track the transition from the could partly address the current trade deficit due to
current linear economic model of “take-make- the shortage of locally available ethylene.
waste” to a circular plastics economy. One of the
biggest barriers is the plethora of plastic materials SUPPORTING THE SOUTH AFRICAN
PLASTICS PACT
CIRCULAR and formats with varying degrees of circularity
ECONOMY (reusability, recyclability and recycled content),
along with the insufficient collection and diversion
Businesses and organisations across the plastics
of end-of-life plastic material. Increasing the
packaging value chain are encouraged to
value of plastics through the mandatory extended
collaborate. All direct stakeholders in the plastics
producer responsibility scheme will act as an
packaging value chain are well placed to become
incentive to collect post-consumer plastics, unlock
a member of the South African Plastics Pact (see
much-needed investment in infrastructure and
Box 21), while indirect stakeholders are best placed
create multiple business opportunities and jobs in
to become supporting members. As members,
the sector.
businesses and organisations will set the example
IMPLEMENTING AN INDUSTRY by demanding more recycled content in packaging

and ensuring that all plastic packaging is recycled
STRATEGY FOR PLASTICS in practice or is reusable. This will in turn drive up
the value of the material and create new business
The current fragmentation in the plastics industry and investment opportunities. Considering the
should be addressed through the development of short- and medium-term impacts of the COVID-19
an overarching industry strategy. This will support pandemic coupled with the unprecedented low oil
the need for a common vision, address the socio- price, this collaboration is crucial.
economic and environmental sustainability of the
industry and strengthen and consolidate other INSPIRING PACKAGING TECHNOLOGISTS
TO DESIGN FOR CIRCULARITY
initiatives within the government and industry.
The strategy will be a valuable and much-needed
input into the plastic sector Master Plan (replacing
Raising the awareness of and educating packaging
the Industrial Policy Action Plans217) which is
technologists are important to achieve, first,
currently under development under the aegis of the
packaging that is recycled in practice and second,
Department of Trade, Industry and Competition.
circular packaging design. Rationalising218
The Master Plan, with a clear vision and strategy materials and formats will reduce the current
from industry, is well placed to identify key inefficiencies in recycling and drive economies of
areas for investment. Investment in technology scale, which will ultimately reduce plastic leakage
(chemical and mechanical recycling infrastructure, into the environment. Buy-in from marketing
equipment for converters) and other system and branding divisions in organisations and
interventions (collection, product design) will plastic packaging industry bodies will ensure that
217 The Industrial Policy Action Plans (IPAPs) provide an economic analysis of prevailing global and domestic economic conditions relevant to
industrial policy and time-bound action plans and programmes across a range of sectors and list the key constraints to an optimal industrial strategy.
See gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201805/industrial-policy-action-plan.pdf
218 Rationalising means consolidating and reducing the number of polymer types, formats, colours and additives in plastic packaging in order to create a
standard that is easily identified, collected and recycled or reused.

packaging decisions support targets, such as ensuring that products should lead to the required rationalisation of plastic
100% of plastic packaging is reusable or recyclable and has packaging materials and formats to support recycling and
post-consumer recycled content. alternative reuse models (see Figure 15), and ensure that
products contain recycled content. This in turn should lead to
Norms and standards for packaging design for circularity the scaling up of current mechanical recycling capacity and
are needed. These norms and standards must go beyond the chemical recycling opportunities. The plastics sector Master
current Design for Recycling, to include reduction of virgin Plan currently under development is one of the mechanisms
material input, reuse of materials, as well as the new on-pack to realise this.
recycling label (OPRL) scheme (see Box 13). At present, there
is a significant gap in harmonised standards and guidance on
plastic packaging. The result is a diverse range of materials,
SCALING UP PRODUCT DELIVERY INNOVATIONS
formats and labelling, which is an obstacle in achieving cost- There are numerous successful case studies of reuse and refill
effective plastic collection and reprocessing. It is, therefore, delivery models globally, using reverse logistics219 of products
imperative that the Packaging Guideline that is under and packaging, among others (see Case study 6). Retailers
development through the Chemicals and Waste Phakisa (see could follow these examples to explore and innovate, and
Box 19) adheres to international standards and definitions of attract private finance and support. These systems would then
recycling (recycled in practice and not technically recyclable) become more affordable and accessible to more consumers,
such as the International Organization for Standardization open up new business opportunities and reduce waste
(ISO) and The Ellen MacArthur Foundation. generation and plastic leakage into nature.
FUNDING NEW TECHNOLOGY, BUSINESS MODELS The scaling up of existing reuse models, as a promising
AND INFRASTRUCTURE
business model, is being explored by The Ellen MacArthur
Foundation New Plastics Economy initiative in the 2019
Reuse: Rethinking Packaging report.220 The South African
Extended producer responsibility fees and finance obtained
Plastics Pact is also planning a project towards the end of
from public–private partnerships must be directed towards
2020 to stimulate innovation in reuse and facilitate the uptake
infrastructure and technology development, as well as
of reuse models in the South African market.
capacity building to minimise and divert plastic waste at
municipal level. The growing demand for circular plastic
FIGURE 15: THE FOUR REUSE MODELS221
REFILL RETURN
1 Return from home Packaging refilled
by user
Packaging returned
to business
Packaging is picked up from home by a pickup service
(e.g. by a logistics company)
Retur
me n fr
2 Return on the go t ho
om
ll a
Users return the packaging at a store or drop-off

Refi
hom
point (e.g. in a deposit-return machine or mailbox)

e
AT HOME
3 Refill on the go
Users refill their reusable containers away from home
ON THE GO
(e.g. at an in-store dispensing system)
o
Refi
he g
4 Refill at home
th e no
ll o
nt
r
go R etu
n
Users refill their resuable containers at home

(e.g. with refills delivered through a subscription service)
219 All activity associated with a product or service after the point of sale.
220 The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2019b.
103
SUPPORTING LOCAL
INDUSTRY
Putting in place the necessary regulations and incentives will
enable the local industry to transition to circularity and expand
markets beyond South Africa. Collaboration and mobilisation
in all sectors in the plastics value chain will lead to this change.
The recycling industry is driven purely by

economic principles with no external subsidies
INCREASING THE USE OF RECYCLED
or incentives and little enforcement of regulation CONTENT IN PLASTIC PACKAGING
(taxes, waste licences). Other sectors, such as resin
producers and converters, also face challenges Targets set in regulation via extended producer
to transition to circularity, such as technology responsibility, policy and economic instruments,
as well as voluntary agreements such as the South
THERE ARE limitations and lock-in.222 To support circularity
and increase employment opportunities in the African Plastics Pact, will identify the streams
ALREADY sector locally will entail the following: that can be targeted for increased post-consumer
OPPORTUNITIES • Various policy mechanisms and green public

recycled content and create the much-needed
demand. This should be supported by the
TO SHARE procurement, industry commitment and development of national standards to include
CIRCULAR subsequent enforcement recycled content in products and packaging. Given
that end-markets for recycled plastic have dried up,
PLASTICS • Developing product standards for plastic
salvaging the sector requires urgent interventions
products and packaging (bioplastics, recycled
PRINCIPLES AND content, recyclability), for imports and local
from industry and the government in the short and
BEST PRACTICE
medium term.
manufacturing
INTO AFRICA • Encouraging retailers and brand owners to
A barrier to including post-consumer recycled
content is the technology and equipment used by
support locally manufactured products using
converters. The current plastic manufacturing
locally produced feedstocks (post-consumer
business model is one of high throughput coupled
resin or virgin) where possible
with high capital costs for specialised machinery
• Ensuring that employment opportunities in able to process only a narrow range of resins.
the sector are dignified This makes it challenging and leads to reduced
efficiency when incorporating recycled materials
These actions, among others, will maximise into the feedstock. By rationalising materials
business and job opportunities and position and narrowing the range of plastic products and
the industry to expand markets, not only in packaging formats with varying physical properties
South Africa but also into Africa. There are will ensure more acceptable throughput when
already opportunities to share circular plastics using recyclate feedstocks. Although introducing
principles and best practice into Africa, such as recycled content is a constraint in food contact
recycling infrastructure, reuse models and setting applications of packaging, many opportunities
up EPR schemes and producer responsibility exist in other applications and especially in
organisations. The market for circular plastic secondary and tertiary packaging.
products and packaging in Africa is an opportunity
that the local industry is well placed to take up.
222 When organisations have made a large capital investment, usually in infrastructure, they are “forced” to make use of this infrastructure and associated
processes for the life of the infrastructure. This could be for more than 20 years, which is usually the return-on-investment period.

EDUCATING, MOBILISING AND LEVELLING THE PLAYING FIELD
SEPARATING AT SOURCE BETWEEN LOCAL PRODUCTION
Education and awareness campaigns need to OF CIRCULAR AND NON-CIRCULAR
be set up for brand owners, retailers and shelf-
facing consumers. These campaigns must be
PRODUCTS AND PACKAGING
based on reliable information on reusable and
refillable models for the delivery of products,
To ensure that circular plastic products and
packaging are produced in and imported
THE GROWTH OF THE
the inclusion of recycled content in packaging into South Africa, product standards and LOCAL INDUSTRY
and the recyclability of packaging. Brand
owners and retailers should explore alternative
specifications are needed to inform the
INVOLVED IN THE
development and implementation of targeted
delivery models and packaging materials and and appropriate policy and economic PRODUCTION OF
provide information to consumers to drive instruments. CIRCULAR PRODUCTS
more sustainable consumption and product
stewardship. A good example of consumer Growing the local sector that produces circular AND PACKAGING WILL
empowerment is when six of the major retailers products and packaging (instead of increasing OPEN UP ECONOMIC
in South Africa collectively adopted a standard imports) will expand the membership of current
on-pack recycling label which, for the first time, producer responsibility organisations and AND KNOWLEDGE-
gave consumers clear instructions on what to simplify the implementation and effectiveness SHARING
OPPORTUNITIES
do with the packaging after use (see Box 13). of extended producer responsibility. Extended
This has multiple benefits in the value chain producer responsibility should also apply to
through increased and improved separation-at- imported packaging and packaged goods224 to
source (s@s) so that more plastic material can be ensure that the end-of-life management of all
recovered after use. packaging coming into the country is funded.
Separation-at-source is the best way to ensure To further support circularity locally,

that the plastics stream for recycling remains brand owners and retailers need to identify
uncontaminated. Economic incentives could be product ranges where locally manufactured
used to maximise recovery of plastics and other products can replace existing imports and
packaging, such as deposit-return schemes in where manufacturers can enter into off-take
stores, or easily accessible material collection agreements for locally produced products.
facilities and systems. In Germany, for example,
The growth of the local industry involved in the
customers can unwrap their goods in the store
production of circular products and packaging
and immediately return the packaging to the
will open up economic and knowledge-
retailer. Again, this must be coupled with
sharing opportunities beyond the borders of
widespread education.
South Africa, ultimately supporting the global
Retailers and brand owners could explore movement towards a circular plastics economy.
various business-to-business (B2B) packaging
and product delivery models that apply reuse
principles. Various B2B reuse models are
available in The Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Reuse: Rethinking Packaging report.223
More research is needed on current consumer

behaviour and how to shift that behaviour to
more sustainable plastic packaging choices,
taking into account the local context. Research
into the effectiveness of current consumer
education around s@s and littering is required to
develop more impactful outreach programmes
that bring about real change. This should
be combined with research on gaps in the
provision of the necessary waste management
infrastructure and recycling systems.

224 Ideally, South Africa should then ensure that any plastic packaging and packaged goods intended for export are in fact going to a country where
they can be responsibly managed, or returned to South Africa for recycling.
105
BARRIERS AND OPPORTUNITIES
FOR SECTORS AND STAKEHOLDERS
A shift to a circular plastics economy will require a departure from
stakeholders working in silos and protecting the current linear
“take-make-waste” material flow model. A systems view and deep
collaboration across all direct and indirect stakeholders and sectors are
required to tackle the environmental and socio-economic externalities of
plastic pollution and waste.
The themes and subthemes discussed in this report are distilled into barriers to circularity and opportunities for each sector in
the plastics value chain. Some of the barriers inherent in some sectors are unique to the direct (Table 4) and indirect (Table 5)
stakeholders in those sectors, whereas some of the opportunities and actions overlap and apply to all sectors (see Box 22).
BOX 22: OVERLAPPING AND CROSS-CUTTING OPPORTUNITIES AND ACTIONS FOR

ALL STAKEHOLDERS
The overlapping and cross-cutting actions needed to transition to circularity through systems thinking and deep
collaboration can be summarised as follows:
• Ensure support and buy-in across the plastics packaging value chain for a mandatory extended producer
responsibility scheme. This will ensure that funds are available to invest in new technologies and infrastructure,
increase the value of packaging after use and hold the industry accountable for plastic packaging and products at
end of life.
• Work closely with the government and support the development and implementation of policy instruments and
other regulation-based approaches or economic instruments to enable the transition to a circular plastics economy.
This is relevant for all plastic products beyond packaging that have been identified as problematic, such as
discarded fishing gear, sanitary wear, nappies and cigarette butts.
• Collaborate with other sectors in the plastics packaging value chain and commit to ambitious, time-bound targets to
tackle plastic pollution. The South African Plastics Pact is a multi-stakeholder platform and industry-led voluntary
agreement with a focus on plastic packaging that enables cross-value-chain collaboration and commitment to
ambitious, time-bound targets, as well as transparent public reporting of progress towards those targets.
• Work with researchers, NGOs and other civil society organisations to develop a unified consumer education and
awareness programme on plastics and sustainable consumption.
• Have a central and trusted repository of data and information (including plastics material flow, hotspots,
Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment studies and standard monitoring and reporting methods) on which to base
policy and organisational decisions in future.

A panel discussion by member representatives of the South African
Plastics Pact at the launch event in January 2020, Cape Town. © WWF
TABLE 4: TOWARDS A CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY: BARRIERS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DIRECT STAKEHOLDERS
STAKEHOLDER BARRIERS TO CIRCULARITY OPPORTUNITIES
Plastic • Current linear business model where existing material • Explore circular business models including chemical
polymer in the system is not used as feedstock recycling of plastics and other technologies to scale up the
producers transition to circularity
• Lower price of virgin plastic compared to recycled • Support the end-market for plastic at end of life through
material organisational commitments and by supporting various
policy approaches
• Technology and process lock-in (e.g. coal or gas to • Lead the change through investing in novel or modifying
liquid) and replacement cost for new technologies and existing technologies and research (e.g. chemical recycling)
processes
Plastic • Current machinery can only process a narrow range of • Standardise plastic polymer chemistry, grades, formats
converters plastic types with specific material properties. There is and additives to simplify collections, sorting and
a high capital investment in this specialised equipment remanufacturing
and it is more efficient to use virgin plastic resins. The
• Support the end-market for recycled plastic through
price of virgin plastic fluctuates with the oil price and it
organisational commitments and by supporting various
is sometimes more cost effective to use virgin instead
policy approaches
of recycled plastic, also considering plant efficiency
• With the increasing number of plastic packaging and • Become a member of the South African Plastics Pact to
product formats and plastic materials (e.g. multilayers) find solutions with other stakeholders in the value chain
along with contamination with other waste streams, the (researchers, brand owners and retailers) to activate
quality of recyclate is not guaranteed and can therefore innovation and investment to transition to reusable and
not be remanufactured into packaging applications recyclable materials and product and packaging formats,
and alternative product delivery models
107
Retailers • Sustainability principles are not always integrated • Ensure that sustainability strategies are integrated
throughout the business throughout business activities and across departments
• Strategy and targets on sustainable packaging are • Commit to targets on recyclability and reusability of
not followed in procurement and other departments packaging along with minimum recycled content
due to price (currently the virgin price is lower than
recycled plastic) or other factors
• Lack of expertise regarding sustainable packaging • Use local Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA)
design, alternative materials and delivery models studies to inform procurement decisions and collaborate
with packaging suppliers (converters), product suppliers
• End of life of products and packaging not considered
(home brands and others), waste management companies
during the design phase
and recyclers through platforms such as the South
African Plastics Pact to design and produce recyclable and
reusable packaging with increased recycled content
• Suppliers are not aligned with internal sustainable • Increased demand for this more circular packaging
product and packaging design will flow upstream to brand owners, converters and
resin producers
• Ensure that suppliers are participating in the extended

producer resonsibility (EPR) scheme
• If packaging is part of the price of the product, • Incentivise reuse models or deposit- return schemes with
consumers perceive packaging as not having value or consumers using discounts or other economic incentive
being a waste material even though the consumer also mechanisms in stores
pays for the packaging
• Educate and raise awareness of consumers that packaging
has value and needs to remain in the economy
• Competition between retailers and brand owners • Collaborate with other retailers, brand owners, producer
prevents collaboration, cooperation and knowledge responsibility organisations and other stakeholders on
exchange more effective and single-messaging consumer education
on OPRLs, separation of packaging after use from other
material streams, and possibilities of alternative delivery
models
• Also apply these principles in business-to-business

transactions
• Lack of regulations or guidelines for OPRLs • Support development of norms and standards for circular
packaging design and labelling and promote broad
adoption of these across all retailers and brand owners

Brand • Using packaging primarily for or prioritising • Use outcomes of local LCSA studies to inform purchasing
owners branding and marketing purposes before considering decisions and collaborate with other sectors through a
environmental impacts and design for circularity platform such as the South African Plastics Pact to find
solutions to current packaging challenges
• Only introduce products in the market with packaging

that is widely collected and recycled
• Introduce innovative reusable alternatives to plastic

packaging
• The demand for circular packaging will flow up to

converters and resin producers
• Apply these principles in business-to-business

transactions
• Lack of expertise regarding packaging design for • Embed the South African Plastics Pact targets into
circularity and not taking end-of-life impacts into organisational strategy to ensure alignment across all
account departments
• Participate in the mandatory EPR scheme to unlock

investment in packaging end-of-life infrastructure
• Lack of guidance or norms and standards to provide • Voluntarily collaborate with other retailers, brand
clear OPRLs for disposal instructions owners, producer responsibility organisations and other
stakeholders on more effective consumer education on
OPRLs, separation of packaging after use from other
material streams, and the possibility of alternative product
delivery models
Hospitality • Problematic plastic items procured and used in • Ensure that procurement policy prioritises sustainable
services hospitality facilities are selected with affordability and circular materials, products and packaging
in mind
• Work with suppliers, academia and other stakeholders
to explore more sustainable or circular materials or
alternative product delivery models
• Lack of knowledge on more sustainable and circular • Communicate and collaborate with other hospitality
alternatives organisations, waste management and recyclers to explore
best practice
• Ensure that packaging suppliers participate in the EPR

scheme
• Charging clients for takeaway and food packaging may • Collaborate with other stakeholders and the government
discourage business on taking a united stand to phase out problematic items
and explore alternative product delivery models
• Educate consumers on problematic items to shift

preferences and practices
Consumers • Very little knowledge and awareness of the types and • Research needed to gauge consumer awareness
impacts of plastic packaging and products and where on plastics
the plastic goes after use
• Then design a single credible and ongoing education
campaign on plastics
109
Consumers • Lack of knowledge of what can be recycled in South • OPRLs to become standard and a requirement on all
(continued) Africa, and what not packaging
• Consumers should build the habit of reading OPRLs and

ensuring that plastic products and packaging are disposed
of and separated accordingly
• Disparity in socio-economic circumstances with • Formal and informal retailers to explore alternative
regard to affordability and access to alternative goods materials and delivery of products to empower consumers
and waste services to access healthier food with less packaging
• Industry and the government to ensure better waste

collection coverage and diversion through extended
producer responsibility
• Lack of alternatives available at formal and informal • Empower consumers to put pressure on upstream
retailers, such as reuse and refill product delivery stakeholders
models and packaging formats
• Retailers (formal and informal) to explore and incentivise
reuse and refill models
• Extra costs of these alternatives could be met through

other incentives until sufficient scale is achieved
• Acknowledge the direct link between dietary habits • Packaging for convenience foods to be redesigned for
and packaging found in the environment – most snack reuse and recyclability
and convenience foods are packaged in plastic
• Policy instruments or industry mechanisms to shift
behaviour of consumers will be necessary
Waste • The recycling and informal waste sector has limited • Integrate informal waste reclaimers in waste management
collectors, support from industry and the government at municipal and community level (guidelines have been
contractors, developed)
recyclers and
• Implement the mandatory EPR scheme
treatment
facilities
• Dependence on waste disposal to landfill • Increase the value of plastics and stimulate end-markets
through various policy (EPR) and voluntary mechanisms
(the South African Plastics Pact) to unlock investment
into new post-use material management technologies and
infrastructure
• No or low value of certain plastic items and formats • Develop norms and standards on packaging design
makes it uneconomical to collect them (information instruments) or use modulated extended
producer responsibility to ensure more circular packaging
• Recycled plastic not price competitive with virgin
plastic • Implement mandatory extended producer responsibility
to ensure that the cost of collection and reprocessing is
economically viable for all plastic packaging formats
• Tax on or regulation of packaging without recycled content

TABLE 5: TOWARDS A CIRCULAR PLASTICS ECONOMY: BARRIERS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDIRECT STAKEHOLDERS
Research • Limited funding for research and data generation • Government and industry to provide joint funding
institutions for increased research and capacity to support the
industry and waste sector
• Unclear on mandate for housing a data repository • Be the trusted and independent source for data
and providing accurate and credible data on plastic reporting and research outcomes to inform policy and
material flows and plastic pollution impacts business decisions
• Work with the Department of Trade, Industry and

Competition (DTIC) to provide information on
indirect plastic imports, which is currently unknown
Government • Polarised policy strategies developed by • Develop an integrated policy strategy across key
departments Department of Environment, Forestry and Fishery government departments to drive circular economy
(DEFF), DTIC and Department of Science and principles in the plastics life cycle to minimise waste,
Innovation (DSI) on waste, the circular economy economic losses and resource extraction
and economic growth
• DTIC to look at growing investment in the waste or
secondary resource sector in the plastic Master Plan
• New Master Plan for the plastics sector should

focus on activating and supporting the production
of sustainable and circular plastic products and
packaging, which aligns with the aims of the DSI’s
Waste Research, Development and Innovation
Roadmap and DEFF’s Waste Hierarchy in
the National Environmental Management:
Waste Act 59 of 2008
• Policy uncertainty about industry responsibility • Collaborate with industry, local government, NGOs
for priority waste streams and lack of capacity at and informal waste sector to develop and implement
local government level to manage waste the mandatory EPR scheme and other mechanisms to
enable sustainable waste and material management
• Limited resources available for data collection, • Together with industry, expand funding available for
knowledge generation and sharing research into developing circular plastic materials
(products and packaging), alternative product delivery
and sustainable materials management across the
plastics life cycle (local government)
• Introduce the circular economy concept into the

curriculum to prepare the next generation of
researchers and industry professionals
• Lack of enforcement of South African Waste • Ensure that accurate reporting is a requirement in the
Information System (SAWIS) EPR scheme
• Provide training, capacity building and the

deployment of waste inspectors at local
government level
111
Government • Access to trusted data to inform future national • Establish a centralised data repository, including
departments waste management strategies and municipal SAWIS data, in collaboration with academia and other
(continued) Integrated Waste Management Plans experts to develop baselines and inform policy and
regulatory frameworks
• Public procurement policy currently does not • Legislate green public procurement of plastic products
stipulate the procurement of circular products and packaging that is recycled and reused and contains
a minimum post-consumer recycled content
Civil society • Many NGOs and civil society organisations have • Align and mobilise civil society across all stages in the
organisations different focus areas and primarily focus on end- plastics life cycle and not only on end-of-pipe solutions
of-pipe solutions such as environmental clean-
• Improve education and awareness of consumers
ups, and education and awareness of shelf-facing
on plastics and implications of incorrect disposal by
consumers
collaborating with all stakeholders in the value chain
including producer responsibility organisations and
industry bodies
Industry bodies • Lack of a common vision among industry, industry • Strengthen current initiatives within the industry and
bodies and producer responsibility organisations collaborate with all stakeholders towards a common
vision and industry strategy on tackling plastic
pollution
• Perceived lack of representation of all sectors in • Collaborate as industry (all sectors, from resin
the value chain, a lack of infrastructure, business producers to recyclers) to develop a plastic industry
model lock-in and governance structures impede strategy that addresses sustainability and growth in
progress on sustainability issues and inhibit end-markets for circular products and packaging in
support for the recycling and waste management South Africa and Africa
sector
• Support the Master Plan that is being developed by
the DTIC
• Support future policy-based approaches and other

voluntary initiatives to transition to a circular plastics
economy
Informal sector • Delays in adopting guidelines to integrate the • Put pressure on the DEFF and industry to adopt
representatives informal waste sector with municipalities guidelines and prioritise implementation in parallel
with the mandatory EPR scheme
• Lack of nationwide representation and • Urgent access to funding and support from industry
organisation due to lack of funding and resources and government are required for current bodies to
expand representation and coverage
• Current voluntary EPR scheme has limited • A mandatory EPR scheme for all plastic polymers and
coverage, meaning only certain packaging formats formats to incentivise collection and end-markets and
have value at end of life and are collected waste management to ensure better livelihoods for
informal waste reclaimers and a cleaner environment
for all citizens

ACTIONS FOR A CIRCULAR PLASTICS FUTURE
IN SUMMARY
The time has come to adopt a preventative
approach to plastic pollution, collaborating across
the plastics value chain towards a shared vision.
Solving the challenge of plastic pollution is not straightforward, but the roadmap
exists. It requires the right policies and appropriate industrial strategy informed
by the best available evidence and developed in a transparent and consultative
process with all stakeholders. From here it will be possible to establish locally
appropriate product and packaging standards and certifications and invest in new
business models and the innovative delivery of products. With this in place, it will
be a relatively straightforward task to make commitments, monitor and report
on progress in a transparent manner. These all require a collective mindset shift
and behaviour change interventions at individual and institutional levels. The
ultimate result of these actions will be to precipitate the necessary shift towards the
establishment of a local circular plastics sector.
Plastics might be one of the big new challenges of our century but it is comparatively
manageable when considered alongside the larger challenges of climate change,
infectious diseases and rising inequality. We can conceive a better way to do things
without it having a massive impact on our lifestyles and the economy as a whole.
As a result, the solutions are already taking shape.
All that is required now is collective action to take these solutions to a scale that
matters and to make sure positive changes endure, delivering benefits to all –
nature and people.
113
GLOSSARY
behaviour change: any transformation or modification end-of-pipe solutions: methods used to remove already
of human behaviour using various approaches which formed contaminants from a product. These methods
focus on the individual, community and environmental are normally implemented as a last stage of a process
influences before the product is disposed of or delivered
bio-based feedstocks: agricultural products such as sugar evaluation of recycling: gathering data on the collection,
cane, cassava and maize from which plastic is made sorting and delivery systems to transfer the materials
from the source to the recycling facility; whether
bio-based plastics: plastics that are made from bio-based recycling facilities are available to accommodate the
feedstocks collected materials; and whether and how much of the
product is being collected and recycled
biofouling: micro-organism growth on plastic surfaces
feedstock (fossil fuel or bio-based): the raw material to
bioplastics: a blanket term for plastic materials that
supply or fuel a machine or industrial process. In the
are either bio-based (see bio-based plastics),
case of plastic, the feedstock can either be derived from
biodegradable, or have features of both properties
fossil fuel or bio-based
chemical recycling: any process by which a polymer is
food-grade applications: products that come into contact
chemically reduced to its original monomer form so
with food before consumption
that it can eventually be processed (re-polymerised)
and remade into new plastic materials and, after that, global commons: natural assets outside national
products jurisdictions such as the oceans, the atmosphere, outer
space and the Antarctic
circular economy: an economy based on the principles
of designing out waste and pollution, reducing greenfields project: a project that lacks constraints
consumption of non-renewable materials, keeping imposed by prior work. In the case of infrastructure
products and materials in use, and regenerating projects, greenfields projects are built on unused land
natural systems where there is no need to remodel or demolish an
existing structure
CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq): carbon dioxide equivalent;
a measure used to compare the emissions from hotspot: the area or stage in a product or process life cycle
various greenhouse gases based on their global- where environmental and/or socio-economic impacts
warming potential. For example, the global warming or externalities are greatest. Once identified, this area
potential for methane over 100 years is 21. This means or stage can then be prioritised for various actions to
that emissions of one million tonnes of methane is reduce the impacts of a product or process
equivalent to emissions of 21 million tonnes of carbon
dioxide linear economy: an economy that uses a “take-make-waste”
model of production
compostability: a property of a material to break down
or biodegrade in controlled conditions (including litter: products or materials at end of life that are discarded
temperature, pressure, humidity) to become a usable incorrectly, without consent, at an unsuitable location
soil conditioner
lock-in: when organisations have made a large capital
debris: pieces from something that has been destroyed investment, usually in infrastructure, they are “forced”
or broken down or pieces of rubbish or unwanted to make use of this infrastructure and associated
material that are spread around processes for the life of the infrastructure. This could
be 20+ years, which is usually the
end of life: a stage that starts at the end of the use in the life return-on-investment period
cycle of a material or product. In the case of packaging,
the end-of-life stage starts the moment the product is mechanical recycling: processing plastic polymers via
consumed when the material loses its original purpose. physical processes for size reduction (grinding and
The so-called end-of-life options for post-consumer shredding) and melting into plastic pellets that are
packaging is to either treat it as waste or to recycle it, used for plastic manufacturing
which has an impact on the sustainability of packaging

nurdles: polymer powders that are pelletised into lentil-sized reusable packaging: packaging that is designed to be
plastic pellets reused a minimum number of times to carry or hold
the same or other products within a systemreuse of
organic waste: waste that is capable of undergoing packaging: an operation by which packaging is refilled
anaerobic or aerobic decomposition, such as food and or used for the same purpose for which it was designed,
garden waste or paper-based materials. This waste with or without the support of systems which enable
stream is made up of materials which originated from the packaging to be refilled (ISO 18603)
living organisms (food, wood)
reuse system: established arrangements (organisational,
persistent organic pollutants (POPs): chemicals of technical or financial) ensuring the possibility of reuse
global concern due to their potential for long-range of packaging to fulfil the functionality of holding or
transport, persistence in the environment, ability to preserving a product multiple times
bio-magnify and bio-accumulate in ecosystems, as well
as their significant negative effects on human health reverse logistics: all activity associated with a product or
and the environment service after the point of sale
photodegradation: when plastics degrade in the natural rotational moulding: a plastic moulding technique used to
environment through exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light manufacture hollow products such as tanks, bins and
and oxygen children’s toys
plastic leakage: the potential amount of macro- and secondary packaging: packaging used for branding display
microplastics that are not kept in a circular loop or and protection for logistics purposes
properly managed at their end of life, and thus leak
into the environment. Leakage is relevant to other secondary resources: materials that are recirculated into
materials as well the system after being used, recycled or sold for reman-
ufacturing into new products
plastic scrap: plastic products or parts of those products
that have been “scrapped” by the original users but still single-use plastic: a broad range of plastic products –
have value (or an end-market) and can be recycled into largely plastic packaging – that has a short useful
new products or reused in their current format lifespan and is made to be disposed of by the consumer
after using the product only once
plastic waste: a plastic product or plastic material that is
unwanted, rejected, abandoned, unusable or disposed sink: end location, destination
of by the holder of the product or material and that has
tertiary packaging: packaging that facilitates the protec-
no economic value
tion, handling and transportation of products
primary packaging: first-level packaging that is in direct
water-scarcity footprint: weighting of water consump-
contact with the product itself
tion with the water-scarcity index or characterisation.
rationalisation of plastic materials and formats: This index is based on where (geography) that water is
consolidating and reducing the number of polymer consumed, and each region will have a “stress factor”
types, formats, colours and additives in plastic based on availability vs withdrawal.
packaging to support separation-at-source, collection,
recycling and reuse
recyclable: a characteristic of a product, packaging or

associated component that can be diverted from
the waste stream through available processes and
programmes and can be collected, processed and
returned to use in the form of raw materials or
products (ISO 14021)
recyclate: recycled material that can be used to manufacture

new products
resins: the main base of plastics
115
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121
LIST OF BOXES, FIGURES
AND TABLES
BOXES
Box 1: The universal recycling logo 11
Box 2: Number 7 plastics – not recycled in South Africa 12
Box 3: Symbols and labelling – the need for a standard approach 12
Box 4: Microplastics and the resultant pollution 16
Box 5: Plastic manufacturing – an essential service during COVID-19 lockdown in South Africa 23
Box 6: “Single-use” and “problem” plastics 25
Box 7: The mismanaged state of landfills 35
Box 8: Short-term solutions for unrecycled plastics 41
Box 9: Floating plastics is just the tip of a much larger plastic iceberg 49
Box 10: The Dirty Dozen 54
Box 11: New species named after plastics 59
Box 12: Packaging design and branding 69
Box 13: On-pack labelling standards 70
Box 14: What is preventing brand owners and retailers from taking action? 71
Box 15: What are the barriers to consumers taking action? 74
Box 16: Is the plastic bag levy promoting the circular transition? 83
Box 17: Policy and legislation – a barrier to combating the waste problem 84
Box 18: Extended producer responsibility – an enabler in combating the waste problem 85
Box 19: Operation Phakisa – chemicals and waste economy 86
Box 20: Towards a new global legally binding agreement on plastic pollution 90
Box 21: The South African Plastics Pact – a first in Africa 91
Box 22: Overlapping and cross-cutting opportunities and actions for all stakeholders 106
FIGURES
Figure 1: Domestic polymer consumption over eight years in South Africa 22
Figure 2: Average product lifespan per plastic product category for South Africa (2018) 24
Figure 3: Plastic use across the life cycle of cucumbers and raspberries, per kg of fresh produce sold 28
Figure 4: Breakdown of general waste generated in South Africa in 2017 32
Figure 5: Waste characterisation for the City of Cape Town landfill waste in 2018 32
Figure 6: End-use markets and common applications for recycled plastics in South Africa (2018) (tonnes) 42
Figure 7: Concentration of plastic pieces found on 82 beaches along South Africa’s coastline in 2015 52
Figure 8: Total number of Dirty Dozen items collected from 100+ beach clean-ups around South Africa (2017–2018) 54
Figure 9: Number and type of debris in stormwater drain outlets, Overstrand Municipality (2019) 55
Figure 10: Global life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of plastic (2015) 56

Figure 11: Example of the new, standardised binary on-pack recycling label 70
Figure 12: Snack food litter brand audit data for wetlands and beaches 72
Figure 13: Consumer ranking of socio-economic and environmental issues in South Africa in order of most
important to least important 73
Figure 14: Plastic recyclers in South Africa 76
Figure 15: The four reuse models 103
TABLES
Table 1: Industry bodies in the plastics production and consumption sectors 79
Table 2: Producer responsibility organisations in the plastics sector 79
Table 3: Industrial workers’ unions 80
Table 4: Towards a circular plastics economy: Barriers and opportunities for direct stakeholders 107
Table 4: Towards a circular plastics economy: Barriers and opportunities for indirect stakeholders 111
INDEX
A Africa
agreements on pollution 89, 90, 92, 99
Abidjan Convention 89
and circular plastics economy, towards 104
accountability 7, 33, 90, 96, 98, 101
imports of plastic products 67
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 12
Plastics Pact in Africa 91
Addis Ababa Communique 90
pollution, increase in 47
additives
production of plastics 21
animals, impact on 58
African Circular Economy Alliance 92, 97
from burning of plastics 33, 60
African Marine Waste Network 92
data collection on 101
African Ministerial Conference on the Environment 90, 99
environmental leaching of 16
African Reclaimers Organisation 80
in food packaging 14, 15, 16
African Union 90, 99
manufacturers’ use of 69, 107
agriculture sector 23, 24, 36, 42, 43
in problem plastics 25
air pollution 33, 60
and recyclate, quality of 43
Alliance to End Plastic Waste 92
recycling and 14–15, 39, 82–83
animals, impact of plastics on 57–58
aesthetics of packaging 43
automotive sector 22, 24
123
B recycling programmes 34
carbon footprint 10, 26, 29
baby products 14, 60
carrier bags see plastic bags
bags see plastic bags
chemical recycling 16, 40, 47, 102, 103, 107
Basel Convention 88, 99
Chemicals and Waste Phakisa 86, 103
beach litter 48, 52–54, 62, 72
China 21
benefits of plastics 10, 25, 26, 69
cigarette butts 52, 54, 55, 97, 106
bio-based plastics
Circular Design Guide 69
from bio-based feedstocks 10, 13, 14
Circular Footprint Formula (EC) 27
from linear to circular economy 47
circular plastics economy
manufacturers of 68
overview of 96–97
plastics material flow and 7
accountability, ensuring 101
plastics value chain, part of 66
actions towards 7
standards and terminology for 101, 104
barriers/opportunities 6, 106–112
biodegradable plastics
commercialisation of 86
overview of 13–14
EPR scheme as shift towards 85, 101, 106, 108, 109, 110,
examples of 10 111, 112
labelling of products 12 global initiatives/agreements on pollution 92
LCA on grocery carrier bags 27 greener economy, towards 78
plastics value chain, part of 66 and industry bodies, support for 7, 96, 98, 101, 102–103,
standards and certification, need for 98, 101 111, 112
see also compostable plastics; degradation of plastics informal waste reclaimers, role in 6, 7, 100, 110, 111, 112
biodiversity 26, 27, 57, 62, 78 investment in 7, 86, 96, 98, 99, 102–103, 110
biofouling 49 from linear to circular 47
bioplastics see bio-based plastics plastics material flow, ideal case 7
bisphenol A (BPA) 14, 60 recycled content usage as step forward 83
bottles SA Plastics Pact towards 7, 91–92, 96, 101, 106, 107, 108,
glass 25 109, 110
plastic 13, 25, 28, 38, 38–39, 41, 49, 54, 55, 79 trade-offs, examination of 98–100
brand owners civil society organisations/NGOs 6, 66, 78, 98, 101, 106, 111,
112
and circular plastics economy, towards 101, 104, 105, 107,
108, 109 cleaning products/detergents 16, 39
and consumer information, need for 54 climate change 56, 73, 78
design of packaging and 69, 71 clothing industry 42
education and awareness programmes for 105 coal-based plastics 10, 39, 68
labelling of products 12, 39 see also fossil-fuel-based plastics; oil-based plastics
packaging, main consumer of 68, 79 coffee containers/capsules 13, 25, 73
plastics value chain, part of 66, 67 collection of waste see waste collection
recyclate, demand for 42 Commonwealth Litter Programme (CLiP) 92
bricks, plastic 41 compostable plastics
building sector 23, 24, 24, 36, 42 data collection on 101
burning of waste 26, 33, 35, 60, 100 infrastructure needed for 14
business-to-business (B2B) packaging 105 from linear to circular economy 47
buy-back centres 23, 33, 34, 66, 74 and pollution, not always a solution to 13, 73
Buyisa-e-Bag 82 problem plastics not compostable 25
SA Plastics Pact, aims of 91, 92
C Simba’s commitment to 68
calcium carbonate 14, 39, 82–83 standards and certification, need for 98
Cape Town see also biodegradable plastics
landfills 32, 35 construction sector 23, 24, 24, 32, 42
litter, sources of 49, 52, 52 consumerism, culture of 47
PACKA-CHING case study 75

consumers delivery models for products 91, 101, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109,
and circular plastics economy, towards 109–110 110
education and awareness programmes for 79, 80, 105, density of materials 14, 29
106, 108, 109, 112 Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries 30, 34,
environmental vs socio-economic issues 73 62, 69, 77, 82, 84, 85, 91, 111, 112
and “flushable” items, disposal of 54 see also government departments
plastics value chain, part of 66, 67 Department of Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation 86
pollution and 73, 74 Department of Science and Innovation 77–78, 86, 111
recycling and 11, 39, 43, 70, 74, 110 Department of Trade, Industry and Competition 78, 102, 111
research needed on 105, 109 deposit-return schemes 103, 105, 108
consumption of plastics design of packaging
changing patterns of 47 for branding purposes 69, 71
and circular plastics economy, towards 99, 105, 106 and circular plastics economy, towards 47, 99, 102–103,
108, 110
consumer focus on alternative materials 73
EPR incentives for 85, 87, 99
global scale of 21, 23, 24
investment in technology needed 102
industry bodies involved in 79
sustainability issues for 42, 43, 68, 71, 72, 99
of packaging 24–25, 79
developing countries 67, 69, 88, 89, 92
per plastic type 38
dioxins 33, 60
of plastic bags 82, 83
“Dirty Dozen” list 52, 54, 55
retailers/brand owners as main consumers of 68, 79
diseases 60, 62
total consumption 22, 23, 37
dispensing systems 72, 73, 74, 103
Woolworths LCA study 28, 28
distribution of products 28, 28, 47
see also use of plastics
domestic ware products 24, 42, 48
contamination of materials 13, 14, 16, 39, 107
drinking water, microplastics in 50, 59
see also additives
dumpsites
convenience foods see snack foods packaging; takeaway/fast-
food meals data lacking on 30, 37
conventional plastics illegal 32–33, 35, 62, 100
alternatives to 13 leakage of plastics in 24
capital costs for 76 from linear to circular economy 47
data collection on 101 plastics life cycle, part of 20
plastics value chain, part of 66 plastics material flow and 6
produced from fossil fuels 10 see also landfills; waste management
Conventions on pollution 89, 90 durables/durability of plastics 6, 7, 10, 13, 15, 36, 48
converters see manufacturing (conversion) stage Durban Harbour 51, 62
E
cosmetic products 22, 48, 54
COVID-19 pandemic 23, 33, 34, 38, 83, 102
crisps packaging 24, 25, 39, 54, 55, 72 e-waste 77, 79
see also food packaging earbuds 25, 54
cucumbers (LCA study) 27–29 East African Legislative Assembly 90
cutlery 13, 25, 73 Eastern Cape province 40, 41, 68, 75, 76
ecobricks 41, 78
D economy of plastics see circular plastics economy; linear
plastics economy
data
education and awareness programmes 79, 80, 105, 106, 108,
and circular plastics economy, towards 106, 111, 112
109, 112
collection of 55, 78, 101, 111
Ekurhuleni Municipality 35
on environmental impact of plastics 26
electronics sector 22, 23, 24, 42
on litter/dumping 37
Ellen MacArthur Foundation 25, 37, 69, 91, 103
on recycling 36
employment 68, 76, 87
on waste generation 30, 86
end-of-life plastic
degradation of plastics 13, 14, 15, 16, 26
and circular plastics economy, towards 105, 106, 107, 108
see also biodegradable plastics
design of packaging and 71
125
EPR fees towards 85 food industry 66, 73
GHG emissions from 56 food, microplastics in 59
global initiatives/agreements on 88, 99 food packaging
leakage of plastics and 33 additives in 14, 15, 16
as litter 48 benefits of plastic 10, 26, 69
plastics life cycle, part of 20 and circular plastics economy, towards 109
plastics material flow and 6, 7 for convenience foods 24, 25, 52, 54, 73, 109, 110
engineering sector 42 lifespan of 24
Environment Assembly (UNEA) resolutions 89 as litter, source of 52, 54, 55
environmental issues plastic-free stores, emergence of 72, 73
from burning of waste 26, 33, 35, 60, 100 Product Design and Waste Minimisation, aims of 86–87
leakage of plastics 26, 32–33, 47, 48, 97, 101 recycled content in 16, 43, 71, 104
microplastics in soil ecosystems 50 recycling of 24, 39, 68
vs socio-economic issues 73 for snack foods 24, 25, 39, 52, 54, 55, 68, 71–72, 72, 110
see also litter; marine pollution; microplastics; pollution Woolworths fresh produce LCA 27–29
EPR (extended producer responsibility) see extended produc- see also packaging
er responsibility (EPR) scheme Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act 50
EPS (expanded polystyrene) 38, 79 footprints
eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality 35 carbon 10, 26, 29
Europe 21, 23 plastic 27, 28, 29
European Commission 27 water 10, 26
expanded polystyrene (EPS) 38, 79 footwear industry 42, 48
exports of plastics fossil-fuel-based plastics 6, 7, 10, 39, 47, 56, 68
Basel Convention provisions on 88 see also oil-based plastics
consumption/use of plastic and 22 Free State province 68, 76
markets/applications for recyclates 42 freshwater environments
plastics life cycle, part of 20 degradation of plastics in 13, 15
plastics material flow and 6, 7 LCAs as inadequate measure of pollution 26
for recycling 67 river pollution 32, 49–50, 54, 62
total plastic waste and 36 wetlands pollution 49, 72
via packaging 22, 37 furniture 42, 48
of virgin plastic 21
extended producer responsibility (EPR) scheme G
and circular plastics economy, towards 85, 101, 106, 108, G20 Action Plan on Marine Litter 88
109, 110, 111, 112
garden waste 34
fees, various uses for 80
gases
for imported packaging 105
from burning of plastics 33, 60
IndWMP call for 85
as end product of degradation 13, 16
informal waste reclaimers, recognition of 99
greenhouse gases 16, 25, 56, 78
investment, unlocking of 102, 103
waste-to-energy facilities’ production of 40
legislation on 77
Gauteng province 35, 39, 50, 68, 75, 76
paper and packaging, regulations for 85
Germany 105
recycling, support for 85, 87, 98, 101
GHG (greenhouse gases) 16, 25, 56, 78
see also producer responsibility organisations
glass
F bottles 25
in landfills 32
faith-based organisations 78
recycling of 74
fast-food see takeaway/fast-food meals
global agreements on pollution 88–91, 92, 99
fishing industry/equipment 49, 54, 57, 59, 62, 97, 98, 106
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
flexible packaging 11, 23, 24, 42, 70 Environment from Land-based Activities 89
“flushable” items 54

government departments industrial wastes 30
and circular plastics economy, towards 98, 101, 109, 111 industry bodies
as stakeholders in plastics value chain 66, 77–78 and circular plastics economy, towards 7, 96, 98, 101,
see also under ‘Department of’ 102–103, 111, 112
Great Pacific Garbage Patch 49 lack of standards for recycling rate 37
GreenCape 91, 92 plastics value chain, part of 66
greenhouse gases (GHG) 16, 25, 56, 78 in production/consumption sectors 79
“greenwashing” 73, 74 Industry Policy Action Plans 78, 102
Industry Waste Management Plan 85
H informal sector 71
hawkers 71, 82 informal settlements 32, 39, 72, 75
hazardous additives/chemicals 14, 15, 25, 43, 58 informal waste reclaimers
hazardous wastes 23, 88 overview of 33–34
HDPE (high-density polyethylene) 11, 25, 27, 41, 49, 74, 76, and circular plastics economy, towards 6, 7, 100, 110, 111,
79 112
health issues COVID-19 lockdown, impact on 23, 33
burning of waste as cause of 33, 60 EPR scheme for 99
from degradation of plastics 26 health, impact of plastics on 60
legislation aimed at preventing 84 Johannesburg s@s programme 34
plastics, adverse effects of 50, 59–60 monetary value of items important to 38, 74
waterborne diseases 62 as part of EPWP 49
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) 11, 25, 27, 41, 49, 74, 76, plastics material flow and 7
79 plastics value chain, part of 66
HIPS (high-impact polystyrene) 79 recycling as source of employment 76
Honolulu Strategy: Global Framework for Prevention and representative bodies for 80
Management of Marine Debris 89 Integrated Waste Management Plan 14, 84, 86, 112
hospitality services 66, 73, 98, 109 international agreements on pollution 88–91, 92, 99
hotspots/hotspotting 28, 59, 101, 106 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
households from Ships 90
consumption of plastics 22, 23 International Organization for Standardization 37, 103
decreasing size of 24 investment
recycling and 7, 33 Alliance to End Plastic Waste target 92
waste collection/management and 32, 33 in a circular plastics economy 7, 86, 96, 98, 99, 102–103,
houseware products 42 110
global plastic production and 21
I for plastics recycling equipment 39, 76
imports of food products 25 for rigid packaging 69
J
imports of plastics
by African countries 67
average recycled content 37 Johannesburg 34, 35, 72
K
Basel Convention provisions on 88
biodegradable plastics 13
and circular plastics economy, towards 99, 104, 105, 111 KwaZulu-Natal province 35, 41, 57, 58, 68, 76
L
data collection on 101
importers, examples of 68
plastics life cycle, part of 20 labelling
plastics material flow and 6, 7 of biodegradable products 13
plastics value chain, part of 66 branding as purpose of 69
total plastic waste and 36 on-pack recycling label 12, 39, 70, 74, 99, 103, 105, 108,
110
via packaging 22, 37
labour unions 66, 80
of virgin plastic 21
incineration 23, 26, 30, 40
127
landfills
characterisation of waste at 30, 32, 36
M
macroplastics 49, 58
110 manufacturing (conversion) stage
degradation of plastics in 13 of bioplastics 68
disposal fees, cost of 76 and circular plastics economy, towards 47, 104, 105, 107
leakage of plastics in 24, 32–33 as an essential service 23
management of 35 GDP, contribution to 68
non-compliant 6, 20, 32–33, 35, 48, 86, 100 GHG emissions from 56
plastics life cycle, part of 20 health issues caused by 60
plastics material flow and 6 industry bodies involved in 79
Waste RDI Roadmap initiative for 77 material identification code, use of 11
see also dumpsites; waste management for non-packaging plastic products 23
LDPE (low-density polyethylene) 11, 38, 42, 49, 68, 74, 76 and packaging, design/procurement of 71
leakage of plastics 26, 32–33, 47, 48, 97, 101 of plastic bags 82–83
legislation plastics material flow and 6
on microplastics 50 plastics value chain, part of 66
requirements for recycling 84 technology/equipment used by 69, 102, 104, 107
Waste Act 77, 84–85, 86, 111 total plastic waste and 36
levies (taxes) on plastic 78, 82, 83, 99, 110 marine environments
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies 26–29, 101, 106, 108, degradation of plastics in 13, 15, 16, 26
109 impact of plastics on 48, 50
life cycle of plastics 20, 28, 29, 56, 98 marine pollution
lifespan of products 6, 23–24, 25 data, paucity of 97
lighting 77, 79 economic cost of 62
Limpopo province 75, 76 global initiatives/agreements on 88, 89–90, 92
linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) 11, 68, 79 LCAs as inadequate measure of 26
linear plastics economy 6, 35, 47, 106, 107 “Project Storm” (Overstrand Municipality) 55
litter SA a significant contributor to 30
assessment of potential to become 27, 28 sources of 16, 48, 49, 50–51, 59
beach litter 48, 52–54, 62, 72 transportation of 48, 50
and circular plastics economy, towards 47 Waste RDI Roadmap research on 30
consumer education around 105 markets, secondary 7, 20, 42–43
data lacking on 30, 37 MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of
in freshwater environments 26, 32, 49–50, 54, 72 Pollution from Ships) 90
LCAs as inadequate measure of 26 Master Plan for plastics sector 78, 102, 103, 111, 112
packaging as source of 24, 25, 48, 49, 52, 67 material flows in plastics economy 6, 7, 101, 106, 111
plastics life cycle, part of 20 material identification code (MIC) 10, 11, 12, 70
and pollution, not the root cause of 33 material recovery facilities 76
“Project Storm” (Overstrand Municipality) 55 mechanical recycling 14, 16, 28, 39, 47, 102, 103
single-use/problem plastics as source of 25 medical industry 10, 25
and waste collection/management, lack of 32, 54 medical waste 23
see also marine pollution; pollution microplastics
LLDPE (linear low-density polyethylene) 11, 68, 79 additives and 14
local government see municipalities (local government) filtering of 50
logos global initiatives/agreements on 88, 89, 92
branding as purpose of 69 human ingestion of 50, 59
for recycling 10, 12 as marine litter 49
London Convention 90 marine species, impact on 16, 58, 59
low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 11, 38, 42, 49, 68, 74, 76 primary and secondary types of 16
in soil ecosystems 50
sources of 48–49
in stormwater drains 55

Middle East 21 oil residue 39
mining sector 24, 36, 42 on-pack recycling label (OPRL) 12, 39, 70, 74, 99, 103, 105,
Mokoena, Kgauta 97 108, 110
Mpact recycling facility 39 online retailers 66, 72
Mpumalanga province 76 Operation Phakisa 86
multilayer materials 12, 39, 107 organic waste 30, 32
Municipal Finance Management Act 84 Organics Recycling Association of SA (ORASA) 13
municipal waste generation 32 Overstrand Municipality 55
municipalities (local government) oxo-degradable plastics 14
P
as gate-keepers of waste 84
and PPE, provision of 33, 34, 60 PA (polyamide) 12
waste collection/management and 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 74, PACKA-CHING 75
86, 100, 110, 111 packaging
N
106, 108, 109, 110
Nairobi Convention 89 consumption of 24–25, 79
nappies 48, 52, 54, 97, 106 during COVID-19 lockdown 23
National Environmental Management: Waste Act 77, 84, 85, dispensing systems as alternatives to 72, 73, 74, 103
86, 111 DTIC policy towards 78
National Regulator for Compulsory Specifications 82 education and awareness programmes around 105
National Treasury 78, 82 EPR mechanisms for 85, 98
National Waste Management Strategy 84, 86 flexible packaging 11, 23, 24, 42, 70
New Plastics Economy Global Commitment 25, 91, 103 household size and 24
non-biodegradable bioplastics 13 imports/exports of plastic via 22, 37
non-governmental organisations/CSOs 6, 66, 78, 98, 101, industry bodies involved in 79
106, 111, 112 Industry Waste Management Plan for 85
non-recyclables LCA studies on impact of 26–29, 108, 109
calcium carbonate as reason for 14, 39, 82–83 legislation on 77
in landfills 32, 76 lifespan of products and 23, 24
as litter, source of 52 as litter, source of 24, 25, 48, 49, 52, 67
low-value scrap as 36, 38 medical industry’s use of 10
packaging as 12, 24, 71, 72 non-recycling of 12, 71
short-term solutions for 41 norms and standards for 98, 103, 104
in Woolworths produce study 28 PACKA-CHING case study 75
norms and standards paper packaging 27, 55, 79, 85
and circular plastics economy, towards 108, 109, 110 for personal-care products (toiletries) 73
for compostable/biodegradable plastics 14, 98 plastics life cycle, part of 20
for landfills 35 plastics value chain, part of 66, 67
on-pack labelling standards 70 as a priority waste 77, 85
for packaging 103, 104 recycled content in 16, 43, 71, 87, 91, 96, 102, 103, 104,
for recycling 37, 103 107, 108, 110
Waste Act provisions on 84 recycling of 42, 68, 69, 70, 91, 103, 105
North West province 50, 76 retailers/brand owners as main consumers of 68, 79
Northern Cape province 76 reuse of plastics and 103, 110
nurdles (pellets) 10, 14, 16, 50–51, 55 rigid packaging 11, 23, 42, 69, 74
O
SA Plastics Pact, aims of 91
single-use/problem plastics 25, 27, 52, 92
oceans see marine environments; marine pollution sustainability issues 42, 43, 68, 71, 72, 98, 99
oil-based plastics trade-offs in usage of 26, 98–100
oil prices and 34, 38, 39, 71, 76, 83, 99, 102, 107 see also design of packaging; extended producer responsi-
production of polymers 10, 68 bility (EPR) scheme; food packaging
see also fossil-fuel-based plastics
129
Packaging SA 69, 79, 85 Plastics Pact in Africa 91
paper Plastics Pact Network 91
in landfills 32 Plastics SA 36, 37, 38, 51, 79, 82
packaging 27, 55, 74, 79, 85 pollution
PC (polycarbonate) 12, 60 biodegradable/compostable plastics, not always a solution
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) 14, 33, 60 to 13, 73
pellets see nurdles (pellets) burning of waste as cause of 26, 33, 60
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) 14, 16, 60 consumers and 73, 74
personal-care products (toiletries) 16, 23, 48, 52, 54, 73 data collection on 55, 78, 101
personal protective equipment (PPE) 33, 34, 60 global initiatives/agreements on 88–91, 92, 99
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) increases in 47
marine pollution, as source of 49, 59 land-based sources of 48, 48–49, 52, 89, 90
PET Recycling Company 79, 91 LCAs as inadequate measure of 26, 27
producers of 68 litter not the root cause of 33
punnets, use of 28, 29 see also litter; marine pollution; microplastics
recycling of 13, 28, 38, 38–39, 38, 39, 41, 42, 74, 76 polyamide (PA) 12
as replacement for glass 25 polycarbonate (PC) 12, 60
as type of plastic 11 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 14, 33, 60
petrochemical industry 10, 21, 51, 56, 66, 92 polyester 27, 42, 50
PLAs (polylactic acids) 10, 13 polyethylene terephthalate (PET) see PET (polyethylene
terephthalate)
plastic bags
polylactic acids (PLAs) 10, 13
East African Legislative Assembly Bill on 90
polymers
end-use markets for 42
overview of 10
LCA studies on 27, 101
consumption in SA 22
litter, as source of 54, 55
plastics material flow and 6, 7
marine species, impact on 57
primary producers of 21, 56, 68
recycled content in 27, 82–83, 99
processing of 16
recycling, impact of additives on 14, 39, 82–83
polypropylene (PP) 11, 38, 49, 68, 74, 76, 79
“single-use” plastic and 25, 27
polystyrene (PS) 11, 38, 38, 52, 54, 76
tax exemption for 99
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 11, 38, 42, 49, 68, 76, 79
taxes/levies on 78, 82, 83
POPS (persistent organic pollutants) 14, 16, 60
Waste RDI funding for 77
PP (polypropylene) 11, 38, 49, 68, 74, 76, 79
plastic bottles 13, 25, 28, 38, 38–39, 41, 49, 54, 55, 79
PPE (personal protective equipment) 33, 34, 60
plastic bricks 41
problem plastics 25, 72, 78, 91, 92
plastic footprint 27, 28, 29
procurement 71, 104, 108, 109, 112
plastic-free stores 72, 73
producer responsibility organisations
Plastic Pollution Solutions for Development in Africa 90
and circular plastics economy, towards 109, 112
plastic roads 41, 77
examples of 79
plastics
and local production, support for 105
overview of 10–16
benefits of 10, 25, 26, 69
see also extended producer responsibility (EPR) scheme
climate change and 56, 78
product delivery models 91, 101, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110
key messages on 4
Product Design and Waste Minimisation 86–87
life cycle of 20, 28, 29, 56, 98
production stage
as percentage of total waste 30, 32
overview of 10
as a priority waste 77, 84, 85
and circular plastics economy, towards 6, 99, 107
problem plastics 25, 72, 78, 91, 92
GHG emissions from 56
properties of 10, 12, 14, 43, 48, 107
global scale of 21
short-lived goods 6, 7, 23
health issues caused by 60
single-use plastics 25, 27, 52, 88, 89, 92
industry bodies involved in 79
total plastic waste 36

plastics life cycle, part of 20, 28 norms and standards for 103
plastics material flow and 6, 7 on-pack recycling label (OPRL) 12, 39, 70, 74, 99, 103,
plastics value chain, part of 66, 67 105, 108, 110
primary producers and importers 21, 56, 68 PACKA-CHING case study 75
total plastic production 24, 49 of packaging 24, 39, 42, 68, 69, 70, 91, 103, 105
properties of plastics 10, 12, 14, 43, 48, 107 of PET 13, 28, 38, 38–39, 38, 39, 41, 42, 74, 76
PS (polystyrene) 11, 38, 38, 52, 54, 76 of plastic bags 14, 39, 82–83
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) 11, 38, 42, 49, 68, 76, 79 plastics material flow and 6, 7
plastics value chain, part of 66, 67, 74
R producer responsibility organisations and 79–80
raspberries (LCA study) 27–29 Product Design and Waste Minimisation, aims of 87
rationalisation of materials 102, 103, 104 rates of 36–38
REACH assessment 15, 16, 43 SA Plastics Pact, aims of 91, 92
recyclate (recycled material) separation of materials for 7, 12, 33, 34, 39, 76, 96, 98,
105
average recycled content 37
single-use plastics and 25
and circular plastics economy, towards 99, 101
see also informal waste reclaimers; non-recyclables
consumption in SA 22, 23
Regional Seas Programme Conventions 89
durability of 13
regulation of plastics sector 7, 98, 101
end-market demand for 7, 12, 38–39, 42–43, 71, 83, 99,
104, 107, 108 see also legislation
norms and standards for 37, 104 research institutions 66, 77, 101, 106, 107, 111
packaging, use in 16, 43, 71, 87, 91, 96, 102, 103, 104, 107, resins 56, 88, 101, 104, 107, 108, 109, 112
108, 110 retailers
plastic bags, use in 27, 82–83 and circular plastics economy, towards 47, 101, 103, 104,
plastics life cycle, part of 20 105, 107, 108, 110
price of 39, 42, 74, 108 and consumer information, need for 54
quality/material properties of 43, 107 design of packaging and 69, 71
taxes on 83, 99 education and awareness programmes for 105
total plastic waste and 36 labelling of products 12, 39
recycling packaging, main consumer of 68, 79
additives, impact on 14–15, 39, 82–83 plastic bags, use of 27, 82–83, 101
barriers to 34, 38–39, 84, 99, 104 plastic life cycle and 28
Basel Convention provisions on 88 plastics value chain, part of 66, 67
of biodegradable/compostable materials 13 recyclate, use of 42, 83
Cape Town’s kerbside programme 34 reuse of plastics
CFF-based plastic footprint and 27 and circular plastics economy, towards 47, 103, 109, 110
and circular plastics economy, towards 47, 96, 99, 101, EPR scheme for 85
104, 110 legislation on 84
constraints to growth of 42, 83, 86 plastics life cycle, part of 20
consumers and 11, 39, 43, 70, 74, 110 plastics material flow and 7
during COVID-19 lockdown 23 reuse models 72, 103, 105
degradation of plastic during 16 SA Plastics Pact support for 91, 92, 103
Design for Recycling guideline 69 Simba’s commitment to 68
employment, as source of 76 rigid packaging 11, 23, 42, 69, 74
EPR scheme for 85, 87, 98, 101 river pollution 32, 49–50, 54, 62
exports of post-consumer plastic for 67 see also freshwater environments
global figure 30 roads, plastic 41, 77
governed by free-market principles 36, 74, 76, 104 rural areas 23, 32, 39, 47, 86
industry bodies involved in 79, 91 Russia 56
legislative requirements for 84 Ryan, Peter 52, 54
logo 10, 12
material identification code, use of 10
131
S sustainability
and circular plastics economy, towards 98, 108, 109, 112
Safripol 21, 56, 68
LCA on grocery carrier bags 27
sanitary wear 48, 54, 97, 106
packaging and 42, 43, 68, 71, 72, 98, 99
Sasol 21, 39, 68, 92
SAWIS (South African Waste Information System) 30, 86,
UN SDGs 78, 89
111–112
sweets
seals 57, 59
dispensing system for 72
seas see marine environments; marine pollution
sweet wrappers 25, 54, 55
secondary markets 7, 20, 42–43
symbols 12
separation of materials
additives, problems caused by 14
for biodegradable plastics 14
T
takeaway/fast-food meals
burning of waste as aim of 33
consumption patterns of 24
and circular plastics economy, towards 108
packaging for 24, 25, 52, 54, 73, 109, 110
outside source 33
see also food packaging
at source (s@s) 7, 12, 34, 39, 76, 96, 98, 105
taxes (levies) on plastics 78, 82, 83, 99, 110
sharks 57
textiles 10, 16, 22, 48, 50
shipping industry 62
tobacco industry
shoes 42, 48
cigarette butts as litter 52, 54, 55, 97, 106
shopping bags see plastic bags
and trade-offs in move towards circularity 98
short-lived goods 6, 7, 23
toiletries see personal-care products (toiletries)
shrink film 39
toothpaste 16, 48
Simba 32, 68, 72
tourism industry 62, 98
single-use plastics 24, 25, 27, 52, 88, 89, 92
toxins 16, 33, 60
snack foods packaging 24, 25, 39, 52, 54, 55, 68, 71–72, 72,
110 see also additives
see also food packaging toys 16, 22, 60
socio-economic issues 14, 26, 32, 73, 98, 110 trade
soft drinks 24 online retailers 66, 72
soil ecosystems 16, 26, 50 plastic-free stores 72, 73
solid waste 33, 48, 60, 62, 82 plastics material flow and 6, 7
sorting of materials 10, 11, 12, 33, 47, 85, 107 plastics production/consumption and 21, 22
South African Plastics Pact small-scale traders 71, 72, 82
and circular plastics economy, towards 7, 91–92, 96, 101, trade unions 66, 80
106, 107, 108, 109, 110 Transpaco recycling facility 39
design of packaging and 72 transparency 7, 69, 96, 101
members of 91 transportation
on-pack recycling labels, work on 12, 70 of pollution 48, 49–50, 54
recycled content, use of 104 of products 10, 25, 26, 27
reuse and refill models, support for 103 of waste 35
stakeholder support needed for 102 treatment of waste see waste treatment
South African Plastics Recycling Organisation 79, 91 types of plastic 10–12, 38
South African Waste Information System (SAWIS) 30, 86, tyres 16, 49
111–112
South African Waste Pickers Association 80 U
spaza shops 71, 72, 82 United Nations
standards see norms and standards global initiatives/agreements on pollution 89–90, 91, 92
State of Waste Report 30, 84, 86 SDGs 78, 89
stormwater drains 48, 50, 54, 55, 62 United States (USA) 21
straws 13, 25, 52, 54, 55, 73 universal recycling logo 10, 12
sub-Saharan Africa 30, 32 urban areas 23, 32, 86

use of plastics primary channels of 74
in life cycle of fresh produce 28–29 see also informal waste reclaimers
from linear to circular economy 47 waste generation
plastics life cycle, part of 20 overview of 30–32
plastics material flow and 6, 7 increases in 47
plastics value chain, part of 66 packaging as bulk of 24
see also consumers; consumption of plastics percentage in landfills 35
V
via production/consumption of farm produce 28
waste legislation 77, 84–85, 86, 111
value chain of plastics waste management
overview of 66–67 and circular plastics economy, towards 6, 47, 99, 110, 111,
and circular plastics economy, towards 101 112
EPR scheme, positive effects of 85 companies, examples of 74
stakeholder collaboration, need for 98 consumption patterns and 47
stakeholders, direct 68–76 costs incurred by 62, 76
stakeholders, indirect 77–80 EPR fees towards 85
virgin plastics in informal communities, lack of 54, 72
and circular plastics economy, towards 47, 85, 103 municipalities’ role in 30, 35, 36, 86, 100, 111
GHG emissions from 56 plastics value chain, part of 66
plastics life cycle, part of 20 see also dumpsites; landfills
plastics material flow and 6, 7 Waste RDI Roadmap 30, 77, 86
price of 6, 39, 42, 71, 76, 83, 99, 107, 108 waste-to-energy facilities 40
production/consumption of 21, 22, 23, 85 waste treatment
quality/material properties of 43 overview of 36–41
recycling rate 37 and circular plastics economy, towards 110
SA’s dependency on 6 of oxo-degradable plastics 14
taxes on 83 plastics life cycle, part of 20
as total plastic waste 36 WastePlan 34
wastewater systems 50, 54
W water
washing machines 50 footprint 10, 26
waste microplastics in 50, 59
garden 34 Western Cape province 28, 35, 51, 55, 68, 75, 76
general 30 wet wipes 54
industrial 30 wetlands pollution 49, 72
solid 33, 48, 60, 62, 82 White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Manage-
ment 84
total plastic waste 36
White Paper on Science, Technology and Innovation 78
Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) 91, 92
Woolworths
waste collection
LCA study on fresh produce 27–29
overview of 32–34
on-pack recycling label (OPRL) 70
for biodegradable plastics 14
World Wild Fund for Nature (SA) 5, 27, 91, 92
Z
107, 110, 112
during COVID-19 pandemic 23, 33, 34
EPR scheme for 85, 98, 101 zero-waste stores 72, 73
investment in technology needed 102
material identification code, use of 10
municipalities’ role in 32, 34, 74, 100, 110
for oxo-degradable plastics 14
plastics life cycle, part of 20
133
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SOUTH AFRICA

Design and layout

Cover photo caption

© Text 2020 WWF South Africa

If you would like to share copies of this report, please do so

Published in 2020 by WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature

For more information

WWF is one of the world’s largest and most experienced

WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s

WWF South Africa is a national office in the global WWF

Eva Mokoena, a South African informal waste reclaimer,

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

SECTION 1: A COMPLEX MATERIAL, A COMPLEX PROBLEM 8

SECTION 2: STAGES IN THE PLASTICS LIFE CYCLE 18

SECTION 3: PLASTICS, NATURE AND PEOPLE 46

SECTION 4: ACTORS AND ACTIONS 64

SECTION 5: ACTIONS FOR A CIRCULAR PLASTICS FUTURE  94

©️ Michele Spatari / WWF

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

Sustainable production and consumption require greater

For ease of reference, we have included a Glossary as well as

1 “Regional” here refers to the African continent.

MATERIAL FLOW IN THE CURRENT LINEAR PLASTICS ECONOMY

POLYMER PRODUCTION MANUFACTURING USE END OF LIFE

Primary barriers to achieving a circular plastics economy

There are several but disjointed There is a lack of a cohesive and

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

PLASTICS MATERIAL FLOW IN 2030 – THE IDEAL CASE

POLYMER PRODUCTION CONVERSION USE END OF LIFE SECONDARY

Necessary actions towards a circular plastics economy

Strengthen the regulatory Unlock investment for a circular

Ensure accountability through Support the local industry through

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

• High strength-to-mass ratio

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

Dealing with non-recyclables

BOX 3: SYMBOLS AND LABELLING – THE NEED FOR A STANDARD APPROACH

Improving on-pack recycling labels

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

ALTERNATIVES AND THEIR UNINTENDED Biodegradable bioplastics cannot be recycled with

POTENTIAL DANGERS position papers. There is concern about the uncertainty of

Examples of common additives include:

3 Adapted from CGCSA, 2020.

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

Plastic degradation in nature

After the useful life of a plastic product, it slowly

City of Cape Town Stormwater department cleaning up

8 Royer et al., 2018.

Plastic degradation during recycling

Plastic polymers degrade in quality with each

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

1. A persistent pollutant despite its benefits: Plastic is a versatile,

3. Biodegradable materials: There is a perception that biodegradable

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

Production Consumption & use Collection Treatment Secondary markets

Imported finished, semi-finished products

352 Recyclate for local use

WWF SOUTH AFRICA PLASTICS: FACTS AND FUTURES

SECTION 1: A COMPLEX MATERIAL, A COMPLEX PROBLEM 8

SECTION 2: STAGES IN THE PLASTICS LIFE CYCLE 18

SECTION 3: PLASTICS, NATURE AND PEOPLE 46

SECTION 4: ACTORS AND ACTIONS 64

SECTION 5: ACTIONS FOR A CIRCULAR PLASTICS FUTURE 94