How The Earth Works

HOW THE EARTH WORKS
A Simplified View of Our Complex Planet
Darren Leaver
Asst. Prof. of Geography
Glendale Community College, CA
HOW THE EARTH WORKS: A Simplified View of Our Complex Planet
The discipline of Geography is often defined as “the study of Earth as the home of mankind.” In
essence, this places Geography in a unique setting, a sort of “bridge” between the Physical Sciences (the
study of Earth’s physical attributes and processes) and the Social Sciences (the study of Earth’s human
activities such as cultures, politics, history, economics, etc.). With that said, the field of Geography is
itself divided into two main areas; Human Geography and Physical Geography. As the name implies,
Human Geography has a focus on the planet’s human activities, and how these activities interact and
influence (or are influenced by) the planet’s bio-physical environment. As with related disciplines
within the Social Sciences, Geographers explore, describe, analyze and assess various human activities
(religion, culture, agriculture, language, politics, economics, poverty, disease) but what sets the
Geographer apart is the focus on mapping these phenomena and assessing the nature of the distributions.
For instance, where an Economist might focus on the fiscal mechanisms of poverty in a specific region
(let’s say Haiti), a Geographer might specialize in the global distribution of poverty, analyzing the
common root causes within poor areas, then looking for potential pathways out of poverty. The
mapping of poverty can often bring some striking surprises, with some areas of the USA showing
extreme poverty compared to some regions of India which (to many people’s surprise) can be
considerably more wealthy. Human Geography is so vast in scope it is divided into sub-fields such as
Cultural Geography, Economic Geography, Political Geography, Historical Geography and Human
Impact on the Environment, to name just a few.
Physical Geography has a focus on the Earth’s natural bio-physical environment, including the
atmosphere, water bodies, rocks, plants and animals. Physical Geographers explore and describe Earth’s
bio-physical properties, look for and map recognizable patterns in the distribution of Earth’s physical
phenomena (climate, storms, earthquakes, etc.), analyze and try to explain the complex interactions
between these phenomena, and assess the two-way impacts between Earth’s physical phenomena and
Earth’s human inhabitants.
As a Physical Geography text, this book will focus on the Earth’s physical properties, and attempts to
communicate complex concepts in a style which can be understood by “everyday folk”, those with
limited exposure to the scientific jargon of the day. The goal is to allow for a general understanding of
the main processes which shape the distribution of our planet’s natural landscapes, weather, climate,
plant and animal distributions, and geologic processes. The approach is to dismantle some of our
previous notions about the Earth, and then use new information to rebuild these concepts at a college-
level understanding. For example, I often begin my college lectures by posing the following conundrum
to my students:
We all know that the Earth orbits around the sun once each 365.25 days, or once every Earth year. Our
path is that of an ellipse (egg shape), with an average distance between the Earth and the Sun of about
93,000,000 miles. However, this is the average distance, and since the orbit is elliptical we get as close
to the sun as 91,500,000 miles and as far from the sun as 94,500,000 miles. One of these Earth-Sun
positions occurs on approximately July 4 of each year, with the other occurring around January 3. So,
© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

which date represents our closest distance from the Sun, July 4 or January 3? Since my students are
based in California in the Northern Hemisphere (with hot July temperatures…and little in the way of
Geography or Earth Science education in the pre-college years) the overwhelming response is that we
must be closest to the Sun around July 4 of each year. This makes perfect sense, but is completely
wrong. In fact, July 4 marks the Earth’s aphelion, the furthest distance between the Earth and Sun
during the Earth’s annual orbit around the Sun. July 4 may bring hot weather to California, but at the
same time Australia, South Africa, and Argentina are experiencing typical winter weather, and they are
located the same distance from the Sun as California is. Clearly, distance from the Sun is not the
primary reason for places on Earth having different temperatures on the same day! We’ll explore the
true reasons a little later.
It is important to reiterate that the main goal of this book is for a general understanding of how the Earth
works, not a complete understanding, since many of the concepts we will explore are far more complex
than explained herein. A more thorough description would require much longer chapters, and in some
cases would require so much detail that you’d probably fall asleep before achieving our main goal.
The danger in the general understanding approach of this book is that we end up with a general
understanding of how the Earth works at the expense of a more thorough analysis. However, take
comfort in knowing that a general understanding of how our planet works will take you a long way in
making sense of your own earthly observations. For those willing to delve deeper into each subject we
explore, I will provide numerous web links along the way which allows for further exploration of the
subject material of each chapter.
Lastly, take comfort in knowing that even professional scientists don’t have all the answers for many
aspects of the planet’s physical mechanisms. Over time, dedicated scientists uncover many answers to
the complexities of the Earth’s inner workings, but there’s still a long way to go. In the end, it is my
hope that you will enjoy learning about “how the Earth works” and better appreciate the unique place we
all call “home”. Hopefully you will be the one to uncover some of Earth’s secrets in the near future!

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PLANET EARTH
Learning Objectives:
Upon successful completion of this chapter the student should be able to demonstrate critical
thinking skills and a basic understanding of:
1. The 4 Geographic Spheres and the interactions that occur between them;
2. The age of the earth and its location in space;
3. The size, shape and orientation of earth relative to its orbit around the sun;
4. Earth-moon interactions and moon phases;
5. The causative factors for earth’s seasons and key points within earth’s yearly revolution;
6. The differences between earth’s revolution and rotation, and how these earth motions manifest
themselves in our daily lives;
7. The portrayal of earth using maps, globes and the geographic grid;
8. The division of earth into standard time zones.

EARTH: FOUR GEOGRAPHIC SPHERES
The study of Physical Geography is made more manageable if we divide the subject matter into four
main parts that we call Geographic Spheres or Environmental Spheres. We can then study each
Geographic Sphere individually but we can also explore the connections between these spheres. These
spheres are so important that our book is laid out into sections based upon each of them.
1. Atmosphere (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth)
The atmosphere is defined as the gaseous envelope
surrounding the Earth, which we sometimes call
‘air.’ As we will see later, air is a mixture of gases
(Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Water Vapor, Carbon
Dioxide, etc.) along with smattering of liquids
(liquid water) and solids (dust, soot, pollen, ice,
etc.). The first half of this book will focus on the
atmosphere as we explore its composition, the
various layers of the atmosphere, high pressure, low
pressure, winds, storms, and what constitutes
weather versus climate.
2. Hydrosphere (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrosphere)
The second section of the book focuses on the
hydrosphere. This sphere is all about water, which
can be found in the three forms of liquid (liquid
water or just plain water), solid (ice), or gas (water
vapor). We’ll explore where the various forms of
water can be found on the Earth. For instance, of
Earth’s available water over 97% can be found in
the oceans. We’ll look at how this water got there,
why it sits in the oceans, and how the water cycles
between the oceans, atmosphere, mountain glaciers,
streams, lakes, rivers, and (hopefully) back to the oceans.
3. Biosphere (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere)
In the third section of the book we study Earth’s life forms. While this
also includes viruses, bacteria, single-celled organisms, fungi, and
oceanic life-forms, we will focus on land-based (terrestrial) plants and
animals. We’ll map out the locations of Earth’s major large ecosystems
(known as Biomes) and detail the plant and animal communities of these
biomes. We’ll learn the difference between a woodland and a forest,
and try to make sense of why Tropical Rainforests and Tundra exist

where they do and explain the impact of weather and climate on their locations, as well as how
plate tectonics and ocean barriers might have influenced the distribution of the plants and
animals.
4. Lithosphere (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithosphere) a.k.a. Geosphere

The last section of the book (and it’s a
large one) deals with the Earth’s
Lithosphere. This sphere includes Earth’s
rocks, soil, and sediment. Studying the
Lithosphere allows us to better understand
the inner workings of our planet and how
the internal layers influence the Earth’s
surface in terms of volcanoes,
earthquakes, mineral resources, and the
movement of entire continents.
Take a look at the following video for a more dynamic look at the Geographic Spheres and their
interactions with each other. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnpF0ndXk-8
Food for Thought

Once you’ve viewed the video, try to draw a simple diagram showing the fours spheres and how they
interact with each other. Sometimes it’s difficult to place an object into a specific Geographic Sphere.
For instance, to which Geographic Sphere would you assign a raindrop as it falls? How about a small
grain of pollen blowing in the wind? Would a tiny grain of clay that has just blown from a desert and
landed in the ocean be considered part of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere or both? Can you think of a
unique example where one Geographic Sphere influences a different sphere? Lastly, can you think of
ways in which human activities are influencing these Geographic Spheres?
HOW OLD IS EARTH, WHERE IS EARTH LOCATED IN SPACE, AND WHY IS THIS
IMPORTANT?
In order to study the Earth we first have to know a little about how old it is, where our planet sits in the
solar system and how it is positioned in space, how large our planet is, how it moves around its axis and
around the sun, and how the Earth interacts with the sun to create our seasons.
Scientific evidence indicates that Earth and our entire solar system formed from a cloud of interstellar
gas and dust about 4.6 billion years ago. The process of planetary formation was completed as dust, gas
and larger solid blocks gathered or ‘accreted’ together over a very short time (relatively short, that is) of
about 10-20 million years. As very hot, radioactive materials were accreted to this early earth, the entire
mass of rock material melted. Over time the outer layers cooled and solidified into our crust and formed
toxic atmospheres that would eventually escape our planet’s gravity. With continued cooling and

bombardment from icy meteors our oceans and a stable water-bearing atmosphere began to form. For a
good visual representation of earth’s formation click on the following link and watch the following
video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1QTc5YeO6w
Our Solar System

Our Solar System (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System) consists of the Sun and both the planets and smaller
objects orbiting it. The four inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars), are referred to as the
terrestrial planets and are primarily composed of rock. Earth is located approx. 93 million miles from
the sun on average but can be as close as 91.5 million miles (perihelion) and as far as 94.5 million miles
(aphelion) as we make our yearly orbit around the sun. The four outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune) are much larger than the terrestrial planets and are composed mainly of gases and ices.
These four are often referred to as giant planets or Jovian planets.
The area between Mars and Jupiter is occupied by an asteroid belt of rocky, metallic Earth-like
materials. Beyond the orbit of Neptune are numerous dwarf planets including Pluto, Ceres and Eris.
These objects are large enough to be rounded by their own gravity but are not large enough to be
spherical, and are therefore not considered ‘true’ planets. They also have orbits that don’t align with the
celestial plane of the main planets of our solar system.
In another 5 billion years the core of our Sun will have expended all of its hydrogen fuel, and it will
begin to contract. This will generate heat, which in turn will allow hydrogen in the outer layers of the
sun to fuse together into Helium, releasing loads of energy and expanding the size of the sun…to the
point the Earth will likely get swallowed up. So, Mother Earth is 4.6 billion years old and has no more
than another 5 billion years remaining. Anyone worried?
The Moon
The Earth has one large, natural satellite which we call the moon. The moon has a diameter of
approximately 2,200 miles (about a quarter of that of Earth) and is located approximately 238,000 miles
from the Earth. The moon orbits the Earth in a west-to-east direction once every 29.5 days, which
means we get a one full moon most every month. It is possible to get two full moons in a single 30-day
or 31-day month (let’s say on the 1st and 30th of a month). The second full moon in a single calendar
month as a Monthly Blue Moon, a rare phenomenon occurring once every 2.7 years. Note that there
will be two Monthly Blue Moons in 2018, one in January and the other in March.
Although the moon revolves around the Earth in a west-to-east direction, it appears to move in an east-
to-west direction as it rises in the east and sets in the west. The main reason for this apparent motion is
that the Earth rotates from west-to-east at a much faster pace (once every 24 hours). The net effect is
that while the Earth rotates once every 24 hours, the moon is also orbiting toward the east, so it takes
another 50 minutes for the Earth to ‘catch up’ to the exact position in the sky where the moon was seen
on the previous day. Thus, the moon rises and sets 50 minutes later each and every day. Check out the

following link for a good description of the moons phases.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Moon_phases_en.jpg/800px-Moon_phases_en.jpg
The following diagram shows the various moon phases courtesy of the US Naval Observatory
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/moon_phases.php
MOON PHASES
New Moon - The Moon's non-illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon is not visible (except during a solar eclipse).
Waxing Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the
Moon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.
First Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is
illuminated is increasing.
Waxing Gibbous - The Moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the
Moon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.
Full Moon - The Moon's illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears to be completely illuminated by direct sunlight.
Waning Gibbous - The Moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the
Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.
Last Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is
illuminated is decreasing.
Waning Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the
Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

Size and Shape of the Earth
We’ve all lived on this same planet since our birth. Have you ever thought about how big Earth is or
what shape it is? Is it flat? If you look at the floor you’re standing on you might think so! Is Earth
round? Is it a sphere? A quick look at a globe seems to indicate yes. Is it big? Having flown around
the Earth several times it certainly seems very big, taking hours and hours to fly around just small parts
of the planet. Take a look at a globe and put your fingers on London and Los Angeles. This is a very
small portion of the globe yet it takes 10 or more hours to fly this distance at speeds over 500mph! The
planet is big, but let’s see just how so. Check out this great link for a discussion of the size of the Earth
compared to the sun.
A spherical object can be measured in terms of Circumference (the distance around one of the fat parts
or great circles), Diameter (the distance from one outer edge through the center and out to the opposing
outer edge), and Radius (the distance from the inner center to the outer edge, which happens to be
exactly half the diameter). To the nearest 1,000 miles, Earth’s critical measurements are:
Radius = 4,000 miles
Diameter = 8,000 miles
Circumference = 25,000 miles
If we were to measure Earth’s diameter along any great circle (one that runs through a ‘fat’ portion of
the Earth, cutting it into two equal halves), it is always 8,000 miles when we round off to the nearest
1,000 miles. However, we get a different story if we measure more precisely, let’s say to the nearest one
mile. In this case, Earth’s diameter is different along almost every great circle, with a difference of 27
miles between the diameter measured across the Equator (equatorial diameter) and the diameter
measured from the North Pole to the South Pole (polar diameter) as shown below:
Equatorial Diameter = 7,927 miles.

Polar Diameter = 7,900 miles.
This difference of 27 miles is known as Equatorial Bulge (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_bulge).
So why is the Earth fat around its mid-section? Well, the Earth spins or ‘rotates’ once every 24 hours on
an axis running from North Pole to South Pole. As the Earth rotates from west to east on this axis, the
Poles just seem to spin around without moving significantly, while the equator rotates almost 25,000
miles in 24 hours (look at a globe as you spin it and see that the equator moves the furthest in each spin).
25,000 miles in 24 hours is about 1,040 miles per hour! Since Earth’s internal layers are not all solid,
and since the equator feels the effect of this spinning more than any other part of the planet, the equator
experiences an outward force called centrifugal force (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_force) which tends to
bulge it outwards away from the Earth’s axis of rotation.

Because of this Equatorial Bulge, Earth’s polar axis is slightly shorter than its equatorial axis, so Earth’s
shape cannot be considered a true sphere. Instead, Earth’s shape is described as an Oblate Spheroid
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblate_spheroid), like a slightly squashed almost-sphere. In fact, Earth is only 0.34%
from being a perfect sphere, even if you count the little bumps and divots on the surface (what we would
call mountains and ocean basins).
So how does this Oblate Spheroid called Earth sit in relation to the sun? Well, the path the Earth takes
around the sun is referred to as the Earth’s Plane of the Ecliptic. A line drawn at an angle of 90 degrees
from this plane is referred to as the Perpendicular to the Plane of the Ecliptic, or just ‘Perpendicular’.
Earth’s north-south polar axis, the axis we rotate around every day, is inclined 23.44 degrees (let’s just
say 23.5 degrees) from the Plane of the Ecliptic.
This 23.5 degree Axial Tilt is also known as Earth’s Angle of Inclination or Polarity since the Earth’s
tilt dictates that the North Pole points towards the North Star, which is named Polaris.
Earth Motions and Seasons

So there you have it, we travel around the sun in one year and the whole time we have a 23.5 degree tilt
which directs our North Pole constantly towards the same point in space (towards Polaris). With the
North Pole pointing towards the same distant star every day, the northern hemisphere points somewhat
towards our own star (the sun) for half of our yearly orbit, and somewhat away from the sun for the

other half of our orbit. In essence, it is these changes, caused by our axial tilt and our yearly revolution
(orbit) around the sun that give us seasons on Earth. Let’s explain this in more detail by clarifying
Earth’s important motions and introducing the concepts of equinoxes and solstices.
If you viewed Earth for a long enough period of time from a vantage point way out in deep space, you’d
notice that our planet moves in several different ways. First of all, our entire Solar System moves
around our galaxy (the Milky Way) once every 225-250 million years. This very long time period
means that we might, at times, move into areas of thicker cosmic dust while at other times we might be
in areas free of this celestial debris. The impact to our climate might be significant for millions of years,
but this will NOT create significant changes to our climate or weather during our lifetimes. Therefore,
we don’t consider this to be a significant Earth motion for this course. The same is true of other Earth
motions that are collectively referred to as Milankovitch Cycles
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_wobble) and operate on time periods of 21,000 to over 400,000
years. These will be discussed in greater detail when we explore long-term climate change.
The Earth motions which do affect us regularly are those of Rotation (Earth spinning on its own axis
every 24 hours) and Revolution (Earth orbiting the sun once every 365.25 days +/-). Revolution, the
Earth orbiting the sun, takes approximately 365.25 days to complete. Our 21st-Century working
calendars have 365 days per year, with the extra 0.25 day saved and added up to give us a Leap Year
most (but not every) four years (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_year). As mentioned before, it is our
revolution around the sun in combination with our fixed axial tilt which gives us our seasons by pointing
the northern and southern hemispheres somewhat towards or away from the sun at opposite times of the
year. When looking from deep space, our revolution looks like this:

Notice that on the far left side (June) the Northern Hemisphere is pointing somewhat towards the sun,
with the North Pole basking in sunlight for a full 24 hours per day as Earth spins on its axis. During the
month of June, the light from the sun won’t even make it to the South Pole, giving that region 24 hours
of darkness each day. This effect is maximized each year on or around June 21, when the sun’s rays are
directed towards the Northern Hemisphere more so than any other day of the year, with the direct
(vertical) ray of the sun striking 23.5 degrees north of the equator. In the Northern Hemisphere this
represents the first day of summer, while for the Southern Hemisphere this represents the first day of
winter. On this date, the further north you go on the planet, the more daylight hours you’ll receive. This
explains the presence of a “Midnight Sun” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_sun) in far northern
latitudes like parts of Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada or Alaska during the month of June. We once
referred to this date as the Summer Solstice, but it’s best to call it either the “Northern Hemisphere
Summer Solstice” or the June Solstice to be fair to both hemispheres.
On the right side of the diagram is the representation of the December Solstice (approx. Dec. 21/22)
when the direct ray of the sun strikes 23.5 degrees south of the equator. This represents the first day of
winter for the Northern Hemisphere and the first day of summer for the Southern Hemisphere. On this
date the South Pole and the entire Antarctic Circle (located at Latitude 66.5˚S) will receive 24 hours of
daylight, while the North Pole and the Arctic Circle (located at Latitude 66.5˚N) will receive 24 hours
of darkness. In essence, on this date the further south you travel the more daylight hours you’ll receive.
The two remaining positions on the diagram represent the September Equinox (lower left) and March
Equinox (upper right), which occur when the sun’s direct ray strikes the equator on or around
September 22 and March 20, respectively. On these dates everywhere on the planet receives equal
amounts (12 hours) of daylight and night. The name Equinox is derived from the Latin words for equal
(equi) and night (nox).
Check out these links for animated descriptions of why we have seasons.
http://www.khanacademy.org/video/seasons-aren-t-dictated-by-closeness-to-
sun?playlist=Cosmology+and+Astronomy
http://www.khanacademy.org/video/how-Earth-s-tilt-causes-seasons?playlist=Cosmology+and+Astronomy
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9hawBb3wbk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=taHTA7S_JGk
Aphelion and Perihelion

In addition to the equinoxes and solstices there are two additional dates of importance as the Earth orbits
the sun (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsides). These are:
JULY 4: Aphelion, when the Earth is at a maximum distance of 94.5 million miles from the sun.
JAN. 3: Perihelion, when the Earth is at a minimum distance of 91.5 million miles from the sun.

Check out this link for the annual dates of Perihelion and Aphelion
https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/perihelion-aphelion-solstice.html
The diagram (above) exaggerates the elliptical nature of Earth’s orbit around the sun, but this allows you
to visualize Perihelion and Aphelion a little better. Because of this elliptical orbit, the sun is closer to
the southern hemisphere during their summer months, so the southern hemisphere receives
approximately 7% more solar energy than the northern hemisphere during the respective summer
months. This doesn’t necessarily mean the southern hemisphere gets warmer summers than the northern
hemisphere (despite what Australian farmers might say) but it does mean you have to be very careful
about getting too much sun exposure during an Argentine or Australian summer since the sun’s harmful
rays are generally stronger there than in the northern hemisphere. We’ll look at the effects of this
increased energy on the weather and climate of the southern hemisphere in later chapters.
Rotation
We’ve already established that Earth’s seasons are caused by the combined effects of axial tilt and
revolution. We’ll now focus on the second important Earth motion, that of Rotation (Earth spinning on
its own axis once every 24 hours), which is responsible for both ocean tides and the need for
establishing standardized time zones.
Earth rotates from west-to-east once every 24 hours on an axis running from the North Pole to the South
Pole. Since only 50% of a spherical body (and hence, an Oblate Spheroid) can be illuminated by the
sun, with the other 50% remaining in shadow, rotation allows us to have daylight and nighttime hours,

with daylight occurring when our particular portion of the planet is pointing towards the sun, and
nighttime when we are in the shadow side. This also means that while some places on Earth are
experiencing the sun at its highest position in the sky for that day, at the exact same moment other places
are immersed in the darkness of night. With this in mind, and since the Earth rotates a full 360º once
every 24 hours (15º every hour) we have established 24 whole-hour time zones across the planet, with
the centers of each time zone being 15º (of rotation) apart from one another (more on this to come).
A second major impact of rotation is the generation of ocean tides. Tides are the periodic rise and fall
of the ocean’s surface due to the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun. As the Earth rotates from
west to east, these celestial bodies pull the Earth and its ocean waters towards them, lifting the ocean
waters as a high tide. With continued rotation, the high tide gradually subsides, yielding a low tide
several hours later. As rotation progresses, the tide will build again into the next high tide. Most places
on Earth receive two high tides and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes (a lunar day), while
others receive only one high and one low tide each day.
Image: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/tides/tides03_gravity.html
Since the gravitational pull of the sun and moon have a cumulative effect, tides are most extreme (high
and low) twice every month when the sun, moon and Earth are found in a straight line. These extreme
tides are called spring tides and occur around the time of full moon and new moon. The least extreme
tidal fluctuations are found when the Earth, sun and moon are oriented in such a way that they create a
right angle, in what are termed neap tides. These occur approximately 7.5 days before and after a new
moon or full moon. Check out these links for visual representations of spring and neap tides as well as a
solar day versus a lunar day:
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/tides/media/supp_tide06a.html
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_tides/media/supp_tide05.html
MAPS AND GLOBES

Representations of the Earth are shown on globes (scaled 3-dimensional models of the Earth) and maps
(flat, scaled, 2-dimensional representations of the whole Earth or portions of it). Since the Earth is a 3-
dimensional object, it is quite easy to transfer data onto a 3-dimensional globe, although we can never
show great detail on such a small model of the Earth. However, since maps are largely 2-dimensional, a
process called map projection is required to transfer 3-dimensional data onto a 2-dimensional map, but
there are inherent distortions in accomplishing this. The main distortions are those of size (Mercator
Map Projections show Mexico to be quite small and Alaska grossly enlarged) or shape (Norway can
often appear to be much longer in some projections). Projections such as the Robinson Projection have

attempted to minimize these distortions, but they can never be eliminated from a 2-dimensional map.
For this reason, the only true representation of our 3-dimensional planet is a 3-dimensional globe. Fully
appreciating the complexities of map projection requires a hands-on, experiential learning environment
like a Geography Lab, and your school probably offers the lab course which compliments this lecture
course. If you just can’t wait, more detailed information on map projections can be found by clicking on
the following links at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I_VpC6IuJs and
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBMs_LpwYpU .
THE GRID SYSTEM of LATITUDE and LONGITUDE

In order to locate ourselves on this revolving, rotating oblate spheroid that we call Earth, we often use
geographic place names and addresses. However, there are many places on the planet which don’t have
specific addresses or place names (a portion of the Amazon rainforest, or a portion of the Pacific Ocean)
but we still need to have a precise method for identifying these locations. Luckily, such a system of
global location exists in the form of the Geographic Grid of “Latitude and Longitude”.
Check out these YouTube links for the Geographic Grid and Latitude
https://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_591747489&feature=iv&src_vid=lUMlmRzkuuY&v=pAZUrlKk6CE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ALN7gXF1thY
Latitude (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude) is a measure in Degrees, Minutes and Seconds

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(angle) of how far a place is located north or south of the Equator.
Lines of Latitude run in an east-west direction, but again, they have north and south measure. The
maximum measure for latitude is 90ºN (N. Pole) and 90ºS (S. Pole). In addition to the Equator and the
poles, other key lines of latitude include the Arctic Circle (66.5ºN), Tropic of Cancer (23.5ºN), Tropic
of Capricorn (23.5ºS), and the Antarctic Circle (66.5ºS). Though the North and South Poles can be

thought of as geometric points, the remaining lines of latitude can be viewed as either circles or lines,
depending on the frame of reference. The only line of latitude which cuts the Earth into two equal half
(what we call a Great Circle) is the Equator.
Longitude (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude) is a measure in Degrees, Minutes and Seconds of

how far a place is located east or west of an agreed-upon starting point, the Prime Meridian, the
longitude line which runs through Greenwich, London, England (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Meridian).

Lines of Longitude run in a direct line from the North Pole to the South Pole, but again, they have east
and west measure. The maximum measure for longitude is 180º, which is both east and west of the
Prime Meridian, and thus does not require an E or W with its measurement (nor does the Prime
Meridian, since it is neither E nor W of itself). The 180º Meridian is often called the International
Dateline, though in reality they are not one and the same, as the International Dateline crosses the 180º
Meridian at several locations due to the presence of political boundaries.
All other places on the planet do require an E or W after its Longitude designation so that we clearly see
which way to go from the Prime Meridian to find the place in question. For example, a place located at
34º09’41”N, and 118º10’03”W tells us this place is located a specific arc distance north of the Equator
and west of the Prime Meridian, a location that GoogleEarth shows to be at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena,
California.
All lines of Longitude are called Meridians, and they are all portions of Great Circles, cutting the Earth
into two equal halves. Meridians are widest (furthest apart) at the Equator, and they all meet at a single
point at the North Pole, as they do at the South Pole. For this reason, the location of the North Pole
would be shown as just 90ºN, with no need for a longitude designation (in effect, the North Pole’s
longitude is all longitudes, since all lines of longitude converge there).
TIME ZONES
Since the Earth completes a full west-to-east rotation every 24 hours (it spins a full 360°) it rotates
exactly 15° every hour. This means that if a city experienced the sun at its zenith (high point) in the sky
at noon, any place on the planet located 15° to the west of the city would experience the zenith sun
exactly one hour later (and that would be noon for them). In essence, every 15° line of longitude (called
Principal Meridians) marks the center of 24 main time zones which stretch around the globe starting at
the Prime Meridian. Again, these 15° increments mark the center of time zones, so the edges of these
main time zones are located 7.5° to both the east and west of the Principal Meridians.
So if you move from west to east across the planet you will inevitably cross the boundaries between
neighboring time zones. For instance, if you travel from Los Angeles (time zone based on the 120˚W
Principal Meridian) to New York (75˚W) you will cross three time zone boundaries. Since you traveled
east you would have to advance your watch three hours forward. It could be that you flew directly to
New York, leaving Los Angeles at 2pm and arriving in New York just five hours later at 10pm New
York time! In essence, traveling towards the east means that you lose an hour of your life for each time
zone you cross into!

Map of US Time Zones from NationalAtlas.gov
However, the old saying “Go West Young Man” can be applied to your return journey, as you gain
hours back by traveling towards the west. For each time zone you cross in this direction, you gain an
extra hour of your life by turning your watch back an hour each time you cross a time one boundary. By
flying direct to Los Angeles from New York your plane might take off at 2pm New York time, arriving
five hours later at 4pm Los Angeles time.
So you might think ‘what if I just kept going west, could I get progressively younger?’ Well, the answer
is yes…and no. It is true that as you travel west you reset you watch back one hour for each time zone
boundary you cross, but this only works until you get to 180 degree meridian, which is (or more
precisely, should be) the location of the International Dateline. At this critical line of longitude you
have to pay back 24 one-hour time resets all at one. So as you travel across the International Dateline by
traveling west, you lose an entire 24-hour day all at once as you move from the “Western Hemisphere”
into the Eastern Hemisphere”. The west side of the Dateline might be Wednesday at 10:45am while on
the east side it would be Thursday at 10:45am, a full 24 hours difference!
In 2012 I took an 18-hour flight from Los Angeles to Bangkok,

Thailand. I departed LAX at 9:00pm on Thursday January 27, and
arrived in Bangkok 18 hours later at 6:00am on Sunday January
29th. This 18-hour flight had me arriving 33 hours later!

My return flight took me from Singapore to Tokyo, Japan and
finally back to Los Angeles. I departed Tokyo at 5:30pm on
Tuesday February 7, 2012 and arrived a little less than 9 hours
later at LAX to find that it was 10:15am on Tuesday February 7.
Though the flight lasted almost 9 hours I arrived before I left!
Check out these YouTube links for Time Zones

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDWHM00sZJc&feature=related
Quite often time zone boundaries create a little trouble because part of a country or state might be split
inconveniently by a time zone boundary (in your city it could be that your house would be located
within one time zone while your workplace just a few miles away is located in another time zone). For
this reason time zones often wrap around political boundaries so that we avoid unnecessary problems.
The Pacific island nation of Samoa found itself in ‘Time Zone Trouble’ because it sat on one side of the
International Dateline while most of the island’s tourists came from nearby countries (Australia, New
Zealand) located on the other side of the Dateline. This meant that a tourist leaving New Zealand on
Saturday would arrive into Samoa about 3 hours later, only to find that is was now Friday! On their
journey home they might leave Samoa on Sunday morning, and after a short flight they would arrive in
Auckland, New Zealand on Monday afternoon and be quite late for work! Samoa experienced so much
difficulty with its time zone they actually changed on New Year’s Day 2012 so that they are now on the
same side of the International Dateline as Australia and New Zealand. However, their closest neighbor,
American Samoa, remains on the other side of the Dateline, so as one problem was fixed another was
created. Check out the following link describing the situation in Samoa.
http://www.npr.org/2011/05/09/136149457/samoa-changes-time-zones
Food for Thought: Where on earth are Principal Meridians located furthest from one another? Explain.
Is it possible to see the New Year in 24 times in the same day without you traveling at all that day? If
so, where could this happen? Explain your answer.
To make things even more complicated, some countries and states create their own unique half-hour
(South Australia) or even quarter-hour time zones (Nepal) to differentiate themselves from their
neighbors. Furthermore, many countries and states, especially in the Northern Hemisphere mid-
latitudes, adopt Daylight Savings Time during their summer months by temporarily advancing time by
one hour starting in spring and then back again in the fall. The practice allows for more afternoon and
evening sunlight at the expense of morning sunlight during the summer, with proponents arguing that it
benefits retail and restaurant sales after traditional summer work hours.

Here’s a map of World Time Zones as compiled by the United States Naval Observatory.
DST used
DST no longer used
DST never used
With all the variables to consider figuring out the time in a foreign city can get quite complicated. To
make things easier, check out http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ and just enter the name of the
city for which you want to know the current time.

The Atmosphere
Learning Objectives
Upon successful completion of the required course work, the student will be able to
demonstrate critical thinking skills and a basic understanding of:
1. the geographical concept of space
2. geographical place names
3. spatial aspects of the world's bio-physical environment
4. the complex interrelationships between humankind and the bio-physical environment
5. the concept of regions and its application to the world's bio-physical environment
Photo Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory
Chapter Contents
1. Definition of the Atmosphere
2. Main Atmospheric Gases
3. Trace Gases and their Significance
• Climate Change
• Acid Rain
• Ozone Depletion
4. Particulate Matter
5. Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
6. Weather versus Climate
7. Factors Influencing Weather and Climate
©Text Copyright 2018 Darren Leaver

The Atmosphere
Photo Courtesy of NASA (http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_519.html)
Our atmosphere is an envelope of air surrounding the planet, but we rarely take the time
to think about exactly what this “air” stuff is composed of, how the tiny components of
air can have a huge impact on our climate, or that there are various layers to our
atmosphere, each one behaving differently from the other layers. We’ve all had
conversations about how our climate seems different lately, or that our weather is
getting ‘weirder’ by the year, but do we really understand the main difference between
weather and climate? Can we explain to others the main factors which collectively yield
different climate types for two distant places on the planet? Can we explain how New
York was under miles of ice only a few thousand years ago? All of this can be explained
if we know a little more about our atmosphere, so let’s dig deeper into this together!
Our atmosphere is defined as an envelope of gases, liquids and small solid particles
surrounding the earth. The liquids are mostly water droplets found in clouds, and the
solid particulate matter is mostly tiny specs of dust, ash, pollen, ice, and salt temporarily
caught in wafting air currents. The vast majority of the atmosphere consists of a mixture
of gases; three main gases and numerous trace gases. If we were to take a sample of air
from numerous places on the planet’s surface and extract the small solid particles, any
liquid drops, and all the water vapor in the air sample, we’d be left with what atmospheric
scientists call “dry air”. Now, upon analyzing this dry air we find it remarkable that the

samples all seem to have about the same concentrations of three main gases, as shown in
the diagram below:
1) Nitrogen (N2), 78 %
2) Oxygen (O2), 21%
3) Argon (Ar), 0.93%
For actual concentrations click

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air#Composition
Nitrogen
Atmospheric Nitrogen in the lower atmosphere is found mostly in the form of N2 at a
concentration of 78% of dry air, making it the earth’s largest reservoir of Nitrogen.
Nitrogen is continuously recycled as it falls to earth trapped within rain drops and soaks
into layers of soil. It is then absorbed by bacteria in the soil, assimilated into the roots of
plants, and then released back into the atmosphere, thereby keeping the atmospheric
Nitrogen concentration very stable over time.
The N2 form means two Nitrogen atoms have bonded together to form a single molecule.
This bond is extremely strong, taking an enormous effort to break apart. This makes N2
quite ineffective at mixing with other molecules in the atmosphere or for that matter, with
oxygen in our lungs. We breathe in air rich in N2 and we breathe out air rich in N2, as our
bodies cannot take in the atmospheric Nitrogen in this form.
This is not to say that Nitrogen is not important. On the contrary, it is essential for life on
Earth as it is a main ingredient in the formation of amino acids, proteins, DNA, RNA and
neurotransmitters. Humans indeed require Nitrogen, but we don’t get it from the
atmosphere. Instead, we rely on bacteria in the soil or certain specialized plants which
break down the N2 bonds and allow the free Nitrogen atoms to create complex
compounds like nitrates. These compounds are then absorbed by the roots of plants, and
when we consume the plants we in turn absorb the Nitrogen necessary to form our own
amino acids, proteins, RNA and DNA. For more on the formation and recycling of
Nitrogen compounds click on this link http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle.
When asked “what is the main gas in the atmosphere” most people would answer
“Oxygen”, but they would be quite wrong. Notice that the main atmospheric gas is
actually Nitrogen, which is present at a concentration almost 4 times that of Oxygen.
At sea level N2 is quite harmless, but this isn’t always the case. If you were to go scuba
diving you’d be breathing from a tank of compressed air, 78% of which is N2. As a diver
descends to a depth of about 66 feet, the air is compressed so much that the molecules
now take up only a third of the volume they did at sea level. Taking a breath at this depth
would fill the lungs with 3 times the number of (compressed) molecules as compared to
sea level, so not only is the tank depleted of air 3 times faster, the tiny N2 molecules are
absorbed by the blood stream more effectively. The Nitrogen mixes with oxygen in the
blood to form Nitrous Oxide, a.k.a. laughing gas. Nothing you want to deal with when
you’re 66 feet below sea level.
Oxygen
Oxygen in the lower atmosphere is found at a concentration of 21% of dry air, in the form
of O2 which is referred to as ‘molecular Oxygen’. This molecule’s source is almost
entirely from photosynthesizing plants and algae, which has been ongoing for about 3.5
billion years. Our earlier atmosphere would have been devoid of O2, prior to the presence
of our planet’s earliest blue-green algae. O2 is critical for humans, as we inhale air rich in
O2 which we use for respiration, and we exhale air rich in carbon dioxide (CO2).
Argon
Argon (Ar) is Earth’s third most-common atmospheric gas, with an atmospheric
concentration of 0.93% of dry air. Almost all of this Argon originates from the
radioactive decay of Potassium in the Earth’s crust. Argon doesn’t readily mix or
combine with any other gases, so we breathe it in and breathe it out without taking it up
into our bodies, and this gas is not responsible for any climate change issues of note.
If we add up the concentrations of N2, O2, and Ar we can see that these three gases alone
make up 99.93 % of dry air, leaving only 0.07% of the atmosphere’s volume for all other
gases (plus small particulate solids and water). So what’s the big fuss over global
warming gases like carbon dioxide or acidic compounds like sulfur oxides if they
represent such a small quantity of the atmosphere? Well, the answer is that very small
concentrations of these remaining gases can have a BIG effect on the atmosphere. We
call these remaining atmospheric molecules the variable gases because their
concentrations vary from place-to-place and from time-to-time. They also go by the
name of trace gases because they have very small concentrations (there’s only a small
trace of them in the atmosphere). Let’s take a look at them.
The Variable Gases

(It will help you understand these better if you make a chart of the following details).
1. Water Vapor (H20). Two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom.
Concentration: Between 0% and 4%

Air with close to 0% water vapor can be found in deserts and at the poles (the Atacama
Desert and McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica are the driest places on earth).
Air containing 4% water vapor is found near the equator including the tropical rain
forests and above the tropical oceans.
Source: Evaporation from oceans, seas, lakes, and any other object containing water. It
is estimated that the average water vapor molecule stays in the atmosphere for 10 days.
Problem: None, it’s natural. However, water vapor is the dominant atmospheric gas
responsible for the natural Greenhouse Effect. In this process, Water Vapor (along with

Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Oxides of Nitrogen, Ozone and other gases) allows the sun’s
short-wavelength radiation to pass through the atmosphere where the radiation is then
absorbed by earth’s surface, which then heats up. The heated surface of the earth then
sends long-wavelength heat energy back towards outer space, but these atmospheric
gases (including water vapor) temporarily trap this outgoing heat energy.
Image: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/globalwarming/images/greenhouse_effect-v1.jpg
For analogy, think of a hot asphalt parking lot which has been in the summer sunshine all
day. Long after the sun has gone down you can feel the heat rising up from the asphalt.
This heat would quickly rise through and out of the atmosphere if it wasn’t for water
vapor (and other gases) which temporarily trap this heat in the lower atmosphere so we
don’t quickly freeze once the sun goes down.
So, water vapor in the lower atmosphere makes the air warmer than what it would be
otherwise. In this way, water vapor acts just like panes of glass in a greenhouse, which
allow the sun’s rays to pass through the glass to heat up the interior of the glass building.
The glass then tends to trap the warm air within the greenhouse. For this reason, water
vapor (along with carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, ozone) is considered to be a
Greenhouse Gas (GHG), one which contributes to the Greenhouse Effect.
Scientists are concerned about Climate Change (more on this later), the warming of
Earth’s surface due to the addition of gases to our atmospheric gases with associated
impacts to earth’s geographic spheres. Though atmospheric water vapor is not
considered to be a direct contributor to Climate Change, this gas does tend to amplify the
effects of those gases which do contribute to the unusual warming pattern we are
currently experiencing. Additionally, a warmer lower atmosphere tends to promote
higher rates of evaporation which can temporarily (and locally) increase the water vapor
concentration of air, which can lead to localized increases in rainfall (but who knows
exactly where?) and less snowfall in California’s mountains. In Southern California we
need more winter snow which, upon slowly melting, feeds our rivers and recharges our
groundwater basins well into the summer months.

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Concentration: 410 ppm (parts per million) in

2018 and rising 2ppm per year.
Source: Multiple sources including burning

anything that’s carbon-based (fossil fuels,
wood, coal, cigarettes, etc), volcanoes, and
deforestation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere
Problem: As previously mentioned, CO2 is a Greenhouse Gas, one with an ability to

temporarily trap energy in the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide has many natural
sources, including volcanic eruptions, brush fires, forest fires, and respiration. Between
120,000 and 20,000 years ago, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 saw a pattern of
slow decline as we entered an ice age. This was followed by a rather steady increase
(with fluctuations) in atmospheric CO2 as the climate began to warm rather quickly over
the past 18,000 years. Throughout this entire 120,000 year time span, and most likely for
the past 650,000 years, global CO2 concentrations appear to have remained within a range
of 180 to 300 parts per million (ppm).
Since human populations were quite small and technologies quite primitive, early human
activities could not have contributed significantly to the increase of atmospheric CO2
until we began to clear land for villages and agriculture some 11,000 years ago. Even so,
this early contribution to changes in the atmosphere’s composition would have been very
small indeed. As the climate continued to emerge from the last ice age, there was a
simultaneous increase in human population coupled with advances in technology which
allowed for a greater ability to clear forests. Evidence suggests that by 4,000 years ago
ancient Greek forests were already in peril, and as human population continued to
increase more forests were cleared and atmospheric concentration of CO2 inched higher.
By the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the early 19th Century, the CO2 concentration
stood at approximately 280 parts per million, a number we often use to represent the pre-
industrial level of atmospheric CO2. Though there was certainly a human element to at
least some of this pre-industrial atmospheric CO2, the contribution is considered to be
quite small and only a trace of it can be attributed to the burning of fossil fuels (i.e. coal,
oil, natural gas). The burning of fossil fuels began in earnest towards the end of the 18th
Century as coal seams became the power source of the Industrial Revolution in Europe
and then North America. These fossil fuels had been created through a long process
beginning with ancient photosynthesizing plants, algae, and bacteria pulling carbon
dioxide out of our early atmosphere. These ancient organisms used the carbon to create
carbohydrates, sugars and proteins (in essence they built themselves) and they released
oxygen back to the atmosphere. In certain instances, the carbon-based cells of the plants,
algae or bacteria were buried in low-lying, watery areas such as swamps or shallow seas.
If the organic matter was buried deeper and deeper before being decomposed, the added
pressure and heat over millions of years would convert it into coal, oil or natural gas. In

essence, the carbon pulled out of the atmosphere by photosynthesizing organisms was
now locked away in the form of a fossil fuel, buried deep below the earth’s surface.
In time, and in a very cyclic manner, our atmosphere became progressively richer in
oxygen while being depleted in carbon dioxide so that by the time humans began to have
a significant impact to the environment the atmospheric CO2 concentrations had been
reduced to less than 200 parts per million (ppm). Once fossil fuels were selected as a
major fuels source for industrial activity, this trend would be reversed. Burning of fossil
fuels released CO2 back into the atmosphere, containing the carbon that was extracted by
the ancient photosynthesizing plants, algae, and bacteria. The addition of this ‘old’
carbon would be the main driving force of Climate Change.
The image shown below is a graph of CO2 concentrations measured from Antarctic ice
cores with an associated temperature trend (superimposed in red) compared to the
average Antarctic temperature for the period 1850 to 2000 AD. It is very clear that a
correlation exists between atmospheric temperature and CO2 concentration.
Source: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/pastcc.html#last
The main reasons for this increase are the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
Over the past 200 years our global industries have been fueled largely on the fossil fuels
coal, oil, and natural gas. The burning of these carbon-based fuels sends CO2 into the
atmosphere, while deforestation means that trees that would have once “vacuumed” the
atmosphere of CO2 are no longer around to do so. The rates of both fossil fuel
consumption and deforestation have increased along with human populations and our
desire for food, cars, and housing. This has been especially true since the 1950s, when
many developing countries began to seek the lifestyle of richer, western countries. This
trend continues into the 21st Century, even as many ‘rich’ countries appear to be second-
guessing their own thirst for natural resources. On May 9, 2013 the daily average CO2
concentration measured at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii reached 400ppm for the
first time since measurement began in 1958. The current average atmospheric
concentration of CO2 is close to 410ppm, and it’s increasing in a seasonal zig-zag pattern
at 2ppm every year. It is likely this concentration of CO2 has not been seen in the
atmosphere for at least 3 million years! Furthermore, it is estimated that the residence
time of CO2 in the atmosphere is approximately 100 years, so CO2 is here with us for
quite some time!

Source (NOAA): https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/full.html
The additional atmospheric CO2 from deforestation and burning of fossil fuels makes
CO2 the primary gas responsible for what we variously call the Enhanced Greenhouse
Effect, Global Warming, Anthropogenic Climate Change, Climate Change, Global
Climate Change, Climate Weirding and a handful of other names (opponents of this
science have some very colorful terms for it). The term Global Warming is less popular
in the scientific community since it refers largely to the warming of the lower atmosphere
and ocean surface (but does infer the related changes to earth systems). The scientific
community prefers the term Climate Change, which addresses the entirety of changes to
Earth’s geographic spheres due to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.
We refer to all the gases responsible for Climate Change as Greenhouse Gases (GHGs).
The main reason for this is that for the most part, these gases are responsible for both the
Greenhouse Effect and for Climate Change. Admittedly, this creates a bit of confusion,
because water vapor is a Greenhouse Gas but does not appear to contribute greatly to
Climate Change.

Courtesy of NOAA: https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/
Confusion aside, the term Climate Change is a good choice for describing the process
because while most places on the planet are getting warmer, some places are
experiencing slightly colder temperatures. Some places are getting wetter, while other
places are drying out. Many places are experiencing overall warmer average
temperatures but are getting extremely cold winter spells which are still being offset by
long summer heat waves. Basically, weather and climate are becoming more extreme
and unpredictable, impacting to the hydrosphere, biosphere and society.
The excess CO2 in the atmosphere appears to be the main cause of the unusual increase in
the Earth’s surface temperature over the past 200 years. The current high concentrations
of CO2 correspond with the warmest average global temperatures since modern records
were first kept starting in the 1880s. Though there are many methods and datasets for
measuring the earth’s temperature, the most highly regarded are those of NASA and
NOAA. These sources both show that the 11 warmest global temperatures recorded in
modern times were all since 1998, with 2016 being warmest. NOAA shows 2017 as the
third warmest year on record, while NASA shows 2017 as the second warmest (see this
video link). The following chart shows the top 10 warmest years in modern times
courtesy of ClimateCentral.org

Source: http://www.climatecentral.org/gallery/graphics/the-10-hottest-global-years-on-record
This short NASA Video shows how different our recent climate is from that of just 120
years ago, and the graph (below) shows that we are heating up faster than ever before.
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/2010-warmest-year.html
Original Image: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/page2.php
The surface of the planet is warming up, and there’s no stopping any time soon. The
great majority of the heat released into the atmosphere has been absorbed by the oceans,
which have heated up and stored much of the excess carbon dioxide. Estimates are that
about 94% of the excess heat attributed to Climate Change has been taken up by the
oceans compared to about 6% for the atmosphere, land surfaces and glaciers combined.
This means that even if we were to burn much less fossil fuels, resulting in a significant
reduction in CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, we’d still be dealing with elevated CO2
concentrations and Global Warming for the next several hundred years because the

oceans would steadily release their stored heat and CO2 back to the atmosphere. To
visualize this, think of a hot tub on a cold winter night. Since the hot water stores so
much heat energy, it continues to provide heat to the overlying air for many hours after
the heat has been turned off. In this way, the oceans will continue to supply both heat
and CO2 for not just hours, but probably for the next thousand years.
As the chart indicates

to the right indicates,
carbon dioxide is
estimated to be
responsible for 63%
of the atmospheric
warming attributed to
human activities,
making CO2 the
dominant
Anthropogenic
Greenhouse Gas.
Besides the general warming of the lower atmosphere, some of the effects of Climate
Change that we are already experiencing, and will continue to experience for the
foreseeable future include:
o Melting glaciers
o Rising sea level
o Increased intensity of tropical storms
o Loss of farmland
o More extreme seasonal weather patterns
The atmospheric warming from Climate Change leads to the excessive melting of ice
caps located in Antarctica, Greenland and in high mountain ranges such as the Andes.
This melting, along with the associated warming of the oceans, is causing sea level to rise
faster than what would be considered natural. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that sea level will rise between 0.6 and 2 feet by the
end of the 21st century, with low lying areas such as Florida’s coastlines experiencing
increased coastal flooding and more intense hurricane activity.
The IPCC predicts that in general, the Polar regions will receive more precipitation while
tropical regions will receive less rainfall. It is projected that the southwest USA and
many parts of Australia will experience periods of excessive drought and more intense

heat waves. The average weather conditions for these regions might not seem far
from normal conditions, but it’s the extreme summer weather which worries climate
scientists. Additional predictions include excessive pressure on fragile ecosystems and
on food production. This has enormous consequences for society as we are dependent on
these crops as our main food supply.
To illustrate the economic concerns related to Climate Change, take a look at this graph
showing the distribution of just some of the record $306 billion in damages attributed to
extreme weather patterns across the USA.
Source: http://www.noaa.gov/news/2017-was-3rd-warmest-year-on-record-for-us
For California, scientists are very concerned about the prospect of years of prolonged
drought followed by the occasional excessively wet winter (with severe flooding).
Again, the average rainfall may change slightly, but the real worry is the extreme years of
drought and flood.
For example, the extreme dry conditions in California throughout the summer and Fall of
2017 provided ideal conditions for the many wildfires throughout the state, resulting in
severe loss of forests, homes and lives. Though the 2017-18 Southern California winter
has been one of the driest on record, it only took one intense downpour to bring a river of
mud and boulders cascading down the recently-burned hills above Santa Barbara and into
residential neighborhoods of Montecito, completely burying houses and highways. As
Climate Change progresses unchecked, we can expect more events like these.
Another of our main concerns in California is the potential loss of snowpack in our major
mountain chains. Not only does this affect our ability to go snowboarding, but if Climate
Change results in higher winter rainfall at the expense of winter snowfall, our water

resources will be stretched thin over the summer and fall months. This will be
complicated by changes in the distribution of rainfall. Our water resource plans have
been designed based upon where available water can be trapped in dams and then
allocated to places in need of water. We are already seeing that as rainfall patterns
change our reservoirs are drying up, and in time there may not be enough water to meet
the needs of agriculture, industry, cities and towns. The State of California, as well as
many of our cities and counties, has to plan accordingly and quickly.
The predicted effects of Climate Change can be viewed at

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/page6.php
For a further exploration of Climate Change, check out this NASA website:
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/
and this YouTube link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=USIAcXfv39k&feature=related
For another local perspective, a recent study of temperature data for two key locations in
the greater Los Angeles area from 1906 to 2006 (http://climate.nasa.gov/files/LAHeatWaves-
JournalArticle.pdf) shows that the average annual maximum temperature increased 5.0°F
over the past century. The analysis also revealed that long heat waves were virtually non-
existent prior to 1956 but are now commonplace in the midst of a Los Angeles summer.
The study also found that the average minimum temperature increased by 4.2˚F over the
past century. This creates a major concern for the future if we are to expect more of
Southern California’s mountain precipitation to fall as rain rather than snow, which we
depend upon to feed our streams, rivers and reservoirs in late spring, summer and even
fall. Climate Change is here!
So I ask you, what can be done to stop Climate Change?

Can anything be done to minimize the effects of Climate Change?
Would these steps cost you money and create health problems, or otherwise?
3. Methane (CH4)
Concentration: Trace (small amount, just less than 2ppm)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane#Atmospheric_methane
Source: Methane is produced by microbes in the final phase of the decay of organic
material in oxygen-poor environments such as swamps and rice paddies. Microbes and
bacteria present in the guts of termites and cattle can also produce vast quantities of
methane. Methane is the primary constituent of natural gas, the earth’s most abundant
combustible material. Excess methane is released into the atmosphere through oil
drilling activities, coal mining, conversion of land to rice paddies, and conversion of land
for cattle grazing.
Problem: Methane is the second most important Greenhouse Gas. It is estimates to be

responsible for 18.5% of the warming associated with Climate Change, and has a
residence time of 12 years in the atmosphere. It may sound odd at first, but we can
reduce the atmospheric impact of this gas by reducing our intake of beef. This is because

much of the world’s beef is now raised in tropical regions where rainforest is cleared to
make way for pasture. By reducing our consumption of beef we reduce the demand for
cattle and by doing so we reduce the demand for tropical pasture. Less rainforest is
destroyed and there are fewer herds of cattle releasing methane. It’s win-win, not to
mention the health benefits!
4. Oxides of Sulfur (SOx)
Concentration: Trace (less than 1ppm)
Source: Swamps, oil drilling, burning of coal
Problem: Acid Rain
Acid Precipitation:
CO2 + H2O = Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
SOx + H2O = Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Sulfur is found as an impurity in most fuels, but especially in coal. When we burn coal
we release not only CO2 but also Sulfur Oxides. Downwind, these gases mix with
atmospheric water to create clouds with a high concentration of Carbonic Acid and
Sulfuric Acid. These clouds then precipitate highly acidic moisture onto forests, cities
and lakes with nasty consequences.
For example, natural lake water should be blue-green or red-brown in color as a

reflection of the algae and plants living in the lake ecosystem. As acidic rain falls on the
lake it is like adding acid to a green swimming pool. With enough acidity all the green
life forms are killed, along with the entire ecosystem. Again, this typically happens
downwind of large industrial cities. This happened in places like Sweden and Finland
(downwind of industrial W. Europe) and Canada (downwind of US industry in
Michigan). However, “we all live downwind,” which means since we are living on an
oblate spheroid, everything comes back around.
5. Oxides of Nitrogen (N2O, NO and NO2, commonly written as NOx)
Concentration: Trace (about 0.3ppm)
Source: There are numerous natural forms of Nitrogen Oxides, but the atmospheric
concentration has increased due to agriculture and the burning of fuels at very high
temperatures, like those in car engines or coal-burning power plants. These gases
become part of a system where the nitrogen is cycled through the atmosphere, soil,
vegetation and animals, but the excess NOx appears to remain in the atmosphere for over
100 years.

Problem: NOx molecules are Greenhouse Gases and also contribute to acid rain.
6. Ozone (O3)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone#Ozone_in_Earth.27s_atmosphere
http://www.ozonelayer.noaa.gov/science/basics.htm
Concentration: Trace (less than 0.1ppm)
Source: There are two types of Ozone: Stratospheric and Tropospheric
Stratospheric Ozone (natural, good)

This layer of ozone is located about 8 to 30 miles above our heads, providing natural
protection from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Stratospheric ozone forms when high-
energy ultraviolet radiation from the sun splits an O2 molecule into two separate oxygen
atoms. The oxygen atoms then recombine with a nearby O2 molecule to form a molecule
comprised of three oxygen atoms. We call this molecule ozone or O3, and it has the
important function of absorbing most of the sun’s high-energy ultraviolet radiation that
reaches earth’s atmosphere.
With a reduction in this natural sunscreen layer, we would be exposed to increased

ultraviolet rays from the sun, resulting in more frequent cases of sunburn, eye cataracts,
and even skin cancer. Stratospheric ozone accounts for 90% of the earth’s entire ozone
supply.
This same high-energy ultraviolet radiation can strip an Oxygen atom away from an O3
molecule, yielding O and O2, but these will recombine given enough time. The battle
between the Ozone formation process and the Ozone depleting process has been waging
for the past 3.5 billion years, but over time our important stratospheric ‘ozone layer’ was
created. Unfortunately, we’ll soon see it has been under threat since the 1940s.
Tropospheric Ozone (derived from smog, bad)

This layer of ozone is formed at the earth’s surface as a component of smog, in and
down-wind of cities. Tropospheric ozone forms as a reaction of sunlight on air
containing the fumes from burned fuels. It irritates eyes, throats, and respiratory tracts. It
is so toxic that it’s often used to kill bacteria in sewage. Tropospheric ozone is also a
very effective Greenhouse Gas.
Problem: Ozone is both toxic and a Greenhouse Gas. The residence time of tropospheric
ozone is quite short, usually a few days or less.
7. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon and http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/sc_fact.html
Concentration: Trace
Source: Refrigerants, fumigants, propellants, solvents.
Problem: Ozone Depletion and a Greenhouse Gas

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are human-made compounds containing carbon, fluorine
and chlorine atoms. They are related to another important group of human-produced
halocarbons called halons, which contain carbon, bromine, fluorine, and chlorine. CFCs
and halons are used as aerosol propellants, circuit board solvents, fumigants, and most
commonly as refrigerants (such as Freon).
Image: http://www.ozonelayer.noaa.gov/science/StratO3.jpeg
When released, CFCs drift into the upper atmosphere where they are subjected to very
cold temperatures and sunlight, which breaks these compounds down, releasing free
Chlorine atoms. Once free to roam, the Chlorine atoms find and break apart multiple
ozone molecules, thereby weakening our protective Stratospheric Ozone Layer.
This leads to more of the sun’s ultraviolet rays making their way through the atmosphere
and damaging our skin. This is especially so over the Antarctic, where the ozone layer
has been weakened so much it’s referred to as an ozone hole.
The severity of ozone depletion over the Antarctic was first recognized in the late 1970s
and has been monitored closely since then. Both land-based and satellite observations are
made every Antarctic spring (September through November) when the sun emits
ultraviolet radiation into the bitterly cold Antarctic stratosphere for the first time in six
months, readily breaking CFC molecules apart, releasing free chlorine atoms to do their
damage. The following diagram shows the progressive depletion of Antarctic ozone
from 1980 to1991 (the purple color represents less total ozone).

Image: Antarctic Ozone 1980 to 1991 http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/part2.html
The international community came together to pass the Montreal Protocol in 1987,
which phased out the production of ozone-destroying compounds such as CFCs.
Although this was an environmental success, the CFCs already emitted can reside in the
atmosphere for over a century.
In addition, some CFCs are still being used along with

other ozone-depleting compounds, albeit in much
smaller quantities than before. The result is that
stratospheric ozone is still being destroyed, but at the
same time we see more and more stratospheric ozone
reforming. The greatest total Antarctic ozone loss to
date occurred in September 2006 as shown in the
NASA image to the right. The 2006 Antarctic ozone
hole covered 29.5 million square kilometers with a
very low ozone concentration measured as 82 Dobson
Units, where normal concentrations would be about
300 Dobson Units.
Even this “normal” amount of ozone is quite small, as this entire quantity of ozone would
be no thicker than two pennies if it was under the same atmospheric pressure as at sea
level. Since 2006 the size of the Antarctic ozone hole has gotten smaller (better) but in a
zig-zag pattern. The September 2012 hole reached a maximum size of 21.1 million
square km with a minimum ozone concentration of 124 Dobson Units, the best scenario
in over 20 years. However, the news for the 2013 through 2016 Antarctic ozone holes
was not quite so good, with 2015 reaching a maximum size of 28.2 million square km
and a minimum ozone concentration of just 101 Dobson Units. Lastly, we saw a vast
improvement in 2017, with the Antarctic ozone hole reaching just 19.6 million square km
in area, with a minimum ozone concentration of 131 Dobson Units

Ozo n e Ho le Are a Min im u m Ozo n e
(million km 2 ) (DU)
Ma ximum Da ily Minimum Da ily
Ye a r Da te Va lue Da te Va lue
1979 17 S e pte mbe r 1.1 17 S e pte mbe r 194.0
1980 21 S e pte mbe r 3.3 16 Octobe r 192.0
1981 10 Octobe r 3.1 10 Octobe r 195.0
1982 02 Octobe r 10.8 02 Nove mbe r 170.0
1983 17 Octobe r 12.2 06 Octobe r 154.0
1984 24 S e pte mbe r14.7 03 Octobe r 144.0
1985 03 Octobe r 18.8 24 Octobe r 124.0
1986 06 Octobe r 14.4 06 Octobe r 140.0
1988 20 S e pte mbe r13.8 30 S e pte mbe r 162.0
1989 03 Octobe r 21.7 07 Octobe r 108.0
1991 04 Octobe r 22.6 06 Octobe r 94.0
2015 02 Octobe r 28.2 04 Octobe r 101.0
2017 11 S e pte mbe r19.6 09, 12 Octobe r 131.0
Courtesy of NASA: https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/statistics/annual_data.html
With a reduction in CFC use is the ozone hole repairing itself and have we seen the worst
already? Only time will tell. Here’s a good animation of Antarctic ozone from 1979-
2017 (the dark blue colors show thin ozone levels). Please check out this link for the
current status of the Antarctic ozone hole at http://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

Lastly, CFCs have also been shown to be effective Greenhouse Gases, with each
molecule being thousands of times more potent than CO2 and residing in the atmosphere
for up to 100 years. Being this potent, we are lucky that CFCs (and related compounds)
remain a minor component of the atmosphere, yet they still represent almost 12% of the
Global Warming that can be attributed to human activities.
Particulate matter
In addition to gases we also have solid particles (some alive, some inorganic) suspended
in the atmosphere, which go by the name particulate matter or aerosols (though these
are not exactly the same they are often used synonymously). These include pollen, dust,
ash, salt, bacteria, viruses and soot. The great majority are natural in origin, with
volcanic eruptions, forest fires and dust blown from the surface by winds being the most
common. Plants and algae can also release gases that react with existing atmospheric
gases to produce aerosols such as sulfate compounds.
Every time you breathe in air you are taking particulates into your body, but for the most
part our bodies have developed defenses to deal with them (including the good old
sneeze). These airborne particles are so small that once injected into the atmosphere they
drift around the lowest layers of the atmosphere for days to years (in general the smaller
aerosols can stay adrift longer). Without particulate matter, cloud formation would not
be possible and the color of our sunsets would just not look the same.
Image: Dust storm over the Arabian Peninsula, March 2011

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=49892
Check out the following link for in in-depth look at these important components of our
atmosphere: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Aerosols/

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS
If you were to hop in a hot air balloon at the ground surface and begin rising through our
atmosphere, you’d likely notice the air cooling off as you rise higher and higher. This
makes sense, as we tend to think of mountain tops as cold places and low elevations as
warmer places (Death Valley, CA is thought of as being a hot place at mid-day in part
due to its low elevation, parts of which are 280 feet or more below sea level). While this
impression is valid for the lower few miles of our atmosphere, a zone known as the
Troposphere, the atmosphere acts completely different a few miles higher up. Let’s
explore these atmospheric layers a little more thoroughly.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_layers#Principal_layers
Source: NOAA (http://www.srh.noaa.gov/images/crp/education/temperature/layers2.jpg)
The Troposphere is the lowest level of atmosphere found between 0 and approximately
8 miles above sea level, within which temperature decreases as elevation increases. In
general, the troposphere extends higher in altitude towards the equator and is thinner
towards the poles. The troposphere is the only portion of the atmosphere we humans ever
explore, unless you are an astronaut or an Air Force test pilot. Almost all atmospheric
moisture and storms are found in the troposphere, as are the flights of commercial aircraft
and the tops of the highest mountains. Clearly, it is the most important layer of the
atmosphere for humans.
The Tropopause is the 2nd atmospheric level between about 8 and 12 miles, in which
temperature remains constant as elevation changes. It should be noted that (as with the
troposphere) the height of the tropopause is maximized at the equator and decreases in
height all the way to the poles.
Height of the Troposphere and Tropopause: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/global/jet.htm
The Stratosphere is the 3rd atmospheric level between about 12 and 28 miles, in which
the temperature rises as elevation increases. The temperature rise is due to increased
ozone concentrations which absorb the sun’s energy and heat up (stratospheric ozone)
The Stratopause is the 4th atmospheric level and is located approximately 28 to 32 miles
above earth’s surface. Temperature stays relatively unchanged as you increase elevation
in the Stratopause.
The Mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere from approximately 32 to 50 miles above
earth’s surface. Within this layer temperature decreases as elevation increases. Most
meteors that burn up upon entering earth’s atmosphere do so here.
Beyond the Mesosphere are the Thermosphere (where the International Space Station
orbits the earth) and the Exosphere, where only a few molecules of Helium and
Hydrogen exist but are still gravitationally attracted to earth. In essence, these two layers
represent outer space in functional terms, and are more home to the field of Astronomy
than to Geography.

WHAT’S the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEATHER and CLIMATE?
Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions for a specific place and time. For example,
at the very same moment Los Angeles’ weather may be different than that of nearby
Pasadena, CA. Weather also changes constantly over time. It may well be raining one
moment only to have the skies clear a few minutes later. Some of the ways we describe
these atmospheric conditions are by observing, measuring and recording the following:
1. Temperature
2. Precipitation
3. Cloud cover
4. Humidity
5. Wind speed and Direction
6. Atmospheric Pressure
Climate is the atmospheric condition for a large area over a long period of time and
involves monthly maximums and minimums of mostly Temperature and Precipitation.
Duration is the key difference between weather and climate, with weather being shorter
in duration and climate being much longer (typically 30 years or more). Though
Pasadena and Glendale, CA have slightly different weather at any moment, they have the
same type of climate known as Mediterranean.
Check out http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/noaa-n/climate/climate_weather.html
SEVEN FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE YOUR WEATHER/CLIMATE

There are numerous reasons why two places on earth might experience different weather
or climate, but in order to make an analysis manageable we have grouped these into
seven main factors.
1. Latitude
In general, it is colder at the poles and warmer in the tropics. This is largely a result of
the sun’s energy being received towards the equator, with less solar energy reaching the
polar regions. The following image (for April 2005) clearly shows that it is warmer
(lighter colors) towards the tropics and colder (dark blue tones) towards the poles, which
can be expected in a general sense throughout the year.

Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=MOD11C1_M_LSTDA
2. Elevation
In general, high elevation places tend to be colder than places at or below sea level. High
mountains like California’s Mount Whitney (14,494’ elevation) are cold and dry places,
while the adjacent Owens Valley (approx. 4-5,000’ elevation) tends to be much warmer.
The same is true of the foothills of South America’s Andes mountain chain. The lower
foothills are much warmer than the high snow-packed peaks, as shown in this photo from
Argentina’s El Chaltén region.

3. Distance from a large water body
Coastal locations like Santa Monica, CA have more moisture in the air, which means
summers are cooler and winters milder than for more inland (drier) locations at the same
latitude like Pasadena, CA or even drier continental places like Phoenix, Arizona.
4. Topographic (mountain) Barriers

High barriers like mountains steal moisture on the windward side so that there’s no water
left for the leeward (rainshadow) side. This helps explain why Santa Monica receives
about 13” of rainfall annually, the top of the San Gabriel Mountains get about 40”
annually, while Palmdale and Lancaster (on the leeward side of the mountains) get about
6” annually. The winter rain just cannot get to the other side of the mountains.

5. General Circulation of the Atmosphere
Our atmosphere has a natural circulation patterns which promotes air rising (and cooling)
at the equator. This constantly-rising equatorial air promotes the growth of clouds and
rain, so that equatorial locations frequently receive 60 to 150” or more of rain annually.
Conversely, this same atmospheric circulation pattern promotes the sinking of air close to
30N and 30S latitude. This sinking air does not allow for the development of clouds, so
these areas tend to be occupied by dry deserts. The contrast of equatorial and subtropical
weather/climate is illustrated in the following NOAA map, where the red, orange and
blue colors represent high precipitation totals, while the green and white colors represent
relatively low precipitation totals.
Source: http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/Global_Monsoons/gl_obs.shtml
6. Oceanic Circulation
Likewise, our oceans have a natural circulation pattern which in many ways mirrors our
wind patterns. Northern Hemisphere currents turn constantly towards their right,
resulting in a clockwise circulation pattern. This means warm equatorial waters will be
driven towards Florida along the current known as the Gulf Stream. The warm, moist air
above this current is pulled inland, giving Florida warm, humid summers with afternoon
thunderstorms. Conversely, the West Coast of the USA is under the influence of the cold
water California Current, resulting in cool, stable air masses along the coast (this may
give morning fog but not afternoon thunderstorms in the summer).

Map Courtesy of NOAA: http://www.adp.noaa.gov/currents_map.html
7. Storms
There is a pattern to the location of storms and the paths they follow, which we refer to as
“storm tracks.” Some places like Seattle, WA are located smack in the middle of storm
tracks, giving them year-round potential for rainfall. Conversely, places like San Diego,
CA are located on the edge of these storm tracks, resulting in less rainfall as the storms
only reach them in the midst of winter.
Source: http://www.erh.noaa.gov/btv/images/us_pcpn.png

Chapter 4: TEMPERATURE and INSOLATION
When, on a hot summer day, the local television weather reporter exclaims “Whoa, we’re
going to have a high of 40 degrees today”, what does he/she really mean? There’s a big
difference between 40 degrees Celsius and 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Furthermore, what are
we really measuring when we take the temperature? What exactly is solar radiation, and
how can it still feel ‘hot’ even after traveling 93 million miles from the sun? What
happens to this energy once it reaches the Earth? Why is the sky blue at noon and
orange-red at sunset? Let’s get into the details so we can answer these questions and
more.
Temperature is defined as the measure of heat energy stored in a substance or object.

Heat is one form of energy which is related to how molecules move, mainly in the form
of molecular vibrations and molecular collisions. In essence, air
molecules with lots of energy vibrate and collide more
frequently than those with less energy. As they collide more
often, the molecules tend to spread out (disperse), thereby
increasing the volume of the air. Think of a set of racked balls
on a pool table as molecules with low energy. Then add an
energy source (the analogy would be ‘putting some heat’ onto
the racked balls by hitting a cue ball into them at high speed).
Once contact is made, the racked balls will disperse all over the pool table, just like
molecules do when sufficient heat energy is transferred into them.
This heat energy can be measured using a simple thermometer, which consists of a
volume of fluid with known behavior (usually alcohol or Mercury) sealed within a long
glass vacuum enclosure. Let’s take this device outside on a cold winter morning. As the
sun rises and heats the atmosphere, some of this heat is conducted through the glass and
into the fluid, so the molecules begin to collide more and the fluid expands in volume.
The fluid then rises into the long tube, and we can mark off the point at which ice begins
to melt. We’ll mark this point on the thermometer and call this “zero”. We could then
take our device inside and put it inside a pot of boiling water. If we mark off the place on
the thermometer where the contained fluid level has risen to as the water boils, we can
call this “one grade”. So, 1 grade is the difference in temperature between ice melting
and water boiling, and our thermometer can clearly show this difference based on the
height of the fluid.
We can then divide this ‘grade’ into 100 equal parts, each of them representing 1 degree
Centigrade (‘centi’ means one hundredth of a unit, just as a centimeter is a 100th of a
meter). This also means that water melts/freezes at 0 degrees Centigrade and water boils
at 100 degrees Centigrade. Centigrade is also known as Celsius, based on the founder of
this system of measuring temperature, and is abbreviated as ºC.
© Text Copyright 2018 Darren Leaver

Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermometer
The USA insists on being just about the only remaining country on Earth to use an older
system of temperature measurement known as the Fahrenheit (or ºF) scale. In this scale,
water boils at 212ºF and freezes/melts at 32ºF.
Converting Between Temperature Scales

C to F:
F= (C x 1.8) + 32
Example: given 40 C, find F

(40 x 1.8) + 32 = F
72 + 32 = F
104 = F
F to C: (basically, everything is REVERSED)

C = (F – 32)/ 1.8
Example: given 212 F, find C

(212 – 32)/ 1.8 = C
180/ 1.8 = C
100 = C
YouTube example: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OxD7E0-x7Mk&feature=related

Insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation)
Incoming…to Earth
Solar…from the sun
Radiation…electromagnetic radiation, largely in
the form of waves of energy
So Insolation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun which then travels across
space towards Earth. A very small portion (0.5 of a billionth of the energy released from
the sun) actually reaches the Earth. By this time the solar energy has traveled about 93
million miles in an average time of 8.3 minutes.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The energy from the sun travels across space mostly in the form of a package of
electromagnetic waves, each with a different wavelength, frequency (number of waves
emitted per second) and energy. Wavelength (λ) is the most common way of
differentiating the types of electromagnetic waves, and is defined as the distance between
the crest of two successive waves (see below).
Short wavelength: High energy
Hot objects like stars have short

wavelengths with high energy.
Long wavelength: Low energy
The package of electromagnetic radiation consists of an entire range (spectrum) of

wavelengths, which is broken down into individual sections called gamma ray, x-ray,
ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwave, and radio waves (see the diagram on the
following page). Gamma rays have wavelengths a fraction of the size of an atom, while
radio waves have wavelengths longer than ten football fields. Check out this NASA link
for a tour of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. https://science.nasa.gov/ems/01_intro
Only super-hot objects like stars (including our sun) are capable of emitting short, high-
energy wavelengths like gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet and visible light. Lucky for us,
our upper atmosphere absorbs or reflects away almost all of these potentially-dangerous
wavelengths, but some of this high-intensity radiation does make it through to the earth’s
surface, especially some of the ultraviolet wavelengths as well as the visible portion of
the spectrum. These wavelengths with the ability to pass (to be transmitted) through the
atmosphere are referred to as "atmospheric windows." As the following diagram shows,

this also includes some very long-wavelength microwaves and radio waves, but these are
entirely harmless to life forms on earth. Please note that the top of the following diagram
shows “Y” and “N” columns to indicate whether each particular wavelength of insolation
is transmitted all the way through the atmosphere. In actuality these designations are
showing whether or not “most” of the particular wavelength makes it through, not “all”
the wavelength. For instance, the diagram appears to show that ultraviolet wavelengths
do not make it through the atmosphere. Instead, this should be read to mean that MOST
of the ultraviolet entering the top of the atmosphere does not make it all the way to
earth’s surface.
Source: http://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/images/EM_Spectrum3-new.jpg
The longer wavelengths of the insolation (infrared, microwave, and radio waves) are
harmless to humans. We can’t see them, and for the most part we don’t feel them, but
think about this. When you go for a fun afternoon at the beach, you apply sunscreen and
settle onto your beach blanket. Looking up towards the sky you can see the bright yellow
sun and a blue sky (among other things). In this case your eyes are making sense of the
visible wavelengths. You feel the warmth of the sun on your skin, which means your
body is sensing the presence of infrared wavelengths. Finally, if you didn’t put enough
sunscreen on, you might find your exposed skin to be a little sunburned later that
evening. This is the effect of prolonged exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet wavelengths
(UV-A and UV-B).
The central portion of the spectrum contains wavelengths known as visible light, and this
portion of the spectrum can itself be divided into separate wavelengths, each representing
a specific color of the rainbow. The longest-wavelength of the visible portion of the
spectrum is Red while the shortest-wavelength portion is Violet. From red to violet the
wavelengths get progressively shorter, with a resulting color order of Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and finally Violet. This is often remembered by the
acronym Roy G. Biv.
Image Courtesy of http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Linear_visible_spectrum.svg
It is important to remember that this is the only portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
that our eyes can see. If a wavelength is shorter than that of violet, the wavelength would
be in the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum, which is invisible to us. Wavelengths
slightly longer than those of the color red would fall into the infrared portion of the
spectrum, and again these would be invisible to us.
The sun sends all of these individual visible wavelengths towards earth as part of the
beam of insolation. For astronauts viewing this energy beyond the top of our atmosphere,
the sun would appear bright white in color. This is because the cumulative result of
adding all the visible wavelengths together (from red to violet) is the color white. The
reason we don’t see a brilliant white sun down on the earth’s surface will be explained
shortly. For now, we’ll conclude our discussion of visible light by asking the question
“what makes a green t-shirt green?” Have you ever thought about that? Many of us
would just say “it’s easy…it’s because the shirt is green, silly!” But I can easily turn
your green shirt to a dark black color by placing it in a dark room and closing the doors
and windows! So, to make a green shirt appear green in color, we need a source of light.
In a lighted situation, especially in sunlight, the specific materials and pigments that the
shirt was manufactured from absorb most other wavelengths and reflect the green
wavelengths back to our eyes. Our eyes and brain recognize the reflected “green”
wavelength as the color green. More about reflection and absorption a little later, but let
me leave you with this thought: Would an object which is white in color represent more,
or less reflection than an object that is black in color?
Radiation Laws
Wein’s Law states that the hotter a celestial body (a star or planet), the shorter the peak
wavelength of radiation emitted by that body. This means that since the sun is much
hotter than the earth (11,000°F at the surface), the sun emits much shorter peak
wavelengths than does earth (with an average surface temperature of 60°F).
In fact, visible light accounts for fully half of the wavelengths emitted from the sun, with
an additional 7% emitted in the ultraviolet and shorter wavelengths, so we classify the
sun as an emitter of short wavelength radiation.

This short wavelength energy emitted from the sun makes its way across space and then,
93 million miles later, a small fraction hits the top of Earth’s
atmosphere. Every place at the top of the atmosphere which is pointing
towards the sun receives a constant amount of energy known as the
solar constant, measured at 2 calories/cm2/minute. One cm2 or “square
centimeter” is about the size of one side of a sugar cube, and there are
trillions of square centimeters at the top of our atmosphere, each receiving 2 calories of
solar energy every minute!
However, this solar energy still has to make it through the atmosphere in order for us to
feel it, but not all of this energy will make it through to the surface of the Earth.
FOUR THINGS HAPPEN TO INSOLATION as it travels through the atmosphere
http://www.srh.weather.gov/jetstream/atmos/energy_balance.htm
Here’s a good NASA link describing reflection and absorption, among other astronomical
phenomena https://science.nasa.gov/ems/13_radiationbudget
1. Reflection: The insolation is bounced back to space by earth’s atmosphere and

surface. This is why we can see earth from space, as the reflected light remains
visible to astronauts. Clouds and other components of the atmosphere are responsible
for reflecting about 25% of the insolation, while the earth’s surface (especially ice,
snow, light-colored sand and rocks, and salt) is responsible for reflecting about 6%.
For example, walking barefoot on light-colored beach sand on a summer afternoon

does not tend to burn your feet because the light sand is better at reflecting solar
energy than it is at absorbing it.
Since the atmosphere reflects 25% of the available insolation, and the earth’s surface
reflects 6% of the insolation, the total percentage of insolation that earth reflects back to
space (known as earth’s albedo) is 31 percent.
2. Absorption: The insolation is captured (absorbed) by Earth’s atmosphere and

surface. Typically, dark materials are better absorbers than light colored materials.
4% absorbed by clouds
19% absorbed by rest of atmosphere
46% absorbed by earth’s surface
4 + 19 + 46 = 69% absorbed
Of the 100% insolation reaching the top of earth’s atmosphere, approximately 4% is

absorbed by clouds, 3% by ozone, 16% by the remainder of the atmosphere, and fully
46% is absorbed at earth’s surface, especially by the oceans (which appear dark blue in
color), plants, dark rocks, and man-made surfaces like house roofs and asphalt paving.
This clearly shows that the place which absorbs most of the sun’s incoming energy is the
surface of the earth.
3. Scattering (aka Diffusion Radiation) refers to the process where short wavelengths are
“bounced off” the main beam of insolation by nitrogen, oxygen, and especially by small
particulate matter (dust, soot, ice, ash and salt) in the atmosphere, leaving only the longer
wavelengths in the incoming beam of radiation.
For the visible portion of the spectrum, violet-indigo (short)

wavelengths are most-affected by scattering, while orange-red
wavelengths are least-affected.
During daytime hours, the sun’s rays pass through a thin layer of
atmosphere, so the sun appears yellow as dust in the atmosphere
scatters away only short wavelengths (v-i-b) and leaves longer
wavelengths (g-y-o-r) to be viewed by us.
At sunrise and sunset, the sun’s rays must travel a longer path
through the atmosphere, and much of this path is through layers
containing lots of particulate matter. Almost all of the
wavelengths are scattered away, leaving an orange-red sun with a
yellow-orange sky.

This effect can be exaggerated on very smoggy days or following a forest fire. The
presence of excessive dust, particulates or ash creates a very red sunset because the extra
particles in the air scatter away more insolation.
4. Transmission or Filtering Short wavelength energy from the sun is transmitted

through the atmosphere and this energy is absorbed by the Earth’s surface. The heated
surface on earth then heats up and emits long wavelength energy back towards space, but
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) don’t let
it escape easily, temporarily heating the lower atmosphere.
ENERGY TRANSFER MECHANISMS
So the Earth ultimately reflects about 31% of the solar energy available to us back into
space, and we absorb about 69%. This energy is not absorbed equally on the planet, and
it makes sense that the tropical regions would absorb more than polar locations. In fact,
there is a general surplus of energy being absorbed in the tropical and sub-tropical
regions (approximately 30N to 30S) and a general deficit of energy absorbed pole-ward
of 30N and 30S. With this in mind, it would appear logical that the tropical regions
should be warming up and the polar regions (with an energy deficit) should be cooling
down. The reality is quite different. The tropical regions are indeed warming up, but the
polar regions are warming up faster than all other places on earth. The reason for this is
that energy received in the tropical regions is being transferred towards the poles.
The Earth has the following mechanisms to transfer energy away from places where the
energy is absorbed so that these regions never get too hot (the first three are described
quite well in the following link. https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/heat
1. Re-radiation: Earth absorbs (captures) insolation, warms up, then emits long
wavelengths back to space. Again, since most energy is absorbed at the earth’s
surface, re-radiation allows the surface to cool down by transferring energy to the
bottom of the atmosphere as long wavelengths are emitted. The effect is that the
lower atmosphere tends to warm from the bottom-up.
2. Conduction: Absorbed energy is also transmitted through the process of

conduction, the transfer of ‘sensible’ heat from a hot object to a cooler object when
IN CONTACT (touching). For example, an asphalt parking lot absorbs a lot of
insolation during the daytime, and in the process it heats up. Any atmospheric
molecules that come into contact with the heated asphalt will see a sharing of the
heat: the atmospheric molecules hear up and the asphalt in turn, cools down. Again,
this energy transfer mechanism occurs only when objects are in contact. The heated
molecule has more energy and moves around the lower atmosphere to find a cooler
molecule and process of heat transfer continues.
3. Atmospheric Convection is the vertical and horizontal mixing of air. Warm air is
less dense, therefore more buoyant, and wants to rise. As the warm air rises it pulls in

cooler air from the sides, which then absorbs energy from the surface, warms up and
also rises. This pulls cooler air downward, creating a loop known as a convection
cell. This allows energy absorbed at the surface to be circulated around in the lower
atmosphere very efficiently.
4. Latent (hidden) Heat Transfer involves a phase change of water from a solid, liquid
or gas. In essence, it requires energy to turn ice into liquid water, or to turn liquid
water into water vapor (a gas). The energy required to do this stays with the higher
phase (form) of water. For example, a tremendous amount of solar energy is required
to evaporate water into water vapor. When this occurs, the energy cannot be seen but
is in fact ‘hidden’ in the evaporated water molecules, which are now vibrating and
colliding much more frequently. When the air containing the vapor rises and cools,
the vapor may condense, forming a cloud of suspended liquid droplets. The energy
that was absorbed as the water was evaporated at the surface is now released into the
cloud as the water vapor condenses. This is a very effective way of transferring
energy.
5. Oceanic and atmospheric circulation is probably the most effective method of

transferring heat from one place on earth to another. In essence, energy absorbed at
one location can be carried by wind or ocean currents and physically moved to
another location. Globally, we see a general trend of equatorial energy being moved
towards the poles, but we’ll explore this more in an upcoming chapter.
7 CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE (same factors as for weather and climate)

1. Latitude
2. Distance from a large water body
3. Elevation
4. Atmospheric circulation
5. Oceanic circulation
6. Topographic barriers
7. Storm tracks
Focus on Distance from a Large Water Body: Maritime vs. Continental Locations
Places located along the coastline of an ocean, sea or large lake usually have a year-round
abundance of moisture in the air. The presence of moisture influences not only the
annual rainfall amounts of coastal locations, but also affects their temperature. Coastal
(Maritime) locations tend to have mild summer temperatures, mild winter temperatures,
mild temperatures at sunrise, and mild temperatures in the middle of the afternoon. In
essence, the presence of moisture in the air means that temperatures don’t get too hot or
too cold when compared to inland (Continental) locations. This can be measured in a
couple of main ways, notably the Annual Temperature Range (ATR) and Daily
Temperature Range (DTR).

ATR (Annual Temperature Range) is the average temperature of the warmest month
minus the average temperature of the coolest month. The range (difference) tends to be
small for coastal places and large for continental (and dry) places. For three Southern
California examples, Santa Monica Pier’s ATR is about 10°F, Pasadena’s is about 21°F,
and Palm Springs’ is approximately 36°F.
Here’s a Climograph showing the annual pattern of rainfall (bars) and temperature (line)
for downtown Los Angeles. As for most places on the planet, the highest average
monthly temperatures are experienced a month or two after the summer solstice, with the
minimum average monthly temperatures being recorded a month or two after the winter
solstice. For downtown Los Angeles, these months are August-September and January-
February, respectively.
Check out the following link and determine the ATR’s for four Central California places
(the list is sorted alphabetically): Monterey, Fresno, Mammoth Lakes, and Death Valley.
http://ggweather.com/normals/CA.html
Do you notice a trend at all? Do you think there might be a test question about this?
A second way to quantify the effect of moisture in the air is through Daily Temperature
range (DTR), which is the maximum temperature for a day minus the low temperature
for a day. The DTR for Santa Monica, just like the ATR, is lower than that of an inland
city like Pasadena, and much lower than Palm Springs. The graph below (source
unknown) shows that most places, all other things being equal, get their minimum daily
temperature right around sunrise (note that sunrise is earlier in the summer and later in
the winter). The maximum daily temperature is usually received in the middle of the

afternoon (2-4pm is typical), where incoming energy from the sun is balanced by
outgoing energy from the heated surface of the earth.
For August 27, 2011, Santa Monica’s DTR was 5F (70-65), Pasadena’s was 29F (103-
74), Riverside’s was 37F (108-71) and Palm Springs’ DTR was 23F (112-89). The lower
than expected DTR for Palm Springs was due to the presence of moisture sneeking in
from the Gulf of California, making the air a little more moist and providing some
localized thunderstorms. This shows that although we can make sense of the atmosphere,
it is a very fluid environment with many variables to consider at any given moment. This
is why predicting the weather is so delicate, and often wrong! We’ll explore these
complexities in the upcoming chapters.
Focus on Topographic (Mountain) Barriers

As described in the previous chapter, mountain barriers can play an important role in
‘stealing’ moisture on the windward side (the side facing the wind) leaving very little
moisture on the down-wind (leeward) side, and creating what’s referred to as a rain
shadow.
These same mountain barriers can have an enormous impact on temperature, creating
very hot temperatures on the leeward side under certain conditions. For example, a
spring-time storm may bring cool weather to Los Angeles along with wet weather to the
San Gabriel Mountains above the city, but this same storm may help create warmer and
dry conditions on the leeward side of the mountains, even at slightly higher elevation.
The reason for this is that as the air rises over the mountains on the windward side, it
tends to cool and water vapor condenses to form clouds. As the process of condensation
progresses, latent heat is released into the forming cloud, so that the rising air cools very
slowly.
In fact, condensing air tends to cool at a rate of approximately 3°F for every 1,000 feet of
elevation gain, while air that rises without any water condensing out cools at a much
faster rate of 5.5°F per thousand feet of elevation gain. Air that sinks never forms clouds,
so this air will warm up at a rate of 5.5F per thousand feet of elevation loss.

Here’s an example:
So why does rising air cool down in the first place? The answer is because of Adiabatic
Cooling, the change in heat energy due to the changing density of rising air. To fully
comprehend this, we have to remember that heat energy is related to the vibrations and
collisions of molecules. Air that rises from the earth’s surface experiences lower air
pressure and tends to expand as a result of this lowered air pressure. The molecules
within this air now tend to vibrate and collide less often, so the air cools down.
Conversely, air that sinks in the atmosphere is ‘crushed’ tighter together as it descends.
The higher pressure means that molecules tend to collide and vibrate more often,
resulting in higher temperatures (this is called Adiabatic Heating). So, why does air
cool quickly when it rises without forming clouds, but that same air cools slowly when it
rises while forming clouds? I’ll leave the answer to you…but I know you can find it!

Ch. 5 Atmospheric Pressure
Our atmosphere extends hundreds of miles out from the earth’s surface, though most
scientists agree by the time you get about 100km (62 miles) from the surface there are
very few molecules remaining. In fact, about 95% of the atmosphere’s molecules are
found in the bottom 16 miles, and 50% of the molecules are found in the lowest 4 miles
of the atmosphere. In fact, people who climb mountains 4 miles (about 23,000 feet) high
are breathing air with only half as many molecules (including oxygen) as compared to sea
level, which makes it very difficult to breath or even think straight at those elevations.
There are more molecules at the bottom of the atmosphere

because they are being pulled towards the earth surface by
gravity. The air at the bottom of the atmosphere feels the
weight of all the molecules above pushing downwards, and
this is referred to as “air Pressure.” It’s sort of like the guy
on the bottom of a ‘dog pile’ after winning the World Series
(the guy on the bottom is feeling the pressure—he’s red in
the face and eyes are about to pop out).
So how do we measure this air pressure? Well, back in the early 1600’s
a number of early scientists were experimenting with long water-filled
tubes in a quest to create a vacuum within the tube. The debates which
followed spurned Torricelli to argue that the atmosphere indeed had
weight (a novel concept at the time) which he proved by using a tube
filled with Mercury rather than water. Mercury (Hg) is a heavy metal
which is liquid at most temperatures on Earth and about 14 times the
weight of water, so a much shorter glass tube can be used. Torricelli’s
invention, known as a Mercury Barometer, allowed people to measure
the “weight” or “pressure” of the atmosphere in relation to the height of
Mercury being pushed up within the tube by the force of the atmosphere
outside the tube (see the diagram to the right). The atmosphere’s weight
pushes down on the glass tube (a vacuum tube) and the mercury level
rises. Note that if the atmosphere pushes down harder than normal, the
height of the mercury within the tube will get higher. Mercury
Barometer
If we used a barometer to measure atmospheric pressure at multiple places over the planet
and calibrated for sea-level, we would find the average seal-level air pressure for Earth.
Average atmospheric pressure (at sea level)
76 cm Hg
760 mm Hg
29.92 inches Hg
14.7 psi (pounds per square inch)
1 bar (or 1 atmosphere)
1,000 millibars (mb) or more accurately…1,013.25 mb
1,013.25 hectopascals (hPa)

Here’s a good National Weather Service link about atmospheric pressure:
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/pressure
Every square inch of your body has 14.7 psi of air pressure pushing in from all directions.
We don’t crush inwards because our bodies have adapted by pushing outwards with the
same force. However, if we travel quickly to high elevations (where there’s less air
pressure) we find our bodies don’t quickly adapt to the lower air pressure.
Example: Snowboarders can experience headaches because at high elevation

(and less air pressure than at sea-level) the body is pushing out with more
pressure than the atmosphere is pushing in. There is a lack of equilibrium.
Now, we must remember that Average Sea-Level Pressure is just that…the

average at sea-level. Sometimes the sea-level pressure can be higher than
average (High Pressure) and at other times it can be lower than average (Low Pressure),
which leads us to the following terms:
High pressure is defined as air pressure significantly higher than the average for the
surrounding area. We can over-generalize here and say that High Pressure is that which
is greater than 1013.25mb. We can locate areas of high pressure by taking a barometer
reading at the surface of the earth and then re-calculating this for elevation (we
recalculate to see what the pressure would be if we were at sea level). What we find are
central areas of high pressure (called High Pressure
Cells if circular in shape or High Pressure Ridges if
linear). Within High Pressure Cells the air is sinking
and warming up as it descends, creating clear skies.
High pressure cells are also known as Anticyclones,
and are partly responsible for the presence of smoggy
days in Los Angeles as well as the formation of dry
Santa Ana winds.
A High Pressure Cell in USA. http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/images/twc/monsoon/july.gif
Low pressure is defined as air pressure significantly

lower than the surrounding area (we can cheat a little
and say that Low Pressure is less than 1013.25mb).
An area of low pressure is associated with rising air
which is cooling as it ascends, often producing clouds.
Clouds, rain and storms are always associated with
areas of Low Pressure. Low Pressure Centers
(Cyclones) migrating from the Pacific Ocean are
largely responsible for our winter moisture in Southern
California.

So Where Do Sinking and Rising Air Go?
Air that sinks in a high pressure cell (anticylone) hits the bottom of the troposphere and
then moves outwards in all directions along the earth’s surface, away from high pressure
and towards areas of lower surface air pressure. The air flowing across the surface (we
call it WIND) is driven by the Pressure Gradient Force (or PGF), which basically tells
air to try and move from high surface pressure towards low surface pressure. Wind is
always driven by the PGF, so it always tries to move from HIGH to LOW surface
pressure.
Upper-Level and Surface Winds

As the above diagram shows, there are two basic groups of winds: Geostrophic Winds
are found at high elevation where they can’t bump into anything, so they move quite fast.
Friction Layer Winds are located at the bottom of the troposphere. As these winds
move horizontally across the earth’s surface they are slowed down by bumping into and
rubbing against (hence, friction) obstacles like mountains, valleys, trees, people and
buildings, so they have a much slower speed than high-altitude winds.
Showing High and Low Pressure Areas on Weather Maps

The diagram shown above is drawn as if you were looking across the earth’s surface
towards the horizon, with the ground on the bottom of the diagram and the atmosphere
extending towards the top of the diagram. Weather maps show High and Low Pressure
Centers in a ‘plan view’ orientation, as if you were looking down from a satellite with the
surface of the map representing earth’s surface. On weather maps the locations of high
and low pressure centers are identified by the capital letters L and H, which are enclosed
by lines of equal pressure called Isobars (see the following diagram).

There are several isobars identified on this diagram, specifically the 1023, 1020, 1017,
1014, 1011, 1008 and 1005 mb isobars. For each of these isobars, any location on the
same line represents an equal amount of atmospheric pressure. In addition, there are two
small dots visible on the diagram, one is green and the other is red. The red dot is located
just to the right of the 1014mb isobar (in this case we only see a small portion of this
isobar), so the air pressure for the red dot would be just less than 1014mb. The green dot
is located between the 1017 and 1020mb isobars, but closer to 1017, so the air pressure
for that location can be estimated at very close to 1018mb. The gold-colored lines on this
diagram represent the Pressure Gradient Force, showing the direction that air will attempt
to move; Away from High Pressure and towards Low Pressure. Please keep in mind that
every direction away from the center of high pressure would in fact be towards lower
pressure.
The isobar contour interval on the map is 3mb, which is not always the case. Where the
isobars are located close together the pressure is changing quickly over a short distance
(let’s say in 100 miles), and where the isobars are spaced far apart, the pressure doesn’t
change much over that same 100 miles. This rate of change of atmospheric pressure per
unit distance is referred to as the Pressure Gradient. If the Pressure Gradient is large,
this means that in a small geographic area there are places with much different
atmospheric pressure, and nature will want to even this difference out quickly by moving
extra air molecules from the area of higher pressure towards the area of lower pressure.
The greater the difference in pressure between two nearby places (shown by closely-
spaced isobars), the greater is the rush of molecules. The force of air molecules from

high to low pressure is referred to as the Pressure Gradient Force or PGF as discussed
on the previous pages. If the PGF is small, a slow evening-out of molecules creates a
mild breeze along earth’s surface. If the PGF is quite large, we might instead experience
very strong winds.
Here’s a National Weather Service map showing atmospheric pressure over the USA in
October 2006. Can you clearly see the high and low pressure areas as well as the
corresponding isobars? What is the isobar contour interval for this map?
The Coriolis Force

Besides gravity, friction, and the PGF, there is a fourth force acting on air as it moves
across the surface. The Coriolis Force (or Coriolis Effect) is created as the earth rotates
west-to-east once every 24 hours. Since the equator moves almost 25,000 miles in 24
hours and the poles move 0 miles as they rotate, there is a large differential in the angular
momentum created (the equator moves at a rate of over 1,000 mph while the poles move
at a rate of 0 mph).
Click on the following links for descriptions of the Coriolis Force.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeY9tY9vKgs&feature=related

The effect of the Coriolis Force is to “bend” moving currents of air and water to the:
- Right of the intended path (clockwise) in the Northern Hemisphere
- Left of the intended path (counter clockwise) in the Southern Hemisphere.
The Coriolis force is the greatest at the POLES and with FAST WINDS. There is no
bending at the equator or with air that is standing still (not moving). Essentially, air
moving just north of the equator will be bent slightly to the right by the Coriolis Force.
Air in the Mid-Latitudes will feel a stronger force bending to the right, and air at the
poles will feel the strongest influence of the Coriolis Force.
So air moving horizontally (wind) within the troposphere feels the following all at once:
1. Gravity, pulling air molecules towards earth’s surface
2. The Pressure Gradient Force, sending air molecules away from high pressure and
towards low pressure, thereby creating wind
3. Friction, slowing the wind as it ‘drags’ along the earth’s surface. Friction is
insignificant for high-altitude winds.
4. The Coriolis Force, bending the wind to the right of its intended path in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This force is
strongest at the Poles and for fast wind speeds.
Upper-Level Air Flow

At high altitude, the lack of friction means that wind speeds are very fast, so the Coriolis
Force is strong enough to equal the PGF. This results in clock-wise circular air motion
around high pressure centers and counter-clockwise circulation around low pressure

centers in the Northern Hemisphere, with the opposite flow directions for the Southern
Hemisphere.
Friction-Layer Air Flow

Air moving out of a High Pressure Center will spread out across the surface of the earth
in all directions (as a wind) which is then bent in a spiral, outwards pattern to the right in
the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. We refer to this as
Anti-Cyclonic flow.
It is the surface winds around low pressure centers which are more difficult to envision,
but let’s give it a shot. Wind moving across the surface (friction layer) towards a Low
Pressure Center in the Northern Hemisphere will feel a tug-of-way effect between the
opposing forces of the PGF and the Coriolis Force. The PGF will try to pull the air
molecules in the Low Pressure Center, while the Coriolis Force will try to bend the air to
the right. Since friction slows surface winds down, the PGF is stronger than the Coriolis
Force, and the net effect is a slight bending towards the left. This bending motion
increases as the air gets closer and closer to the Low pressure Center, where the air
ultimately rises with an inward, counter-clockwise spiral motion that we call Cyclonic.
The net result is that air moving across the surface (friction layer) in the Northern
Hemisphere produces the following realities:
Areas of low pressure (where the air is rising, cooling, and forming clouds) rotate
counter-clockwise with an inward spiral, what we refer to as Cyclonic Flow.
Areas of high pressure (where the air is sinking from clear skies and warming
adiabatically) rotate clockwise with an outward spiral, what we call Anticyclonic
Flow.

This link might help to visualize high and low pressure cells in the Northern Hemisphere:
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/wwhlpr/anticyclone_ani.rxml?hret=/guides/maps/sfc/
temp/sfctmpslp.rxml
For the Southern Hemisphere the direction of rotation is completely reversed.

http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/Students_Teachers/pressure.shtml#high (So. Hemisphere only)
So Let’s Put This All Together

In summary, we see that gravity pulls atmospheric molecules (air) towards earth’s
surface. The Pressure Gradient Force directs the air from areas of High Pressure towards
areas of Low Pressure. At the surface of the earth, where the moving air experiences
enough friction to slow its movement, a battle between the PGF and a weaker Coriolis
Force results in air spiraling out from High Pressure Centers (clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere) while air spirals inward (counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere)
towards Low Pressure Centers. With upper-level air flow there is very little friction,
hence the Coriolis Force and PGF are of equal strength. Here, the air flows in a
continuous circular pattern around the High and Low Pressure Centers rather than into or
away from them.

GLOBAL WIND AND PRESSURE BELTS
Now that we’ve seen how high and low pressure belts and winds are related to one
another, as well as the forces which subsequently bend the winds, let’s take a look at the
major pressure and wind belts encircling the planet.
http://www.srh.weather.gov/jetstream/global/circ.htm
The diagram above and text (below) from the National Weather Service identify three
distinct atmospheric circulations cells known as the:
1. Hadley cell – A large convection cell with rising air at the equator which then diverges at high
altitude, producing upper-air flow away from the equator. This air descends to create a high
pressure zone in the sub-tropics. Air then flows back along the earth’s surface from the subtropics
to the equator, providing air flow for the Trade Winds.
2. Ferrel cell - A mid-latitude cell with descending air in the sub-tropics and rising air in the sub-
polar regions. The surface air flow between the high and low pressure areas powers the Westerly
winds of the mid-latitudes.
3. Polar cell - Air rising in the sub-polar regions splits at high altitude, with a portion of that air
flowing towards the poles where it sinks in a vortex. This sinking air creates a zone of high
pressure at the poles which in turn powers the polar easterly winds as surface air attempts to return
to low pressure in the sub-polar region.
The model of the Hadley, Ferrel and Polar Cells explains the presence of major global
pressure belts located at the equator and every 30 degrees of latitude from there. These
seven global pressure belts can be identified as follows:
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): a.k.a. Equatorial Low or Doldrums. This is
a zone of low pressure located at the equator. The low pressure means rising air, which
cools on its way up, producing clouds and rain. Because of this the equator is one of the
wettest regions in the world.
Sub Tropical High Pressure Zone (STHPZ): There are two zones of high pressure
located approximately 30 degrees north and south of the equator. These areas of high

pressure provide sinking, dry air to the sub-tropics year-round, and are a major factor in
determining the location of the world’s largest deserts such as the Sahara of North Africa.
Sub Polar Low Pressure Zone: These zones, associated with both the Polar Front and
the Polar Jet Stream, are located approximately 60 degrees north and south of the equator.
These are zones of rising air which produce year-round moisture, especially along the
western coastlines of continents at these
latitudes. The Sub-Polar Low separates
warm air on the equatorial side from very
cold, dry air on the polar side. Also of note is
the location of the Polar Jet Stream, a fast,
eastward-moving river of air located about
40,000 feet in the troposphere directly above
the Sub-Polar Low. This river of air can
easily travel 100-150 mph, and can push jet

airplanes faster as they travel from west-to-east at these latitudes. For this reason, is it
usually faster to fly from Los Angeles to London than to fly in the opposite direction?
Polar High Pressure Zone: These are zones of very cold, very dry air descending at the
North and South Poles. The descending air precludes the presence of clouds at the poles,
in essence making these areas very cold deserts.
The air that descends from the Polar High and Sub-Tropical High pressure belts moves
across the earth surface towards the low pressure belts, feeling the bending effect of the
Coriolis Force along the way. We are able to recognize six global wind belts located
between the pressure belts as follows:
Northeast Trade Winds: The air that sinks at the Northern Hemisphere’s Sub-Tropical
High Pressure Zone diverges in all directions once it nears the earth’s surface. The
portion of this air flow which moves south, towards the equator, is bent slightly to the
right by the Coriolis Force (remember that this force is not very strong near the equator).
This slight bending effect results in a steady flow of warm wind blowing from the
northeast between approximately 30°N and the equator.
Southeast Trade Winds: These winds are the Southern Hemisphere’s trade wind,
blowing from a southeast direction between 30°S and the equator. The Southeast Trades
and the Northeast Trades converge at the equator, where the air rises in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone.
Prevailing Westerlies: The Prevailing Westerlies (or just Westerlies for short) are
located in both hemispheres between approximately 30°N and 60°N and 30°S and 60°S.
They originate from air that descended in the STHPZ and then flowed poleward. The
Coriolis Force is stronger in the mid-latitudes, so the poleward-moving air gets bent more
than in the tropics, resulting in a strong wind pattern coming from the west. The
Prevailing Westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere explain many weather patterns
affecting California, especially our winter storms which are pushed along by these winds.
.
Polar Easterlies: These wind belts are located between the Poles and 60 degress latitude
in both hemispheres. They are formed when air sinking in the Polar Highs diverges in all
directions (equatorward). At high latitude the Coriolis Force exerts maximum influence,
so the very cold, flowing air is bent so much that the resulting wind comes from the east
and encircles the poles.
Here’s a link to help visualize the pattern of global wind and pressure belts.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HWHwp75aBZo
Limitations of this Global Circulation Model

We need to keep in mind that this is a MODEL of how our global wind and pressure belts
work. The model is based upon the presumption that we live on an all-water planet,
which of course we do not. Land surfaces, with their irregularities of mountains, valleys,
trees, buildings, etc., tend to slow winds down and interfere with the locations of high

and low pressure systems by heating up differentially from one place to another (a forest
would heat up more slowly than bare soil on a warm summer day). Also, the locations of
high and low pressure cells changes as the sun’s direct rays migrate between the Tropics
throughout the year. In general, the pressure zones shift slightly north during the
Northern Hemisphere summer, and slightly south during the Southern Hemisphere
summer. Take a look at these links and focus on what happens to the location of strong
precipitation at the ITCZ as well as the general movement of high and low pressure belts
as the months progress through the year.
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/wayne/preciploop.gif
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DHrapzHPCSA&feature=related
(please note in this video a feature called a Rossby Wave; try to remember for Chapter 7)
How the Global Circulation Model Helps Explain LA Weather

Now that you’ve seen for yourself that the High and Low Pressure Zones of the General
Circulation Model shift north and south with the seasons, let’s explore how this shift
affects Los Angeles. Los Angeles is located along the Pacific coast approximately 34
degrees north of the equator, close to the border of the Prevailing Westerly Winds and the
Sub-Tropical High Pressure Zone (STHPZ). During the winter months in a typical year,
the Prevailing Westerlies and STHPZ shift a few degrees south, bringing to Los Angeles
the occasional winter storms which travel within the Prevailing Westerlies. However, for
the past few years this model has not always behaved as expected. From 2011 to 2016 a
large high pressure cell that some meteorologists called the “Ridiculously Resilient
Ridge” remained off the coast of California throughout much of the winter. This high
pressure cell pushed many incoming storms to the north of California, bringing us
significantly less winter precipitation than normal. Luckily, this high pressure ridge was
not as prevalent in the winter of 2016-17, allowing Southern California to receive average
winter rainfall for the first time in several years. For winter 2017-18 the Ridiculously
Resilient Ridge was back, and Southern California rainfall was significantly below
normal once again. (http://www.sanluisobispo.com/news/weather/weather-
watch/article198288524.html). If this pattern continues, we are going to need to find
better ways to conserve and capture water.
Our summer months are dominated by the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Zone. By July-
August the wind and pressure belts have migrated north and Los Angeles comes under
the influence of the Sub Tropical High Pressure Belt. During these months LA is
typically under the influence of sinking, dry air, so there are few if any clouds present.
With a clear sky and a strong sun overhead for many hours of the day, it’s no surprise we
see very hot temperatures during the midst of summer. Of further
note is that the summertime high pressure tends to trap air between
the ocean and the mountains for days or even weeks. As we burn
fuel and release exhaust into the air from our local industries or as
we commute to school, work or to the beach, the sun converts the
exhaust into a toxic smog which we all breathe in. The smog only
dissipates once the high pressure system breaks down or moves out
of the area.
Photo courtesy of California Air Resources Board
http://www.aqmd.gov/news1/Archives/History/marchcov.html#The Arrival of Air Pollution

LOCAL WINDS
The previous section focused on global wind and pressure zones, but there are also
hundreds of winds that affect only local areas of the planet. Some of these have great
names like the ‘Sirocco’ which blows between North Africa and Mediterranean Europe,
the ‘Nor’easter’ of New England, and the ‘Diablo’ winds of San Francisco, CA. Check
out this link for details on many local winds: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_winds.
I’ll go ahead and describe a few local winds below, as these are world-famous or have a
potential to affect Southern California.
Monsoons
Monsoons are winds that reverse direction with the seasons, bringing summer rains and
winter drought. The summer wet monsoon brings heavy downpours of rain for weeks on
end, as the winds blow from the ocean to the land during these months. The opposite is
true in winter, where the dry monsoon blows cool, arid air from the land to the ocean.
Monsoons occur in several places on earth, but the most famous are the monsoons of
South Asia (India and neighbors).
Check out these four links:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Qtf7M1s__w (looks like a student project but OK)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jN9Z0rn3W1g
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_South_Asian_Monsoon.gif#file
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/Global_Monsoons/Asian_Monsoons/Asian_Monsoons.shtml
Other areas with monsoon winds include Southeast Asia, northern Australia, and West
Africa. Some would argue that the southwest USA and northern Mexico have a monsoon
(named the North American Monsoon), but others would argue there is insufficient
seasonal wind reversal to call this a true monsoon. This area does experience heavy
convective thunderstorms in the summer months as the desert Southwest heats the air and
pulls in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of California. The thunderstorms are
largely restricted to the Mojave, Sonora and Colorado Deserts, but they can reach as far
as California’s Peninsula Ranges, San Gabriel Mountains and San Bernardino Mountains.

On a hot summer day we can even see the tops of these thunderstorm clouds from
Glendale College
Top of a Mojave Desert Thunderstorm cloud as seen from Glendale College, CA in early Sept. 2011
Photo Courtesy of Catherine Crawford
Southern California Winds
Land heats up faster and to higher temperatures than water when both are exposed to
sunlight. It’s also true that land cools down faster and to much cooler temperatures than
water does once the sun has set. The main reasons for this are that:
1. Water allows the sun's rays to penetrate deep into the ocean (up to 650 feet in
ideal conditions) so the energy from the sun is absorbed within this entire
thickness of water. On the other hand land absorbs the sun’s energy only at the
very surface, allowing the land surface to heat up much faster.
2. Water’s physical properties are such that it takes 1 calorie of energy to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. On average, it takes only
about 0.2 calories of energy to raise the temperature of 1 gram of soil or rock
material the same 1 degree Celsius. So it takes five times less energy to get the
land surface to heat up compared to the ocean surface.
3. If the water surface gets too hot it begins to mix (via convection) with cooler
water from below, thereby making the surface water more moderate in
temperature. Land surfaces are not able to convect, so very hot land surfaces
remain hotter than water surfaces throughout the afternoon hours.

This differential heating and cooling of water and land results in differences in air
pressure between the Pacific Ocean and Southern California’s coastal cities, which in
turn creates coastal breezes known as the Land Breeze and the Sea Breeze. A Sea
Breeze comes from the sea/ocean (or even very large lakes in some parts of the country)
during the daytime, when the coastal land surfaces have heated up significantly while the
ocean remains much cooler. The warm air above the land rises and pulls air in from the
ocean, resulting in strong, cool winds blowing from the ocean to the land. Sea Breezes
are especially strong in mid- to late-afternoon.
Sea Breeze: The diagram shows a heated daytime land surface with associated Low Pressure (1), strong Sea Breeze
(2), rising air above the land (3), upper-level divergence (4), upper-level return air flow (5), sinking of cool air (6) into
High Pressure over the ocean (7), which completes the circulation cell and further promotes the sea Breeze (2).
Once the sun has set the land surface cools much faster than the ocean, so by the early
morning hours the land can actually be slightly cooler than the ocean surface. The
accompanying pressure differential promotes air to gently rise over the ocean, creating a
mild breeze from the land to the ocean known as a Land Breeze. Land Breezes are most
common in the early morning hours because sunrise offers the best opportunity for the
land to have cooled down below the temperature of the adjacent ocean.
Here’s a quick (slightly funky) link describing Sea Breezes and Land Breezes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQV72Yzmjyc

Land Breeze: The diagram shows sinking air and High Pressure (1) over the land which promotes a mild Land
Breeze (2) flowing from the land to the ocean during the night or early morning. At this time the ocean is warmer than
the land so Low Pressure over the ocean (4) results in rising air (3) which diverges at high altitude (5) to create upper-
level return air flow (6). The air sinks (7) promoting the High Pressure (1) over the land surface.
Santa Ana Winds

Santa Ana winds are strong, dry, downslope winds that affect Southern California in late
fall to early spring. These winds are formed when a High Pressure Cell stagnates in the
Great Basin (Nevada-Utah) with the resulting anticyclonic air flow being directed
towards Southern California by the area’s mountain ranges. The winds heat up as they
descend in elevation towards sea level, and can reach speeds of over 70 miles per hour as
they squeeze through low mountain passes and canyons on their way to the coast. These
excessively dry winds can promote or magnify the intensity of wildfires, especially
during the fall when vegetation is already extremely dry.
Santa Ana Winds: A High Pressure Cell in the Great Basin

sends air in an outward clockwise spiral. Mountain ranges in the
southwest USA direct the air flow towards Southern California.
The air warms adiabatically as it descends from the Great Basin
(approx. 4,000’ elev.) towards the coast, and wind speeds
accelerate as they squeeze through mountain passes and canyons.
For these reasons Santa Ana Winds are a major contributor to
Southern California wildfires.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Santa_ana_winds.jpg

Santa Ana Winds generally blow from the northeast and enter the San Fernando Valley,
San Gabriel Valley, and Los Angeles Basin after crossing the nearby San Gabriel
Mountains. Wind speeds can exceed 70 miles per hour in some of the low-lying canyons
and passes including the Newhall Pass (near Sylmar), the Cajon Pass (where Highway 15
cuts through the pass separating the San Gabriel Mountains and the San Bernardino
Mountains) and Santa Ana Canyon above Pasadena, from where the winds’ name is
derived.
By the time the winds reach the Los Angeles area’s coastline the relative humidity of the
air can be below 10 percent, and during Santa Ana conditions it may well be hotter along
the coast than in the deserts. The influx of warm air to the coastline also means that the
average September temperatures for some coastal cities are almost as high as they are for
August. The excessive wind, heat, and aridity brought by the Santa Ana winds creates a
recipe for extreme fire danger, with massive wildfires common throughout Southern
California in late Fall each year. Check out the following link for a glimpse of the
damage. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G0PGfcD6V1U&feature=fvsr

To finish up this chapter, here’s a local newsman’s explanation of Santa Ana winds.
There are some good points made, with good graphics of adiabatic cooling and warming.
However, this video segment contains some inaccuracies and comes complete with an
experiment-gone-wrong at the end. Can you find the error in the diagram showing the
location of the high pressure cell for Santa Ana wind conditions?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pNQ4g4zOwY&feature=fvsr

CHAPTER 6: ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
This chapter deals with the water we find in the atmosphere. However, before we discuss
atmospheric water we should familiarize ourselves with where all of the Earth’s water is located.
Oceans account for 71% of the total world surface area
Land accounts for 29% of the world’s surface area
Still, the total volume of water on earth represents a tiny fraction when compared to the total
volume of the earth’s lithosphere ash shown in the United States Geological Survey (USGS)
image to the right. In the image, the size of each
sphere represents the volume of the earth and the
volume of water (total water, liquid fresh water, and
freshwater lakes/rivers)
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html.
So where exactly is earth’s water to be found?

According to the USGS, if we took 100% of earth’s
water volume we would find that 96.5 % of the total
water supply is in our oceans. In essence we have just
one ocean called the World Ocean. For ease we split
this ‘world ocean’ into four distinct ocean basins as
shown below. Some like to split it into five oceans by
including the Southern Ocean, which we consider here
to be just part of the other ocean basins.
Pacific Ocean (64 million square miles; 1/3 of the Earth)

Atlantic Ocean (31 million square miles; about 1/2 of the Pacific’s size)
Indian Ocean (28 million square miles; smaller than Atlantic)
Arctic Ocean (5 million square miles; smallest ocean)
Note: The ocean areas include smaller “seas” like the Mediterranean Sea. However, some ‘seas’
are not really qualified to receive that title. For instance, the “Caspian Sea” is not a sea, but is
instead the world’s largest lake. To be a ‘sea’ the saltwater must connect directly to an ocean, or
to another sea that ultimately connects to an ocean, and this is not the case for the Caspian.
Other Sources Of Water (Rounded Off)

1.7 % in glaciers, ice caps and snow fields.
1.7 % in groundwater and soil moisture
0.1% in all the world’s lakes, swamps, rivers, atmospheric water and biological water.

Here’s the original chart to see the actual estimates.
Water source Water volume, in Water volume, in cubic Percent of fresh Percent of total water
cubic miles kilometers water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays 321,000,000 1,338,000,000 -- 96.5
Ice caps, Glaciers, & 5,773,000 24,064,000 68.7 1.74
Permanent Snow
Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 -- 1.7
Fresh 2,526,000 10,530,000 30.1 0.76
Saline 3,088,000 12,870,000 -- 0.94
Soil Moisture 3,959 16,500 0.05 0.001
Ground Ice & Permafrost 71,970 300,000 0.86 0.022
Lakes 42,320 176,400 -- 0.013
Fresh 21,830 91,000 0.26 0.007
Saline 20,490 85,400 -- 0.006
Atmosphere 3,095 12,900 0.04 0.001
Swamp Water 2,752 11,470 0.03 0.0008
Rivers 509 2,120 0.006 0.0002
Biological Water 269 1,120 0.003 0.0001
Total 332,500,000 1,386,000,000 - 100
Source: Gleick, P. H., 1996: Water resources. In Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, ed. by S. H. Schneider,
Oxford University Press, New York, vol. 2, pp.817-823.
Phases of Water
There are three phases of water on Earth: solid, liquid, and vapor (or gas). Water easily changes
from one phase or another, and there are some specific terms we use to describe these phase
changes.
The transformation of water vapor to solid ice is called sublimation or deposition. This takes
place in the atmosphere as water vapor transforms into snow or hail. As the process occurs,
latent energy is released into the cloud.
The reciprocal process, where ice transforms directly into water vapor is called sublimation.
This process occurs in very dry, cold air which is exposed to the sun, especially in the polar
regions. It’s not possible to see water vapor, so you cannot see sublimation occur. However,
you’d probably be able to see that over time the thickness of ice diminishes (from the surface on
down) when sublimation occurs. It takes a tremendous amount of solar energy to transform ice
into water vapor.
The transformation of liquid water into ice is called freezing, a process which releases latent heat
energy into the environment, especially on cold mornings and during the winter. The reciprocal
process of transforming ice into liquid water is called melting. This is very common during the
spring season, when sunlight and heat allow for the melting of winter snows.

Liquid water’s transformation into water vapor is called evaporation, which requires large inputs
of solar energy. This is most common at the interface between the atmosphere and the oceans.
The transformation of water vapor into liquid water is called condensation. This process occurs
when clouds, fog, and dew are formed, releasing latent heat into the environment.
Water is constantly moved within the hydrosphere, as well as between the four Geographic
Spheres in what we call the Hydrologic Cycle. There’s a great NASA website describing this
cycle at http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Water/page2.php.
Diagram from NASA: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Water/page2.php
The largest source of atmospheric moisture is via evaporation from the oceans and seas. The
great majority of this moisture falls back to the surface of the oceans, but according to the US
Geological Survey (http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleevaporation.html) about 10 percent
of the water evaporated from the oceans advects (moves horizontally) from above the oceans
towards the land, where it falls as precipitation. The hydrologic cycle details this movement of
earth’s water, and includes the following elements:
• Advection is the horizontal movement of air (wind)
• Infiltration and Percolation are terms used to describe the movement of water as it seeps into the pores and
cracks of both soil and rock material.
• Ponding is the temporary storage of water during or after a storm
• Evaporation is the change of phase of water from a liquid surface to a vapor (gas).

• Transpiration is when water is lost from trees/plants and goes into the atmosphere.
• Evapotranspiration is when water changes from liquid to vapor after being stored in Earth’s land materials
(i.e. trees, soil, and rocks). Note: Evapotranspiration includes transpiration
• Condensation is the process where water vapor in a parcel of rising air cools to its Dew Point temperature
and transforms into liquid water droplets. These droplets are held aloft by the rising air, creating a cloud.
• Precipitation is when moisture FALLS through the atmosphere (rain is the most common form).
The following links do a nice job of visualizing this movement of water in the hydrologic cycle.
1. http://pmm.nasa.gov/education/videos/tour-water-cycle
2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HvQPPXhvJ_Y&feature=results_main&playnext=1&list=PL2
3C6F3C3DD7D79AE
3. https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/hydro
HUMIDITY (Moisture in the air)

Have you ever complained how sticky the air feels on a hot summer afternoon? You probably
have if you’ve spent any time in the tropics, or a summer on the eastern half of the USA. The
stickiness of the air means that the air is already quite full of moisture, and it will have a difficult
time pulling moisture away from your skin once you sweat. Since the evaporation of sweat from
your skin is a natural way of cooling your skin down, not being able to do so means that you feel
hotter and stickier when the air is already moist. The measure of the moisture contained in the
air is termed Humidity. It can be measured in several different ways (Specific Humidity,
Absolute Humidity, etc.) but the one which makes most sense to our daily lives is the measure of
Relative Humidity.
Relative Humidity (RH) refers to how much moisture is actually in the air in relation to how
much moisture the air can possibly hold
The formula RH = AMR x 100/SMR puts this concept into mathematical terms.
AMR is the Actual Mixing Ratio, defined as the amount of moisture actually in the air per unit
volume. The AMR will remain constant unless there is evaporation or condensation. In other
words, if you have 4 grams of moisture in the air, that won’t change unless more water is
evaporated into it, moisture is condensed out of it, or another air mass (wetter or drier) mixes
with it.
SMR is the Saturation Mixing Ratio, which refers to the amount of moisture the air could hold
if completely saturated.
Relative Humidity is just a comparison of how much water vapor is actually in the air compared
to how much water vapor the air could possibly hold. As an example, think of a car that has 8
gallons of gas in it but can hold 16 gallons. How full is the gas tank? The solution is 8/16 x 100
= 50%, meaning the gas tank is holding half the amount it can possibly hold. Instead of a car’s
gas tank, think of an air mass which actually contains 8 units of water vapor but could hold 16

units if completely saturated. In this case, the “relative humidity” would be 50% since the air is
holding half the amount of water vapor it could possibly hold.
The only difference is that, unlike a car’s gas tank, air’s ability to hold water vapor (SMR)
increases as temperature increases. This makes sense if you think about it, because as air warms
up the molecules move further apart, creating more room for other gases, especially water vapor.
This relationship between SMR and temperature is made evident by the following graph which
shows that SMR increases as temperature rises (warmer air has the ability to hold more moisture
since warming air expands and provides more room for water vapor to be present).
Temperature & SMR
SMR
Temperature
The graph also points out that as air cools down its ability to hold water vapor decreases. The
implication of this is that any air containing water vapor can be cooled down to the point that it
can no longer hold the water vapor, which gets ‘kicked out’ and transformed into either a liquid
(through condensation) or a solid (through deposition).
The fastest way to cool air down naturally is to have it rise into the atmosphere. As the air cools
its AMR stays constant, while the SMR continually decreases. At some critical point, the SMR
will have decreased to the point where the amount of water vapor the air can possibly hold is
equal to the amount of water vapor actually in the air. When this occurs it means the Relative
Humidity has reached 100%, and with the air completely saturated with water vapor several
things occur all at once:
1. AMR = SMR
2. Relative Humidity = 100%
3. Dew Point Temperature has been reached (temperature required for saturation)
4. Lifting Condensation Level (LCL) has been reached (elevation required for saturation)
5. CONDENSATION BEGINS…and clouds begin to form
The main ways to get air to rise into the atmosphere and cool enough to form clouds are:
• Convective Uplift, the rising of warm surface air due to thermal properties.

• Convergent Uplift, wind currents of similar temperature colliding and forcing air
upwards.
• Orographic Uplift, where the air is forced over a mountain or hill.
• Frontal Uplift, as warm air comes in contact with a cold air mass and is forced upwards.
STEPS TO PRECIPITATION
The following steps are required in order for clouds to form and precipitation to occur from
rising air.
1. Dirty, moist air. In order for precipitation to occur we must begin with air containing both
moisture and small dust particles called hygroscopic nuclei or condensation nuclei.
2. Rising and cooling: The air must then rise and cool.
3. Condensation: Once the air has cooled to its Dew Point Temperature, the air is saturated,
RH is 100%, LCL has been reached, and clouds begin to form as the condenses from a vapor to
small liquid droplets.
4. Droplet Growth: The air continues to rise, forming more droplets which coalesce (bump and
join together) to form larger drops of water.
5. Precipitation: Finally the drops get so large they can no longer be kept afloat by the rising air,
and they begin to fall to earth. The moisture falling down through the atmosphere is called
precipitation, which comes in 5 main varieties.
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
There are many forms of precipitation encountered in the atmosphere. We can define these
different types of precipitation by the average size of the water drops, as when we differentiate
rain from drizzle, and we can further differentiate types of precipitation based on whether they
are comprised of liquid water, solid ice, or a combination of both. The following represent the
most common forms of precipitation:
Rain
Liquid precipitation with an average diameter greater
than 0.5mm is referred to as rain. Rain is the most
common form of precipitation and is especially
prevalent near the equator. Since rain drops can be
quite large and thus they can fall at considerable speed,
they tend to have an aerodynamic tear-drop shape.
Winter rain which falls through the atmosphere with a
freezing layer just above the ground tends to instantly
freeze the rain, producing a treacherous frozen rain.

Drizzle
Drizzle is basically small rain, as this form of precipitation is defined as
“liquid precipitation with an average diameter less than or equal to
0.5mm.” Since drizzle is so small the droplets don’t fall very fast
through the atmosphere, so they tend to take on a more spherical shape.
Drizzle is very common in the early morning hours, especially in the
tropics and mid-latitude coasts. Very small drizzle is called mist.
Snow
Snow is solid precipitation which formed from deposition of
water vapor directly into ice crystals within a very cold cloud.
Snow is most common at high altitude and high latitude,
especially during the cold winter months. Though there are
multiple varieties of snow based on the temperature of the air
when it formed, each and every crystal of snow has a
hexagonal (6-sided) shape.
Sleet
If falling snowflakes encounter a layer of warm air during their
descent, the snow will partially melt and reach the surface as
pellets composed of both ice and water (slush) called sleet.
Sleet is most common during winter in the mid-latitudes.
Hail
The National Weather Service defines hail as “Showery
precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or balls of ice more
than 5 mm in diameter, falling from a cumulonimbus cloud”.
The irregular pellets have a concentric pattern, formed from
multiple cycles of growth as the ice is repeatedly lifted and
forced downwards within the cumulonimbus cloud. Each time a
hail stone is carried higher by the updraft it grows in size as it
collides with supercooled raindrops or other pieces of hail. The
hailstone then falls downwards and either exits the cloud or is pulled back upwards again by the
strong updraft within the cloud. When the updraft can no longer lift the falling hailstone back for
another cycle, it falls to the earth as hail.
The stronger the updraft, the larger the hailstones produced.
Though the minimum size is 5mm (0.2-inch) in diameter it is not
unusual for hail to exceed one inch in diameter, and the record
diameter for hail is 8.0 inches! Updraft speeds within a hail cloud
must exceed 100mph to form softball-size hail, so this enormous
hail must fall to earth at an even faster speed. A description of
hail-related hazards (including fatal grapefruit-size hail), can be
found at https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/hail.
The World Record size for a confirmed hailstone
is 8 inches which fell during a severe thunderstorm
in the town of Vivian, South Dakota on July 23,
2010. The hailstone weighed just less than two
pounds and had a circumference of 18.62 inches.
https://www.webcitation.org/5rhd1coDR?url=http://www.crh.noaa.gov/abr/?n=stormdamagetemplate
The most common place in the world to observe large hail is in the Great Plains and Rocky
Mountain states of the USA. In these locations, especially in the months of spring and early
summer, cold arctic air moving south can readily collide with warm tropical air moving north,
creating ideal conditions for thunder storm development and hail formation. The darker green
areas on this NOAA map indicate areas that reported large hail at least 10 days per year for 2003
through 2012. The areas reporting the most are in the central and southern Great Plains states.
http://www.spc.noaa.gov/wcm/2013/HAIL.png

So Where Does Most Precipitation Occur in The World?
Now that you’re familiar with the types of precipitation, we should take a quick look at where
this precipitation falls across the planet. In the diagram below, the darker blue colors indicate
higher amounts of annual precipitation, while the lighter blue tones indicate drier annual
conditions. It becomes quite clear that the dark blue areas, representing higher annual rainfall,
are found near the equator (black line) as well as along mid-latitude coastlines.
MAP of GLOBAL PRECIPITATION https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_precip_annual.png
Thinking back to Chapter 5, you might connect the areas of heavy precipitation near the equator
with the location of the ITCZ. Does this make sense to you? Take a couple of minutes to think
about this, and then check out the following NASA link and click the play button.
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=TRMM_3B43M#
Can you see that the area of heavy rainfall near the equator (dark blue color) seems to move in a
north-south pattern throughout the year? During which month does this rainfall reach furthest
north? When does it reach furthest south? Reflecting back to Chapter 1, does this follow the
pattern for the annual migration of the sun’s direct (vertical) ray?
Look at the Global Precipitation map once more. Do you notice the areas of light blue color,
representing dry annual conditions, are located in places like North Africa, the Arabian
Peninsula, and central Australia. Which global pressure belt of sinking air do you think matches
up with these areas?
In Chapter 8 we’ll explore these questions in greater detail, but it’s a good idea to identify the
connections between topics and chapters whenever possible.

Where Do We Get Most Precipitation in the Contiguous 48 States of the USA?
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/regional_monitoring/us_12-month_precip.shtml
This color map shows the annual rainfall throughout the continental USA for a typical year
(2010). According to the map, when we don’t include Alaska or Hawaii, where are the wettest
regions of the USA? Notice how annual precipitation decreases rapidly when you move
eastward from the Pacific Northwest (WA, OR) but takes many hundreds of miles to decrease as
you move westward from the Atlantic states. Can you provide any reasonable explanations for
this?
Any Recent Rainfall Near You?

Check out https://www.cnrfc.noaa.gov/ol.php and see who received most rain near you in the
past 24 hours (click on the 24-hour box on the right side of the web page then zoom in to your
area). If there was any precipitation in your area, can you account for why some places received
more precipitation than others?

CLOUD CLASSIFICATION
Clouds are divided into three main Cloud Levels (called étages) based on their base elevation.
These cloud levels include:
• High Clouds. These are the highest of clouds, formed entirely of ice crystals as they are
found towards the top of the troposphere. They are typically thin and wispy in
appearance, as the upper-level winds disperse their moisture across the sky. Individual
forms include Cirrus (Ci), Cirrocumulus (Cc), and Cirrostratus (Cs) clouds.
• Middle Clouds. These clouds are typically found between 6,500 and 25,000 feet high.
At these elevations they are composed mostly of liquid water droplets, with some ice
forming at elevations cold enough to freeze the water. Individual forms include
Altocumulus (Ac), Altostratus (As), and Nimbostratus (Ns) clouds.
• Low Clouds. Found at elevations ranging from the surface to 6,500 feet, Low Clouds
are composed mostly of water droplets. Individual forms include Cumulus (Cu),
Stratocumulus (Sc), Stratus (St), and Cumulonimbus (Cb) clouds, though the latter
(Cb) clouds can grow vertically to great heights.
The specific height of each étage varies by season, with each of the cloud levels extending to
greater elevations during the summer when compared to winter, and with greater heights in the
tropics when compared to the poles. The following diagram clearly shows the latitudinal
component of this. Source: https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/corefour
Level Polar Region Temperate Region Tropical Region

High Clouds 10,000-25,000 feet (3-8 km) 16,500-40,000 Feet (5-13 km) 20,000-60,000 feet (6-18 km)
Middle Clouds 6,500-13,000 feet (2-4 km) 6,500-23,000 feet (2-7 km) 6,500-25,000 feet (2-8 km)
Low Clouds Surface-6,500 feet (0-2 km) Surface-6,500 feet (0-2 km) Surface-6,500 feet (0-2 km)

Cloud Forms
In addition to cloud levels, clouds are divided into four main forms based on their shape or
whether they are producing precipitation or not. The following descriptions of the four main
cloud forms are from the National Weather Service (NWS).
(https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/corefour)
Cirro-form clouds are high-level clouds composed of ice crystals. They are
typically thin and white in appearance but can create an array of colors at
Cirro-form sunrise and sunset. Cirrus generally occur in fair weather.
Nimbo-form clouds produce steady precipitation. As the clouds thicken and

precipitation begins to fall, the bases of the clouds tend to lower toward the
ground. The dark gray color is from sunlight being reflected from the top and
sides of the cloud by water droplets and ice, which produces a dark shadow.
Nimbo-form
Cumulo-form clouds are ‘heaped’ so they look like fluffy white cotton balls
with a flat base. This heaped nature tells us that the air is unstable and wants to
continue to rise. The height of the cloud base depends upon the moisture
content of the rising air, with higher moisture content linked to lower cloud
base. The total height of the cloud depends on the temperature of the rising air
compared to that of the surrounding air.
Cumulo-form
Strato-form clouds are layered horizontally so as to cover the sky with a dull
blanket of gray weather. These are usually low-level clouds and are considered
to be ‘stable’, meaning they do not want to rise into the atmosphere unless
Strato-form forced to do so. If these cloud forms touch the ground, even on hills or
mountains, they may then be called fog.
MAJOR CLOUD TYPES

Using the groupings of clouds based on elevation (étages) and cloud form we can now explore
the main types of clouds identified by the National Weather Service’s Cloud Chart, which can be
found towards the bottom of this link: https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/cloudchart. The chart
divides 27 major cloud types into three rows based on cloud height (high, middle, and low
étage). An additional 5 ‘special case’ cloud types are shown on a fourth row at the bottom of the

chart, including tornadoes and wave clouds. Click on a few of the cloud forms so that you can
see different examples of how they appear in the atmosphere.
Also check out this video link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ur0k7UDrrvg&feature=related to
help you identify some basic cloud types.
Twenty seven cloud types, is a lot to remember, so the National Weather Service has identified
what it considers to be the “Ten Basic Clouds”. These can be found on the on the NWS page
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/basicten
Since this is a Physical Geography course and not a Weather course, we’ll focus on a select few
of these individual cloud types. Make sure you can identify and describe the cloud types listed
below in bold letters, based mainly on their height and their form.
National Weather Service “Basic Ten” Cloud Chart. https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/basicten

Cirrus: Very high clouds made of ice. The fast winds disperse the ice to give the appearance of
a horse’s tail.
Stratus are low, horizontally layered clouds that make everything look gray. They are
sometimes associated with light mist and drizzle, but not heavy rainfall.

Cumulus clouds are puffy and white on top with flat, gray bottoms. They grow vertically.
Nimbostratus clouds are dark gray, low altitude clouds that produce rain and drizzle.

Cumulonimbus: Massive clouds that grow vertically. They usually have flat gray bottom with
white sides and are associated with violent rain, hail, thunder, and lightning.
It is important to remember that clouds are continually on the move, and some can morph from
one type to the other quite readily. Stratus clouds can be forced upwards into the atmosphere,
becoming Nimbostratus. Cumulus clouds can bunch together, becoming Cumulus Congestus,
and if they continue to grow vertically along an updraft they can develop into a mature
Cumulonimbus cloud (with strong updrafts and downdrafts within the same cloud). It is the
friction between ice crystals, water, and air moving in opposite directions in the updrafts and
downdrafts which allows electrons to be ‘chipped’ away from molecules, leaving parts of the
cloud with opposing electrical charges. The uneven electrical charge found during the mature
stage of cumulonimbus cloud formation can result in lightning and thunder. Later, the cloud
dissipates as the updrafts are no longer present and the cloud is dominated by downdrafts. We’ll
explore this in greater depth in the next chapter on Air Masses and Storms.
Check out this link as cumulus clouds develop into cumulonimbus:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NiCSk1zxMEs

DEW, FROST and FOG
It is also possible for condensation to occur without the air rising and cooling. In fact, this is
how both fog and dew are created, and we can add frost to the list if we include the deposition
of ice. Let’s explore each of these:
Dew
Dew is defined as condensation of liquid droplets onto cold surfaces. In nature, it is most
common at the end of a long, cold, calm clear winter night. It forms on objects like glass
windows, metal gates, and car bodies because these objects radiate heat energy very effectively,
so on long winter nights they cool faster and further than the air temperature does. In the early
morning hours they may be the coldest objects around, and if moist air comes into contact with
them, the moisture condenses onto the cold object. You can see the same thing happen in the
middle of a summer afternoon if you have a cold glass of ice-water. Leave the cold glass out
for a few minutes and you’ll notice the glass gets wet on the
outside. It’s not that your glass is leaking…this is dew forming on
the outside of the glass! Dew can be experienced in many places
throughout the world, wherever atmospheric moisture and cold
temperatures can be found together. Sometimes it gets so cold in
the morning that the dew, once formed, begins to freeze. The
product is called frozen dew, and appears as icy bumps on
freezing cold objects. In this case, condensation occurred first and
then the condensed water froze later on. Photo of Morning Dew
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TauTropfenGerbera1.JPG
Frost
Air with a dew point temperature which is lower than 32ºF, and
which comes into contact with very cold objects (also below 32ºF
or 0ºC) can deposit a fine layer of ice onto the very cold object.
This fine layer of ice is called frost, and forms directly from air to
ice. It is most common on cold, clear, winter nights, especially at
high elevation and high latitude. Photo of morning frost on vegetation by
Emmanuel Boutet https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost#/media/File:Feuilles-avec-glace-
leaves-with-ice-1.jpg
Fog
Condensation of the air layer located just above the ground
surface is called fog. Fog can range in height from a few inches
to several hundred feet above the ground. Fog can exist as a very
thin veil of moisture (sometimes called mist) or as a thick body of
suspended droplets making it difficult to see (this would be a
classic fog). It is basically a cloud at ground-level, but unlike a
cloud, fog does not form as a result of air rising. Fog forms
mainly on long, cold, winter nights when the ground surface cools the overlying air to below its
dew point temperature. This is sometimes aided by extra moisture evaporated into the air above
water surfaces. Evaporation Fog (photo courtesy of NOAA)

There are many types of fog, including radiation fog, evaporation fog, advection fog and
upslope fog, all of which are composed of small suspended drops of liquid water.
Advection Fog in San Francisco (NOAA)
For a detailed description of the types of fog check out http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/fog/.

Here’s a description of a few major types of fog.
Radiation Fog
Radiation fog forms after a long, cold, clear,
calm night when so much heat has radiated away
from the ground surface the air immediately
above the ground chills to it dew point
temperature. The thickness of Radiation Fog
varies from a few feet to over 1,000 feet,
gradually thickening as temperatures continue to
fall. Radiation fog tends to form mostly in
valleys as cold air tends to sink there, and this
fog doesn’t tend to move far once formed. In the
winter Radiation Fog can form very quickly,
causing deadly pile-ups on California’s Central Valley freeways in the early pre-dawn hours.
Once the sun comes up and warms the ground surface, radiation fog quickly dissipates.

Frozen Fog
A specialized type of fog composed largely of ice
crystals rather than water droplets is known as Frozen
Fog or Ice Fog. Ice Fog forms only when the air
temperature near the ground surface is well below
freezing. The presence of "supercooled" water
droplets may create problems as these droplets remain
in the liquid state until they come into contact with a
solid surface, upon which they freeze, coating the
object in ice.
Advection Fog
Advection fog is caused by the horizontal movement
of warm, moist air over a cold surface (land or
ocean). Once formed, this fog moves horizontally
along the ground. A classic example is the warm,
moist air of the Pacific Ocean moving towards the
California coastline. Before reaching the coast, this
air is chilled by the cold surface waters of the
California Current. During winter and spring nights
the waters of this current can be so cold they chill the
Pacific air to below its dew point temperature,
thereby forming a fog. This fog then creeps onto the
coast, pushing further inland in the pre-dawn hours.
By sunrise, the fog layer has thickened and moved (horizontally) many miles inland. After the
sun rises, it may take hours for this Advection Fog to evaporate into the air, or it might rise
above the ground to form a low stratus cloud. Point Reyes Sea Shore in Northern California has
over 200 foggy days per year! Take a look at the following link for a discussion of this type of
fog and its link to California’s Marine Layer. https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/marine
Upslope Fog
Upslope fog forms when light winds push moist
air high enough into a cold hill or mountain that the
air reaches its dew point temperature and condenses.
Upslope fog is common in California’s mountain
regions during the winter and spring when cold
mountain temperatures chill moist air coming from
the Pacific Ocean.

Evaporation Fog
Fog forming over a water body such as a lake or river is
referred to as Evaporation Fog. This forms most often
when the water body has evaporated moisture into the
air during a long, cold, calm night. The higher moisture
content of the air sitting above the lake or river means
this air doesn’t have to cool as much in order to reach its
dew point temperature. With overnight cooling, an
Evaporation Fog forms only over the water (and
immediately next to it) whereas the surrounding land
remains fog-free. The formation of this fog is helped if
the water temperature is much warmer than that of the air.
Take a look at the following links for more details on fog.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog
My favorite hail Clip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZr8jXo1Uso

Storms
We’ve all experienced storms, but understanding how they work is beyond most of us.
There are various types of storms found over the planet, so this chapter sets out to
uncover the geographic distribution of storm types, how they form, how they are
structured, and how they end. We’ll look at mid-latitude winter storms, tornados,
hurricanes, and thunderstorms, as well as longer-term weather patterns that influence the
frequency of storms, such as El Niño - Southern Oscillation. In order to begin, we must
realize that many storms form when different air masses mix together, so let’s first
explore the nature of these air masses.
Air mass: An air mass is a large parcel of air which sits still over an area for days or
weeks, by which time the entire parcel has taken on the temperature and moisture
characteristics of the underlying surface. If the underlying surface is an ocean (a
maritime air mass), the air will tend to be moist, whereas dry air masses tend to form over
land (continental) surfaces that are far from a coastline. If the air mass is located at high
latitude (Polar) it will tend to be cold, whereas if located towards the equator (Tropical) it
will tend to be warmer in temperature.
www.srh.noaa.gov/crp/?n=education-airmasses
Source regions are areas over which air masses form.
Air masses are represented on weather maps by using one or more of the following letter
designations:
c = continental
m = maritime
T = Tropical
P = Polar
A = Arctic
E = Equatorial

Main Air Mass Types for North America
mP: Maritime Polar. These cold and very moist air masses form over the polar oceans
and seas. The air cannot get too cold because they form over the oceans, and they are not
considered to be excessively wet air masses because cold air cannot hold very much
moisture. For North America we see these air masses form in the Gulf of Alaska and in
the Labrador Sea off the northeast coast of Canada. They can migrate into the mid-
latitudes most any time of year but this is most common during the winter months.
cP: Continental Polar. These very cold and very dry air masses form in Central Canada
during the height of winter. These air masses sneak into the mid-latitudes during the
winter and spring months, bringing bone-chilling temperatures and storm activity with
them. Except for on very rare occasions, the Rocky Mountains and Prevailing Westerly
winds tend to keep these very cold air masses away from California.
A: Arctic. These super cold and extra dry air masses form in northern Canada during the
winter, and tend to stay within the Arctic. Even though these air masses form over the
frozen Arctic Ocean, the icy surface of the ocean acts just like land, giving up very little
moisture to the dry air immediately above.
mT: Maritime Tropical. These are very warm, wet air masses which form over the
Caribbean Sea and in the tropical Pacific. The warm air can hold lots of water, and when
these air masses migrate into the mid-latitudes they provide the moisture source for many
of our storms.
cT: Continental Tropical. These are hot and dry air masses which form during the
summer months along the northern border of Mexico (Sonora and Chihuahua) and the
USA’s southwest states of New Mexico and Arizona. There is sufficient distance from
the coast for these air masses to become very dry and very hot during the long summer
months. When these air masses begin to migrate they can bring hot, dry conditions to
Colorado, Texas and beyond.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/wwhlpr/air_masses.rxml?hret=/guides/mtr/af/frnts/cfrnt/cyc.rxml
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/wwhlpr/tropical_airmass_def.rxml?hret=/guides/mtr/af/frnts/cfrnt/cyc.r
xml&prv=1
So air masses form in specific areas where the air can sit still for weeks. This also means
that air masses tend not to form in areas with constant wind motion such as in the
Westerly winds of the mid-latitudes. However, once air masses have formed, they do not
tend to stay still forever. In fact, it is the mixing of different air masses that creates our
typical mid-latitude winter storms. So what makes the different air masses move away
from their source regions, allowing us to have winter storms? It’s the Rossby Waves!
Rossby Waves
Rossby Waves are big bends in the Polar Jet Stream, that river of air found
approximately 30-40,000 feet high in the troposphere, typically around 60ºN and 60ºS

Latitude. Rossby Waves are mild (flat) and located closer to the poles in the summer, but
they are extreme and located more equatorward in the winter.
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/jet and http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=CgMWwx7Cll4
As the Polar Jet Stream tends to provide a border between very cold air on the pole-ward
side, and warmer air on the equator-ward side, once Rossby Waves form in the midst of
winter, they allow cold polar air to be pulled equator-ward while at the same time they
allow warm tropical air to be forced towards the poles.
In the midst of winter we find the mid-latitudes with parcels of cold, polar air sitting next
to parcels of warm tropical air, both parcels separated by a bend in the Polar Jet Stream, a
Rossby Wave. Recall also, that the surface winds of the mid-latitudes are the Prevailing
Westerly winds, which will now push both the cold air and warm air parcels off to the
east…thus begins the path of our winter storms, known formally as Mid-Latitude Wave
Cyclones.

Mid- Latitude Wave Cyclones
Check out http://www.srh.noaa.gov/crp/?n=education-airmasses and http://www.aos.wisc.edu/~aalopez/aos101/wk13.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Occluded_cyclone.svg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclogenesis
For the west coast of the USA, strong Rossby waves lead to the formation of our typical
winter storms, the classic Mid-Latitude Wave Cyclone. These winter storms are usually
comprised of three main segments: Low Pressure Center, Cold Front and Warm Front.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/wwhlpr/air_masses.rxml?hret=/guides/mtr/af/frnts/cfrnt/cyc.rxml
Each of these segments will be pushed to the east by the Prevailing Westerly Winds, but
the Cold front will move faster than the other two segments due to the higher density of
the cold air. The faster motion of the Cold Front means that the warm air between the
Cold Front and Warm Front will ultimately get “squeezed” up into the atmosphere.
The Low Pressure Center generally occurs at the crest of a Rossby Wave, where the
bends in the Polar Jet Stream have allowed for circular rotation of warm and cold air
parcels.

A cold front marks the border of cold air moving into warm air, and is represented using
triangles. http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/af/frnts/cfrnt/prcp.rxml
A warm front marks the border of warm air moving into cooler air, and is represented by
semi-circles.
Uplift, and therefore rain, is associated with all three segments of this storm. The Low
Pressure Center is an area of general atmospheric uplift, but warm air is also being
uplifted along both fronts. Along the Cold Front, cold air moves in quickly to wedge the
warm air aloft. This type of front has a steep angle, so the warm air rises quickly,
condenses, and yields heavy rainfall. On the other hand, Warm Fronts have a much
lower angle for the uplift to take place along, so the warm air rises gently over the cool
air, and the rainfall is lighter in nature and located well in advance of the Warm Front’s
location at ground level.
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/wwhlpr/warm_front_precip.rxml?hret=/guides/mtr/af
/frnts/cfrnt/prcp.rxml
When the Cold Front catches up to the Warm Front, the warm air has effectively been
lifted off the ground, and the term Occluded Front is used to describe this condition.
Occlusion usually occurs at the Low Pressure center first and then progresses equator-
ward (south in the Northern Hemisphere) like a zipper being pulled. With the warm air
already lifted off the ground, the storm’s energy has been largely dissipated and the storm
soon fades out. The typical Low Pressure Center, and thus the storm in general, moves at
a speed of approximately 20 to 40 mph from west to east. The Cold Front moves slightly
faster and the Warm Front moves a little slower. Since the Cold Front moves fastest it
will ultimately catch up to the Warm Front, resulting in an Occluded Front, which is
shown on a weather map as a line with both triangles and semi-circles pointing in the
direction of frontal movement. Occlusion represents the dying days of a storm, as the
warm air has all been pushed high into the troposphere.
In a very general sense, Mid-Latitude Wave Cyclones tend to deliver more precipitation
to the higher mid-latitudes (45-60 degrees of latitude) and to the coastlines. The lower

mid-latitudes (30-45˚) tend to receive less moisture as they are located further from the
winter’s Low Pressure Centers, while inland locations tend also to receive less moisture
than the coastlines. However, storm tracks and mountains such as the Cascade Ranges,
Sierra Nevada and Rockies have an enormous impact on the distribution of these storms.
For a quick review click http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&v=Tr9vMb44TZc&NR=1
TORNADOES
Make sure to check out these awesome links
http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado http://www.srh.noaa.gov/crp/?n=education-tornadoes
http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/tornadoes/faq https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/tornado
A Tornado is defined as a funnel shaped, rotating column of air emanating from a

cumulonimbus cloud and in contact with the ground. This differs slightly from a funnel
cloud, which does not show ground contact. Tornadoes and Funnel Clouds are associated
with heavy rain, strong winds, hail, lightning and thunder.
The diameter of a tornado is typically 100 to 600 feet, but ground disturbance has
indicated a size as small as 7 feet and as wide as 2.5 miles. Rotational wind speeds are
typically less than 110mph, but speeds over 300mph have been recorded. Tornadoes
typically travel across the land at between 20 and 40mph, and take a path determined by
the direction of the cloud it’s attached to. They typically last anywhere from a few
seconds to several hours, but the average is approximately 10 minutes, cutting a path of
destruction approximately 5 miles in length. Tornadoes were once responsible for
hundreds of deaths per year, but recent advances in atmospheric research and technology
means that this number is down to about 60 deaths per year in the USA.
Tornado Damage Scale: http://www.ouramazingplanet.com/tornado-damage-scale-image-110425-1435/1/
Tornado Formation
Most strong tornadoes form from an area of localized rotation (sometimes referred to as a
Tight Circulation or Mesocyclone) within a large variety of cumulonimbus cloud called a
Supercell. The Mesocyclone forms when warm, surface-level winds move at a different
speed (or different direction) than cooler, higher-level winds, so that the air near the
surface begins to roll (see Diagram A) https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/tornado
(A) (B)

Once the rolling air is forced to lift upwards (Diagram B) the rolling motion creates mini
circulation patterns which rotate counterclockwise (the left side of Diagram B) and
clockwise (the right side). For the Northern Hemisphere, the counterclockwise
component is amplified as rising air (an area of low atmospheric pressure) tends to
naturally rotate counterclockwise, while the clockwise rotating mini-circulation is
canceled out. Therefore, mesocyclones and most (but not all) tornadoes rotate counter-
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The rising air within the mesocyclone condenses,
droplets grow, and ultimately produces rain and hail. In turn, the intense rainfall and hail
emanating from the mesocyclone drag air downwards with it, getting faster and faster as
the precipitation approaches the ground. This downdraft draws an edge of the
mesocyclone downward, and as it approaches the ground a visible condensation funnel
appears. This funnel cloud becomes a tornado once ground disturbance takes place. The
tornado feeds upon a steady supply of warm air being drawn upwards, and will continue
to exist as long as this supply is available.
Tornado Frequency and US Distribution

About 1,000 tornadoes occur in the United States each year, and almost every state
experiences tornadoes as shown in the following map.
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/tornado

This map (below) reiterates that the frequency of tornadoes in the USA is concentrated in
the area to the east of the Rocky Mountains, a region known as the Great Plains.
Indeed, the true hotspot of tornado activity in the USA, and for that matter the world, is
the southern part of the Great Plains, centered in Oklahoma. The Southern Great Plains
is thus nicknamed "tornado alley."

The peak of tornado season for the entire USA occurs in late spring and early summer,
with a monthly peak in May.
Source http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/severeweather/tornadoes.html
However, this depends on location. The following graph clearly shows that the south-
southeastern US states (Alabama and Arkansas, part of what some scientists refer to as
“Dixie Alley”) experience their peak tornado seasons in early spring. The southern Great
Plains state of Oklahoma and the more northerly states of Kansas, Ohio and Illinois in
mid- to late-spring, and South Dakota, the most northerly of those listed, in latest spring
to early summer.
http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/users/brooks/public_html/tornado/#alltorn

Alabama and Arkansas, and to a point Oklahoma, appear to have a minor secondary peak
in latest Fall, possibly due to the insertion of tropical moisture at the tail end of the
Caribbean hurricane season. Illinois’ peak appears to be a bit early for this synopsis to
fit perfectly, but latitude is not the only factor to consider here, and where most peaks on
the graph dive quickly, the graph for Illinois does not do so, indicating that tornado
potential is still strong throughout spring.
Though not graphed here, even states like California or New York are subjected to
tornadoes, which are usually associated with strong cumulonimbus cloud cells within
winter storms. These tornadoes tend to be much less frequent and much weaker than
those of the southern Great Plains.
Global Tornadoes
According to the NOAA, the most favorable locations for tornadoes to form are the mid-
latitudes, between 30 and 50 degrees from the equator, where cold polar air can collide
with warm, moist tropical air. Additionally, tropospheric winds at these latitudes tend to
flow at different speeds and directions as you go up in altitude, which allows storm cells
to rotate more easily. The USA is the global leader in tornado occurrence, recording over
1,000 tornadoes each year on average. Canada is home to the second most tornadoes,
recording an average of approximately 100 per year. Tornadoes are also common in the
mid-latitudes of Europe, western Asia, Japan, eastern China, Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa and Argentina.
(http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/severeweather/tornadoes.html).
Though 80% or more of all tornadoes on the planet are found in the USA, the following
map shows that many other places do indeed experience them too!
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/img/climate/research/tornado/globdist.jpg

Hurricanes
Check out http://www.noaa.gov/resource-collections/hurricanes
Hurricanes are defined as organized storms of the tropics with

sustained winds exceeding 74 mph. Tropical cyclones forming
in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific are called hurricanes, while in
the Western Pacific they are called typhoons, and in the Indian
Ocean they are called tropical cyclones.
Hurricanes are characterized by:

- Sustained winds over 74 mph
- Typical size of 100 to 600 miles in diameter
- Northern Hemisphere hurricane season is from June to December
- Form from 5º-25º N & S latitude. Over 80% form from 5-15ºN and 5-15ºS, but
they never form between 5ºN and 5ºS.
- Hurricanes form over warm water, usually over 80ºF
- Intense circulating low pressure, as low as 850mb
- Lowest pressure, fastest wind speeds and most destruction found at the eye wall
- Calm eye extends 10 to 25 miles in diameter at the center of the hurricane
- Deadly storm surge as high as 25 feet found at the advancing eye wall
- Typical track in the Northern Hemisphere is from the east before they track to the
north to be caught up in the Westerly winds
- Over 80% occur in September, August and October
- 90% of hurricane-related deaths are by drowning
Hurricane Formation
Hurricanes all form from simple lines of tropical
thunderstorms called “Easterly Waves” or “Tropical
Disturbances” which migrate east-to-west as they are
pushed by the Trade Winds. Wind speeds are below
23mph. If an Easterly Wave stays over warm, tropical
waters it will continue to pull in warm, moist air, which
allows the storm to grow in intensity as it becomes
more organized. Once wind speeds exceed 23mph, the
storm is called a Tropical Depression. At this stage the
storm is beginning to spin, which allows it to bring in
more moist air, which acts as the fuel for the storm as
the rising moist air releases latent heat once it
condenses into the clouds. If a Tropical Depression
stays over warm water and its wind speeds exceed
39mph, it has now become a Tropical Storm, and it is
given an official name (see storm names below).
Again, if the Tropical Storm stays over warm oceanic
waters, it will continue to intensify in strength and size.
Once sustained wind speeds exceed 74mph, a hurricane
is born.

Summary of Formation Sequence
Tropical Disturbance: Sustained winds below 23mph
Tropical Depression: Sustained winds 23-38 mph
Tropical Storm: Sustained winds 39-74 mph
Hurricane: Sustained winds greater than 74 mph
TROPICAL CYCLONE FEATURES
- spiral bands (bands of rain getting more intense closer to the eye wall)
- no fronts
- eye and eye wall cloud
- 100-600 mi diameter is typical
HURRICANE NAMES http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames.shtml#enp

Atlantic tropical storms are named by the National Hurricane Center and are maintained
and updated by an international committee of the World Meteorological Organization.
Male names alternate with women's names in a 6-year cycle as shown on the chart on the
following page. It should be noted that for each year there are 21 assigned names, and if
we run out of these we have to then use the Greek alphabet for the remaining tropical
storms that year. This has only happened once in recent times, as we had 27 named
tropical storms in the Atlantic in 2005. That year saw tropical storms Alpha, Beta,
Gamma, Delta, Epsilon and Zeta follow after Hurricane Wilma, and both Beta and
Epsilon developed into full-fledged hurricanes. The 2005 Atlantic Hurricane season was
of particular note as it also included Hurricane Katrina, which did tremendous damage
and caused almost 2,000 deaths in and around New Orleans when it came ashore in late
August.

Atlantic Hurricane Names
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Arlene Alberto Andrea Arthur Ana Alex
Bret Beryl Barry Bertha Bill Bonnie
Cindy Chris Chantal Cristobal Claudette Colin
Don Debby Dorian Dolly Danny Danielle
Emily Ernesto Erin Edouard Elsa Earl
Franklin Florence Fernand Fay Fred Fiona
Gert Gordon Gabrielle Gonzalo Grace Gaston
Harvey Helene Humberto Hanna Henri Hermine
Irma Isaac Imelda Isaias Ida Ian
Jose Joyce Jerry Josephine Julian Julia
Katia Kirk Karen Kyle Kate Karl
Lee Leslie Lorenzo Laura Larry Lisa
Maria Michael Melissa Marco Mindy Martin
Nate Nadine Nestor Nana Nicholas Nicole
Ophelia Oscar Olga Omar Odette Owen
Philippe Patty Pablo Paulette Peter Paula
Rina Rafael Rebekah Rene Rose Richard
Sean Sara Sebastien Sally Sam Shary
Tammy Tony Tanya Teddy Teresa Tobias
Vince Valerie Van Vicky Victor Virginie
Whitney William Wendy Wilfred Wanda Walter
Eastern North Pacific Hurricane Names
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Adrian Aletta Alvin Amanda Andres Agatha
Beatriz Bud Barbara Boris Blanca Blas
Calvin Carlotta Cosme Cristina Carlos Celia
Dora Daniel Dalila Douglas Dolores Darby
Eugene Emilia Erick Elida Enrique Estelle
Fernanda Fabio Flossie Fausto Felicia Frank
Greg Gilma Gil Genevieve Guillermo Georgette
Hilary Hector Henriette Hernan Hilda Howard
Irwin Ileana Ivo Iselle Ignacio Ivette
Jova John Juliette Julio Jimena Javier
Kenneth Kristy Kiko Karina Kevin Kay
Lidia Lane Lorena Lowell Linda Lester
Max Miriam Mario Marie Marty Madeline
Norma Norman Narda Norbert Nora Newton
Otis Olivia Octave Odalys Olaf Orlene
Pilar Paul Priscilla Polo Pamela Paine
Ramon Rosa Raymond Rachel Rick Roslyn
Selma Sergio Sonia Simon Sandra Seymour
Todd Tara Tico Trudy Terry Tina
Veronica Vicente Velma Vance Vivian Virgil
Wiley Willa Wallis Winnie Waldo Winifred
Xina Xavier Xina Xavier Xina Xavier
York Yolanda York Yolanda York Yolanda
Zelda Zeke Zelda Zeke Zelda Zeke

Hurricane names have been determined by the World Meteorological Organization since
1953. The names repeat on a 6-year cycle unless there is a catastrophic hurricane, in
which case the name of that storm is retired permanently.
Source: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames.shtml
ATLANTIC HURRICANE TIMING

The Atlantic hurricane season runs from June 1 to December 1. The peak month for
Atlantic hurricanes is September, when the ocean waters are at their warmest.
HURRICANE GEOGRAPHY
Hurricanes only form over warm, tropical oceans. They rarely form within 5° latitude of
the equator, because the Coriolis Force is weak near the equator and the thunderstorm
clusters will not rotate. There are seven regions around the world where tropical cyclones
form. (Source: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/crp/?n=education-hurricanes)
• Atlantic Basin (light green)

• Northeast Pacific Basin (yellow)

• Northwest Pacific Basin (orange)
• North Indian Basin (pink)
• Southwest Indian Basin (purple)
• Southeast Indian/Australian Basin (blue)
• Australian/Southwest Pacific Basin (green)
Saffir-Simpson Scale of Hurricane Intensity

Wind
Category Damage
Speed
1 74-95 mph Damage mainly to unanchored mobile homes, shrubbery, and trees.
Some damage to roofs of buildings, considerable damage to

96-110
2 shrubbery and trees, with some trees blown down and major damage
mph
to mobile homes.
111-130 Some structural damage to small residences, mobile homes

3
mph destroyed, foliage blown off trees and large trees blown down.
131-155 Extensive damage to doors, windows and roofs, shrubs, trees and all
4
mph signs blown down, and complete destruction of mobile homes.
Severe window and door damage, extensive roof damage to

5 >155 mph residences and industrial buildings, some complete building failures
with small buildings blown over or away.

Thunderstorms
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/tstorms_intro
Thunderstorms are cumulonimbus clouds that produce thunder and lightning. They occur
in warm, moist areas, especially in the tropics and over continents during the summer and
fall months. Thunderstorms are virtually non-existent north of 60˚N and south of 60˚S
latitude. Thunderstorms develop from cumulus clouds which are allowed to progress into
mature cumulonimbus clouds. The stages of development are:
• Cumulus stage: updrafts prevail and the cloud grows vertically
• Mature stage: Both updrafts and downdrafts occur with hail, rain, strong winds,
an anvil-head shape, lightning and thunder.
• Dissipating stage: Downdrafts dominate, light rain still possible
Stages of Thunderstorm Development: https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/life
Source: https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/thunderstorms/

For an in-depth description of specific types of thunderstorms including ordinary cells,
multi-cluster cells, squall lines and supercells, check out this link:
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/tstrmtypes
Lightning
Lightning is the discharge of electricity and occurs in mature thunderstorms. It is caused
by charges (pos. and neg.) separating in clouds, creating electrical potential.
Lightning equalizes these differences in electrical potential.
Thunder
Thunder is the sound made by lightning
as a compressional wave is sent out from
the displaced air. The sound can range
from a loud crack or bang to a soft
rumble, depending how far you are from
the source. The distance of the lightning
can be calculated by the listener based on
how many seconds elapse between the
flash of the lightning and the sound of the
resulting thunder. Since the speed of light is about 300,000,000 m/s or 186,000 miles per
second, we consider that to be pretty much instantaneous for events on the Earth. The
speed of sound is about 343 m/s or about 760miles per hour, depending on the air density.
The difference between these rates of speed means that every 5 seconds that elapses
between the flash of lightning and the noise of thunder is equal to about 1 mile of
distance.
Occurance
1500-2000 lightning storms are active and occur around the world at any time. However,
some places are more susceptible than others to thunderstorm activity. The most globally
active place to witness thunderstorms is equatorial west Africa, as shown on the NASA
map below, which shows the average annual number of lightning flashes/square km.
http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/intense_storms.html

US Thunderstorms
For the USA, the highest concentration of thunderstorms is in the southeastern states of
Florida, Georgia, and Alabama. The figures below show the average number of days that
thunderstorms occur over the United States. Where is lightning most common in the
USA?
Average Number of Thunderstorm Days Each Year in the USA
Source: https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/tstorms_intro

El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Be sure to check out http://www.elnino.noaa.gov/index.html
Many of us have heard about ENSO, but it’s often difficult to describe this phenomenon
accurately. NOAA defines ENSO as “a periodic oscillation of the ocean-atmosphere
system in the tropical Pacific having important consequences for weather around the
globe”. The oscillation occurs in an approximately 2- to 5-year cycle and refers to
changes in both sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) and atmospheric pressure on both sides
of the equatorial Pacific.
In order to understand the phenomena known as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO for

short), we have to break down the process into three distinct components known as
Normal Conditions, La Niña Conditions, and El Niño Conditions. We must also
understand that this is mainly a tropical Pacific phenomenon, but it does have long-range
impacts to other parts of the world, which we are just beginning to understand.
Normal Conditions: The trade winds blow with normal force from east to west, creating
a flow of warm tropical Pacific waters away from South America and towards the
western Pacific (Australia & Indonesia) which experiences low atmospheric pressure &
excessive rains. At the same time the tropical Americas experience rather dry conditions,
high atmospheric pressure, and chilly sea surface temperatures (SSTs). The chilly waters
are due to cold water upwelling from deep in the Pacific as the surface waters are dragged
to the west by the trade winds. These cold upwelling waters are rich in dissolved
nutrients, which provide a base for algae and plankton to bloom once the cold water sees
daylight. Great fisheries are found along the west equatorial coast of South America (the
eastern part of the Pacific) because of the upwelling of these nutrient rich waters.
http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/nino_normal.html
La Nina Conditions: Every now and then the trade winds blow with increased force,
yielding a stronger westward flow of warm tropical Pacific waters towards the western

Pacific, where Australia & Indonesia experience even lower atmospheric pressure and
excessive rains, while the tropical Americas experience drier than normal conditions,
more upwelling, and more bountiful fisheries.
El Nino Conditions: Every few year, for reasons still to be uncovered, the trade winds
weaken. The result of this is that the warm water which had been piling up (and pushed
down) along the coastlines of the western Pacific (Australia, Indonesia) begins to slowly
migrate eastwards across the equatorial Pacific, eventually arriving as abnormally warm
sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) along the coast of Ecuador and Peru in December-
January, and with it low atmospheric pressure and rainfall. At the same time, the western
pacific is experiencing colder-than-normal SSTs, high atmospheric pressure and drought.
These changes in SSTs are referred to as El-Nino, while the changes in atmospheric
pressure are referred to as the Southern Oscillation.

Historical ENSO Trends
The following link shows ENSO trends (known as the Oceanic Nino Index) since 1950
but the past 28 years of data are shown in the chart below. Blue represents La Niña, red
represents El Niño, and black represents Normal conditions.
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml
DESCRIPTION: Warm (red) and cold (blue) episodes based on a threshold of +/- 0.5oC for the Oceanic Niño
Index (ONI) [3 month running mean of ERSST.v3b SST anomalies in the Niño 3.4 region (5 oN-5oS, 120o-170oW)],
based on the 1971-2000 base period. For historical purposes cold and warm episodes (blue and red colored numbers)
are defined when the threshold is met for a minimum of 5 consecutive over-lapping seasons.
Based on this data, of the 29 Southern California winters encompassed between January
1990 and February 2018 there were 8 years where the January to March period (Southern

California’s rainy season) was in the El Niño stage, 11 years with Normal Conditions,
and 10 in the La Niña stage. This means that on average, in recent years we’ve seen an
El Niño stage about once every 3.5 years. Note the rather large El Niño in 1997-98, a
year which brought about double the normal precipitation to Los Angeles. The 2015-16
El Niño saw even warmer ocean temperatures but did not translate into excessive
precipitation for Southern California. Here’s a short video clip of the 1997-98 El Niño
compared to the current conditions. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whsQbIwWjBo
El Nino Effects on Los Angeles

It is important to remember that ENSO is a tropical Pacific phenomenon, but there are
indeed far-reaching impacts. In essence, the build-up of warmer surface waters along the
eastern Pacific during the El Niño stage means that there is a lot more moisture in the
Maritime Tropical air masses there. These air masses are the source of moisture for Mid-
Latitude Wave Cyclones, the winter storms of the mid-latitudes. During El Niño years, it
appears that winter storms approaching the west coast of the USA draw in more moisture
from these mT air masses, so that the same number of storms can yield higher rainfall
than normal for places like Los Angeles. At the same time, it appears that upper air flow
is diverted by the expanded presence of mT air masses, which affects the location of the
sub-tropical and sub-polar jet streams. It also appears that Los Angeles begins its rainy
season with slightly higher than normal precipitation during the typical La Niña phase,
followed by much lower than normal rainfall from January to May, so that the total
annual precipitation is lower than the long-term average during the La Niña phase. This
research is ongoing, and answers are sure to come as to the myriad of impact ENSO
exerts on Southern California as well as far-away places.

Current Conditions (March 2018)
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/lanina/enso_evolution-status-fcsts-web.pdf
El Niño conditions are constantly monitored by NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center, and
this agency releases monthly status reports and weekly updates. As of March, 2018 La
Niña conditions are present with cooler than normal equatorial sea surface temperatures
(SSTs) across most of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. The current prediction is for
La Niña conditions to continue through our 2018 spring months. Based on this
information, can you guess what the impact will be on LA’s winter/spring rainfall?

CLIMATE ZONES and BIOMES
In the previous chapters we learned about how the earth interacts with radiation from the sun to
heat our atmosphere and put it into motion. We’ve explored the composition and layers of the
atmosphere, how energy is moved from one place to another, how atmospheric molecules rise in
low pressure cells, sink in high pressure cells, and then flow across the surface as wind. We’ve
learned about the movement of water in the atmosphere, the formation of clouds, the many types
of precipitation that these clouds produce, and we’ve explored the storm systems which bring the
various air masses together. Now we’ll use this knowledge to explore the various climate zones
which exist on our planet and describe the general characteristics of the large ecosystems
(biomes) associated with each climate zone. We’ll describe what makes each zone unique in
terms of climate and vegetation, map out the locations of these zones, and then we’ll determine
the main reasons why these zones exist where they do.
What is Climate?
While weather refers to atmospheric conditions for a specific place and time, Climate refers to
atmospheric conditions for a large region over a long period of time. For the most part, a specific
Climate is determined by analyzing monthly temperature and precipitation patterns over long
periods of time (typically 30 years or more). The analysis involves not just the average
temperature and precipitation, but also if there is a strong seasonal component to these variables
(e.g. whether most of the precipitation falls in the winter or if it’s evenly spread throughout the
year).
What Influences Climate?

As a reminder, the main factors which work together to produce different climate types around
the world are:
1. Latitude
Climate zones are generally colder at the poles and warmer near the tropics.
2. Elevation
High mountains like Mount Everest are cold and dry places, while low elevations tend to
be warmer.
3. Distance from a Large Water Body

Coastal locations like Santa Monica have more moisture in the air, which means summers
are cooler and winters milder than for inland (dry) locations at the same latitude such as
Lancaster and Palmdale, CA.
4. Topographic (mountain) Barriers

High barriers like mountains steal moisture on the windward side so that there’s no water
left for the leeward (rainshadow) side. This explains why downtown LA gets about 14”
of rainfall annually, the top of the San Gabriel Mountains get about 40” annually and
Palmdale (on the leeward side of the mountains) gets about 6” annually. The winter rain
just cannot get to other side of the mountains.
Climate Regions and Biomes © Darren Leaver 2018 Page 1

5. General Circulation of the Atmosphere
Our atmosphere has a natural circulation patterns which promotes air rising (and cooling)
at the equator. This constantly-rising equatorial air promotes the growth of clouds and
rain, so that equatorial locations frequently receive 60 to 150” or more of rain annually.
Conversely, this same atmospheric circulation pattern promotes the sinking of air close to
30N and 30S latitude. This sinking air does not allow for the development of clouds, so
these areas tend to be occupied by dry deserts. The contrast of equatorial and subtropical
weather/climate illustrates the important impact of the atmosphere’s natural circulation
pattern.
6. Ocean Circulations
Likewise, our oceans have a natural circulation pattern to them. Northern Hemisphere
currents turn constantly towards their right, resulting in a clockwise circulation pattern.
This means warm equatorial waters will be driven towards Florida along the current
known as the Gulf Stream. The warm, most air above this current is pulled inland, giving
Florida warm, humid summers with afternoon thunderstorms. Conversely, the West
Coast of the USA is under the influence of the cold water California Current, resulting in
cool, stable air masses along the coast (this may give morning fog but not afternoon
thunderstorms in the summer).
7. Storms
There is a pattern to the location of storms and the paths they follow, which we refer to as
“storm tracks.” Some places like Seattle, WA are located smack in the middle of storm
tracks, giving them year-round potential for rainfall. Conversely, places like San Diego,
CA are located on the edge of these storm tracks, resulting in less rainfall as the storms
only reach them in the midst of winter.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CLIMATE ZONES

The Köppen Climate Classification System
Climate types have been identified, described, and mapped in any number of ways over the
years, but the classification system we’ll use was developed by Wladimir Köppen (1846-1940), a
Russian-born meteorologist and botanist of German descent. He published an early version of
the Köppen Climate Classification system in the early 1900s, and he continually modified his
work over the next four decades. In the 1920s and 1930s Köppen cooperated with many climate
scientists, including the German climatologist Rudolf Geiger. After Köppen's death in 1940,
Geiger continued to work on modifications to the climate classification system. The system we
still use is formally referred to as the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification System, but we
often still call it the Modified Köppen Climate Classification System for ease. It is interesting to
note that Köppen’s son-in-law was Alfred Wegener, who we’ll discuss in later chapters.
The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and

precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary
types labeled A through E, moving from the tropics to the poles, respectively, plus the

designation “H” for Highland climates where elevation becomes the dominant climate
determinant. See the following link for specific details on the letters used in the Köppen System.
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/climate_max
A Tropical
BW Dry Desert
BS Dry Steppe (not as dry as BW)
C Mesothermal (generally found in the lower mid-latitudes, 30-45 degrees N and S)
D Microthermal (generally found in the upper mid-latitude, 45-65 N)
ET Polar Tundra
EF Polar Ice Cap
H Highland
These primary classifications can be further divided into secondary (lower case) letters:
Moisture Classification (lower-case letters)

f wet all year
m monsoon
w wet and dry with winter drought
s summer drought|
n fog
Temperature Classification (lower-case letters)

k cold and dry
h hot and dry
a very hot summer
b very warm summer
c warm summer
d cool summer with very cold winter
Combining the primary and secondary letters (2-4 total letters) gives us the lettering system at
the heart of the Köppen Climate Classification system. For instance, Csa refers to a mesothermal
climate typically found between 30 and 45 degrees latitude with dry, very hot summers. We call
this a mediterranean climate, which should sound familiar because this is the climate type of
coastal Southern California! So, even though all of us living from San Francisco to San Diego
are thousands of miles from the coastlines of Italy, Greece, and Spain, we’re all very much
mediterranean!

Simplified Köppen Climate Map

CLIMATE’S INFLUENCE ON ECOSYSTEMS AND BIOMES
According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/ecosystems.html)
an Ecosystem is “a place having unique physical features, encompassing air, water, and land,
and habitats supporting plant and animal life.” Thus, an ecosystem is not just a grouping of
plants and animals, but also includes the environment upon which the plants and animals depend
for sustenance. There are all types and sizes of ecosystems, from the microscopic ecosystems on
your hands right now, to enormous ecosystems which are big enough to encompass large chunks
of continents.
Physical Geographers focus on ecosystems which are large enough to be mapped on a global
scale, and we call these ecosystems Biomes. According to NASA’s Earth Observatory
(http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/Biome/vocabulary.php), a Biome is defined as “a
community of plants and animals living together in a particular climate.” Since climate is
determined largely by precipitation and temperature, and since the type of plant that can survive
naturally is determined largely by the temperature and precipitation of the plant’s location, the
locations of biomes are determined mostly by the climate that exists there.
Biomes are defined initially into two categories: aquatic (water-based) and terrestrial (land-
based) biomes. Aquatic biomes are further divided into Marine biomes (coral reefs, intertidal,
etc.) and Freshwater biomes (lake, wetland, marsh, etc.). Geographers focus more on
Terrestrial Biomes, which are defined largely by their dominant plant properties (tree, shrub or
grass; broadleaf or needle-leaf; forest or woodland), and to a lesser degree by the animals present
(bears or tigers; monkeys or squirrels). Remember, if the environment isn’t quite right for an
animal it can move away, while this luxury proves a little out-of-reach for plants.
There have been numerous attempts to make sense of the world’s biome distributions. Some
scientists tend to split a biome into two or more individual biomes, where others tend to group
two or more into a single biome. Furthermore, the borders of biomes may differ depending on
the specific criteria used to delineate them. Add to this the fact that biomes are changing based
on the activities of humans, from global climate change and seal-level rise to direct habitat
destruction. Where Biomes show what should be there, we often find that the natural plants,
animals and habitat are quite different from what was there 200 years ago, sometimes even just a
few years ago.
It’s also important to realize that biomes have transitional borders. It’s not that you leave a
desert by taking one step and all of a sudden you find yourself in a land of grasses and shrubs.
Instead, there is typically a transition zone, often tens of miles wide and irregular in pattern,
containing elements of both desert and shrubby grassland before you truly leave the desert
behind. These zones of transition are called ecotones and it is important to recognize that they
exist at most biome boundaries.
The map on the following page is a good representation of Global Biome Distribution. Notice
that ecotones aren’t represented on this map since they are too small to see at this map scale.

Please take a minute to compare the map of Global Biome Distribution with the maps of Global
Climate Zones. Do you see any similarities? Where do we find the world’s Tropical Rainforest
Biomes? Where do we find the Tropical Wet Climate Zones? Are Climate Zones and Biomes
oriented in an east-west pattern or a north-south pattern? Which factor do you think is more
responsible for determining this pattern, Latitude or Longitude?
There’s a lot of information to contemplate already, so moving forward we’ll focus on

describing and analyzing the main climate zones and then describe the general biome
characteristics associated with each of them.

Köppen Climate Zones
TROPICAL WET (Af)

Tropical wet (Af) climate zones are warm and wet all year. They are generally found close to
the equator where they are under the influence of the ITCZ year-round.
Locations:
- Equatorial (about 10˚N to 10˚S)
- Windward slopes of trade winds
- Amazon Basin
- Congo Basin
- Indonesia and Malaysia
Rainfall in the Tropical Wet typically ranges from

60" to 150" per year (but can be over 400" per
year in the world’s wettest locations). These
regions receive at least 2.4" of rainfall during the
driest month, meaning the soil remains moist all
year. Though it could rain on any given day and
at any given time, a typical rainfall pattern would
be light rainfall in the early morning with heavy
rainfall during the afternoon/evening.
Temperatures remain quite warm in the Tropical

Wet. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 64°F
every month and typically stay within a range
between the low 70’s and the low 90’s
(Fahrenheit) year-round. Temperatures change so
little from month-to-month and from day-to-day,
giving these regions the world’s lowest Annual
Temperature Range (2-6˚F) and Daily
Temperature Range (10-15˚F).

The Tropical Wet Climate Zone is associated with the Tropical Rainforest Biome. Within these
zones of constant high temperatures, high humidity, and year-round precipitation the vegetation
doesn’t have to worry about moisture availability. Instead, seedlings must focus their energy on
growing as fast and tall as possible, so they
can reach the available sunlight before being
crowded out by other plant species.
Therefore, the dominant plants found in the
Tropical Rainforest Biome are tall, broadleaf
evergreen trees such as Mahogany, Teak,
Banyan and Ironwood.
The entire ecosystem seems to be dependent

upon the constant growth of leaves, nuts,
seeds, fruits, roots, branches and trunks of the trees, and there are literally tens of thousands of
plant and animal species which live on and below these trees. The tropical rainforest has been
present for at least the past 65 million years, so that plants and animals have had plenty of time to
evolve and to require very specific environments, so much so that this one biome is home to over
half of all known plant and animal species on earth.
Four distinct areas can be defined within rainforest trees, each with unique properties: the
emergent, canopy, understory and forest floor layers (see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainforest#Layers).
The emergent layer contains very tall trees, often growing to over 200 feet in height and
sticking up above all other trees around them. Birds of prey like the Harpy Eagle live in the
emergent layer along with several species of bats, monkeys and insects.
The canopy layer consists of hundreds of tree species about 100 to 150 feet in height that
have inter-connecting branches and leaf matter, so that they capture most of the available
sunlight. The canopy contains the highest biodiversity and biomass of the rainforest, making
it the richest biological treasure trove on the planet. The rainforest canopy is home to insects,
monkeys, sloths, snakes, birds, and even other plants which grow on the main tree (including
vines and epiphytes).
The understory layer lies below the canopy in an area of shade and diffuse light because less
than 10% of the available sunlight makes it past the canopy layer. Therefore, the leaves must
be quite large in order to catch enough sunlight to grow. Although the leaves are large in this
layer, many plants are no larger than shrubs. The tallest understory plants are not tall by any
standards, rarely growing taller than 10-20 feet in height. Most of the species found in the
understory live their entire life cycle here, while others are seedlings of tallest canopy or
emergent species just waiting for an opening so they can grow to maturity. The understory is
home to birds, snakes, frogs, and a huge number of insects.
The forest floor is a dark, shady environment which receives very little (estimated around
2%) of the available sunlight. A few plants and fungi have adapted to this low-light
environment, but the great majority of the forest floor is void of vegetation. This area is
home to the wide birds-foot-like buttresses of the taller trees, which serve to stabilize the
trees from heavy winds. It is important to remember that young rainforest trees tend to grow
upwards (to reach sunlight quickly) rather
than put their energy into making deep root
systems (especially as the deeper rainforest
soils are nutrient poor). As the trees
mature and grow taller, they create the
buttresses to stabilize themselves.
Between the buttresses the forest floor is
composed of decaying leaves, branches,
and the fallen fruit and nuts. The high
temperatures and moist conditions mean
that this fallen organic material
decomposes quickly into a rich uppermost
soil layer known as humus. The tree roots
are concentrated in the humus layer, where they can absorb nutrients efficiently, so the
nutrients make their way back into the trees very rapidly. Animals such as the Agouti and
Peccary rummage through the fallen fruits and nuts for their sustenance, while these animals
fall prey to large predators such as Jaguars and constrictor snakes. Ants, termites and fungi
aid in the decomposition of organic material on the forest floor, so the entire system allows
for an efficient, natural recycling of energy and nutrients.
The world’s main rainforests are located in Central

and South America, Central Africa, Southeast Asia,
and Northeast Australia. Tropical rainforests
occupied about 12 percent of the earth’s land area
just a few thousand years ago, but that percentage is
now less than 5 percent. Though there are many
reasons for the disappearance of tropical rainforests,
they are rapidly disappearing mainly due to human
activities such as deforestation and conversion to
farmland and plantations. This is especially true in
areas like the island of Borneo where the rainforests

are being converted to Palm Oil plantations. This practice is placing enormous strain on
rainforest animals, particularly the pygmy rhinoceros, proboscis monkey, gibbon and orangutan
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainforest#Deforestation).
TROPICAL MONSOON (Am)

Tropical monsoon (Am) climate zones are very similar to the tropical wet (some people even
include them as one single climate zone) except that there is a short dry season with 1 to 4
months receiving less than 2.4” of precipitation. This climate region also sees heavy
summertime rain as the wet monsoon winds blow from the sea to the land.
Tropical Monsoon Climate Regions

- Windward coasts of South Asia and SE Asia
- Includes India, Myanmar, and Thailand
- Parts of tropical Central & South America
- Parts of tropical Africa
In the Tropical Monsoon annual rainfall typically ranges from 100-200", but can be as high as
425". This precipitation falls mainly within the summer months. These regions have a distinct
winter dry season
lasting from one to four
months with rainfall
amounts of less than
2.4"/month.
Though still quite low,
Tropical Monsoon
regions have a slightly
larger ATR (4 to 15 F)
and DTR (10 to 16 F)
compared to Af
Climate zones. The
hottest month is
typically in late spring,
just as the clouds and
rain arrive.

The Biome associated with the Tropical Monsoon Climate Zone is known as the Tropical Deciduous
Forest. This Biome is also known as the Tropical Monsoon Forest, Tropical and Subtropical Dry
Forest, and Tropical Seasonal Forest.
These forests are located on the margins of the Tropical Rainforest (such as the margins of the Amazon
rainforest and parts of India, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Cambodia) due to the short but significant dry
season. The total annual precipitation may be quite high in the Tropical Deciduous Forest, but there is a
distinct dry season of 1 to 4 months, and in
order to survive the vegetation has to respond
to this short drought. Though broadleaf
evergreen trees can exist where they can
access groundwater year-round, the dominant
trees in this biome are broadleaf deciduous
trees such as teak and ebony. These
deciduous trees respond to the drought
periods by lying dormant and shedding their
leaves in order to reduce transpiration, and by
not growing quite as tall as they would in the
Tropical Rainforest.
The shedding of leaves means that sunlight can reach the ground level, thereby allowing for the
growth of thick underbrush. Tropical Deciduous Forests are less biologically rich than Tropical
Rainforests, but are still home to an enormous variety of insects, birds, frogs, and mammals such
as rodents, monkeys and large cats like the tiger.
TROPICAL SAVANNA (Aw)

The tropical savanna (Aw) climate zone is often called the tropical wet and dry climate zone,
largely because this climate region sees half the year with significant rainfall, while the other half
of the year is quite dry. Average temperatures remain quite warm (64°F or higher) year round
and rainfall between 35” and 70” a year, most of which falls during the summer months.
Tropical Savanna Climate Regions

- Located just poleward of Af/Am
- Parts of tropical Africa (Big Game Parks)
- Parts of South Asia (India)
- Parts of the Central and South. America
- Parts of the Caribbean
- Southernmost Florida (Miami)

The region is under the influence of the ITCZ and its associated rainfall during the summer. As
the seasons change the region becomes under the influence of the dry Sub Tropical High
Pressure Zone in winter, with
three to six months receiving
less than 2.4” of rain/month.
During these winter months
the soils can dry out
significantly, and the native
plants need to adapt to this.
The hottest month is usually
in late spring, and both the
ATR are DTR are higher than
the other two tropical climate
zones (5-20˚F) when
compared to Af or Am
climates.
The Tropical Savanna Climate Zone is associated with the biome called the Tropical
Woodland, Scrub and Savanna. This biome is characterized by the presence of scattered trees
(woodland) with thorny bushes (scrub) and tropical grasses
(savanna) located between the trees, which together can be
referred to as the ‘trifecta’ of the Tropical Woodland, Scrub
and Savanna biome. In the wetter portions of this biome
there are more trees, but their canopies are not inter-
connecting (this is the main difference between a forest and
woodland) which allows for the limited growth of scrub
and grasses between the trees. In the drier portions of this
biome there are only scattered trees, so the landscape is
dominated by either scrubland or grassland, but usually
both together. The composition of this biome is further
complicated by the use of fire by humans and natural
lightning strikes. The fire normally only scorches the
outer bark of the trees but it burns away the scrub and
grasses. After the fire, the grasses are quick to regenerate
from seed, while the bushes take much longer time to
grow back. This creates a biome where grasses exist in
larger abundance (and scrub in less abundance) than they
would likely be without the use of fire. In Africa the abundant savanna grasslands provide an
enormous food source for grazing herbivores like zebra, wildebeest, and cattle. The grasslands
are found between woodlands or scattered patches of Acacia and Baobab trees, and short, thorny,
drought-resistant scrub (known as African thorn scrub).

The Tropical Woodland, Scrub and Savanna biome is
well represented in Tropical and Subtropical regions of
Africa, South America, South Asia, and the eastern
islands of Indonesia to northern Australia. The flora
and fauna of these areas have adapted to a climate with
precipitation for 6 to 8 months of the year and drought
for the remainder of the year, which precludes the
presence of forests. Plants have adapted to this
significant dry period by growing smaller leaves and
less of them.
In Africa the Acacia tree has adapted to this
environment by using a deep tap root to access
groundwater supplies during the dry season. This plant
also has long, sharp thorns and an ability to quickly
make its leaves more alkaline and bitter-tasting once
animals begin to browse on them. These adaptations
help prevent large-scale leaf-loss from the Acacia.
Another African tree, the Boabab, has tiny leaves for
its size and also stores huge volumes of water in its
massive trunk in order to survive the dry season.
Animals tend to deal best with the challenges of the
dry season by lying dormant in underground burrows
or by temporarily migrating to more favorable
locations. Migratory animals in this biome include the
zebra, wildebeest, and numerous bird species.

Exercise:
• Locate the three Tropical (A) climate zones on the following map and then draw them
onto a blank outline map of world climates (from your professor).
• Can you describe the locations of the tropical climate zones relative to each other?

DRY (B) CLIMATES
The Koppen “B” climates fall into two categories, desert (or arid) and steppe (or semi-arid),
both of which have low annual precipitation totals and high rates of potential evapotranspiration
(the amount of moisture that could be evaporated away from the land IF there was enough
moisture there to do so).
Desert Climate (BW)
Desert (BW) climates are very arid regions characterized by very low precipitation, very high
potential evapotranspiration, and low humidity. Because the air is so dry in deserts, they have an
ability to become very hot in the afternoons but also to cool down overnight to near-freezing
temperatures, giving deserts some of the largest Daily Temperature Ranges in the world.
There are two main varieties of desert climates based largely on their geographic location: Sub-
Tropical Deserts and Mid-Latitude Deserts. Subtropical (Hot) Deserts (BWh) are found at sub-
tropical latitudes (approx. 20-30˚) where they are constantly under the presence of the Sub-
Tropical High Pressure Zone (STHPZ). These deserts include the Sahara Desert, Arabian
Desert, Kalahari Desert, Sonoran Desert and Great Sandy Desert.
The second type of Desert is known as the Mid-Latitude (Cold) Desert (BWk). These include
the Gobi, Taklamakan, Mojave, Great Basin, and Patagonian deserts. These deserts may
experience the high atmospheric pressure of the STHPZ for part of the year, but their presence in
the mid-latitudes is due mainly to their distance from storm tracks and moisture sources, or for
being in the rain-shadow of large mountain ranges.

As the names might imply, the main difference between Hot Desert Climates and Cold Desert
Climates is that of temperature. The average annual temperature of Hot Desert Climates is over
64˚F, while for Cold Desert Climates it is 64˚F or below. In both desert types the dry air means
that the summers are very hot (120˚F or higher) and the winters can bring very cold (below
freezing) nights. Summer daytime temperatures tend to be higher for BWh climates, and winter
night-time temperatures tend to be lower for BWk climates. Both desert types have very large
Daily Temperature Ranges (DTRs), often over 50˚F and at times over 100˚F, giving BWh
climates the world’s highest DTRs. Annual Temperature Ranges (ATRs) are usually over 30˚F.
Annual precipitation totals are very low in both desert climates, typically less than 15" for BWh
climates and less than 11” for BWk climates. The slight difference between the two is due to the
higher rates of potential evaporation for BWh climates. Precipitation is not dependable from
year-to-year in the deserts. There might be heavy rainfall one year followed by almost none the
next year. Winters in BWk climates can be bone dry or they can bring small amounts of
precipitation, at times in the form of snow.
Conveniently, the biome associated with Desert Climates is known as the Desert Biome. Desert
Biomes are found in approximately the same location as both Subtropical and Mid-Latitude
Desert Climate Zones, areas of very low precipitation and very high potential evapotranspiration.
Key examples are the Sahara, Arabian, Kalahari, Gobi, Atacama, Sonora, Colorado, Mojave, and
Great Victoria Deserts.
Desert vegetation is
dominated by scattered
xerophytes, plants which
have adapted to very dry
conditions. These
xerophytic adaptations fall
into two basic categories:
those for annual plants and
those for perennial plants.
Annual plants, those which will survive for a single season, focus on
passing along their genetic details through their seeds. This ensures the
preservation of the species rather than the individual plant. In essence,
seeds lay dormant in the thin soil until the rainy season arrives. Within
days to weeks the seeds begin to grow and flower. When the soil begins
to dry these flowering plants also begin to dry and wither, they drop their
seeds, they dry up and they die, with the seeds laying dormant until the
next rainy season. Examples of local desert annuals include the California
Poppy (Escholtzia californiaca), Fiddleneck (Amsincaia sp.) and Gilia
(Gilia latiflora).

Perennial plants, those which survive for many years, have numerous strategies for surviving the
dry, hot afternoons and cold nights of the desert. These adaptations include:
• Waxy or leathery leaves to reduce moisture loss
• Small leaf size or thorns/spines instead of leafs to
minimize transpiration and predation
• Extensive horizontal roots to collect water during
the rainy season
• Deep tap roots to ‘drill’ down and ‘tap’ into the
groundwater supply
• Storing moisture within their leaves, stems, and
roots. Plants that do this are referred to as
succulents, and examples include the cactus.
• Lay dormant during the dry times and grow very
slowly.
• Local examples of desert perennials include
creosote, various cacti, ocotillo, yucca, Joshua tree,
salt bush.
• Opening leaf pores (stomata, from where
transpiration occurs) during the night or having
very few stomata compared with if the plant was
located in a moister environment.
Animal adaptations to the desert biome include staying inactive within underground burrows or
in the shade of plants or rocks during sunlight hours, and being active during the night
(nocturnal) when temperatures are cool. Many animals get all of the water they need by eating
plants, seeds, fruits and insects and by producing very little liquid waste. Some insects in the
Atacama Desert have even adapted so that their main source of moisture is condensation they
collect on their exoskeleton in the early morning hours. Our local deserts are home to many
large mammals but we seldom see them due to their nocturnal behavior. These include the
coyote, big horn sheep, mule deer, and badger.
Steppe Climate (BS)
Unless there is an intervening water body or mountain barrier, Desert Climates are usually
surrounded by zones of slightly higher moisture known as Steppe (BS) Climates. Here, there is
usually enough annual precipitation to allow for the growth of shrubs and grasses, which are
typically absent in true deserts. Compare the patterns on the maps for BW and BS climates to
see the relationship between these climate zones.

Steppe Climates
The pattern will become clearer when you compare the locations of Steppe (Semiarid) and
Desert (Arid) Climates as shown on the following map. Can you now see that the Steppe
Climates surround the Desert Climates as long as a mountain barrier or water body doesn’t get in
the way?

As with desert climates, there are two main varieties of steppe climates based largely on the
geographic location. These are Subtropical (Hot) Steppe (BSh) and Mid-Latitude (Cold)
Steppe (BSk). Again, unless cut off by the presence of mountains or water bodies, the locations
of these climate zones are the areas surrounding BWh and BWk climate zones. The temperature
characteristics are very similar to those of the deserts they surround, with hot summer days,
potentially cold winter nights, and high ATRs and DTRs. For Hot Steppe Climates (BSh) the
mean annual temperature is greater than 64˚F while for Cold Steppe Climates it is 64˚F or below.
Annual precipitation totals for Hot Steppe Climates is typically 15-30” with most of this falling
as intense rainfall during the summer months. Cold Steppe Climates would tend to receive 11-
20” of annual precipitation. Most of this falls in the winter months but intense, infrequent
summer downpours can occur.
The association of biomes with Steppe Climates is slightly complex, and requires us to link this
climate zone to two biomes. The Subtropical (Hot) Steppe Climate zone is associated with
Savanna grasslands found in the driest parts of the Tropical Savanna and the Tropical
Woodland and Scrub (see the section on the Tropical Savanna climate). These tropical
grasslands grow on the peripheries of the Sub-Tropical Deserts where rainfall totals are barely
enough to sustain the growth of grasses and scattered shrubs.
Mid-Latitude (Cold) Steppe Climates are associated with the Mid-Latitude Grassland Biome.
This biome is characterized by relatively continuous
stretches of grassland, though scattered shrubs are
often intermingled, with trees existing only along
river banks and lake shores. The historical use of
fire appears to be a contributing factor in the
dominance of grasses at the expense of shrubs. This
biome is squeezed between the Desert Biome on the
equatorial side and Temperate Mixed Forest Biome
on the polar side. The Tall Grass Prairie of the
central USA grows to heights of 3 to 6 feet in an
area where sufficient precipitation is received to
allow the taller grasses to survive. These tall grasses
go by the name Pampas in Argentina and Veldt in South Africa.
On the drier margins of this biome the grasses tend to

be short, typically less than 1 foot in height. Short
Grass Prairie, also called Steppe grass, grows in the
drier portions of this biome, such as the westernmost
portions of the USA’s Great Plains. This same term
(Steppe) is used to describe the grasslands of central
Eurasia. Both Prairie and Steppe grasses die off
annually above-ground, but the roots lay dormant
during the cold winter. When the warmth of spring
and early summer arrive, the grasses grow once more

from the below-ground root system.
Mid-Latitude grasslands were once

home to huge herds of grazing
herbivores like bison, antelope, and
wild horses, and large carnivores
such as lions, bears and wolves fed
upon this plentiful supply of meat.
Habitat destruction, agricultural
conversion, over-hunting, climate
change and disease have
contributed to the general decline
in the numbers of these animals. In
many cases, the natural herbivores
have been replaced with livestock,
and the natural predators have been
eliminated through hunting,
trapping, poisoning, and habitat
loss.
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE (Csa/Csb)

The Mediterranean climate zone is typical of many coastal zones around the Mediterranean
Sea, but also includes the coastal areas of Southern California, Western and South Australia,
central Chile, and the Cape region of South Africa. Here, annual precipitation is higher than
deserts because these zones are under the influence of the STHPZ only during the hot, dry
summer months but are affected by
periodic winter storms.
Mediterranean climates which are
located further poleward, and
therefore closer to the direct path of
winter storms, tend to get higher
rainfall amounts than those further
away from the paths of winter
storms.
Mediterranean Climate Zone

In general, Mediterranean climate regions are located along the western coastlines of continents
in the lower mid-latitudes, approximately 30-45˚ from the equator. These regions include the
coastlines of California, Spain, Chile, Portugal, Western and South Australia, and the
southernmost tip of South Africa. At these latitudes, being under the influence of the STHPZ
during the summer months means long hot, dry weather for several summertime months. During
the winter months these regions are under the influence of the Prevailing Westerlies with their
occasional winter storms which bring an average of 11-25" of precipitation to Mediterranean
climates each year. As for temperatures, winter temperatures are relatively mild in
Mediterranean climate zones, especially at the coast. Summers are very warm to hot along the
coast, but can be incredibly hot just a few miles inland. For this reason we can split
Mediterranean climates into two major sub-divisions: Coastal Mediterranean (Csb) climates are
found at or very near the coast, with warm/hot and dry summers like at Santa Monica or Santa
Barbara. Inland Mediterranean (Csa) climates are located several miles from the coastline, with
very hot, dry summers. Glendale, Burbank and Pasadena have Csb climates.
The Mediterranean Woodland and Scrub biome is normally found in association with
Mediterranean Climate Zones. Since these areas
experience hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters,
the vegetation has adapted to these climatic
conditions as well as to a poorly-developed soil.
There are several distinct plant communities
represented within this biome, including woodland,
shrub and grassland, but in most cases there will be
elements of all three present. Still, let’s explore these
communities in more detail.
• Mediterranean woodlands are typically

comprised of broadleaf trees and are most
common in valley bottoms and riparian habitat
where their roots can access groundwater year-
round. In Mediterranean California the
dominant woodlands are composed of Oak,
Walnut, Sycamore, and in some cases even
Pine trees. In some cases where water is never
in short supply, the woodland can exist as
forest, with interconnecting canopies.
• Mediterranean grasslands occur in isolated
areas within California, but most have been converted to agriculture or have been grazed
away. The dominant native grass of California was Purple Needle-grass (Nassella
pulchra), but it is estimated that less than 1 percent of the original grassland remains.

Most of the remaining grasslands exist in the open spaces between Oak Woodlands and
are still subject to grazing by cattle and deer.
• Mediterranean Shrublands consist of thick masses of interconnecting bushes and small
trees. These plants are mainly sclerophyll (hard-leaf) shrubs collectively called chaparral
in California, with common plants like sage,
ceanothus, toyon, buckwheat, scrub oak,
poison oak, sagebrush and chamise. These
plants usually have leathery or waxy leaves
in order to retain moisture during the hot,
dry summers, while some of the plants have
very deep root structures in order to tap into
the groundwater. In other Mediterranean
Biomes the chaparral community goes by
local names such as Matorral (Spain), Maquis (France) and Fynbos (South Africa). A
variety of chaparral called Coastal Sage Scrub is found immediately at the coastline, with
shorter plant heights and softer leafs than the inland chaparral.
Animals of the Mediterranean Woodland and Shrub Biome vary from region to region. For
coastal California they include the coyote, black-tailed deer, bobcat, mountain lion, road-runner,
rattle snake, red-tail hawk, Cooper’s hawk, squirrel, and rabbit. Many of these are nocturnal,
especially in summer, so that they avoid the heat of the day.
Fire is a very important aspect of this biome’s composition, as there is a slow progression
towards taller bushes and trees (with less biological diversity) if there has been no fire for 20 to
30 years or more. In California, many of the chaparral plants (including sage and chamise) have
high natural oil content, and chamise often becomes
the dominant shrub in areas that have not burned for
decades. When a fire does progress to these older
stands of chamise it is often too hot to control easily
and hillside homes are put at risk. However, there are
some major biological benefits derived from the
occasional fire. The fire destroys the portions of tall
shrubs that grow above ground (the roots are often left
unharmed), the ash fertilizes the soil, and the heat of
the fire cracks open dormant seeds and removes toxins from the soil. For several years after the
fire a rich biological assortment of low-growing herbaceous plants (collectively called pioneer
species) can be found in the chaparral, but the process of plant succession continues over the
years as taller-growing bushes and trees begin to crowd out the pioneers. Twenty to 30 years
after the fire, the chaparral will once again be dominated by taller growing bushes and trees such
as chamise, and a healthy dose of fire will be called for once more.
Question: Why don’t we allow for periodic fires in our chaparral hillsides?

HUMID SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE (Cfa, Cwa)
Humid subtropical climate zones are located at latitudes of approximately 20 to 35˚ on the east
sides of major continents. These zones experience hot, humid summers and mild, moist winters.
Humid Subtropical climates are heavily influenced by the presence of warm ocean currents,
which supply them with a steady supply of warm, moist air. Precipitation in the late summer and
Fall is often associated with hurricanes.
Some Key Details of Humid Subtripical Climate Zones

- Mild winters with hot humid summers (over 72 degrees F)
- Southeast portions of major continents between 20 and 35˚ latitude.
- Key areas include the Southeast USA (Cfa), southeastern China (Cfa), Northern India (Cwa),
northeastern Australia (Cwa)
- Annual precipitation typically ranges from 40” to 60" with heavy afternoon rainfall in the
summer months, tropical storm-related rainfall in late summer and autumn, and rainfall in
winter from the occasional cold front.
- These climate zones are heavily influenced by warm ocean currents
The biome associated with the Humid Subtropical climate zone is the Temperate Mixed Forest
which is also known as the Mid-Latitude Deciduous Forest and Temperate Deciduous Forest.
Temperate Mixed Forests are located in regions which experience very
warm, moist summers and cold, moist winters. The biome is dominated
by broadleaf deciduous trees (oak, beech, maple, chestnut), but there are
usually needle-leaf evergreen trees (pine, spruce, fir) present in the
upper canopy as well as shrubs, flowers, grasses, mosses and fungi
growing in the understory and forest floor. There are some regional
variations within this biome, with deciduous trees completely
dominating some portions (Northeast USA) and evergreens dominating
in other regions (Northwest and Southeast USA) but it is fair to say most

of these forests contain at least some evergreens and some deciduous trees (hence the name ‘mixed’
forest).
Annual precipitation is typically between 30 and 60 inches per

year, and although this falls throughout the year there are four
distinct seasons: Spring sees the trees and flowers bud and
bloom, with light green leaves filling the trees’ branches;
Summer sees the leaves fill into a full canopy, providing shade
to a moist forest floor of maturing flowers, grass, and fungi.
At this time the fallen organic matter on the forest floor is
being decomposed, releasing nutrients back to the forest soils
below.
The first cool breezes of Autumn see the trees change

color from green to yellow, orange and red, and then
the deciduous trees lose their leaves all together. In
the height of the winter cold, the trees go into a period
of dormancy, protected from the cold by their outer
bark layers and some internal respiration
Animals in this biome include the raccoon, chipmunk,

squirrel, fox, bobcat, deer, frogs, salamanders,
butterflies, and a large number of other insects can be
observed during the summer months.
The map of this biome in

particular provides an interesting
lesson. The Biome Maps show us
what should be there rather than
what is actually present. The
maps show us that the entire
eastern USA and the western
portion of Europe should be
completely forested according to
the natural distribution of biomes.
Indeed, prior to a few thousand

years ago this was true, but these
areas of Temperate Mixed Forest
have been logged and converted
to pasture, agriculture, roads, villages, towns and cities for at least the last few thousand years, so there
is very little of this original forest left intact and undisturbed.
As detailed in the next two sections, the Temperate Mixed Forest biome is associated with two
additional climate zones, the Marine West Coast and the Humid Continental.

MARINE WEST COAST CLIMATE (Cfb, Cfc)
Marine West Coast (oceanic) climates are typically found along the coasts, just poleward of
the Mediterranean climate zones. In North America we find them along the Pacific coast from
Northern California to Alaska. Much of Ireland, Great Britain, Iceland, the west coast of France,
New Zealand and southeast Australia (including Tasmania) have Marine West Coast climates.
These zones are under the influence of the Westerly winds (and their associated storms) year-
round, so precipitation is possible in all months.
Key Details of Marine West Coast (Cfb, Cfc) Climates

- Found on the northwest portion of continents between 40˚ and 60˚ latitude plus SE Australia
- Examples include the Pacific Northwest, UK, New Zealand, coastal Alaska, and Tasmania
- Mild humid summers and cool wet winters, with precipitation in all months
- Typical precipitation is 30 to 50" annually (more on windward mountain slopes)
- Under the influence of the Prevailing Westerly Winds (with many overcast days) year-round
- Mild summers and winters result from ocean current influences
- Associated with the Temperate Mixed Forest biome
HUMID CONTINENTAL (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb, Dsa, Dsb) CLIMATE

The humid continental climate is found only in the northern hemisphere between about 35˚N
and 55˚N latitude. These areas are characterized by large swings in temperature between
summer and winter, due in part to the continental locations far from sources of moisture (note
that some of these climate zones are located along coastlines, but in these cases the wind tends to
blow the moisture away from the land rather than towards the land).

Key Details of Humid Continental Climates
- Totally absent in Southern Hemisphere (there are no large mid-latitude continents there)
- East sides of continents between 35 & 55 degrees latitude
- Examples include New York, Chicago, NE China
- Annual precipitation of 20 to 50" is common, with rain and snow in winter, rain in summer
- Cold winters, warm/hot summers (very large ATR)
- Summer mean temperatures are over 50˚F; winters usually below 27˚F
- Associated with Temperate Mixed Forest biomes
SUBARCTIC CLIMATE (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd, Dsc, Dsd)

Subarctic climate zones have the highest Annual Temperature Ranges in the world, due largely
to their incredibly long, cold winter temperatures. They are located immediately north of Humid
Continental climates. These zones have low annual precipitation but they also have low rates of
evapotranspiration, so there’s plenty of moisture available for the many coniferous trees here.

Key Details for Subarctic Climate Zones
- Totally absent in Southern Hemisphere
- North America & Eurasia between 50-70 degrees latitude
- Annual precipitation of 5 to 20" is common, most falling in summer
- Low rates of evaporation and evapotranspiration
- Very cold winters, brief mild summers, with the largest ATRs in world
The resolution on the map above is not ideal, so check out the relative locations of the Humid
Continental and Subarctic climate zones on this map.

The Subarctic Climate Zone is associated with
the Taiga or Boreal (northern) Forest Biome, a
nearly continuous east-west belt of coniferous
trees approximately 50˚N to 70˚N latitude in
North America and Eurasia. The Boreal Forest
Biome is limited to the Northern Hemisphere but
occupies more area than any other terrestrial
biome on earth. Over 60% of this is found in
Russia’s Siberia region, with the remainder found
in Canada, Alaska, and Scandinavia. To the
north of this biome lies the Tundra, while to the
south is the Temperate Mixed Forest.
The Boreal Forest Biome vegetation has adapted to survive mildly warm, moist summers and
intensely cold, dry winters. The winters are so cold that the only trees able to survive are
evergreen conifers (spruce, pine, fir) with their thick, protective bark to insulate the woody mass
of the tree and needle leaves to reduce
transpiration. Conifers are so named because they
have cones instead of flowers, and are thus an
ancient type of tree (flowering plants evolved
much later on). The forest floor is carpeted in
needles which decay so slowly that a thick mat of
old needles develops. The decomposition of the
needles in the cold temperatures produces an acidic
soil which is unsuitable for many plant species.
The needle leafs of pine, spruce and fir trees do not

contain sufficient nutrients and energy to support large
herds of herbivores. Some animals have adapted to this biome such as the moose, bear, wolves,
wolverine, lynx, squirrel, and in Siberia the tiger. Additionally there are large numbers of migrating birds
and deer which arrive in the Boreal Forest for the summer feast then return south for the winter.
POLAR TUNDRA (ET) CLIMATE ZONE

Tundra climates occur along the northern coastlines of North America and Eurasia, as well as
the coastline of Greenland where permanent ice does not exist. These regions are frozen most of
the year, but a brief summer allows temperatures to climb above freezing for one to three
months. This brief thawing allows for small plants to grow furiously, which also attracts insects,
birds and other migrating animals.

Key Details for Polar Tundra Climate (ET)
- Located along high latitude coasts, approximately 65 to 70˚N latitude
- Very cold and very dry
- Less than 10" annual precipitation, mostly falling as snow
- Short summers with the warmest month between 32 and 50˚F with mosquitoes
- Characterized by long, cold, dark winters
- Associated with permanently-frozen soil layers called Permafrost
The Tundra Biome is found in the same general location as the Tundra Climate Zone, on the
northern coastlines of North America and Eurasia, the southern coastlines of Greenland, and on
mountain slopes throughout the world where it is
too cold for trees to grow. The Tundra is frozen
most of the year but thaws out for one to four
three during summer. These regions also receive
very little precipitation (6-10” is typical), similar
in amount to a desert but with much less
evapotranspiration, and with most precipitation
falling as snow.
The freezing temperatures create a layer of

permanently frozen ground a few feet below the
surface called permafrost. When the Tundra
thaws out during summer, the permafrost layer doesn’t allow melted water in the upper soil to
infiltrate down, so the upper soils remain saturated. Stagnant pools of water are exposed to
full days of sunlight during the summer months, and this leads to a proliferation of hatching
insects such as flies and mosquitoes.
Vegetation in the tundra has adapted to the long, cold winters and short summer growing
season. The dominant vegetation is an assemblage of short plants such as lichens, sedges,
grasses, flowering plants and mosses, which must be able to photosynthesize in cold
temperatures and with sunlight which arrives with low intensity. There is a distinct lack of
trees in the Tundra (with the exception of some dwarf varieties) as the cold winter is too long
in duration, the growing season is just too short, and the permafrost layer prevents sufficient
root growth required for the survival of mature trees.
Animals of the Tundra Biome have also adapted to the harsh environment in a number of ways
including:
• Hibernating during the long, cold winter when food is not abundant.
• Being able to efficiently store energy in fat cells during the summer, when food is
plentiful.
• Breeding and raising their young quickly during the brief summer.
• Migrating south before the winter sets in (especially birds, reindeer, caribou).
The summer migration of fauna into the Tundra creates a very diverse collage of animals
including caribou, polar bears, arctic foxes, hares, squirrels, wolves and lemmings. While the
basis of the food chain in this biome is largely the terrestrial plants, some of these animals
depend on fish such as cod, trout and salmon which are found in the rivers, streams and
coastlines of the Tundra. Migratory birds include falcons, terns, seagulls, loons, and ravens. The
birds feed upon the insects hatching in the stagnant ponds including flies, mosquitoes,
grasshoppers, bees, moths, and butterflies. The long, cold winters mean that reptiles are largely
absent from the Tundra.
POLAR ICE CAP (EF) CLIMATE

As the name implies the Polar Ice Cap climates are found at very high latitude, close to the
poles. These areas receive no sunlight at all for half the year, and extended hours of low-angle
insolation for the other half of the year. The low angle of incoming sunlight means that average
monthly temperatures do not get above freezing, even in the midst of summer, while the winter
temperatures are bitterly cold. The main examples are found in Greenland and Antarctica, the
areas shown in bright white on the following map.

Key Details for Polar Ice Cap (EF) Climates
-The warmest month is below 32 F; coldest month can be less than -40˚F
- Very low precipitation, from almost 0 to about 5" – almost all falling as snow
- Too cold and infertile for plants or animals to be around
- Characterized by the presence of ice caps and glaciers
- Greenland, Antarctic
There is no terrestrial biome associated with the

Polar Ice Cap climate zone because (with the
exception of limited red algae growth) there is no
land-based food web in these permanently frozen
areas. Any animals living on the edges of ice
caps and glaciers might well live on land for a
good portion of their lives, but invariably they
are receiving their food supply from a marine
ecosystem, usually in the form of fish or marine
mammals. Examples include Penguins in the
Antarctic and Polar Bears in the Arctic (though
these are associated more often with the Tundra biome).

HIGHLAND (H) CLIMATES
Highland (H) climates are those in which altitude is the dominant factor in determining climate
classification. Highland climates are technically considered to be Köppen “E” climates. In
essence, permanent ice caps can be found right at the equator if the elevation is high enough, as
in the high mountains of Ecuador and New Guinea. The Köppen system designates such places
as Highland climates because the elevation out-weighed all other climatic factors here. Highland
climates can be found in all major mountain systems on earth including the Andes, Himalayas,
Rocky Mountains, and Europe’s Alps. Can you locate these important mountain chains?
For a summary, take a look at the following NOAA link for an overview of the world’s climate
zones. Keep in mind that there are many variations on even the Köppen Climate Classification
System, as scientists sometimes use different names for a climate zone, or they might group two
climate zones together to make it a little easier to understand the material. In the NOAA map,
the Tropical Wet includes the very similar Tropical Monsoon Climate, the Desert has been
renamed the Arid Climate Zone, and the Steppe Climate is called Semi-Arid.
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/pd/oceans_weather_climate/media/climate_zones.swf

FOOD FOR THOUGHT: CHANGING CLIMATE ZONES
Take a look at the map on this link (http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/) and see if you can
describe any changes to climate zones from 1950 to 2100 (projected).
What’s happening to the Tundra and Ice Cap climate zones?
What’s happening to the Humid Subtropical and Humid Continental climate zones?
Which climate zones are shrinking and which zones are getting larger?
Which climate zones appear to be changing the fastest?

OUTLINE FOR CH. 13, 14
Ch. 13: LITHOSPHERE = crust + uppermost mantle

composed of 90 elements which make up minerals which make up rocks!
Bedrock: Rock units found near the earth's surface.
Outcrop: Bedrock exposed at the earth's surface.
Magma: Molten rock below the surface.
Lava: Magma exposed at or on the surface of the earth.
-deepest we've penetrated is 7.5 miles by drill holes, 2.5 miles by mines
-most knowledge of deeper zones obtained by seismic data
Zones Within the Earth
crust -oceanic: below oceans/6 miles thick/Solid/Sima (mafic, basalt)
-continental: below land/20 miles thick/Solid/Sial (felsic, granite)
Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) - base of crust, rocks are more dense
mantle: (20-1800 miles), contains 84% of earth's volume, 67% of mass
-uppermost; bottom of crust to 40 mile depth, Olivine-Pyroxene, solid
- middle (asthenosphere); 40-200 mile depth, plastic, Olivine-Pyroxene
-deep; 200-1800 mile depth, olivine/pyroxene: solid
core -outer: liquid iron/nickel: 1800 mile to 3100 mile depth
-inner: solid iron/nickel: 3100 mile to 4000 mile depth
3 BASIC ROCK TYPES
Igneous: Rocks that formed from the cooling of magma. (2 types)
Intrusive (plutonic): Formed inside the earth, cooled slowly, crystals are large in size (granite, diorite).
Extrusive (volcanic): Formed on the earth's surface, cooled fast, crystals are small (obsidian, pumice, basalt).
Sedimentary: Rocks that formed from the deposition, compaction, and cementation (lithification) of rock fragments or shells/salts into
bedrock. (shale, sandstone, limestone, conglomerate)
Metamorphic: Rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure so that the minerals in the rocks realign themselves, sometimes looking
foliated (banded), more dense (gneiss, schist, slate, quartzite, marble).
ROCK CYCLE: Shows how rock types are recycled over long time periods.
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
INTERNAL vs. EXTERNAL PROCESSES
CHAPTER 14
Lithospheric plates: ride on convection cells within the asthenosphere
Continental Drift (Wegener, 1914)
Plate Tectonics
Plate Margins
A. Divergent (rift): Plates move apart from each other. (Mid-ocean ridges)
B. Convergent: Plates move towards one another; 3 types
continental-continental (Himalayas)*
continental-oceanic (Cascades, Andes)*
oceanic-oceanic (Japan, Indonesia, Philippines)*
C. Transform: Plate slip past one another. (San Andreas Fault)
Hot spots: Plates move over a hot zone in the mantle (Hawaii)
Volcanic Features Intrusive Features
stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)
shield volcanoes dike
cinder cones sill
calderas batholith
flood basalts stock
Folding Faulting
Anticline Normal
Syncline Reverse (thrust)
Monocline Strike-slip (L & R Lateral)
Geologic effects
Volcanic eruption
Landslide
Tsunami = "seismic sea wave"
Liquefaction
Chapter 15: Weathering, erosion, mass wasting.
© Darren Leaver 2018

EARTH’S LITHOSPHERE AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Earth formed approximately 4.55 billion years ago as a dry ball of rock covered by a cloud of
toxic gas. As the early earth orbited our newly-formed sun, it swept up and pulled in enormous
masses of dust and rocks that were in its path. This constant bombardment heated the early earth
to the point that the entire planet melted into a hostile environment of super-hot magma. The
heavy materials like iron sank to Earth's interior to form the planet’s core, while the lighter
elements ‘floated’ to the outer layers. As the planet began to cool from the outside-in, a solid
‘skin’ began to form on the outermost layers. At the same time, gases like carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and water vapor were released from inside the planet and over tens of millions of years
allowed for the development of an early atmosphere. The water vapor cooled and precipitated,
eventually producing the planet’s oceans.
The earth’s cooling process is still ongoing, so a portion of the earth’s core remains liquid and
composed of heavy elements, while earth’s outermost layer is solid and composed of lighter
elements. If we were to take the earth as a whole we would see that it’s composed mostly of iron
(32%), oxygen (30%), silicon (15%), magnesium (14%), sulfur (3%), nickel (1.8%), calcium
(1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remainder consisting of trace amounts of other
elements. However, we have to remember that due to mass segregation early in earth’s history,
the heaviest elements settled towards the core of the earth, which is composed largely of heavy
elements like iron (almost 90%), with smaller amounts of nickel and sulfur (about 10%), and less
than 1% trace elements. And again, the lighter elements ‘floated’ towards the outer surface, so
the minerals and rocks of our crust are made up primarily of lighter elements like Oxygen (47%),
Silicon (28%), and Aluminum (8%) with lesser amounts of iron (5%), calcium (3.5%), sodium,
potassium, magnesium and about 100 additional elements in very small concentrations.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements).
It sounds like we know a lot about the inside of the earth, but to be honest, nobody has been
there! The deepest mine in the world is less than 4 miles from the surface, and the deepest
well ever drilled extends about 7.5 miles from the surface. So how do we know so much
about our planet’s internal chemistry and structure? In essence, we do this by combining the
ideas gained from astronomy, chemistry and physics (mass segregation) with information
obtained by collecting and analyzing gas and lava samples released from inside the earth, and
through the analysis of seismic waves which travel through the earth as a consequence of an
earthquake or underground explosion. Check out these two
links to better understand how earth scientists gain knowledge
of the earth. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pEtg209pvdU and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2bOma_5v88I
Seismic Data yields knowledge of deeper zones. Whenever a

large earthquake or underground explosion occurs within the
earth’s crust, three major types of seismic waves travel
outward from the epicenter. Longitudinal waves travel across
the Earth’s surface in a “rolling” motion, and can make the
landscape look like a water bed during an earthquake. For this
discussion however, we’ll need to focus on the waves which

travel through the earth rather than along the surface. Primary waves (P-waves) move quickly
through the surface of the earth and can travel through both solid and liquid layers. They bend as
they encounter layers of different density, and by tracking the bending (refracting) waves we
learn a great deal about the density of layers inside the earth. Secondary waves (S-waves) travel
more slowly through the earth’s interior and these waves cannot pass through liquids. Tracking
the S-wave shadow, where they have been blocked by the presence of a liquid layer inside the
earth, allows us to map out the major solid and liquid layers within the earth. Applying the
universal rules of Physics and Chemistry to the knowledge obtained through seismic analysis
helps to complete the picture of what’s going on inside the planet. This way we can learn an
awful lot about earth’s interior without ever having to physically go there (which is impossible,
by the way).
This analysis reveals several distinct layers inside the earth, so let’s look at these in detail.
The Earth’s Internal Structure

The solid, rocky portion of the earth is known as the Lithosphere, which technically is defined
as both the Crust and Uppermost Mantle. The crust includes layers of solid rock (bedrock),
broken pieces of rock (sediment), a thin veneer of rotting rock (soil), as well as layers of volcanic
ash (tephra) and molten rock (called magma if below ground and lava if above the ground).
Together these make the earth materials of the crust. Later, we shall see how water, ice, wind
and gravity act on these lithospheric earth materials to create unique landforms, but first we must
define and explore the nature of some basic earth materials.
The crust is made of 90 elements like calcium, aluminum, sodium, oxygen, silica, and iron.
These elements form about 3,500 minerals like quartz, feldspar, and olivine, which in turn are
the building blocks of rocks such as granite, basalt and diorite.
Main Elements of Earth’s Crust
Element %
Oxygen 47
Silicon 28
Aluminum 8
TOTAL 83%
All Other Elements 17%
Brendan Fraser- the only “tool” that can

make it to the center of the Earth ☺
There are two main varieties of crust know as Continental Crust and Oceanic Crust.
Continental crust is composed of rocks with a high chemical content of Aluminum, Oxygen,
Silicon, Calcium, Sodium and Iron, collectively known as felsic rocks. A classic example is
granite, which is the most common rock of the continental crust. The continental crust averages
about 20 miles in thickness (up to 60 miles thick for mountain ranges), allowing it to sit higher

than the adjacent oceanic crust, which averages only 5 to 6 miles thick (thinner near ocean
centers and thicker towards the edges of oceans). Oceanic crust is composed of rocks like basalt,
which has a high concentration of the elements Iron and Magnesium, with low concentrations of
Aluminum. These are collectively classified as mafic rocks. Areas of the earth’s surface are
covered by a jig-saw puzzle arrangement of either Continental crust or Oceanic crust. These
‘jig-saw’ pieces are known as Lithospheric Plates or Tectonic Plates, and there are a total of
about 30 major plates on earth’s surface.
So How Thick is the Earth’s Crust?

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/structure/crust/index.php
Earth’s Crustal Thickness (km)

At the bottom of the crust seismic waves increase their speed as they encounter a much denser
layer. This boundary layer between the crust and the Mantle is known as the Mohorovicic
Discontinuity or “Moho” and tells us that the layers below are much denser than the crust.
The following is courtesy of (http://mynasa.nasa.gov/worldbook/wbkids/k_earth.html). Earth is covered with a rocky

"skin" called the crust. The crust is about 5 miles (8 kilometers) thick under the oceans, and about 25 miles (40
kilometers) thick under the continents. Inside Earth
Underneath the crust, Earth has three layers of hot rock and metal.
These layers are the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. The
mantle is a layer of hot, mostly solid rock below the crust. It is about
1,800 miles (2,900 kilometers) thick. The outer core lies beneath the
mantle. It is made mostly of melted iron, and it is even hotter than the
mantle. The inner core is the hottest part of Earth. Scientists believe
that the inner core is a ball of solid iron.
The Mantle is located immediately below the crust and Moho, extending to about 1800 miles
below the surface of the earth. The mantle occupies over 80% of Earth’s volume, and has a
rather stable chemistry (high in Iron, Magnesium, Silicon, and Calcium, elements which would
easily make the rock Peridotite (composed of the minerals pyroxene and olivine). The mantle is
divided into three major sections: the Uppermost Mantle, Asthenosphere, and Lower Mantle)
- The Uppermost Mantle is solid and extends from the bottom of the crust to a depth of
approximately 50 miles below earth’s surface, deeper below continents and shallower near
the centers of oceans. The Uppermost mantle is composed of solid rock (dominated by
olivine-pyroxene minerals) and together with the crust is referred to as “Lithosphere”.
(Image courtesy of USGS, http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/inside.html )

- The Asthenosphere exists immediately below the lithosphere. The velocity of seismic
waves decreases rapidly as they enter the asthenosphere, and this, along with other evidence
indicates this zone is plastic (between solid and liquid, like honey). This zone extends to a
depth of approximately 150-200 miles below the surface on average. This depth is shallower
near ocean centers and may extend to depths over 400 miles below the earth’s surface in
some continental regions. The asthenosphere is hot due to the radioactive decay of elements,
but it’s also under too much pressure to be liquid. It is convection within the asthenosphere
that drives plate tectonic motions. The Uppermost Mantle and the Asthenosphere are often
grouped together under the name “Upper Mantle”.
- The Lower (Deep) Mantle extends from below the asthenosphere to a depth of
approximately 1800 miles below the surface. This is the largest portion of the mantle, and
although it is solid, evidence exists for slow but deliberate convective motion within this
layer too.
The Core of the earth is divided into two sections, the Outer Core and the Inner Core. The
Outer Core is located approximately 1800-3100 miles below the surface. This layer is
composed of heavier elements like Iron, Nickel and Sulfur and is so hot it represents earth’s only
liquid layer. As the molten Iron stirs in violent convective motions it generates the earth’s
magnetic field.
The Inner Core is under so much pressure it cannot exist as a liquid, so this layer, extending
from approximately 3100 miles to the center of the earth at 4,000 miles below the surface, is
completely solid Iron, Nickel and Sulfur.
EARTH’S CRUSTAL MATERIALS

Of all these layers the most important to us is the crust since we spend all our lives living on it.
There are numerous earth materials worthy of discussion, but let’s explore the main earth
materials here. Bedrock is consolidated (densely packed) rock found intact near the earth’s
surface. Bedrock is most easily found in mountains where it has often been uplifted. All
surfaces of the crust are underlain by bedrock, but much of this bedrock is covered by layers of
soil and/or sediment. At times the bedrock near the surface has been altered and weakened by
chemical interactions with air or water. Bedrock in this weakened (weathered) state is much
easier to break apart, and is often called regolith (broken rock).
Three Major Rock Types (Courtesy of USGS http://www.usgs.gov/visitors/rocks_quiz.asp)

There are thousands of different rock types found within the crust, but we divide these into
three major groups based on how the rocks actually formed. These rock types are referred to
as Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks.

Igneous rocks
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/VolcanicPast/Notes/igneous_rocks.html
Igneous rocks are formed from molten rock that has cooled
and solidified. There are two types of igneous rocks:
Igneous Intrusive rocks form when magma deep below
earth’s surface cools and solidifies slowly. The slow cooling
process allows crystals to grow from the molten liquid, and
the result is a coarse-grained rock. Igneous intrusive rocks
are the dominant rocks within earth’s crust, and the most
common types include granite, diorite, and gabbro. The Granite
second type of igneous rocks, known as Igneous Extrusive
rocks, form when lava, glowing-hot cinders or ash cool
rapidly on near the Earth's surface. Most of this material
(73%) is produced in mid-ocean divergent boundaries, with
lesser amounts produced at subduction zones (15%) and hot-
spots (12%). The rapid cooling results in very small crystal
size and what are referred to as fine-grained rocks like basalt,
rhyolite, andesite, pumice and obsidian.
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Gif/Drawings/RockClassif-B.gif

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed close to the top of the crust,
either in water or on land. They are formed when sediments
are deposited in low spots called sedimentary basins, such as
lakes, valleys, or ocean basins. The steady accumulation of
layer upon layer of sediments results in the lower sediments
being cemented and compacted (lithified) together into a
layer of hard rock, The type of sedimentary rock that is
formed depends on the original sediments being lithified. Black Shale
The most common sedimentary rock is Shale, made of
compacted/cemented grains of tiny clay and silt. Other
important sedimentary rocks include sandstone (made from
lithified grains of sand), limestone (lithified calcium
carbonate shells) and conglomerate (lithified boulders,
cobbles, gravel and sand).
Metamorphic Rocks
Pre-existing rocks that are subjected to intense heat and
pressure often melt to become magma. However, sometimes
the heat and pressure are not enough to melt the rocks, and
instead they compress and warp the rocks into a different
rock form known as metamorphic (changed form). Mineral
matter within the rocks are rearranged by the pressure and
chemically altered by reactions with fluids that enter the
rocks. Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when
limestone is exposed to intense pressure and heat. Quartzite
is metamorphosed quartz sandstone. Schist and Slate are
Marble
examples of medium-grade metamorphism of platy or fine-
grained rocks like Shale. Gneiss is a high-grade
metamorphic rock, one formed from pre-existing rocks
subjected to intense pressures deep inside the crust.
Each of these three rock types can be transformed over

geologic time into other rock types. For instance, magma
can rise to the surface and solidify as an igneous extrusive
rock. This rock material is then subjected to weathering and
erosion, breaking the rock into gravel-sized sediment. The
sediments are transported by water and pieces are chipped
away along the journey, so that the sediment is only sand-
sized when finally deposited into a low-lying geologic basin
like a sea or ocean. Over time, layer upon layer of new
sediment builds on top of the lower layers, the added weight
crushing the sediments into layers of sedimentary rock like

sandstone. The “Rock Cycle” diagram illustrates the
potential paths for the three main rock types as well as
sediments and molten rock material.
Sediments are pieces of rock that have been physically and chemically removed from bedrock.
The process of breaking the bedrock into pieces of sediment is called weathering, while the
removal of the loose sediment away from the bedrock (by the movement of wind, water or ice) is
called erosion. Sediments are classified by their size, and ranging from enormous boulders to
tiny grains of clay the classification is boulder-cobble-gravel-sand-silt-clay. Once eroded from
the bedrock source, these sediments are transported downhill (often in flowing streams and
rivers) away from high places and they are ultimately deposited in low-lying areas like oceans,
lakes or valleys (collectively known as depositional basins). It is in these depositional basins that
sediments can pile up over time creating layers of sediments that are thousands of feet thick.
Tephra (or pyroclasts) refers to solid fragments of rock ejected into the air during a volcanic
eruption. These range in size from tiny pieces of pulverized rock called ash to boulder-sized
bombs. Once pyroclasts have fallen to the ground they remain as tephra unless hot enough to
fuse together into pyroclastic rock, also known as tuff. Volcanic eruptions can also produce
liquid (molten) rock. Magma is molten rock found under the surface of the earth, while Lava
refers to magma that escapes onto the surface.
Soil is “rotten” rock material that forms on top of sediment or bedrock. Soil forms best when the
surface of the rock material easily interacts with moisture, air, plant roots, and burrowing
organisms. The more contact with each of these, the more readily the soil tends to form. For this
reason, soils tend to form fastest in warm, moist environments with plenty of plant roots and
burrowing insects providing channels for air and water to interact directly with the rock material.
Even so, it takes hundreds or thousands of years for soils to fully develop, and in cold, dry
environments it might take tens of thousands of years to develop a sizeable thickness of soil.

Soil development is highly dependent on the crustal materials it comes from, known as the
parent material. For example, soils tend to form faster on sediments than they do on pure
bedrock, as the sediments have lots of pathways for air and water to interact with the individual
rock fragments. The type of rock making up the parent material will also influence the rate of
soil development. Soils tend to form more rapidly in porous rocks like basalt, while soils for
extremely slowly on crystalline rock material such as granite.
So How Do We Ever See Sedimentary or Igneous Intrusive Rocks?

Since igneous intrusive rocks and sedimentary rocks are formed deep inside the earth, how do we
ever see rocks like granite or sandstone? The answer can be found by analyzing the diagram
below.
It is clear to see that sediments are being deposited into a low-lying basin (a lake or sea) and that
the bottom layers are likely being compacted and cemented into sedimentary rocks, rocks too
deep for us to ever see them being formed. This diagram also shows high mountains in the
background, mountains that are being worn down by the erosive forces of ice, water, and wind
(aided by gravity). The river transports the eroded rock material from the mountains to the lake.
At first glance you might conclude that over time the lake will fill up with sediment being
transported along the river bed. Though this might indeed be true for some places on earth, it is
not true for most places. The reason is that earth is a dynamic place with a constant battle going
on between internal processes (tectonic forces, volcanic forces) that tend to make mountains
grow and force valleys down, and external process (weathering, erosion, mass wasting) which

wear mountains down and fill valleys up with sediment. The mountains shown in the diagram
are there for a reason; internal processes have lifted the mountains upward (and valleys
downwards) in fits-and-spurts over millions of years. The uplift occurs not continuously, but in
jarring earthquake motions every few centuries or so. Given enough time the mountains are
uplifted thousands of feet, and at the same time these internal forces push the lake bottom
downwards.
At the same time, and on a continuous basis, external processes wear down the mountains as ice
widens the cracks in the rocky surfaces, water weakens the chemical bonds between the minerals
within the rocks, and gravity helps pull the weakened pieces of rock down-slope. Water does
most of the work, and once the sediment has been transported into the stream it is the water that
carries or bounces the sediment down-stream towards the lake. The sediment bouncing along the
river bottom bangs into other pieces of rock, knocking sharp edges off, so that the sediment gets
continually smaller and rounder in shape the longer it stays in the river channel. Finally, the
sediment gets deposited into the lake, piling up over the years so that given time, enough weight
is exerted to crush and cement together grains of sediment into sedimentary rocks.
External forces change from day-to-day, while internal forces act sporadically over the millennia
and can completely change their form over tens of millions of years. Forces that once created
deep valleys can reverse direction, uplifting lake bottoms to expose layers of sediment and
sedimentary rock. In fact, the upper slopes of high mountains like the Himalayas contain
fossilized shells of ancient organisms deposited on the bottom of shallow seas. How do you
think those fossilized shells got there?

CH. 14 INTERNAL PROCESSES
Plate Tectonics, Volcanism, Folding & Faulting
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/tectonics/intro.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBApevfNkkA
Plate Tectonics refers to process of plate formation, movement,

and destruction. Plate Tectonic Theory was proposed in the
1960s, following almost 400 years of speculation,
hypotheses, mapping, evidence collection, and technological
advances. New scientific theories were built upon earlier
ones in fits-and-spurts, and only by the 1960s, after we were
able to survey the ocean depths, was a theory able to be
formulated which compiled all the earlier information into a single
paradigm known as the Theory of Plate Tectonics. In the 50 years
since the theory was first proposed, it has been constantly tested and
refined. The theory explains how earth’s crust is formed, how it moves,
and how our crust is continuously destroyed. In doing so, Plate
Tectonic Theory explains why we have frequent earthquakes in California;
why we have volcanoes in places like Alaska, Japan, Iceland, and Hawaii; and why oceans are
very young compared to the continents.
Here’s a short list of some historical developments in developing the theory.

Abraham Ortelius a 16th-century map maker, published his first
map of the world, Typus Orbis Terrarum (see right), in 1564.
His subsequent work, an atlas of the ancient and known world
Thesaurus geographicus published in 1587 and again expanded
in 1596, was the first known work to suggest the coastline of
Americas fits like a puzzle with the coastlines of Western
Europe and Africa. He suggested that the coastline of the
Americas must have been "torn away from Europe & Africa by
earthquakes and floods".
Few took Ortelius seriously, though several important people

who did consider his ideas include Theodor Christoph Lilienthal
in 1756, Alexander von Humboldt in both1801 and 1845, and
Antonio Snider-Pellegrini in1858. Accurate mapping of the
coastlines of North and South America over the previous century
allowed Snider-Pellegrini to show how clear of a jigsaw-puzzle
fit could be made by juxtaposing the coastlines onto a single
map, as shown to the right.
Text © Darren Leaver 2018

.
Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist,
proposed his initial theory of Continental
Drift at a conference in January of 1912.
This theory suggested that a supercontinent
called ‘Urkontinent’ (German for
continental origin) existed in the geologic
past, that the supercontinent subsequently
broke up, with the continental fragments
‘drifting’ away from each other over time.
This ‘supercontinent’ would later be re-
named ‘Pangaea’ (meaning all earth) by the
scientific community. Wegener’s evidence
included the fit of continental coastlines,
and the distribution and orientation of rock
formations (along with their fossil
evidence) on opposite sides of ocean basins. Image: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/continents.html
After extensive field work in Greenland followed by detailed research, Wegener published the
theory in The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane) in
1915. He expanded his ideas in subsequent editions until his death while performing research on
the Greenland ice sheet in 1930.
Wegener’s work wasn’t published in English until 1922, with a US printing in 1925. His ideas
sparked fierce debate in the scientific community, and the theory never caught on during
Wegener’s lifetime. He was quite literally laughed off stage when presenting his ideas. The
main problem with Continental Drift was that there was no viable mechanism for the “drift”.
Wegener had proposed that the driving force might be the centrifugal force created by earth’s
rotation but this force proved mathematically too weak to be the driving mechanism. One
prominent scientist who did take Wegener seriously was Arthur Holmes.
Arthur Holmes, a British Geology professor, was open enough to new ideas that he took
Wegener’s ideas seriously, and he conceived a viable mechanism. Holmes’ early work focused
on the radioactive decay of earth materials, with the goal being to accurately determine the age
of the earth. His familiarity with the radioactive decay of rocks led to him to the idea that the
heat released from these materials inside the earth might be sufficient to promote thermal
convection in the mantle, which in turn could rip ocean basins apart and push continents to the
side. If true, this would be the driving force that Wegener’s theory lacked. Still, evidence was
needed to show that mantle convection was occurring, but much of this evidence was under
thousands of feet of sea water.
Harry H. Hess was a Geology professor at Princeton University but
during World War II he was the captain of a US Navy transport ship
equipped with sonar. Using the echo-sounding sonar device Hess
was able to map profiles of the Pacific Ocean’s depths. He noted
extremely deep areas near the Marianas Islands and unusual flat-

topped undersea mountains strewn across the Pacific, which are now known as Guyots. After
the war Hess continued his research, leading him to the idea of Sea Floor Spreading, where
convective cells within the mantle allow the oceans to rift (split apart), creating a chain of
volcanoes rising from the ocean bottom, some of them poking out above the sea surface to form
islands. As the spreading continues over time, the older volcanoes are carried away in a mirror-
image pattern on either side of the rift zone. As the older volcanoes move away from the rift
zone, they sink lower in elevation as they both contract thermally and are subjected to
weathering and erosion. Some of these island volcanoes are worn flat by wave action before
sinking below the waves, creating the unique Guyots which had earlier sparked Hess’ curiosity.
An initial reaction to Hess’ idea was that since new crust is being formed at the mid-ocean rift
zones, the earth must be expanding in size like an inflating balloon. It was later argued that this
is not the case, that crustal materials (plus upper mantle, together making a lithospheric plate) are
indeed being created at rift zones, but that the lithospheric plates are being transported in a
conveyor-like manner on top of mantle convection cells, and are ultimately destroyed when they
are forced back down into the mantle at the edges of (some) oceans.
Still, more evidence was needed to convince the bulk of the scientific community that the ideas
proposed as Continental Drift, mantle Convection, and Sea Floor Spreading were valid. The
remaining evidence was to come from exploration of the nature of earth’s ocean basins. This
makes sense as the oceans comprise over 70% of earth’s total surface4, and they represent the
areas with the thinnest crust, so evidence of crust being created, moved, or destroyed would be
easier to observe under the oceans.
The first evidence came from a World War II technology used by aircraft to detect the presence
submarines in the ocean. The device is called a magnetometer, and it has the ability to detect
slight disturbances in the earth’s magnetic field caused by the presence of large objects made of
iron or steel, such as submarines, or by natural variations in the orientation or strength of earth’s
magnetic field (see http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/stripes.html). Obviously, these devices
were used for military purposes during the war, but starting in the
1950s they were used to map out the magnetic fields of earth’s
ocean bottoms, which resulted in a mirror-image, zebra-
strip pattern of magnetic variations on either side of the
world’s oceanic rift zones. It was concluded that since
basalt is the most common oceanic crustal rock, and
since basalt contains lots of magnetite and other iron-
rich minerals, basalt has magnetic properties that can
significantly influence the earth’s magnetic field in the
ocean basins.
In fact, when basaltic lava cools and crystallizes into basaltic rock, the magnetic minerals align
themselves with the earth’s magnetic north pole, locking into the rocks evidence of the
orientation of earth’s magnetic field. Turns out that earth’s magnetic poles reverse direction on
an irregular pattern with a frequency ranging from about 100,000 years to 1 million years. In
essence, the North Magnetic Pole becomes the South Magnetic Pole, and vice versa, with the
reversal taking a few thousand years to complete. By the early 1960s it was finally recognized
that the ‘zebra-strip’ patterns recorded by the magnetometers showed the historical record of
these magnetic field reversals, which were an exact mirror-image pattern on both sides of the
mid-oceanic rift zones.
The idea of Sea Floor Spreading now attracted the attention of many scientists, but one more
piece of evidence was needed to complete the puzzle
that Ortelius began to sort out almost 400 years
earlier. By the 1960s the search for oil had moved
offshore, so oil exploration companies built ships
capable of drilling from an oil platform mounted on
an ocean-going ship. This technology was adapted to
research vessels, the first of which was the Glomar
Challenger, which in 1968 set off on a year-long
mission to drill and collect samples of the Atlantic
Ocean’s sediments and underlying bedrock.
Image: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/glomar.html
Radioactive isotope dating of the basaltic bedrock samples confirmed what many scientists now
already believed, that the age of the bedrock was progressively older with distance from the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge (the Atlantic’s mid-ocean rift zone). The result was an overwhelming acceptance
of a whole new paradigm in geosciences called Plate Tectonic Theory. The theory combines the
ideas of Wegener’s Continental Drift, Holmes’ Mantle Convection, Hess’ Sea Floor Spreading
and the newest available data of magnetic striping and radiometric dating of the ocean floor
basalts into a single, unified theory.
SO WHAT EXACTLY DOES PLATE TECTONIC THEORY TELL US?

Plate Tectonic Theory or just plain “Plate Tectonics’ explains not only how Lithospheric Plates
of Crust and Uppermost Mantle are created, moved and destroyed, the theory also explains why
there are active, explosive volcanoes in places like Japan and Peru, why California is subjected
to frequent major earthquakes, why the Big island of Hawaii is home to large, non-explosive
volcanoes, and why the middle of the oceans contain large undersea chains of volcanoes. He
theory explains why the rocks of the ocean basins range in age from today to less than 200
million years old, while the rocks of the continents can be 20 times older still. The theory is
constantly being put to the test and refined, and the following section describes what we know
today.
Nature of Lithospheric Plates
The outer, solid layer of the earth is known as the lithosphere, which is composed of crust (both
oceanic and continental) as well as the underlying uppermost mantle, which is also solid. The
lithosphere covers the planet much like an eggshell covers the yolk and white of an egg. Unlike
an eggshell, the lithosphere is broken up into multiple sections of various sizes called
lithospheric plates, tectonic plates, or sometimes just plates. There are about 25 plates, seven
of which are very large including the Pacific, Antarctic, North American and Eurasian Plates.

Map of Tectonic Plates. http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/slabs.html
Tectonic Plates average about 40 miles in thickness but their thickness varies considerably from
less than 10 miles near mid-ocean rift zones to over 100 miles for very old continental interiors.
The following map shows the thickness of the earth’s crust in kilometers (1km = 0.62 mile). The
map doesn’t include the uppermost mantle, which is very thin near mid-ocean ridges and gets
considerable thicker with distance from these rift zones.
Image courtesy of USGS (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/structure/crust/index.php)

The lithospheric plates ride on convections cells within the underlying asthenosphere, and it
appears that the plate motion is driven by both the ‘push’ factor of the spreading rift zone as well
as the gravitational ‘slab pull’ of dense lithosphere being drawn downwards at the descending
portion of the mantle convection cell. It also appears that the size of the plate depends in part on
the size of the convection cell. The direction and rate of speed that the lithospheric plates move
across the surface of the earth is dependent upon the horizontal direction of the underlying
convection cell as well as interactions with other lithospheric plates as they bump and grind into,
away from, or past each other. Plate motions range in speed from almost 0 to over 4 inches per
year in parts of the Pacific Ocean. The following map from JPL shows the current relative
motion of earth’s plates.
It is at the edges of plates (called Plate Boundaries) where most of the action takes place,
including most of the planet’s earthquakes
and volcanoes. While new ocean
lithosphere is being created at mid-ocean
rift zones and then carried horizontally by
mantle convection, an equal volume of
lithosphere is being consumed (destroyed)
at plate boundaries on the edges of many
oceans. This way, the earth is not
expanding in size, as equal amounts of
lithosphere are being created and destroyed.
The lithosphere is basically being recycled
on a continuous basis.

PLATE BOUNDARIES
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html
There are three main types of plate boundaries identified as convergent, divergent, and transform
boundaries. There is a fourth type of boundary called Plate Boundary Zone where the plate
boundaries are either not clearly defined or too complex to assign as either convergent, divergent
or transform.
Divergent Plate Boundaries

Divergent boundaries occur along rift zones, where the lithosphere cracks open and plates are
move away from each other. The gap created by the rifting motion allows magma to rise to the
exposed surface as lava, where is crystallizes into brand-new crust. Since these rift zones are
associated with rising, hot magma, they typically lift the new crust into the form of an undersea
volcanic chain stretching thousands of miles in length. Examples of divergent boundaries
include the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise, each
just a part of a global system of mid-ocean ridges encircling
the planet’s ocean basins like stitches on the outer skin of a
baseball. The rate of divergence is quite slow, on the order
of just an inch or two per year, but this motion over the past
200 million years has allowed the Atlantic Ocean to grow
from a long, thin crack in the earth into the world’s second
largest ocean, steadily pushing the North and South
American continents away from the western coastlines of
Africa and Eurasia. The tops of the undersea volcanoes of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge push up above sea level every now-
and-then, yielding volcanically active islands in the middle
of the Atlantic such as the Azores and Iceland. It is entirely
possible to visit Iceland and stand on the eastern edge of the North American plate and gently
toss a stone over to the western edge of the Eurasian plate.
Convergent Plate Boundaries

The second type is the Convergent Plate Boundary, where lithospheric plates are forced towards
(into) each other. Since we have two main types of lithosphere (containing either continental or
oceanic crust) there are three individual types of convergent boundaries:
• Continental-Continental Convergence occurs when two plates containing continental
crust slam into one another. This often results in
the crumpling (upwards and downwards) of the
impact boundary, leading to the formation of
high mountains like the Himalayas, thrust to
great heights when the Indian sub-continent
slammed into Eurasia. Though this impact
commenced some 60 million years ago and
the leading edge has crumpled, the trailing

edge of the Indian sub-continent still inches forward, so the upward thrust of the
Himalayas is by no means complete as is evidenced by the frequent, large earthquakes in
parts of India, China, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Check out this PBS/NOVA animation
showing the formation of the Himalayas (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/earth/birth.html)
• Oceanic-Continental Convergence occurs when a lithospheric plate containing oceanic

crust is forced into and subducted below (forced under) the edge of a plate containing
continental crust. The oceanic lithospheric plate is the one subducted because it is denser
than the continental crust. As the oceanic crust subducts it creates a very deep depression
known as an oceanic trench. These oceanic
trenches act as depositional basins for sediment
eroded from the adjacent continent, so they do
not tend to be as deep as they could be. As
the subduction process continues, the
lithospheric plate descends at a mild angle
into the hot mantle lying below the continent,
dragging sediment and seawater along with
it. As this material heats up it partially melts,
creating a steady supply of magma which rises upwards through the continental
lithosphere where (depending on its temperature and chemistry and the thickness of the
lithosphere) it either solidifies within the continental crust as igneous intrusive rocks or
extrudes as lava, cinder and ash on the surface, forming a chain of volcanoes known as a
volcanic arc. The best examples of this are the volcanic arcs on the west coasts of North
America’s Cascade Range running from Northern California to British Columbia, and
South America’s Andes, running from Argentina and Chile to Peru, Ecuador and
Colombia. These two continents are slowly moving westward, over-riding and
subducting the Nazca, Cocos, and Juan de Fuca plates, the remnants of what once
underlay most of the eastern Pacific Ocean.
• Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence occurs when two lithosphere plates with oceanic crust are
forced towards each other. This appears to occur most when an oceanic plate converges
with a continent, which in this case acts as a
block. At first, the thin, dense oceanic
lithosphere tends to bow downwards but in
this case, a break develops offshore within
a weak area of the oceanic crust. The
result is subduction of oceanic lithosphere
below similar oceanic lithosphere at the
break point, which in this case is an
extremely deep oceanic trench. The
subducting slab drags water along with it into the mantle, and the resulting partial melting
rises to the surface to produce a line of undersea volcanoes and volcanic islands known as
island arcs. Classic examples of island arcs include the islands of Indonesia, the
Philippines, Japan, and the Caribbean. In each of these cases we see (in order) a
continent, a shallow sea, a volcanic arc, a deep oceanic trench, and finally the deep ocean
abyssal plain. In some parts of the world including the Marianas Islands in the eastern

Pacific, we see evidence that two separate breakpoints occurred with one area of oceanic-
oceanic convergence, producing two separate subduction zones and two island arcs.
It should be noted that while only oceanic-oceanic and oceanic-continental convergence are
associated with subduction and volcanic activity, all three types of convergent plate boundaries
are associated with earthquakes. Significant earthquakes occur whenever tectonic plates move
relative to one another, and some of the largest earthquakes ever recorded have been from
oceanic-oceanic and oceanic-continental convergence, including the Magnitude 9.1 December
26, 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake that struck off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is
at these plate boundaries, those involving subduction, where oceanic crust is destroyed as gravity
pulls the descending plate into the hot mantle.
Transform Plate Boundaries

The third type of plate boundary is the Transform Plate
Boundary, where lithospheric plates slide laterally past
one other. Friction between the rocks on either side of
the plate boundary prevents these plates from sliding
smoothly past one another. Instead, the forces build up
over time until the rocks can no longer hold back the
built-up pressures and the plates bump-and-grind past
each other. Several minutes of chaos results with the
plates often moving sideways tens of feet during the
associated earthquake. The classic example of a
Transform Plate Boundary is California’s San Andreas
Fault, marking the boundary of the North American and
Pacific Plates. The North American Plate is moving
west-southwest, while the Pacific Plate is moving
northwest. The relative motion between these two
plates gives the appearance that the Pacific Plate (and
everything on it including the cities of Los Angeles and
San Francisco) is moving north compared to the rest of
North America located east of the fault. The San
Andreas Fault unleashed enormous built-up energy during the estimated 8.3-Magnitude San
Francisco Earthquake of 1906. The Southern section of the San Andreas Fault, that portion
located closest to Los Angeles, last ruptured in 1857. Recent evidence suggests that this portion
of the fault has produced a strong earthquake approximately every 88 years over the past several
hundred years, so Los Angeles is overdue for a large earthquake. In order to be better prepared,
please spend a few minutes and check out FEMA’s earthquake preparedness site at
http://www.ready.gov/earthquakes
By analyzing the dynamics of plate boundaries we’ve been able to see why Iceland is
volcanically active, why the Atlantic Ocean is growing in size, why California is subjected to
large earthquakes, and why places like Japan, Indonesia, Chile and Peru experience both

earthquakes and volcanic activity. All of these can be explained by the dynamics of plate
boundaries, but how does Plate Tectonics explain volcanic activity in the centers of plates?
HOT SPOTS
There are places on earth which experience volcanic activity, yet they are located thousands of
miles from a plate boundary. A classic example of this is the Hawaiian islands, which are
entirely of volcanic origin yet are have located over 2,000 miles from the closest tectonic plate
boundary. The Hawaiian Islands stretch in a rather straight 300-mile line from the Big Island of
Hawaii, with its active volcanoes of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, northwest to the islands of Maui
(with evidence of volcanic activity as recent as 1 million years ago), Molokai, Oahu, and finally
Kauai, which has not been volcanically active for over 5 million years. The line of extinct
undersea volcanoes and volcanic islands extends beyond the political borders of Hawaii to
include the Emperor Seamounts and even Midway Island, some 1,200 miles northwest of
Hawaii’s active volcanoes.
The mystery of how these volcanic islands came to be was uncovered in 1963 by a Canadian
geologist by the name of J. Tuzo Wilson, who reasoned that semi-stationary hotspots located
within the mantle partially melt the lower portion of lithosphere located directly above it. This
partial melting produces a steady, long-lasting supply of magma which upwells to the surface,
burning its way through the Pacific Ocean lithosphere, creating volcanic islands (or underwater
seamounts) growing from the on the ocean floor of the Pacific. As the lithospheric plate rides
over the mantle hotspot, the volcanic islands that formed on the ocean bottom become
increasingly detached from
the upwelling magma plume,
and when a threshold has
been exceeded, the magma
plume changes course and
begins to build a brand new
undersea volcano. In the
Hawaiian Islands, it is the Big
Island of Hawaii that
currently over the hotspot,
which is actively supplying
magma to the island’s
volcanoes. The island of
Kauai was located
immediately above this same
hot spot 5 million years ago,
and has since ridden on its
lithospheric conveyor belt
300 miles to the northwest
and its volcanoes are
considered long extinct.
Diagram courtesy of USGS: http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/2800/

Hotspots occur throughout the earth’s oceans including the Galapagos Hotspot, which formed
the namesake Islands, and the Society Hotspot, responsible for the creation of the island of
Tahiti. They even occur under the continents but are harder to observe the effects there. A
classic example is the hotspot located under Yellowstone National Park which produces the
famous hot springs and geysers along with periodic cataclysmic volcanic eruptions, since the
hotspot produces a more viscous, explosive magma when located under a continent. The last
lava flow in Yellowstone occurred approximately 70,000 years ago, with the last major
‘supervolcanic’ Yellowstone eruption occurring about 640,000 years ago.
Map of Global Hotspots courtesy of USGS: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/world_map.html

VOLCANIC FEATURES
http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/poster/poster.php
Within the earth’s mantle rock material is constantly being melted into magma. Since this
magma is less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks it rises as a magma plume through the
lithosphere and accumulates in a reservoir of magma known as a magma chamber. At times,
the magma solidifies underground, crystallizing into igneous intrusive rocks. However,
sometimes the magma finds its way upward through cracks, fissures and vents, finally extruded
in a heated rush of lava or violently erupted as gas, lava and tephra (airborne fragments) from the
earth’s surface; a volcano is born as a cone-shaped feature made of layers of lava and ash.
Volcano Life Stage: Erupting, Active, Dormant or Extinct

Over the years the terms active, dormant and extinct have taken on a whole set of meanings, so
let’s cut to the chase and define the life stage of a volcano in modern scientific terms. A volcano
is considered to be erupting if it is actively extruding tephra or volcanic gas, or showing signs of
increasingly shallow earthquakes.
A volcano doesn’t have to be erupting to be considered active. Any volcano is considered to be
active if it has erupted with the last 10,000 years. This may seem like a long time, but in
geologic terms 10,000 years passes in the blink of an eye, and some volcanoes only erupt once
every million years or more. The volcanoes of Yellowstone National park erupt in a regular
pattern about every 700,000 years, and they last erupted 640,000 years ago. These volcanoes
would be considered dormant since if they haven’t erupted in the last 10,000 years, but the
tectonic forces that produce the magma source for the volcano are still ongoing. Human life-
times often make for a false sense of security when it comes to volcanoes. The Romans
considered Vesuvius to no longer be a threat before its catastrophic eruption of 79 CE destroyed
the city Pompeii. As you can tell, it’s often difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from
a dormant volcano.
Extinct volcanoes are those which are unlikely to ever erupt again because the tectonic forces
that once supplied magma to the volcano are no longer active. The Hawaiian Islands to the
northwest of the Big Island are classic examples of extinct volcanoes because they have moved
away from the underlying hotspot, the supply source for their magma. These islands will not see
volcanic activity again, so you have to visit the Big Island of Hawaii if you want to observe
volcanic activity in Hawaii.
Types of Volcanic Eruptions: Effusive & Explosive

http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/lesson1/lesson1.php
Volcanic eruptions are divided into two main categories; explosive and effusive. As the name
implies, explosive eruptions tend to be volatile and dangerous in nature. The main reason for
this is that the magma and lava feeding explosive volcanoes is viscous (sticky), which tends to
trap gases inside the magma. Since the gases cannot easily escape, pressure builds inside the
magma until the volcano blows its top in a violent eruption. As the volcano erupts the sudden
release of pressure blasts super-heated gases, lava, and pulverized rock into the air. These
airborne fragments are called tephra, and can range in size from fine ash particles to enormous
boulders (called bombs if still semi-liquid). The initial violent eruption is often followed by less-

explosive lava flows. Explosive eruptions can release enormous quantities of tephra, lava, and
gases, including carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, and water vapor.
What makes explosive volcanoes so deadly is the combination of tephra and gravity. Thick
clouds of super-heated ash and gas can race down mountains at incredible speeds, incinerating
everything in their path. Volcanic ash falls back to earth’s surface, accumulating in thick layers
of that can suffocate and bury people, animals and plants. Thick ash layers can build up on
rooftops which can collapse from the weight, especially if combined with the weight of water if
heavy rainfall follows an eruption. Lastly, the heat and tephra from an eruption can melt the
snowpack on the high slopes of a volcano, or mix with fast-flowing rivers to create a deadly
volcanic mudflow known as a lahar. Lahars can bury entire villages on the lower slopes of the
volcanoes.
Explosive eruptions are further divided based on the intensity of the eruption and the amount of
ash and lava produced by the eruption, with names indicative of historical examples. These
include Strombolian, Vulcanian, Pelean, and the most catastrophic, the Plinian eruption.
On the other hand, effusive eruptions are not normally explosive, and are instead associated
with fluid lava that flows like hot honey from a volcanic fissure, vent, or crater. Fluid lavas
allow the trapped gases to escape easily, so they do not allow gas pressures to build up to
explosive levels. This is not to say that gases aren’t released, as water vapor and carbon dioxide
are always released during effusive eruptions, it’s just that these gases aren’t pressurized like
they are in explosive eruptions. Effusive eruptions are also divided into categories based on
famous examples, including Hawaiian-type eruptions and Icelandic-type eruptions.

http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/poster/poster.php#posterfig5

TYPES OF VOLCANOES http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/lesson1/lesson1.php
Though every volcano has unique characteristics based largely on the chemistry and temperature
of the magma, volcanoes can be assigned to one of five basic types known as shield volcanoes,
composite volcanoes, cinder cones, lava domes and calderas.
Shield volcanoes, like Kilauea in Hawaii, form by
effusive eruptions of layer-upon-layer of fluid,
basaltic lava. The hot, fluid lava runs down the
gently-sloping volcanic slope for many miles
before solidifying, so these volcanoes do not tend
to have steep slopes. Instead, the gently-sloping
volcanic shape resembles a warrior's shield.
Shield volcanoes can erupt from a central vent or
from cracks along the slope of the volcano known
as fissures.
Hawaii’s fissure eruptions (http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/fissure.php) can extrude
vast quantities of basaltic lava which can
blanket the landscape in what are referred
to as flood basalts. These basaltic lavas
come in three main varieties. Pahoehoe
is basaltic lava that has a smooth, lobed
surface. When pahoehoe solidifies it is
easy to walk on, though you can still hear
the cracking of the new rock beneath
your feet as you walk on it.
Photo: Kilauea Fissure Eruption.
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Kilauea/32512553-001_large.jpg
The second type of

basaltic flow from
fissures is called Àà
(pronounced "ah-ah"),
a lava flow with a
rough, broken, angular
surface, making
walking very difficult.
Àà lava flow, Kilauea.
Pahoehoe flow, Kilauea
Photos: USGS http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Photoglossary/aa_large.jpg

The third type of Hawaiian basaltic flow is
called Pillow Basalt. These lavas take on the
lobed shape of pillows as the lava is extruded
directly into the ocean water (they also form
when lava is extruded into ice as in Iceland).
As the outer surface of the lava instantly
cools it forms a basaltic shell. The inner
portion remains liquid and as the flow
progresses, lava squeezes out of the shell to
form a new encrusted lobe. The process goes
on and on, forming vast volumes of basalt
that resemble gray-black pillows.
Photo:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/nur05018.jpg
Note: For more viscous fissure eruptions involving silica-rich lava like that of rhyolite, there is an additional type of
flow called blocky. Here, the lava breaks into large blocks measuring several feet in diameter.
Composite Volcanoes (or Stratovolcanoes) are steep-sided, cone-shaped features built from
explosive eruptions that are followed by extrusions of effusive lava. The result is that composite
volcanoes are composed of alternating layers of ash and cinders with silica-rich extrusive rocks
which solidified from viscous lava. These are extremely explosive features due to the viscous
nature of the magma feeding them. The Cascade Range, running from Northern California to
Washington State and continuing to British Columbia, contains many active composite
volcanoes including Mt. Shasta, Mt. Lassen, Mt. Baker, Mt. Rainier, and the infamous Mt. St.
Helens, which erupted violently in May of 1980 (see below).
Mount St. Helens BEFORE the 1980 eruption.

Mount St. Helens DURING the May, 1980 eruption
AFTER the eruption
Photos: http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/poster/poster.php#posterfig5
Volcanoes of the Cascade Range (Mainland US including California)
http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/lesson6/lesson6.php
List of US Volcanoes by region: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/about/volcanoes/region/index.php

Cinder Cones http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html
Cinder cones are relatively small, cone-shaped, explosive volcanic features. In many ways they
resemble a true volcano, but they lack significant internal layers of solidified lava required of
true volcanoes. Cinder cones form when very viscous lava is erupted in an explosive burst,
sending blobs of lava into the air where it breaks into small fragments and cools rapidly into fine
ash and coarser cinders. The ash is carried by the wind, while the heavier cinders fall back to
earth around the central vent, creating a cone of cinders that have welded themselves together
under the tremendous heat. Some cinder cone eruptions are followed by effusive lava flows, but
the volume of cinders far outweighs that of lava.
Most cinder cones have a depressed, circular
crater at the summit and most cinder cones
rise only a few hundred feet above the
nearby landscape. Cinder cones are common
in California’s Owens Valley. Red Hill,
located near the Owens Valley town of Coso
Junction, about half-way between Los
Angeles and Mammoth Lakes, is a classic
cinder cone reddened by the oxidation of its
iron-rich minerals.
A famous cinder cone began to grow from a small vent on a farm near the village of Parícutin,
Mexico In 1943. By the early 1950s it had built itself into a 1,200-foot high cone, with ash
covering about 100 square miles having destroyed the nearby towns.
Lava Domes http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html
Lava domes form from very viscous,

silica-rich lava which is too ‘sticky’ to
flow, so the lava piles up within a
volcanic crater or around a volcanic vent.
Lava domes grow slowly over months and
years, often splitting open, sending pieces
of the outer, solidified shell tumbling
down its slopes.
Calderas: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/caldera.php
A caldera is a collapsed volcano, formed when the

shallow magma chamber of a large stratovolcano
empties rapidly, usually because of a large
explosive eruption. The weakened walls of the
stratovolcano crumble into the evacuated magma
chamber, creating a circular depression ringing the
former volcano’s summit. Calderas are much
larger than volcanic craters, which are formed by the blasting away of rock at the peak of the
volcano during eruptions.
Photo: Santorini Caldera, Greece. (Leaver)
Video of how calderas form: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1173/
MEASURING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/vei.php
The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is used to quantify the magnitude of explosive volcanic
eruptions, in much the same way the Moment Magnitude is used to measure earthquake strength.
The VEI ranges from 0 (small, non-explosive eruptions) to 8 for super-volcanic, cataclysmic
eruptions. The index is logarithmic, so each step up in category represents a ten-fold increase in
explosivity, The VEI is calculated using several factors including the volume of erupted tephra,
the maximum height of ash column, and the duration of the eruption.
The figure to the right shows the volumes of several
key explosive eruptions and their corresponding
VEI. The numbers in parentheses represent total
volume of uncompacted erupted tephra, ash, and
pyroclastic flows ejected by the eruption.
The figure shows that the eruption of California’s
Long Valley Caldera (near Mammoth Lakes) some
760,000 years ago had a VEI of 7 and a volume of
600 km3 of material. Larger still was the explosive
eruption at Yellowstone about 600,000 years ago
with a VEI of 8 and a volume of about 1,000 km3 of
pyroclastic material from the volcano.
Here’s another way of showing the volume of ash
ejected during selected eruptions. Compare the
May, 1980 Mt. St. Helens eruption with that of
Krakatau (1883) and Tambora (1815).

Diagram: http://edc2.usgs.gov/pubslists/teachers-packets/volcanoes/lesson3/lesson3.php
VOLCANIC HAZARDS: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/about/faq/faqhazards.php

Lahars are flows of mud, rock, debris and water caused by mixing of solid debris with water,
melted snow, or ice following a volcanic eruption. Lahars travel in existing river and stream
networks at such speeds that they destroy everything in their path including bridges, houses,
and entire towns. In 1985, lahars at Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Colombia, killed over 23,000
people. These deadly flows can travel many miles from the volcano itself, leaving a path of
destruction along its way.
Tephra (airborne ash and coarser debris) is composed of tiny fragments of volcanic rock
blasted into the atmosphere. Tephra falling back to the ground can build up in such thick
layers it causes roofs to collapse, especially when accompanied by rainfall. Tephra can also
endanger the lives of people with respiratory problems. It can clog machinery, including
aircraft engines. In April of 2010 tephra from an Icelandic volcano was responsible for
grounding Western Europe’s entire fleet of commercial aircraft for over a week.
Pyroclastic flows are hot, glowing clouds of tephra and super-heated gas that can travel at
over 100 miles per hour down the slopes of volcanoes, incinerating all objects and people in
their path. Pyroclastic flows at Mount Unzen, Japan, in June, 1991, killed 43 people including
world-renowned volcanologists Maurice and Katia Kraft.
Check out dsc.discovery.com/videos/ultimate-guide-to-volcanoes-pyroclastic-flow.html
Lava flows are usually slow-moving or largely confined to predictable paths, so they don’t
often prove to be deadly to humans. However, volcanoes can erupt for decades at a time, with
lava destroying anything in its path. Hawaii’s Kilauea has erupted almost continuously since
1983, with lava flows destroying the village of Kalapana in 1991.

PLUTONIC INTRUSIONS AND INTRUSIVE FEATURES:
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/VolcanicPast/Notes/plutons.html
Magma rising through the lithosphere may run out of energy before reaching the surface, in
which case the magma can solidify within the crust as a mass of igneous intrusive rock known as
a pluton or igneous intrusion. Igneous intrusions come in all shape and sizes since the magma
that forms these plutons can rise on the order of just weeks, or for tens of millions of years.
Some common forms include batholiths, laccoliths, stocks, dikes and sills.
Enormous igneous intrusions which cover an area of at

least 40 square miles at the surface of the earth are
called a batholith. The size of the pluton may be
much greater under the ground but it is the area exposed
at the surface which is used to determine the type of
intrusion. We never see batholiths form as this occurs
deep inside the crust, but subsequent uplift can bring
them to the surface where they often make up the cores
of major mountain ranges including California’s Sierra
Nevada, San Gabriel, and San Bernardino Mountains.
A laccolith or Dome Mountain is a shallow igneous

intrusion that is emplaced below sedimentary bedrock
formations, pushing them into a raised dome. The
magma crystallizes underground as granitic or dioritic
rocks which then form the core of the dome mountain.
Laccoliths tend to have rather flat bottoms and a
mushroom-shaped head. The Henry Mountains of Utah
are famous for their laccoliths, but this one from
Montana shows a true dome shape since the overlying
sedimentary rock has eroded away.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a6/Laccolith_Montana.jpg
A stock is just a small version of a batholith, with an
exposed surface area of less than 40 square miles.
Dikes are sheet-like intrusions that cut across or are
injected into weakened cracks within previously-
existing beds of rock (as shown in photo). A Sill is an
igneous intrusion that has been squeezed horizontally
between pre-existing rock layers without lifting these
layers into a dome (in which case it would be a
laccolith). Photo:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dike_diabase_AZ.jpg
FOLDING FEATURES
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fold_(geology)

When tectonic forces act in such a manner that they force sections of the crust towards each
other, the rocks that are squeezed together tend to either bend or break, sometimes both. If the
rock layers are ductile (flexible), as they sometimes are deep inside the crust, they tend to bend
before breaking. Other rocks are rigid (hard and inflexible) instead, and these tend not to bend at
all. For ductile rock beds, the compressional forces bend them into unusual curves, which
geologists term folds, which can range in size from inches to several miles across. These folds
come in an entire array of shapes and forms but we can categorize them into four main
recognizable types; anticlines, synclines, monoclines, and overturned folds.
Image from:
http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&sa=X&biw=1366&bih=667&tbm=isch&prmd=imvns&tbnid=mmHP1YRGj59fbM:&imgref
url=http://geology1a-
1.wikispaces.com/Folds%2Band%2BFaults%2Bwith%2Bcaptions&docid=iVXqMBCXgI7yfM&imgurl=http://geology1a-
1.wikispaces.com/file/view/folds.jpg/92356584/folds.jpg&w=600&h=433&ei=q_LbTq2fDcvZiAKJnNmqCg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vp
x=1061&vpy=117&dur=3697&hovh=191&hovw=264&tx=171&ty=94&sig=114094837325809326006&page=1&tbnh=141&tbnw
=195&start=0&ndsp=20&ved=1t:429,r:6,s:0
An anticline is an upward (convex)

bend in bedrock, and is especially
common in sedimentary rocks. The
older rock layers are found in the

middle of the anticline, with progressively younger rock layers towards the outside and top.
Check out http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticline

Photo: New Jersey Anticline
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NJ_Route_23_anticline.jpg
A syncline is a downward fold in bedrock

layers. The older rock layers tend to be at the
outer edges of the syncline, with the younger
layers closer to the center. Check out
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncline
Photo: Syncline at Rainbow Basin, CA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rainbow_Basin.JPG
A monocline is a single, step-like fold in layers of

bedrock.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Monocl
ine.JPG
With an overturned or recumbent

fold the compressional tectonic
forces have squeezed the rock units
so tightly that they have completely
bent over, with the upper portion of
the fold overriding the lower portion.
In this case, some of the older rock
layers have been placed above some
of the younger layers.
Photo: Recumbent Fold, Norway.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caledonian_orogeny_fold_in_King_Oscar_Fjord.jpg

FAULTING FEATURES
Brittle layers of bedrock that are subjected to stress tend to break rather than bend. These breaks
in brittle bedrock are referred to as faults. A fault is defined as a fracture or break between two
blocks of bedrock resulting in measureable offset or displacement (movement) between the two
blocks. The offset can be horizontal, vertical, or more often than not a combination of both. The
offset along a fault can occur gradually in the form of creep, or rapidly during an earthquake.
Faults vary in length from less than a mile to hundreds of miles in length, with repeated offset
every few years to thousands of years. Check out the following link to view animations of the
major fault types. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/faq/?faqID=55
Faults are usually divided into three main types known as normal, reverse (thrust), and strike-slip
faults.
A normal fault is a break in the earth’s crust due to the crust being pulled apart and thinned out
(geologists refer to this as crustal extension). The thinning crust breaks into individual blocks
bounded by steep fault lines, with some blocks being pulled down and adjacent blocks being
forced upwards. The net result is a series of mountain ranges separated by deep valleys as in the
Basin and Range Province extending from eastern California to Utah.
A thrust fault or reverse

fault is a break in bedrock
due to tectonic forced
compressing a portion of the
crust. The result is one block
of bedrock moves higher than
the block on the opposing side
of the fault. If the fault angle
is high (steep) we often call
these reverse faults, and if the
angle is low we refer to them
as thrust faults, but in essence
they both operate in much the
same way. Our local
mountains including the Santa
Susana, Santa Monica and
San Gabriel Mountains as
well as the Verdugo Hills are
being uplifted along reverse
faults running along their bases.
A strike-slip fault is a localized break in bedrock where two blocks slide past one another along
the fault line. California’s San Andreas Fault is not only a Transform Plate Boundary, it’s also a
famous example of a strike-slip fault. Strike-slip faults come in two varieties; Left-lateral
strike-slip faults are those where the opposite side of the fault moves to the left during an
earthquake, as with California’s Garlock Fault. Right-lateral strike-slip faults are those where
the displacement on the opposite side of the fault is to the right. This is the case with the San
Andreas Fault.

MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes measurement has evolved steadily over time. We no longer use the Richter scale
for measuring earthquake strength, as this 1930s-era scale has been replaced with the more
suitable Moment magnitude and Modified Mercalli Intensity scales.
Moment Magnitude (Mw) is the modern scale used by the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) for measuring the energy released during an earthquake. The magnitude is based on
the seismic moment of the earthquake, which is calculated from strength of the ruptured rocks,
the length of the fault rupture, and the average displacement. These parameters are obtained
from both seismographs, field observations, and geodetic measurements. The scale is
logarithmic, so an increase of one step corresponds to a 101.5 (approx. 32 times) increase in the
amount of energy released, and an increase of two steps corresponds to a 103 = 1000 times
increase in energy. Moment Magnitude is accurate for an entire range of earthquake magnitudes,
which is not true of the old Richter scale. Lastly, there is only one Moment Magnitude for an
earthquake, even though the shaking is generally stronger near the epicenter and in general gets
less with distance from there. To explain and measure the shaking intensity, we have to look to a
different scale.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity scale (MM) is used to quantify the intensity of an earthquake
by measuring the earthquake’s effects on the landscape, people, and buildings. This scale ranges
from I (not even felt) to XII (total destruction of buildings and bridges), and a single earthquake
will produce multiple values based in a general sense on the distance from the earthquake’s
epicenter.
There isn’t a direct correlation between Moment Magnitude and Modified Mercalli Intensity, as
many factors such as bedrock topography, surface topography, earthquake depth, land use, and
population influence the MM scale. A weak but shallow earthquake below a densely populated
city could yield a moderate intensity on the MM scale, whereas a strong but deep earthquake
under a sparsely populated area would produce a very low intensity on the MM scale. With that
said, when averaging out the data from hundreds of earthquakes, a general correlation can be
identified between earthquake magnitude and earthquake intensity (see below).
Magnitude (Mw) Typical Maximum Modified Mercalli Intensity

1.0 - 3.0 I
3.0 - 3.9 II – III
4.0 - 4.9 IV – V
5.0 - 5.9 VI – VII
6.0 - 6.9 VII – IX
7.0 + VIII +
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/mag_vs_int.php)

The following is courtesy of the USGS (your tax dollars going to work for you).
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/mag_vs_int.php)
Abbreviated Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.
III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not
recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations are similar to the passing
of a truck. Duration estimated.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors
disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars
rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects overturned.
Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary
structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with
partial collapse. Damage is great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns,
monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out of plumb.
Damage is great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with
foundations. Rails bent.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
XII. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects are thrown into the air.
AMPLIFICATION http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=amplification
Seismic waves pass through

bedrock quite abruptly.
However, the subsurface
topography below
depositional basins such as
valleys, and the nature of the
valley sediment, can
combine to increase or
amplify earthquake shaking
by focusing the seismic
energy. This USGS map
shows the total amplification
expected in future
earthquakes in the Los
Angeles area.
Check out this animation of shaking amplification:

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/animations/animation.php?flash_title=Amplification+Flash+Animation&flash_file
=amplification&flash_width=400&flash_height=380

SEISMOGRAPHS, FORESHOCKS, MAINSHOCKS AND AFTERSHOCKS
Earthquake motions are recorded on seismographs, sensitive instruments that record ground
motions on a continuous basis. Thousands of seismographs are placed around the globe, giving
us an ability to monitor ground motions in most every ‘corner’ of the world. When an earthquake
occurs, the seismograph can record important data such as the duration of the quake and the
amplitude of the shaking. Comparing data from multiple seismographs allows scientists to
pinpoint the epicenter of the earthquake, the direction of rupture, and ultimately the fault
responsible for the quake. Earthquakes can be categorized into three main types; foreshocks,
mainshocks and aftershocks.
Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that are followed shortly thereafter by a larger
earthquake. Obviously, you cannot tell that an earthquake is only a foreshock until after the
subsequent larger earthquake (called a mainshock) occurs, and not all mainshocks are preceded
by foreshocks. According to the USGS (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/abc/parents/pf.html)
“About 6% of the time in California an aftershock will be larger than its mainshock. We then change
our terminology and call the first earthquake a foreshock and the aftershock is called the mainshock.
The most notable difference between foreshock-mainshock pairs and mainshock-aftershock pairs is
that foreshocks always occur very close in space to their mainshock. Although aftershocks often
occur over the full length of the fault and sometimes tens of kilometers away from the fault, we have
never seen a foreshock more than 10 km away from its mainshock. Because of the possibility that
any earthquake could be a foreshock, the state of California has issued earthquake advisories when an
earthquake has occurred within 10 km of a fault long enough to produce a major earthquake such as
the San Andreas fault. Just like most aftershocks occur right after their mainshock, most mainshocks
occur very soon after their foreshock. The most likely time for a mainshock is within the first hour
(one-quarter of all mainshocks happen within an hour of their foreshock) and after three days the risk
of a larger event is almost gone. This is important to remember if you ever hear an earthquake
advisory. The most likely time for the potential mainshock is immediately and any action you take in
response to the advisory should be something you are willing to be doing in a big earthquake.”
The mainshock is the largest earthquake in a sequence, possibly but not necessarily preceded by
one or more foreshocks, and almost always followed by many aftershocks.
An aftershock (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=aftershocks) is an earthquake that follows

the largest shock of an earthquake sequence. It is smaller than the mainshock and located no
more than two rupture lengths from the mainshock. Aftershocks can continue for weeks
following moderate earthquakes and up to several years following large-magnitude events.
Check out this animation showing foreshocks (blue), the mainshock (red) and aftershocks (yellow):
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/animations/animation.php?flash_title=Aftershock+Flash+Anima
tion&flash_file=aftershock&flash_width=400&flash_height=275
As for earthquake timing, there is no special ‘earthquake time’. Earthquakes occur in geologic
time and although many Californians tend to believe that earthquakes occur more often in the
early morning hours, there is no supporting evidence for this. True, the two largest California
earthquakes of the 20th century occurred between 4 and 5am, but the third largest occurred at 10
pm. and California has experienced large earthquakes at 1am, 8am, and 5pm. Earthquakes can

happen at any time and we should plan for them at home, work and school.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/abc/parents/pt.html
EARTHQUAKE RECURRANCE INTERVAL

The recurrence interval, or return period, is the average time span between large
earthquakes at a particular site. Recent scientific studies indicate that powerful
earthquakes along the southern section of the San Andreas Fault, the portion running
within 35 miles of Los Angeles, have occurred far more often than previously believed,
about every 88 years on average. The last big earthquake on this part of the San Andreas
was in 1857, so we appear to be WAY overdue. If this thought doesn’t “shake” you up,
consider that the portion further south, near Palm Springs, hasn’t shifted in more than 300
years, and there are numerous smaller faults located directly below LA’s population
centers which are also capable of large quakes.
A Map of Recent California Earthquakes (check it out)

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqscanv/
MAJOR EARTHQUAKE HAZARD; TSUNAMI

A tsunami or "seismic sea wave" is an oceanic wave that results from a large undersea
earthquake, large enough to lift a portion of the ocean floor vertically. They can also be
generated from large undersea landslides, or exploding volcanic islands.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=tsunami
When the ocean has been faulted upwards water and energy are displaced in all directions across
the ocean surface. In the deep ocean tsunamis can travel at speeds of 500 mph or more, but as
they approach shallow coastlines they slow down and build into massive waves or a series of
waves-built-on-waves. As the waves crash on shore they are often traveling 30 to 40 mph and
can be over 50 or even 100 feet high. There is no outrunning a tsunami, so the best protection is
an early warning and seeking the safety of high (very high) ground.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/abc/parents/pt.html
LIQUEFACTION
Liquefaction http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=liquefaction
Liquefaction is the process where water-saturated sediment loses internal strength as a result of
earthquake shaking. The process is most common in unconsolidated silt and fine sand deposits

where the water table is very close to the surface. Once the earthquake shaking stops the
sediments harden back up, but by this time many buildings might have partially sunk into the
liquefied sediment, with buried objects like septic tanks actually ‘floated’ to the surface.
Animation:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/animations/animation.php?flash_title=Liquefaction+Flash+Ani
mation&flash_file=liquefaction&flash_width=450&flash_height=200
EARTHQUAKE PREPARATION
Please read so that you’re prepared for the BIG ONE!! This was initially written for parents to inform and
prepare their children but it is still valid for us.
Recent images of earthquakes and tsunamis from around the world have captivated us all,
reminding us of mother nature’s immense power. No matter how terrifying the images, these
events have a tendency to fade from our minds over time, and are soon removed from our thoughts
completely even though with live with the constant threat of a large earthquake in California.
So what can we do about this? The answer…...nothing at all…and everything we can.
The question is not IF we’ll experience a large quake, the question is WHEN…and there is
absolutely nothing we can do to stop these earthquakes from occurring.
Then again, to protect ourselves and our children from the forces unleashed by a large earthquake,
we can do so very much if we plan in advance
Most Southern Californians are aware of the risk of experiencing earthquakes, but our children
may not be so aware, and most of us are not prepared our homes or families for a large earthquake.
To prepare, every family (that’s adults and children) needs to discuss what to expect during an
earthquake, what to do during and after the event, and how to prepare now for an earthquake.
The first step is to discuss the following with the whole family that:
1. We do indeed have earthquakes in Southern California (a favorite children’s book on this is The
Magic Tree House - Earthquake in the Early Morning, by Mary Pope Osborne)
2. Though the shaking might be scary, it will only last between 30 seconds and 3 minutes
3. During the shaking they should stay away from buildings if already outside, and if inside they
should drop to the floor or hide under the closest safe space, and cover their head with their
hand…hold on…be quiet …and try not to panic. The motto here is Drop-Cover-Hold.
4. Once the shaking stops children should shout out so parents or teachers know where they are,
and then quickly get to a safe place as aftershocks will likely occur within minutes. Normally,
aftershocks are not as strong and do not last nearly as long, but they can still add to the damage.
5. Identify where to meet and where to call to "check in" if you become separated from your
family during a disaster (older children with cell phones should have parents #s programmed and a
phone# for a point of contact to check in with if local lines are down or overloaded). All family
members can also contact RedCross.org to register on the Safe and Well Website or call 1-866
GET-INFO and they will register for you.

6. Make sure to discuss with your children the emergency plan at their school (and any after-school
care programs) and who is listed on their emergency card. Assure them that someone will be there
as soon as possible to get them but it may take time to get there. Remind them that others may be
hurt and need care so they should stay calm and help comfort and calm those around them so the
adults can care for others. Let your children know that the school has plans in place for providing
food and water and contacting you.
7. The event can be particularly difficult for kids to make sense of, so talk to them and involve
them in cleanup tasks after the event. This will allow them to feel more connected to you, the
parents, it will make them feel like they are part of the cleanup solution, and it will allow them to
feel a sense of personal control returning to their lives.
Major pre-earthquake planning includes:

1. Safety-proofing your home
2. Securing emergency supplies
- Food, water, first-aid, clothing, camping gear, other essentials
- Use what you already have before buying new stuff, and involve children in selecting the foods
that will be part of your emergency supply kit.
3. Remembering to update your plan and supplies at least once a year.
- Use a specific annual date to change out your supplies by using up the old supplies and
replacing them the same day with fresh ones (water, food, batteries, etc..). Kid’s tastes change
over time, so again, involve them in the new selections. I might suggest the Christmas Holiday
season as this is a time families get together, and December 26 is the anniversary of the 2004
Sumatra Earthquake and the resulting Indian Ocean Tsunami. Another option would be Martin
Luther King holiday weekend, as this is the anniversary of the Northridge Earthquake, and the
holiday’s MLK moniker can have a secondary meaning of “My Lifesaving Kit”. Or, better yet,
choose your child’s birthdate so they will never let you forget this important annual event.
Safety-Proofing Your Home

Most houses in So Calif will stand up well to a large earthquake, and with some advance
planning they can be made even safer. Remember, what may seem safe to adults might be a
heavy, dangerous object to children. Some ideas are:
- Securing cupboards, bookcases and other heavy objects to the walls, with heavy objects kept on
lower shelves.
- Securing overhead fans to a support beam
- Strapping your water heater to the wall and bolting your house to its foundation
- Knowing the location of your utility shut-offs and any tool needed to switch them off.
- Having a WORKING fire extinguisher in the house and knowing how to use it.
- Keeping a flashlight and shoes next to your bed
- Have a practice drill, so the whole family can identify safe zones within each room
IT IS CRITICALLY IMPORTANT TO INVOLVE THE ENTIRE FAMILY(pets,too) IN THE
PLANNING AND PRACTICING. The more you plan and practice the more empowered your
child will feel

Secure Emergency Supplies
Food
Remember, your house might be damaged, but it is unlikely your house will collapse in an
earthquake, even a large one. There will be no electricity for a while, so your fridge/freezer will
be of little use after a day or more. Therefore, it is recommended that you obtain a large, good
quality plastic cooler to store your non-perishable foods in, so that the food is edible when you
need it. You’ll need a supply of food which will need to last several days. This can be
accomplished by using up the food from your fridge/freezer first, but also having a stored supply
of non-perishable food like canned fruit, beans, meat, juice and milk or baby formula. Let the
children in the family help select some tasty but healthy foods…and don’t forget the pet food for
Fido!
Water
After an earthquake your main water source may be broken or contaminated, so you need to have
a plan for drinking water. This can be done by storing a case or more of bottled water for every
person in your household (plus pets!). Another option is to use the water in your water heater or
swimming pool, which will need to be filtered - using a Brita or Pur type filter (many of us have
these already but make sure you have extra filters) to remove the chlorine– and then boiled to kill
any germs.
FIRST AID
Sterile adhesive bandages of different sizes
(fun character ones will take your child’s mind off of minor scrapes or cuts,etc).
Bandages and tape
Peroxide
Scissors, tweezers
Antibiotic cream
Aspirin, Children’s Tylenol or other pain reliever
Copies of all medications currently being taken
- Take a CPR class (even children age 11+ can get first certification through Red Cross)
Clothes
Everyone in your house should have a complete change of clothes and a pair of sturdy shoes or
boots stored in the disaster kit. Old shorts, sweat shirts, t-shirts and sandals (maybe best to stick
with tennis due to glass and debris) would be ideal. Diapers might be needed for the little ones.
Camping Gear
You might well have camping gear around, and this will come in handy after an earthquake. If
you store it in an easily accessible area, you should be able to get to it even if your house or
garage is slightly damaged during the quake. It would be beneficial to have a plastic tarp or two,
blankets, sleeping bags and even a tent if you already have one. You’ll need something to cook
your food and boil your water with, so a camp stove or even your propane barbeque will do this
well. Remember, you’ll need fuel for these, so if you have a camp stove or bbq, always keep 2
extra bottles around. You’d hate to find yourself in need of propane AFTER an earthquake.

Other Essentials
Battery-operated radio and flashlight or crank radio with flashlight and cell phone charger
Can opener
Work gloves and dust mask
Lighter
Toilet paper, plastic bags and empty 5-gallon paint bucket with lid
Liquid Soap
Paper and pencils, coloring books, cards, board games for children
Something familiar like a favorite stuffed toy
Create a small family photo album together that contains happy memories to keep everyone
smiling/laughing
( include photos of your family or children with your pets in case pets go missing in the
confusion)
Insurance company contact details
Remembering to update and refresh your supplies

Use a specific annual date to change out your supplies by using up the old supplies and replacing
them the same day with fresh ones (water, food, batteries, etc..). Kid’s tastes change over time,
so again, involve them in the new selections. I might suggest the Christmas Holiday season as
this is a time families get together, and December 26 is the anniversary of the Banda Aceh
Earthquake and the resulting Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004. Another option would be Martin
Luther King holiday weekend, as this is the anniversary of the Northridge Earthquake, and the
holiday’s MLK moniker can have a secondary meaning of “My Lifesaving Kit”. Or, better yet,
choose your child’s birthdate so they will never let you forget this important annual event (they
can even tuck away a special birthday card or note from someone special to reread the next year
or to keep them smiling during the clean-up effort).
The important lesson here is to make a plan, include the whole family in it, and put the
plan into action. When the ‘big one’ comes, you and your family will be very glad you did.
Please remember to take a look at the following online resources for more details and
ideas:
www.earthquakecountry.info
www.dropcoverhold.org
www.seismic.ca.gov
www.scec.org (So Cal EQ Center)
www.redcross.org (has a very good Earthquake Safety Checklist).

WEATHERING, EROSION & MASS WASTING
Earth’s surface landforms are sculptured through a number of processes that see rock materials
weathered into smaller pieces, transported by water, wind, ice and/or gravity, then deposited
at a lower elevation. We will now explore the key processes of weathering, transportation and
deposition along with some landforms that result in areas where ice, wind and water play the
dominant role in sculpting the earth’s surface.
Weathering
Weathering essentially refers to the breaking down or chemical alteration of rock material at or
just below the earth’s surface. Weathering usually results in smaller, weaker rock fragments and
molecules which can then be more easily removed and transported (eroded) by wind, water, ice
and gravity. There are two main forms of weathering known as Physical Weathering (sometimes
referred to as Mechanical Weathering) and Chemical Weathering.
Physical weathering involves physically breaking rocks into fragments without changing the
chemical make-up of the rock material. This can be achieved in numerous ways, including:
• Freeze-Thaw: This process occurs when ice forms inside existing cracks or pores
within rocks. As the ice forms it exerts enough pressure to extend the cracks deeper
into the rock. If this ice subsequently melts, the water can make its way deeper into the
cracks of the rock. If
this water was to freeze
once more (and
expand), the cracks
would extend further
into the rock material.
This process can be
especially effective in
mountainous
environments where
mild temperatures can
be experienced during
the day followed by
freezing temperatures
at night. This
repetitious freeze-thaw
action is responsible
for the ice wedging in
the high altitude rock outcrops of California’s mountains including the Sierra Nevada
where rocks, large and small, have been wedged from their source before falling to form
a talus cone at the base of cliffs.
Rock fractured by freeze-thaw. Photo by Kathy Duret.

• Root Wedging: This process is similar to Ice wedging,
but instead of ice it’s the roots of trees and other plants
that break open the rock material. As a young tree
begins to take root, it will expand its roots downward
and outward as it tries to secure itself, obtain moisture,
and grab nutrients. As these roots grow they can exert
enormous pressure, and if the roots find themselves in an
enclosed space (like a crack in a rock, or under a
sidewalk) the force is more than enough to crack the rock
further or lift up a sidewalk. This process can occur in
any environment with significant biological activity.
Even small plants and lichen can extend tiny roots into
the microscopic cracks of rocks in the arctic tundra,
thereby loosening the surface of these rocks. Conversely,
areas where large trees and associated roots are
abundant, such a tropical and mid-latitude forests, might
experience extensive root wedging many feet below the
land surface. Root Wedging. Photo by Kathy Duret.
• Salt Crystal Growth: In dry desert environments salt crystals growing in the pores,
cracks and joints of rocks can cause the physical
break-up of the rock material. Crystal growth
occurs when salty water finds its way into the pores
or spaces of rocks. As this salty water dries out,
pure water evaporates into the atmosphere while
the salt crystalizes and grows in the cracks of the
rocks. The growth of the salt crystals puts pressure
on the rock, causing the cracks and pores to extend
further into rocks, ultimately breaking them into
ever-smaller pieces.
Rock broken up by salt crystal growth. Photo by Kathy Duret.
• Erosional Unloading (exfoliation): Some types of rocks (e.g. igneous intrusive and
some metamorphic rocks) are formed at great depth in the earth’s crust, under
tremendous pressure. The high pressure, a result of the weight of all those layers of
overlying rock material, tends to create very dense, uniform rocks without cracks or
pores. When these rocks are uplifted towards the earth’s surface and the overlying
rocks are weathered and eroded away, they become subjected to progressively less
external pressure. Think of a page of notebook paper that you crumple up as tight as
you can to form a paper ball. Once you let go of the
paper and are no longer applying pressure, the paper
ball you just created will grow larger. Rocks created
under pressure act the same way as they are uplifted
towards the earth’s surface. The lower pressure
creates tension within the rock materials which
expand as a result, and a pattern of cracks (called
joints) forms within the rocks. The joints typically
form a pattern of 90-degree angles relative to the overlying surface.
Photo of exfoliated granitic rocks by Kathy Duret.
These joints are then exposed to other types of weathering, which further enhances the
extent of the cracks. This can result in blocky, cube-like outcrops in some locations or
an onion-layer appearance on the surface of large rock domes.
Chemical weathering involves a chemical change in the rock material by removing (or at
times, adding to) elements from the chemical structure of the rock material. Chemical
weathering occurs in-place, and there is no significant movement of the rock material. The
major types of chemical weathering include the following:
• Carbonation: Rock materials that are
subjected to acidic water can be significantly
weakened as their chemical composition is
disrupted by chemical reaction with carbonic
acid. This form of chemical weathering is
referred to as carbonation. Rainfall is naturally
acidic due in part to the mixing of carbon
dioxide and water in the atmosphere. The
carbon dioxide and water combine to form a
weak acid known as carbonic acid. This acidity
can be accentuated through the presence of atmospheric pollutants (recall our
discussion of Acid Rain). When precipitation occurs, the acidic rain drops interact with
rock materials at the earth’s surface. All
rock materials that interact with rainfall or
infiltrated soil water/groundwater have to
contend with acidic water, but rocks
composed of calcite minerals, such as
limestone, are the most susceptible to
carbonation. For limestone and similar
rock types, carbonic acid can dissolve the
rock material and carry the soluble
compounds away, leaving behind a void.
The voids can range in size from miniscule
to giant cave systems.
Tropical karst landscape, Ha Long Bay, Vietnam - created largely by the process of carbonation. Photos by author.
Add solution, stalagmites, etc.??
• Hydration/Hydrolysis: These are forms of chemical weathering where water
molecules are incorporated into the structure of minerals within rock material.
Hydration is where the entire water molecule is incorporated into the structure of the
mineral, making it larger and weaker than the original material. A key example is the
hydration of anhydrite minerals to form larger and weaker gypsum minerals. The
weaker gypsum minerals can then be physically weathered more easily. A similar
chemical weathering process involving water is Hydrolysis, but in this case the water
molecule (H2O) is broken up into its constituent ions (H+ and OH-), which are then
incorporated into the structure of the affected minerals. Hydrolysis makes the rock
material weaker and more susceptible to weathering. A key example is the very slow
hydrolysis of alkali feldspar minerals within granitic rocks, which yields soluble alkali
elements (potassium, sodium, calcium), clay minerals and quartz granules.
• Oxidation: Rock material that is exposed to oxygen (in the atmosphere or in water)
results in the mineral composition of the rock material being altered. This process,
called oxidation, occurs as oxygen atoms are incorporated into the structure of the
mineral, making the mineral less resistant to weathering.
As an example, rocks and minerals containing the element Iron
(Fe) change to a red color when oxidized. This color, and the
process that created it, are commonly called “rust”.
Photo of broken boulder showing evidence of oxidation weathering.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Weathering_9039.jpg/1280px-Weathering_9039.jpg
MASS WASTING & EROSION

The products of physical weathering are pieces of rock material that are typically smaller and
looser than the original rock material, whereas the products of chemical weathering are pieces of
rock material that are typically larger and looser than the original rock material. These looser
pieces of rock material can now be removed, transported and broken into smaller pieces as they
move further away from the original rock material through the processes of erosion and mass
wasting. Erosion refers to the removal and transportation of rock fragments primarily by the
force of water, ice or wind. Globally, water is the main agent of erosion but we’ll soon see that ice
is the dominant agent in glacial environments while wind can play a significant role in very dry
regions. Mass wasting is the downhill movement of rock material due primarily to gravity. Rock
falls, rock slides and debris flows are examples. To summarize, when a rock fragment is
chemically or physically loosened but does not move, we call this weathering. Once the rock
fragment is detached and begins to move, we call this erosion.
MASS WASTING:
Weathered rock materials at elevated positions such as hills or mountains, along with the rocks
they sit atop, are susceptible to being dislodged and moved downhill under the forces of gravity,
water, ice and wind. Mass wasting is the process whereby soil, sediment, regolith and rocks move
downslope due mostly to the force of gravity, aided by the presence of water. The presence of
water in the pores and cracks adds weight to the weathered rock material while also lubricating
the slippage surfaces. The mass wasting process can proceed quickly, as in a large boulder falling
from a cliff, or very slowly, as in the decades-long downhill ‘creep’ of soil on a hill.
Factors that influence mass wasting include the following:
• Slope angle: In general, the steeper the slope angle the more it is susceptible to mass
wasting. For example, steep cliffs are typically more susceptible to mass wasting compared
to mild slopes. Slopes can be made steeper when rock material is added to the top of the
slope (as can happen with a growing volcano) or by removing rock material from the lower
portion of the slope. This undercutting of the ‘toe’ of the slope can occur through erosion
and construction projects. In addition, water flows faster on a steep slope compared to a
mild slope, and faster-flowing water has a great ability to pick up and entrain rock material,
vegetation and other material, creating a type of mass wasting called a ‘debris flow’. Debris
flows are mobilized much more frequently on steep slopes compared to mild slopes.
• Type of rock material: Some rock types are more susceptible to mass wasting than
others. Crystalline rocks such as granite have incredibly strong bonds between the
minerals within the rock, allowing them to stand firm, even while forming massive cliffs.
On the other hand, rock materials that are not tightly consolidated such as loose, sandy
sediment cannot form such steep cliffs, especially if this sediment is very dry or excessively
wet.
• Geologic bed angle and orientation. Sedimentary rocks are typically formed in
horizontal layers deep below the surface. Once uplifted, these geologic strata can be
deformed, bent and tilted to form mountains and hills. The uplifted strata can be tilted and
oriented at various angles and directions, so that some strata dip downward but into the
hillside, while other strata can dip downward and out of the hillside. Though there are
many factors to consider, rock beds that dip outward from a mountain or hillside are
generally more susceptible to mass wasting compared to rock beds that dip inward
towards a hillside or mountain. This is because rock layers that dip into a mountain can’t
easily slip into the mountain.
• Water content: Water located in voids, cracks and pore spaces adds weight to the rock
material and lubricates the geologic strata. If some of these rock layers are rich in clay, the
presence of water can reduce the cohesion (stickiness) between rock layers, allowing
slippage and flow to occur more readily. Think of your experience walking on dry clay
versus wet clay – I’m sure you found it easier to slip on the wet clay. These rock materials
on a slope can experience the same response. For this reason, mass wasting events such as
landslides, debris flows and slumps can occur more frequently in California’s winter and
spring, during and immediately after our winter storms have moistened our hillsides.
• Vegetative cover: The presence of vegetation is critical to the stability of rock materials
on hillsides and steep slopes. The root systems of plants help hold the soil, sediment and
regolith in place, thereby stabilizing hillsides. Even with torrential rainfall, the leaves of
plants can slow down the velocity of rain drops, lessening their impact on the soil surface.
Plants can also slow down the velocity of water flowing along the surface of a hillside,
thereby reducing the water’s potential to erode the hillside. Conversely, slopes that have
been denuded of vegetation following a wildfire, construction, or other land use change are
more susceptible to both mass wasting and erosion. Keep an eye on the news in the winter
following a major brush fire. You are certain to see coverage as neighborhoods prepare for
debris flows (which many in the news press incorrectly refer to as mudslides).
Some Specific Types of Mass Wasting

There are numerous types of mass wasting, differentiated by the speed (from instantaneous to
decades or more) and the method (flow, fall, slide) of downhill movement. Here are just a few
types of mass wasting:
• Soil Creep (very slow downhill movement). Soil creep is

the very slow downhill movement of the upper few feet of
soil, regolith and/or rock due to the pull of gravity. The
process affects steeper slopes more than mild slopes, but
the process can occur on both. The downslope movement
of soil occurs with the daily and seasonal expansion of the
soil as it heats and expands, cools and contracts, absorbs
water and expands, then dries out and shrinks.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soil_creep#/media/File:Soil_Creep.tif
Individual grains of soil tend to move outward, parallel to the slope surface as the soil
expands, but then move vertically downward as the soil contracts. (diagram) → ↓ Repeated
action over months, years and decades leads to the slow downhill movement of the soil
grains. Deep tree roots can help protect slopes from soil creep, but shallow roots, poles,
fences and foundations are slowly carried rotated and carried downslope. The process
takes too long to be noticed by the naked eye but becomes very apparent after comparing
photographs taken years apart.
• Landslide (slow to fast downhill movement). A landslide is a rapid downslope movement

of a large mass of rock material along a weak, linear layer of strata. As the name implies,
landslides ‘slide’ rather than flow. Landslides are accentuated by rainfall as the infiltrating
water reaches the clay-rich strata, thereby
lubricating the slippage plane. This can also occur
through human activity such as over-watering of
lawns, breaking utility lines, or installing septic
systems on a vulnerable hillside. Landslides can
also be initiated through seismic activity as the
ground shaking can put an unstable slope into
motion. The common forms of landslides are
slump, debris slide, rock slide, rock fall, debris fall
and avalanche.
La Conchita Landslide, CA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:La_Conchita_landslide,_2005.jpg
• Slump (slow to fast downhill movement). A slump

is similar to a landslide, but the slippage occurs
along a curved, spoon-shaped surface within the
rock material rather than along a linear layer of
strata. of a decline. Slumps involve a mass of soil
or other material sliding along a curved surface
(shaped like a spoon). Crescent-shaped scarps
often form at the top (head) of a slump, while a
bulbous mound of rock debris forms at the bottom
(toe) of the slump.
Slump on Highway 35. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Slump_block_on_Interstate_Highway-35_-
_panoramio.jpg
• Debris Flow (moderate to fast downhill movement). As the name implies, a debris flow is
the fluid downhill movement of soil, regolith, and unearthed vegetation flowing downhill
after a major rainfall event. The storm run-off
tends to get channeled into hillside canyons, where
the fast-moving floodwaters pick up soil, rock
fragments and even trees to form a thick concrete-
like slurry that moves downhill at speeds of 40mph
or more. This dense, fast-moving slurry smashes
anything in its path, then takes the new debris
along for the ride. The energy of the debris flow
dissipates once the canyon opens out into a valley
or alluvial plain, where the debris flow deposits a
fresh, wet layer of mud, sand, gravel, boulders and
plant debris.
Photo: Aftermath of a debris flow in California, 1998.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FEMA_-_1337_-_Photograph_by_Dave_Gatley_taken_on_03-01-
1998_in_California.jpg
• Rock Fall (very fast downslope movement). A rock fall
occurs where rock fragments detach and freely fall down
a slope, such as a cliff face. Rock fall can occur as the
result of an earthquake, frost- or root-wedging of the
rock fragment, or even from disturbance of the rock
fragment by animals such as mountain goats. The fallen
rock material tends to accumulate at the base of the
slope. This fallen rock material is referred to as talus,
and the cone-shaped accumulation of rock material is
referred to as a talus cone.
Photo of talus cone. https://www.flickr.com/photos/gerrythomasen/9188093051
EROSION
As a reminder, erosion refers to the removal and transportation of rock fragments primarily by
the force of water, ice or wind. We will now explore the erosional processes associated with
flowing water, ice and wind, along with both the erosional and depositional landforms created by
these forces.
Glacial Processes & Landforms

Glacial landforms are created by a process where glaciers carve their way downslope from
mountains to valleys, or from continental interiors towards the coast. The two major types of
glaciers are known as alpine glaciers and continental glaciers based on whether they form
mainly due to their mountainous location or their continental location. (need map of modern
glaciers)
Most of today's glacial landforms were created

during a series of glacial advances and retreats
over the past 2 million years. Every part of the
planet has been influenced by these periods of
glaciation, but today the glaciers have retreated
far from their previous extents, so to experience
glaciers today you need to travel to high
mountainous areas (e.g. Rocky Mountains, Alps,
Andes, Himalayas, Southern Alps) or at high
latitude (e.g. Greenland, Antarctica).
Furthermore, as a result of climate change the

extent of glaciers is being reduced faster than ever
before. Even so, areas no longer glaciated can still
show evidence of prior glaciation through the
presence of landforms that only glacial activity
could have produced. These include both
erosional landforms, created when a glacier
removes rock material and transports it
downslope, and depositional landforms, when
the glacier releases the rock material.
USGS (1919) & NPS (2004) photos of Teklanika Glacier,
Alaska: https://www.nps.gov/articles/aps-v6-i1-c2.htm
NASA images of Muir Glacier, Alaska. https://climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/4/graphic-dramatic-glacier-melt/
Glacial Processes.
Glacial landforms are created as thick accumulations of ice begin to move downhill under
the pull of gravity. The source of the glacial ice is snowfall, but the snow needs many
decades to gradually change from loose
snow into firn (unpacked ice) and
finally into dense glacial ice. Not all ice
at high elevation or high latitude will
move. It requires the weight of
hundreds of feet of glacial ice to push
downward with enough force to
partially melt the bottom layer, making
it fluid enough to commence movement.
It takes centuries or millennia to
accumulate sufficient weight to set the
glacial ice in motion. Once in motion,
the mass of ice flows as a ‘river of ice’
known as a glacier.
NASA photo of Sondrestrom Glacier, Greenland
https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/image/sondrestrom.jpg
At the highest point of an alpine glacier, where the glacier first develops, we find a unique
landform known as a cirque, a lens-shaped excavation with the concave side of the lens
oriented downslope. Cirques have steep cliffs (called Arêtes) on the uphill sides, a
depression in the middle, and a slight ridge on the downhill side. If several cirques form on
the same mountain ridge, the intersecting lens shapes tend to form steep mountain spires
known as horns.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:YOSE_29_Glacial-features_WEB.jpg
The world’s most famous of horn is Switzerland’s Matterhorn.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Matterhorn#/media/File:Matterhorn_from_the_north-east.jpg
Cirques form when ice wedges rock material from the steep cliff faces, which then fall and
accumulate along with snow and ice below the cliffs. When enough snow, rock and ice have
accumulated they begin to flow downslope as an alpine glacier. As the glacier commences
its downslope flow it scours the floor of the cirque. Since so much ice and rock material has
accumulated at the base of the cliffs, the glacier scours a
deep depression on the floor of the cirque before riding
over the small ridge on the downhill edge of the
depression. The glacier then exits the cirque and
continues downslope, carving and scouring a u-shaped
valley as it grinds downhill. In warmer times and when
glaciers have retreated, water trapped in the depression
of the cirque will often form a small glacial lake known as a tarn.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cirque_glaciers#/media/File:Glacial_Cirque_Formation_EN.svg
Fresh snowfall, ice from avalanches, and ice from tributary glaciers adds to the ice content
of the upper portion of the glacier. This upper portion of the glacier, where new
accumulations snow and ice are greater than the amount lost to melting and sublimation is
referred to as the accumulation zone. As the glacier moves further downslope, it
encounters warmer and warmer temperatures, which tend to melt the ice and shrink the
glacier.
Alpine Glacier Diagram: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glacier_diagram.svg
The lower portion of the glacier, where ice loss is greater than the amount being
replenished is referred to the ablation zone. The melted ice turns into glacial meltwater,
which tends to flow under the glacier before exiting at the glacier’s terminus in for form of
a river. Over decades, glaciers can grow in size and volume if there is more accumulation
than ablation, a situation that leads to glacial advance where the glacier’s location extends
further downslope. Alternatively, when glaciers experience more melting/ablation than
accumulation of new snowfall, the glacier loses volume and mass, and the glacier tends to
retreat upslope. This is not to say that the ice moves uphill, because all glacial ice moves
in a downslope direction. Instead, it means that for a glacier in retreat, the amount of ice
melting in the ablation zone is greater than the amount of ice moving in from the
accumulation zone.
Erosional Glacial Landforms
Besides cirques and aretes, there are other unique landforms associated with glaciers
moving down a mountain valley or from a continental interior towards the coast. Contrary
to popular belief, glacial ice does not cut out or carve the erosional landforms associated
with glacial landscapes. Instead, it is the rock
material incorporated into and carried along
with the glacial ice that does the erosional work.
These trapped rock fragments are responsible
for grinding, abrading and ‘scouring’ away the
rocks encountered on the sides and bottom of
the glacier, acting much like sandpaper. This
erosional process is referred to as glacial ‘scour’
and results in smoothly polished surfaces on the
sides and bottoms of glaciers.
Image: Souring of rock by a glacier
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arranque_glaciar-en.svg
It should be noted that the main by-product of glacial scour is a finely-ground rock powder
known as glacial flour. This glacial flour is then carried downslope by the glacier and by
the meltwater running along the ice-rock interface. The presence of the glacial flour gives
fast-moving meltwater a powdery white appearance. Once the glacial meltwater slows
down, as when it reaches a lake, the glacial flour gives the water a wonderful aqua-blue
appearance like with New Zealand’s Lake Tekapo in the following photo.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Lake_Tekapo#/media/File:Lake_Tekapo.JPG
For alpine glaciation, the degree of scouring increases with the thickness of the ice, so
scouring is more effective in the center of an alpine glacier (where there is thicker ice)
compared to the sides of the glacier. Therefore, U-shaped valleys are a common erosional
landform associated with alpine glaciers.
Classic U-shaped glacial valley in Ladakh.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:U-shaped_valley_at_the_head_of_Leh_valley,_Ladakh.JPG
Just as with rivers, glaciers have tributaries where large glaciers are fed by networks of
smaller glaciers. Since larger glaciers with thicker ice can scour the bottom rock layers
more efficiently, the tributary glaciers enter the main glacier high up in the ice mass. In
times of glacial retreat, evidence of these tributary glaciers can be seen high up on the cliff
face of the (now retreated) main glacier. These smaller u-shaped tributary valleys located
high up on cliff faces are referred to as hanging valleys and are clear evidence of previous
glaciation.
Hanging Valley in Milford Sound, New Zealand. https://www.flickr.com/photos/joceykinghorn/11184137705

To see hanging valleys in California, make sure to visit Yosemite National Park to encounter
these wonderful landforms like at Bridalveil Fall.
Hanging Valley in Yosemite N.P. https://www.nps.gov/articles/ushapedvalleysfjordshangingvalleys.htm
U-shaped valleys extending all the way to the ocean, creating long, narrow inlets with steep
cliff sides are referred to as fjords.
There are many such inlets in places like Norway, Alaska and New Zealand.
Photo of John Hopkins Inlet in Glacier Bay N.P. Alaska.
https://www.nps.gov/articles/ushapedvalleysfjordshangingvalleys.htm
In addition to souring, the second major erosional

process that glaciers undertake is that of plucking. This
occurs at the base of the glacial ice where meltwater can
accumulate in the cracks and joints of rocks.
Glacial plucking of rock fragments.
http://dabbler.org/home/Irene/Purgatory_Chasm.html#theories
When the water freezes it wedges the rock material apart, and the blocky rock fragments
are then carried downslope by the glacier. The size of rock fragments that are detached by
plucking range from sand-size to enormous boulders, which are then entrained with the
glacial ice and transported further downslope.
Glacial plucking and scour can operate hand-in-hand to sculpture glacial landforms at the
base of a glacier with smoothly scoured, low-angle slopes in the uphill direction and steep,
blocky slopes that have been plucked in the downhill direction. These erosional landforms
are called rôches moutonnées and are used by glaciologists to determine the direction of
travel of an ancient glacier.
Photo: Roche Moutonnee, Cumbria, UK http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/3908582

Diagram: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Roche_moutonn%C3%A9e_without_texts.png
Depositional Glacial Landforms

When a glacier is advancing, it ‘bulldozes’ a pile of loose rock fragments to the side and in
front of itself. These piles of rock fragments are referred to as moraines. Those that form
to the sides of (and parallel to) the glacier are
referred to as lateral moraines, while the
those that form at the very end (terminus) of
the glacier are referred to as terminal
moraines. Moraines are a little shorter in
height than the glacier that formed them, but if
the glacier is hundreds of feet high, so too can
be the moraines. Once a glacier is in retreat,
the meltwater can be trapped behind the loose
material of the terminal moraine, creating a
temporary lake, at least until the water
breaches the moraine.
Photo of lateral moraine on the Athabasca Glacier, Alberta, Canada.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Athabasca_Glacier-Moraine.jpg
Terminal moraine (red arrow) in Cordillera Huyhuash, Peru. Photo J. Alean 1979
https://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers/glossary/terminal-moraine-en.html
Meltwater exits the terminus (downslope end) of the glacier in the form of a river, carrying
with it large volumes of rock fragments that have been scoured and plucked by the glacier.
These fragments range in size
from grains of silt and clay to
boulders the size of trucks.
Depending on the velocity of the
river, these fragments can be
carried miles downstream,
strewing clay, silt, sand, gravel
and boulders across the
landscape in times of flood. If
the glacier terminates on land,
this jumbled assemblage of
glacially-derived sedimentary
rock fragments will be deposited
on the ground, creating a glacial
outwash plain.
Glacial outwash plain below the Khurdopin Glacier, Pakistan.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciology#/media/File:Khurdopin_glacier_%26_Shimshal_River.jpg
At the height of the last major glaciation, some 12-18,000 years ago, extensive ice sheets
covered most of northern North America. However, the west coast of the USA was spared
from these ice sheets with the exception of our high elevation mountains.
Image Source: http://www.dandebat.dk/eng-klima5.htm
This is not to say California didn’t feel the impact of these great ice sheets, as our climate,
weather, natural vegetation distribution, animal distribution, etc. were heavily impacted by
the presence of glacial ice and the factors that allowed them to exist at the time. There are
many landforms we can see in the Sierra Nevada today that were most definitely formed by
glacial activity thousands of
years ago. These include the U-
shaped glacial valley of Yosemite
along with its many waterfalls
emanating from hanging valleys.
On the Eastern side of the Sierra
Nevada there is further evidence
of glacial activity in the form of
numerous tarn lakes and lateral
moraines such as those shown in
this photo of McGee Creek near
Mammoth Lakes.
Moraines at McGee Creek, CA.
Photo by Kathy Duret.
Since the last glacial period California has warmed, the glaciers of the Sierra Nevada have
retreated and our climate has generally became more mild and moist. This created an
interconnected system of lakes and rivers being fed, in part, by the glacial meltwaters. We
can trace the eastward flow of meltwater from the Sierra Nevada. The meltwater formed a
series of rivers that would fill up valleys, which would themselves overflow into a
downstream river, fill up another valley, and so forth for hundreds of miles.
California’s pluvial lake system.

https://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/teaching_materials/earth_modeling/student_materials/unit6_article1.html
These glacially-fed lakes, called pluvial lakes, included Owens Lake, Searles Lake,
Panamint Lake, and Lake Manly, which at times had a depth of several hundred feet. Lake
Manly dried up once the flow of glacial meltwater ceased (in conjunction with a warmer,
dryer climate) and today the lake-less, dry location is better known as Death Valley.
Evidence of these pluvial lakes can be seen in the form of ancient shorelines which mark
the former size and extent of these lakes at various times.
The horizontal lines on Shoreline Butte, Death Valley, CA mark ancient shorelines of Pleistocene Lake Manly
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ShorelineButte030710.JPG
AEOLIAN PROCESSES and LANDFORMS:
In dry regions such as deserts, where there is a ready supply of loose clay, silt or sand but very
little vegetation, wind can play a large role in the erosion, transportation and deposition of rock
materials. The key wind-driven processes (known as aeolian processes) in these arid areas
include deflation (the removal of loose rock particles by the wind) and abrasion (the
sandblasting of rocks and other materials by windborne particles). A landform shaped by the
wind is referred to as an aeolian landform which includes the iconic desert sand dune. (images)
Deserts that experience sustained aeolian erosion often form desert pavement, a near-
continuous surface layer of rock fragments that protects fine-grained sediments below from wind
erosion. This stony desert pavement is what remains after strong winds have removed the finer
particles from the desert surface. Desert pavement surfaces can exist for extensive time periods,
and the relative age of the pavement can be determined by analyzing the thickness of desert
varnish, a dark mineral stain that sometimes forms on desert pavement when exposed for a long
period of time.
Fine-grained sediments that have been deflated from the desert surface are carried down-wind in
three main ways; suspension, saltation and creep (see diagram).
Image: Suspension, saltation and creep. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Transportation_by_wind.jpg
• Suspension: Suspension refers to fine-grained particles like clay, silt and sand being
caught in and carried by wind above the ground surface. In general, sand-size particles can
only be suspended or a very short duration, and cannot rise more than a few inches or feet
above the surface. Silt particles can be suspended for a longer duration and travel higher
above the land surface. Clay and fine silt particles, due to their tiny size, can travel high
into the atmosphere and be suspended for a very long duration as atmospheric dust, and
under specific circumstances in deserts can develop into to dust storms.
• Saltation: Saltation is the downwind movement of silt and sand particles bouncing along in
a series of jumps and skips. Saltation in typical desert wind speeds would occur just a few
inches to feet above the ground surface, depending largely on the particle sizes and the
wind speed. As the particles skip and bounce along the surface, they tend to hit and
dislodge other downwind particles which then continue the saltation process.
• Creep: Saltating particles that bounce along the desert floor and hit larger particles that
are too heavy to be lifted above the ground (such as medium or course-grained sand) will
slowly push the larger particles further downwind in a process known as creep.
Abrasive rock particles that are transported downwind by saltation or suspension can impact
obstacles including large boulders and rock outcrops. Over time, these abrasive particles can
scratch and polish ventifacts including grooves and flutes into the boulders and outcrops.
Ventifacts on a boulder in the Mojave Desert, CA.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ventifacts_in_the_United_States#/media/File:Ventifact_MojaveDesert_2000.jpg
With extended exposure to abrasive winds, rock outcrops can be sculpted into linear, streamlined
features called yardangs.
Yardang, China. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Yandang_Shan_Geopark_12.JPG

Deflated and eroded rock particles with continue their downwind movement until the wind
velocity slows to the point that the particles can no longer be subjected to suspension, saltation or
creep and the rock particles are then deposited on the desert surface. Larger particles are the first
to be deposited, with fine clay particles traveling furthest and deposited last. The deposited
sediment is laid down in extensive, sheet-like accumulations or in large ripple-like features such
as sand dunes. When the sediments are deposited as an extensive sheet of loose silt (with minor
amounts of clay and fine sand) covering the desert landscape for many miles and many feet deep,
this is referred to as desert loess: Extensive areas of desert loess can be found in the deserts of
central Asia.
Loess landscape near Hunyuan, Shanxi Province, China.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Loess#/media/File:Loess_landscape_china.jpg
The most iconic aeolian depositional landforms found in the desert are sand dunes, hills of loose
sand deposited by the wind. Sand dunes come in numerous shapes and sizes,
Three common types of desert sand dunes include the following:
(https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/dunes/)
• Crescent Dunes (aka barchan). These crescent-

shaped mounds are wider than they are long with the
steep slip faces on the concave sides of the dunes.
These dunes form from winds that blow consistently
from one direction, with the entire dune slowly
moving in that same direction. As with most dunes,
crescent dunes are formed and maintained when
turbulent winds slow down and drop their load of
suspended sand.
Image of Crescent Dune: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Barchan_dune.jpg
As the sand is deposited, the grains saltate along the gently rising slope on the windward
side of existing dune sand, then shoot over or falls down the steep leeward “slip face” of the
dune. As this process continues, crescent dunes tend to move in the general direction of
the prevailing wind. Crescent dunes are the most common type of dune on earth, and are
common in the deserts of California and Nevada.
Crescent dune near Tonopah, NV.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/An_evening_at_Crescent_Dunes_near_Tonopah%2C_Nevada_-
_%2827034284365%29.jpg
• Longitudinal Dunes. Longitudinal dunes (aka Linear or Seif Dunes) are long, straight sand
ridges that form parallel to one another and to the predominant wind direction. The linear
nature of these dunes channels the prevailing winds into
the troughs between the dunes. As the name suggests,
linear dunes are much longer than they are wide, in some
cases over 100 miles in length. Linear dunes can be
observed on the western edge of the Algodones Dunes in
southeastern California’s Coachella Valley.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/The_Algodones_Dunes.jpg
Linear dunes in the Great Sand Sea, Egypt.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=linear+dune&title=Special:Search&profile=default&fulltext=1&searchToken=drh
trory1is8ugs65yrm2ppc1#/media/File:Linear_Dunes,_Great_Sand_Sea,_Egypt_-_NASA_Earth_Observatory.jpg
• Star Dunes. Star

dunes form in areas
with multi-directional
winds, creating a sand
mound with three or
more arms radiating
from a central point.
These dunes grow
vertically rather than
laterally.
Star Dune. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1524633

WATER in DESERT ENVIRONMENTS
Though wind is a major force of erosion in desert environments, it is water that is the most
forceful agent in sculpting the desert landscape. Desert winds act on a daily basis, and although
precipitation is infrequent, when it does rain in the desert the precipitation tends to be intense.
Violent desert rainstorms can produce flash floods that quickly and efficiently transport loose rock
material downslope from higher elevations to the desert floor in fast-moving debris flows. Thus,
the desert landscape contains many more key features than the aeolian landforms discussed
previously, including the following:
Alluvial Fans: Alluvial fans are accumulations of clay, silt, sand, gravel and boulders (collectively
called alluvium) that have been deposited where a mountain canyon opens out onto the desert
floor. Physical and chemical weathering process in the mountains produce a continuous supply of
rock fragments, and during heavy rainfall events these fragments are ‘flushed’ out of the canyon
and are deposited as a fan-shaped slope reaching out towards the desert floor.
Alluvial fans coalescing to form a bajada in Death Valley, CA. Photo by Kathy Duret
Along mountain fronts where multiple nearby canyons deposit alluvial sediments onto the desert
floor, the alluvial fans tend to join together and coalesce into continuous apron of alluvium known
as a bajada.
Arroyos: Arroyos are deep gullies or channels cut into unconsolidated (soft) desert sediment of
by fast-moving flood waters. Arroyos typically have flat floors and steep banks and although they
are dry for much of the year, they can become a raging torrent under flash flood conditions.
Arroyo in the Mojave Desert, CA
https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/pictures/230000/velka/dry-river-bed-1503332194sXY.jpg
Desert Playas: Desert Playas are very flat areas of a

desert basin where seasonal lakes form and then
evaporate away, leaving behind a coating of evaporite salt
over stratified layers of clay, silt and sand. Playas form in
desert basins that lack a large enough river to drain them
effectively, including many areas of eastern California’s
Mojave Desert and Basin & Range Province.
Racetrack Playa, CA
https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsfc/4882084749
For more details on desert processes and landforms on the Mojave Desert make sure to check out
https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1007/intro.html
Coastlines are dynamic zones where the
hydrosphere meets the various earth
materials of the lithosphere. It is the
Intertidal Zone, located between the
highest high tide and the lowest low-tide,
where wave energy, tides and currents erode
rock materials and deposit sediments to
create distinct coastal landscapes including
wave-cut cliffs, beaches and sand spits.
Intertidal Zone Cabrillo National Monument, CA

https://www.nps.gov/cabr/learn/nature/tidepools.htm
Waves are the most powerful force acting on the coastal zones. They get their energy from winds
blowing over ocean surfaces. The friction between the wind and the water surface generates
wave energy which then propagates outwards in all directions in the form of an ocean swell. For
example, when strong winter winds blow for several days or weeks in the Gulf of Alaska, the
swell can cross thousands of miles of the Pacific ocean before reaching the California coastline.
The distance between the area where a swell is generated and the coastline the swell reaches is
known as the fetch). In the deep ocean, the wave energy continues to travel in the form of the
ocean swell, with parallel lines of crests and troughs (see below).
Ocean swell diagram: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/currents/media/supp_cur03a.html
Click on the following link to see the wave energy in motion.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Deep_water_wave.gif
We often see the ocean swell as parallel lines of crests and troughs.
Ocean swell approaching Lyttleton Harbour, New Zealand

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Easterly_swell,_Lyttelton_Harbour,_29_July_2008.jpg
As the wave energy approaches a coastline the energy interacts with the sea floor, thereby lifting
up the water surface to form an approaching wave. The sea bed slows down the bottom of the
wave while the crest of the wave continues along at a faster speed, causing the wave to become
progressively steeper until it eventually breaks on the coastline.
Large surf at Mavericks. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_wave_surfing#/media/File:2010_mavericks_competition.jpg

On rocky coastlines the wave energy dissipates as the wave crashes against a coastal cliff.
Wave at Shelter Cove,

California.https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Waves_Crashing_on_Rocks_%28910358858%29.jpg/8
00px-Waves_Crashing_on_Rocks_%28910358858%29.jpg
Wave at Santa Cruz, CA https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Storm_waves_in_Santa_Cruz.png

Where a beach exists, the water will break within the surf zone and propel a rush of water
(known as swash) to the higher reaches of the beach.
Beach Swash https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Swash_Lano_Beach_Samoa.JPG/800px-

Swash_Lano_Beach_Samoa.JPG
This water then migrates slowly back (known as backwash) to the ocean. In addition to the
saltwater, sediments are carried toward the beach in the swash, while sediments are carried back
toward the ocean in the backwash (more on this below).
Check out this YouTube link of swash and backwash.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNwRrvjwMSQ
There are two major types of waves. Constructive Waves are short in height and have a low
frequency (fewer waves arrive per minute). These waves have strong swash compared to
backwash, so they tend to deposit sediment onto the beach. Constructive waves are more
common during the California summer compared to winter.
Destructive Waves are taller, have a higher frequency and contain more energy. Destructive
waves have a weak swash component compared to their backwash, so they tend to erode the
beach as the backwash returns to the ocean.
The sediments along a coastline undergo multiple cycles of erosion, transportation and
deposition by both constructive and destructive waves. Ultimately, coastal sediments are broken
into ever-smaller fragments, transported and deposited offshore. Silt, sand and coarser sediment
are deposited onto the continental shelf while clay particles tend to be transported far offshore,
adding a thin layer (just a few millimeters) of clay particles to the deep ocean floor every
thousand years. http://www.boscorf.org/repository/curatorial-reference/accumulation-rates
COASTAL LANDFORMS
Coastal landforms are classified into two major groups: erosional landforms and
depositional landforms.
Depositional Landforms
Sediments are continuously eroded from coastlines or transported onto coastlines as rivers empty
into the sea. In general, the larger rock fragments (boulders, pebbles, gravel and sand) remain
close to the coastline, while finer sediments (silt and clay) remain suspended in the seawater for
much longer, are transported further offshore and are deposited in the deep ocean. Sand-size
grains tend to remain in the beach zone and are constantly being shifted by swash and backwash
of waves. Since most waves tend to hit the coastline at a slightly oblique angle, the sand grains
are slowly but constantly shifted along (parallel to) to the beach, a process is referred to as
Longshore drift.
Longshore Drift. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Longshore_drift.svg
Longshore drift is responsible for the transport of enormous amounts of sediment along the
coastline. Along the Southern California coastline much of the sand-sized sediment being
transported along the coast will eventually enter a submarine canyon and be deposited onto the
continental shelf. Prior to this, longshore drift can create several distinct depositional landforms
from the sand including beaches, spits, bars and tombolos. Let’s explore these in greater detail:
Beaches:
A beach is an area of coastal sediment exposed to wave action. A beach profile can change from
summer to winter due to the seasonal change in the type of wave types that pound the beach.
During the height of winter, when storm waves are more frequent, beach sediments can be
eroded from the beach. This ‘bare bones’ winter beach is referred to as the winter profile. The
sediment eroded from the winter beach is temporarily deposited as sandbanks just beyond the
surf zone. During the summer months, when the surf is generally milder, the sediment stored in
the sand banks is transported towards the land, and deposited onto the beach. This is referred to
as the beach’s summer profile.
Beach Profiles: https://www.friendsofibsp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/beachprofile.jpg
Summer Winter
Summer and Winter Beaches, La Jolla, CA. http://coastalchange.ucsd.edu/images/summerb.jpg

Sand spits: A sand spit is a long, narrow accumulation of sand that reaches out to sea from the
coast. Sand spits form when sediment is carried parallel to shore by longshore drift then built
higher as wind blows the sand higher above sea level. Dungeness Spit in the state of Washington
is one of the longest natural sand spits in the world.
Dungeness Spit, WA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dungeness_National_Wildlife_Refuge_aerial.jpg
A sand spit that extends far enough out to connect the mainland to an island is termed a tombolo.
While the island itself is referred to as a tied island or land-tied island.
Tombolo & tied island, Shodo Island, Japan.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Angel_Road_Shodo_Island_Japan01s3.jpg
Tombolo, Tied Island and Spits. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Accreting_coast_Image6.svg

Erosional Landforms
A sea cliff is a near-vertical rock wall formed when waves erode and undercut the base of the
cliff. Depending on the strength of the rock material, the sea cliff can be hundreds of feet high.
With continued undercutting at the base of the cliff by waves, the cliff face will collapse and
retreat further inland.
Sea Cliffs – Cliffs of Moher, Ireland. Photo by author.
When a sea cliff contains weak rocks at its base, the crashing waves can hollow out a sea cave.
Once a sea cave is formed the waves tend to focus on the void, thereby enlarging the cave over
time.
Sea Cave at Port Soldrick, UK. Photo Kevin Rothwell.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sea_cave_-_Port_Soldrick_-_geograph.org.uk_-_58785.jpg
Several sea caves can form along a headland or cliff face. When sea caves form on opposite
sides of a headland, they can enlarge over time and meet up to form a sea arch.
Sea Arch, Hawaii. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SeaArchHawaii.jpg
When the arch collapses, the remaining column of rock is referred to as a sea stack.
Sea Stack – Cliffs of Moher, Ireland. Photo by author.

Seaward of the retreating cliffs, wave erosion forms a broad
erosional platform called a wave-cut platform.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Wave_cut_platform.png
Wave-cut Platform, Flamborogh, UK.

http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/1922391
FLUVIAL PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS – by Lawrence J. McLaughlin
The Earth’s rivers, and the landscapes that are created by them, are the subject of this chapter.
The rivers and the freshwater that flows in them are primarily responsible for sculpting the
surface of the land into the myriad of landforms that we see each day.
RUNOFF
Fluvial processes (or surface water processes) on land are the ultimate step in Earth’s “Water
Cycle”. After precipitation over land, the water must return to its origin, the World’s oceans,
and thereby begin the cycle again. This return is mostly accomplished by runoff through rivers
or streams (used interchangeably herein). Runoff is not consistent throughout the seasons or
from year to year. Some streams are only “Ephemeral”, meaning that they carry water only
periodically after substantial precipitation. This is especially true in regions that are arid. For
example, the Mojave River in Southern California normally only carries water a few weeks out
of the year, but when it does so, it is often in torrential amounts.
As shown in the USGS Water Cycle diagram (below), evaporation exceeds precipitation over the
oceans. The excess moisture is transported over the land by advection (wind) before falling on
the land in the form of precipitation. The majority of this water is returned to the oceans by
runoff. This should look familiar since we initially discussed the Water Cycle in Chapter 6.
USGS Water Cycle Diagram. https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html

FLUVIAL ENERGY
Runoff is the result of a battle between two Earth forces. These forces are gravity and friction.
“Gravity” is a force of attraction between two distinct bits of physical matter and depends upon
their mass and distance from each other. “Friction” is an opposing force to gravity that resists
or retards the motion of matter.
Over time, Earth’s gravity tends to move materials, including water, to the lowest available
elevations. On Earth’s surface the lowest elevations are at sea level, or in some instances even
below sea level. For example, Badwater Basin in Death Valley, California is actually 282 feet
below sea level. Accordingly, gravity pulls water on land down to sea level, unless it is trapped
in a lowland basin. The term used to describe the lowest elevation is “Base Level”, a concept
originally formulated by the great American hydrologist and explorer, John Wesley Powell
(1834-1902). A river can be defined as the path followed by liquid water to the lowest available
elevation.
On the other hand, the path is not free from obstacles. The riverbed is obviously made up of
Earth materials, such as vegetation, rocks, and soil. These materials are in contact with the
water molecules, and because of friction, disrupt and retard their flow. In other words, these
materials work against the pull of gravity.
DRAINAGE BASINS
The fundamental unit of fluvial processes is the “Drainage Basin” or “Watershed”. A Drainage
Basin is that area within which all water flows toward a common point, as a result of the
surrounding topography. That common point is usually the main trunk of a stream system.
A Drainage Basin can be as small
as a few square miles or over one
million square miles. For example,
the Mississippi-Missouri River
system flows from a Drainage
Basin that is about 1,244,000
square miles (3,222,000 square
km) or about 2/5 the size of the
contiguous United States.
Frequently, many smaller
Drainage Basins are nested within
a larger Drainage Basin.
MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI DRAINAGE BASIN

United States Environmental Protection Agency; http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/named/msbasin/marb_pop1.cfm
Simply put, there are two main topographic components to a Drainage Basin, “Interfluves” and
“Valleys”. Interfluves are those higher elevation areas between valleys that generate overland
water flow toward the valleys. In contrast, valleys are those lower lying areas that hold the
established streams.
STREAM PATTERNS
In essence, streams simply follow the pull of gravity as influenced by topography and underlying
bedrock. If the underlying bedrock is uniform in strength, the pattern is “Dendritic”, similar to
that of a tree with many branches. Unlike a Dendritic stream, other streams are influenced by
the varying strengths of the bedrock. These include the “Trellis” pattern, which is formed
because of alternating hard and soft folded strata. The resulting topography is ridges and
valleys. This is typical of the Appalachian Region in the Eastern United States. The streams in
this Region follow a pattern with many running parallel to each other but then abruptly
changing direction at a 90 degree angle as they follow the ridges and valleys. Other streams
that are influenced by the underlying geologic structure include the “radial”, “rectangular” and
even the “deranged”, which follows a haphazard pattern, frequently the result of recent glacial
activity which has disrupted the prior topography.
DENDRITIC PATTERN TRELLIS PATTERN
STREAM ORDER
The structure of a stream tends to follow a hierarchical order. The tributary branching pattern is
the basis for this hierarchical system. A “Tributary” is simply a branch whose water flows into a
larger branch or segment of the same river system. By giving each tributary a numeric value we
are able to analyze and compare different stream systems and their relative water discharges.
This is especially applicable in analyzing a Dendritic stream system.
There are many different ways to order streams. However, one of the most useful is the
“Strahler” method, which provides that the initial small tributaries that constitute the
headwaters or origin of the system are 1st order streams. Two 1st order streams must join
together to make a 2nd order stream, and two 2nd order streams must join to make a 3rd order
stream, etc. Interestingly, the mighty Mississippi River is classified as a 10th order stream. As the
stream order increases (e.g. from 1 to 3 etc.) the following rules become evident:
1. Gradient or steepness decrease
2. Channel length and channel size increase
3. Drainage Basin size increases
4. Water volume or discharge amount increases
The “Gradient” of a stream can be defined as: ELEVATION CHANGE_________
DISTANCE (NUMBER OF MILES)
An example would be: 800 FEET

2 MILES = 400 FEET PER MILE
In other words, for every mile the river travels there is 400 feet of elevation change.
USGS National Biological Information Infrastructure;

http://www.nbii.gov/portal/server.pt?open=512&objID=1345&mode=2&cached=true
CHANNEL PATTERNS
The shape of a river channel is the result of many factors, including water volume, water
velocity, makeup of the channel banks and underlying bedrock, and the amount of sediment
being carried. There are four main kinds of channel patterns, “Straight”, “Sinuous”,
“Meandering”, and “Braided”.
The straight, sinuous, and meandering rivers are defined by the bends or curvature of their
channels; the straight being the least curved and the meandering being distinctly curved. In
nature, straight channels are not common and are usually short lived. Because of the
differences in bank strength, friction, and water speed, the water usually flows in a curved “S”
shaped pattern, and over time, the channel shape also takes on this pattern. The fastest flowing
part of the river is called the “Thalweg” and is located near the surface in the center of the
river. The water flows fastest in the Thalweg because there is less friction. The water flow on
one side of the Thalweg is usually somewhat slower than on the other side due to differences in
bank friction, which results in alternating erosion on the faster side and deposition on the
slower side.
A braided stream is the result of a river carrying large amounts of sediment, which is dropped in
the channel when the water volume or velocity decreases. The sediment is deposited in bars
and small islands that separate the river into strands, similar to a braid. In the diagram below
“D” depicts a braided stream and “E” depicts a typical meandering stream.
USGS National Biological Information Infrastructure

http://www.nbii.gov/portal/server.pt?open=512&objID=1345&PageID=7174&mode=2&in_hi_userid=2&cached=true
STREAM LOAD
Most people have observed that streams carry water, but in reality there is much more than
meets the eye. Not only do rivers transport water back to the oceans, but they also transport
bits and pieces of the land, in both solid and chemical form. The stream load can be divided into
“Dissolved Load” “Suspended Load” and “Bed Load”.
Dissolved Load is derived from the chemical weathering of rocks such as limestone, which is
easily broken down by water. The chemicals that make up limestone are carried in solution by
the river. Elements such as sodium, magnesium, and calcium are readily soluble in water.
Suspended Load is made up of the finest minute particles that are too buoyant to sink to the
river bottom and are suspended due to the turbulence and flow of the river. This is similar to
the fine dust particles that are carried within the atmosphere by the wind. The Mississippi River
is referred to as the “Big Muddy” because of its large suspended load. The Suspended Load
remains until the river’s velocity decreases dramatically and then it sinks to the bottom as silt.
Bed Load is made up of the larger rocks and loose material that are pushed along the river
bottom by “Saltation” (bouncing) and “Traction” (rolling), as gravity pulls them and the water
down to the lowest elevation (i.e. the River’s Base Level). As the bed load moves along with the
water, the materials are mechanically worn down by friction with the River bottom and other
rocks and particles that are being carried. This explains the smooth and rounded shape of many
stream rocks and boulders.
SUSPENDED LOAD AND BED LOAD. University of Wisconsin Stevens Point;
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/fluvial_systems/geologic_work_of_streams.html
FLUVIAL LANDFORMS
The landforms created by the flow of freshwater are either created by “Erosion” or
“Deposition”. Erosion is the removal of material from one place to another after it has been
chemically or mechanically broken down by destructive atmospheric processes. Deposition is
the other side of the process. The material that has been eroded and transported is deposited
at another location. Of course, deposition at a specific location is not permanent. It is often one
of numerous temporary stops along the path back to the lowest elevation, the ocean or inland
basin.
EROSION - CUTTING
As the river moves across the landscape it attempts to follow the most direct route to its final
destination. In doing so, it sculpts the landscape as it back-cuts, down-cuts, and side-cuts. “Back
cutting” involves “Headward” erosion, as the river cuts into the surrounding interfluves in the
upstream direction. The abundant water flow that forms the source of the river erodes the
sides of the adjacent interfluves and transforms them into an extension of the river valley. This
lengthens the river valley and diminishes the size of the interfluves.
“Down-cutting” occurs as the river seeks its base level. The riverbed is eroded downward by
the force of the water, its elevation is reduced, and the valley is deepened. Down-cutting is
most dramatic in the upper levels of the river. As the river approaches sea level, down-cutting
greatly diminishes. One of the most dramatic examples of down-cutting is the Grand Canyon of
Arizona. Over about 17 million years the Colorado River has down-cut more than one mile
creating the spectacular canyon walls.
Also, when down-cutting is the prevalent force, especially in higher elevations, “Knickpoints”
are formed in the riverbed. They form because of the variations in the strength of the bedrock.
Where it is more easily eroded, a knickpoint forms. The knickpoint erosion results in rapid drops
in the elevation of the riverbed and gives rise to beautiful fluvial formations such as rapids and
waterfalls.
KNICKPOINTS AND RAPIDS GRAND CANYON - ARIZONA
“Side-cutting” occurs because of the lateral movement or migration of the river along the
valley floor. The path of the river is extremely dynamic, constantly changing course within its
flood plain. As the stream leaves its headwaters and the higher elevations, its energy is
transferred from down-cutting to side-cutting. As mentioned previously, the water flow of a
river is naturally meandering, in an “S” shaped pattern. As the river’s energy is devoted to side-
cutting, the meanders become more exaggerated. Since the water moves faster and with more
force on the outside of the “S” curve, it is there that much of the erosion takes place creating
an “Undercut Bank”. The sides of the valley are widened and cut into steep banks or bluffs.
Moreover, mass wasting often takes place along the edge of the river, contributing further to
the erosion of the surrounding terrain.
UNDERCUT BANK – RIVER TAY - SCOTLAND Tay District Salmon Fisheries Board; http://www.tdsfb.org/river-tay.htm
MEANDER SCARS AND OXBOW LAKES
“Meander Scars” and “Oxbow Lakes” are the result of both erosion and deposition. As
meandering becomes more extreme, eventually one meander will cut off another, and the river
will change course. The old meander will be abandoned and the river will flow along the new
meander. Water will likely remain for a time in the old meander and form an Oxbow Lake,
similar in shape to the yokes used by oxen in the early period of settlement in the United
States. Over time, deposition will prevail over erosion, and the Oxbow Lake will fill with
sediment and vegetation, leaving only a scar on the land where the meander used to be.
WILLIAMS RIVER – ALASKA OXBOW LAKE FORMATION

Utrecht University Netherlands; http://www.geo.uu.nl/fg/palaeogeography/results/fluvialstyle
DEPOSITION – POINT BARS AND NATURAL LEVEES

The erosion caused by side-cutting and meandering has been discussed above. As mentioned,
the fastest water travels on the outside of the meander curve. Conversely, the slower moving
water travels on the inside curve of the meander. Anyone who has thrown a leaf or twig into a
stream has likely seen this difference in speed. Because of the decrease in water flow on the
inside of the curve, the stream can no longer carry the same load. It therefore deposits some of
its bed load and even possibly its suspended load at the curve. This deposit is called a “Point
Bar”. The river then has an alternating pattern of erosion on one side (e.g. an undercut bank)
and deposition on the other (e. g. a point bar).
“Natural Levees” occur when a river floods beyond its existing banks and deposits some of its
stream load on the adjacent flood plain. Because of down-cutting, the riverbed is confining and
often lower than the surrounding flood plain. When it floods and the water tops the existing
banks, the water speed diminishes because it is no longer confined to a narrow channel. As a
result of the decreased water velocity, the river deposits its sediment which forms a natural
levee or ridge along the existing channel border. These levees frequently grow in height and
size with each succeeding flood. When the levees break or are breached during a flood there
can be devastating consequences for anyone living within the flood plain. For example, great
destruction resulted in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina when the Mississippi River levees
were breached.
SACRAMENTO RIVER LEVEE (as modified by humans)

Sacramento River Watershed Program, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sacramento_River_Levee.jpg
ALTERNATING DEPOSITION AND EROSION POINT BARS AND CUTBANKS
DEPOSITION – ALLUVIAL FANS AND DELTAS

When river flow decreases in velocity or volume the sediments carried in the water become too
heavy to transport and drop to the bottom. This is especially evident when a river approaches
its base level, empties into a lake or the ocean, or leaves the confines of the river channel. The
material that is deposited is generally called “Alluvium”. The largest material is dropped first
followed by the smaller material. Accordingly, there is a natural sorting of alluvium by size.
Both “Alluvial Fans” and “Deltas” form as a result of the process described above. Alluvial fans
are quite conspicuous in arid environments (as we discussed previously) where the streams are
ephemeral and they exit from a mountain canyon onto a flatter plain. As the mountain stream
enters the plain its speed decreases markedly and the material is dropped in order of its size.
With a Delta, the river has reached its base level as it enters a body of water. The force of the
river is dissipated as it joins the lake or ocean and the stream load is deposited in a triangular or
fan shaped pattern. Interestingly, the river forms many small parallel channels in the Delta
called “Distributaries”. These follow a pattern that is the reverse of the Dendritic stream
pattern mentioned earlier, with the Distributaries branching off of the main trunk of the river
rather than merging with the main trunk.
ALLUVIAL FAN – SOUTHERN IRAN DELTA – LAKE AYAKUM - TIBETNASA-
Earth Observatory; http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Images/
CONCLUSION
Rivers sculpt and shape the land that we live on. Running water is the primary agent of erosion
and deposition. While water may be seen as the sculptor's tool, gravity provides the energy for
operating the tool. The landforms and features that are made by running water range from
magnificent canyons and waterfalls to mundane piles of sand and nondescript gullies. However,
the rocks, soil, water, and chemicals that are components of the fluvial system are all essential
to the cycle of life that makes Earth unique in the Universe.

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A Simplified View of Our Complex Planet

© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

2. The age of the earth and its location in space;

4. Earth-moon interactions and moon phases;

8. The division of earth into standard time zones.

© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

4. Lithosphere (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithosphere) a.k.a. Geosphere

Food for Thought

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Our Solar System

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Radius = 4,000 miles

Diameter = 8,000 miles

Circumference = 25,000 miles

Equatorial Diameter = 7,927 miles.

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Earth Motions and Seasons

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Aphelion and Perihelion

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MAPS AND GLOBES

© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

THE GRID SYSTEM of LATITUDE and LONGITUDE

Latitude (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude) is a measure in Degrees, Minutes and Seconds

© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

Longitude (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude) is a measure in Degrees, Minutes and Seconds of

© Text Copyright Darren Leaver 2018

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In 2012 I took an 18-hour flight from Los Angeles to Bangkok,

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Check out these YouTube links for Time Zones

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Photo Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory

©Text Copyright 2018 Darren Leaver

Photo Courtesy of NASA (http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_519.html)

©Text Copyright 2018 Darren Leaver

2) Oxygen (O2), 21%

3) Argon (Ar), 0.93%

For actual concentrations click

The Variable Gases

Concentration: Between 0% and 4%

©Text Copyright 2018 Darren Leaver

©Text Copyright 2018 Darren Leaver

Concentration: 410 ppm (parts per million) in

Source: Multiple sources including burning

Problem: As previously mentioned, CO2 is a Greenhouse Gas, one with an ability to

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Original Image: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/page2.php

©Text Copyright 2018 Darren Leaver