CONTENT DISCUSSION IN CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Module 1 Introduction
The Nature of Research
Module Overview:
Module I covers the nature of research, its definition, the role
And functions of research, the basic components of the process. It also discusses the
sources of research problem, criteria in selecting a research problem as well as the parts in
writingan introduction.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Define Research.
2. Identify the Functions and Roles of Research.
3. Enumerate the types of research.
4. discuss the criteria of a good research problem.

START OFF
Doing research can formulate theories, test theories and guides in solving problems. Thrrough
research, we can extend our vision and experiences; it helps us understand how and whya situation exists;
it enables us to discover new things and ideas; and it provides information as basis fordecision making.

Definition of Research

The word research comes from the French word rechercher, meaning to search. It can be defined
in many ways depending upon the point of view from various disciplines like, education, business,
agriculture and medical.

On the basis of structure, the word research means, to search again. In other words, there is a
need to have another study of the same problem due to erroneous matter during the conduct of the
study.

According to Best and Khan (2006) Research is defined as the systematic and objective analysis
and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles
or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.

According to Sevilla, et. al.Kerlinger defined research as a systematic, controlled, empirical, and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.

It is called systematic because it follows steps or stages beginning from :Problem Identification,
Relating the Problem Identified to theories, Collecting of Data, Drawing conclusions, and
Recommendations and Integrations of these conclusions into the stream(body) of knowledge.
It is called controlled because the problem is logically arranged and well-planned, the variables
are identified and selected properly, the instruments are carefully selected and contructed, conclusions
are based on findings and conclusions.

It is called empirical because the data are based on research or experiment which serves as bases
for making conclusions.

It is called critical investigation because the results, conclusions and recommendations of the
researcher would undergo critical analysis by the panel or board of judges or experts.
Research therefore, is a process of scientific investigation and inquiry of certain phenomenon,
practice, program and policy to establish correct data or information relevant to the formulation of
theories, making decision in solving problems and any developmental endeavor in quest for the well-
being of man and his environment.

Why do research and why is it important?

“ We are all scientist, we only need to learn to be researchers”

We as human beingsn are constantly observing our environment and reaching conclusions based
on our mental processing – the very foundation for shaping hypotheses. Unfortunately we are very
limited by our personal opinions or lack of information, and our claims and ideas will be of no use or not
even correct, unless proved with proper research and reasoning.(http:www.quora.com-What- is- the-
importanc- of- scientific- research)

Functions and Roles of Research

Research has various functions as:
1. It corrects man’s perceptions as well as expands them.
2. It gathers information on subjects or phenomena we lack or have little knowledge about.
3. It develops and evaluates concepts, practices and theories.
4. It evaluated and develops methods that test concepts, practices and theories.
5. It obtains knowledge for practical purposes like solving problems on population explosions drug
addiction, juvenile delinquency.
6. It provides hard facts which serve as bases for monitoring and evaluation.

Role of Research in the Development Process

Research Planning Implementation

Evaluation basic Monitoring -

Types of Research

1. Pure or theoretical Research or Basic Type Research. This type of research involves in developing
and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually interesting to the investigator. It is
conducted for the sake of knowing.
2. Applied or Practical Type of Research. This type of research is done to obtain knowledge for
useful ends., and to use that knowledge to solve certain discomfort, or improve the prevailing
condition which in its present state, may be satisfactory but which has still room or possibility for
improvement.
3. Action Research. This research has a feature of applied research since it involves discovering and
identifying a problem in a local setting like, the instruction problems in the classroom. According
to Barsaga. Action research is a research done by particular people on their work, and their
practices. It is meant to help them improve what they do including how they work with others.
 Basic Components of the Research Process

1. The Research Problem

2. The Review Related Literature and Studies
3. The Research Design
4. The Research Report

Criteria in the Selection of Good Research Problem

1. Novelty or avoidance of necessary duplication. Novelty is concerned with the elements of
newness. This means that the problem had never been investigated and the duplication can be
permitted however it must be justified.
2. Practical value of the problem. After investigation, the problem should result to some practical
value in life. The result of the study must improve practices, concepts and the like.
3. Researchers’ interest in the problem. The researcher must be interested if he is to conduct his
research willingly and dedicatedly.
4. Availability of the data on the problem. A subject or problem under investigation will only yield
results if data on that problem are available.
5. 5. Special qualification of the researcher to do the investigation.
6. Time required to investigate the problem understudy.
7. Cost of investigating the problem.

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

1. It must be relevant.
2. It must be feasible.
3. It must be clear.
4. It must be ethical.
5. Its implacability and applicability.
Writing the Title of the Research Problem

In writing the title of the problem, it should be definite or specific with a maximum of 20
substantive words excluding function words. The main concept and/or variables being investigated should
be written as part of the title. The title of the problem serves the following functions or purposes:

1. It summarizes the content of the entire study.

2. It is a frame of reference for the whole study.
3. It enables you to claim the study as your own.
4. It helps other researchers to refer to your work as they find some theories.

The research problem is not constructed in the usual linguistic expression of question. It does not
have the antecedent questions from which specific questions can be derived or based.

Sample problems: An Assessment of the Academic Achievement of Grade VI Pupils in Mathematics during
School Year 2004 – 2005.

The most important variables in the study must be included as part of the title.

VARIABLE AND ITS TYPES

Variable refers to the characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties.

Example: Sex (male/female)

Kerlinger calls variable as the construct or property being investigated.
Types of Variables
1. Dependent or Criterion variable. This variable is the object of the study which is assumed to be
the effect of the independent variable.
2. Independent Variable or variate. This variable is assumed to be determinant of the dependent
variable. This variable is either manipulative or non-manipulative. The manipulative variable can
be manipulated to determine its effect to the dependent variable.

Example: Instructional Methods

3. Intervening Variables. These variables cannot be controlled or measured directly but which may
have an important effect upon the outcomes of the study.
4. Extraneous variables. These variables cannot be controlled or manipulated by the researcher but
which may have a significant influence on the result of the study.

The Introduction of the Study

The introduction provides the background of the study. It discusses the nature and the extent of
the prevailing problem leading to the clear statement of the research problems. It may present logical
theories relating to the problem identified. It also may present previous efforts, actions and solutions
done in the past including short comings and deficiencies.

Objectives of the Study/Statement of the Problem.

This is the most important part of the research activity.. The objectives of the study serve as
guides as to what are the things to achieve at the end of the study. It refers to the statements of purpose
for which the investigation is to be conducted. They describe the aims or goals which are expected to be
anchored to the title or problem stated.
After the research title is constructed, the formulation of specific questions or statement of the
specific problem follows:

For Example:
This study aimed to assess the academic performance of Grade VI pupils in Mathematics in the
Division of La Carlota City SY 2004 – 2005.

Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:

1. What is the level of Grade VI pupils in terms of
a. Study habits
b. Comprehension
2. What is the level of academic achievement of Grade VI pupils in Mathematics?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the study habits and academic achievement?

Hypothesis of the Study

According to Gay, a hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or
events which have occurred or will occur. It states the expectations concerning the relationship between
two variables. This is a part of the study that went into presenting the calculated guesses which are based
from the specific problems or objectives of the study.
Kinds of Hypotheses
1. Research Hypotheses – This refers to the directional hypothesis predicting the positive
relationship of variables under investigation. Or the positive effect of the treatment.
2. Null Hypothesis – It refers to non-directional or alternative hypothesis predicting the negative
relationship between variables or negative effect of the treatments. Generally, the null
hypothesis can be easily avoided.
For Example:
Specific Objective: To find out the relationship between the leadership skills and level of job satisfaction
among middle managers in higher education institutions in Region VI.

Hypotheses:
Research (Ha): There is a relationship between the leadership skills and levels of job satisfaction among
middle managers in higher education institutions in Region VI.

Null(Ho) There is no relationship between the leadership skills and levels of job satisfaction among middle
managers in higher education institutions in Region VI.

Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study indicates as to whom the study will be most useful, why the study
would be useful to them, and how the study will help them in their particular disciplines. The researcher
should enumerate individuals/ group/ sectors/agencies that can benefit from the study.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of the study would tell the place and time of study. Also, it includes the subject and
respondents of the study.
Limitation refers to an aspect of the investigation which may affect the result adversely but over
which the researcher has no control. Limitation of the study presents the statements which alert the
reader of the research report to certain conditions which are beyond the control of the research (Ardales).

DEFINITION OF TERMS
The terms used in the study will be defined to provide a wider knowledge of the topic which
eventually becomes the theory on which hypothesis is based.

Kinds of Definition of Terms

1. Conceptual Definition refers to a constitutive definition which is given by the dictionary. It is
called as the academic or universal meaning attributed to a word.
2. Operational Definition refers to a functional definition. It is done by stating The way the concept
or term is used or measured in the investigation.

The Conceptual Framework

Assessment
1. Define the terms listed below:
a. Research
b. Pure Research
c. Applied Research
d. Action Research
e. Significance of the Study
f. Scope
g. Limitation
h. Variables
2. Formulate a research problem and prepare the following elements of the research problem
a. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
b. Statement of the Problem
c. Statement of Hypotheses
d. Significance of the study
e. Scope and limitation of the study
f. Definition of terms

MODULE 2 LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Module Overview

The second chapter of the research paper covers the review related literature and
studies which are relevant to the investigation. This includes the importance of Review Related
Literature and the approaches in presenting the review related literature.

Learning Outcomes
1. Define Review related literature and studies.
2. Discuss the different approaches in presenting the review related Literature.
3. Formulate a review related literature.

DEFINITION OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The term literature pertains to articles or books written by authorities giving their
opinions, experiences, theories or ideas of what is good and bad, desirable and undesirable
within the problem area. Studies refer to the published or unpublished reports of actual
research studies done previously.
The chapter involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing
information related to the research problem. This is the major part of the research process that
leads to past theories.

IMPORTANCE OF THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

1. It provides the conceptual or theoretical Framework of the planned research. It explains and
clarifies the basis for the theoretical framework.
2. It provides the researcher knowledge and background on the subject understudy.
3. It enables the researcher to avoid duplicating or doing the same study that was already done
before.
4. It provides insight on the weaknesses and problems of previous studies.
5. It provides the researcher ideas on how to proceed with his investigation.
6. It provides findings and conclusions of past studies which the researcher may relate to his
own feelings.
 The focus of the review of a study is the ideas which have relations to the research topic. It may
be supportive or against one’s assumptions and hypotheses. It includes the study objectives, methodology
used, the subject or population covered, the instruments used, the findings, conclusions and
recommendations reached.

APPROACHES USED IN PRESENTING THE REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE.

1. Chronological Organization or approach. In this approach, the literature and studies are
presented according to the time they were written.
2. Topical or Thematic organization or approach. The literature and studies of similar themes or
topics are grouped together.
3. Country or site organization or approach. The literature and studies are classified by country or
as local or foreign source.

Assessment
1. Define the term listed below:
a. Literature
b. Studies
c. Chronological approach
d. Topical or thematic Approach
e. Country or Site Approach.

2. Based on a chosen Research Problem (Chapter 1), formulate a Review Related Literature and
Studies using the thematic Approach.

MODULE 3 METHODS OF RESEARCH

Overview The 3rd chapter of the research report presents and discusses the research methods
which serve as guide is conducting the research. It includes the research design, subject and respondents
of the study, the population and the number of samples, the data gathering instrument, data gathering
procedures and the analysis or treatment of data gathered.

Methods of Research
A. Historical Research – It is the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of
evidence in order to established facts and draw conclusions about past events.(Ardales)
It is the critical investigation of events, and experiences in the past, the careful weighing of
evidence of the validity of the source of information in the past and the interpretation of the
evidence. (Kerlinger)

B. Descriptive Method of Research – The descriptive method of research is used to describe the
nature of the situation as it exists at the time of the study and explore the causes of a particular
phenomenon (Travers). This method od research deals with the current issues, situations or
phenomena (What is?)
According to Gay, this method of research involves in the collection of data in order to test the
hypotheses or answer questions concerning the current status of the subject under study.

Ways of obtaining descriptive Information

1. Personal Interviews
2. Observations

3. Survey questionnaires
 Types of Descriptive Research
1. Case Studies – this type is useful when the aim of the study is to have a deeper, more thorough and
more comprehensive understanding of an individual or group such as family, class, organization and
community.
Example The Urban Poor: a Case Study
The role of Rural Women in Countryside Development.

2. Surveys – This type involves gathering of relatively limited data from a relatively large number of cases.
Survey studies are employed to measure the existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists.

Types of Survey
A.Census Survey – It is a survey that covers the entire population of interest.
b. Sample Survey – this type is used to find out how, and to what extent individuals grow or
develop in terms of physical, intellectual, emotional and social dimensions.

3. Developmental studies – This type is used to find out how, and to what extend individuals grow or
develop in terms of physical, intellectual, emotional and social dimensions.

4. Follow up Studies –This type is employed when one intends to investigate the subsequent
development of participants after a specified treatment or condition. This type is used to evaluate the
success of the programs like, the guidance of instructional program.

5. Documentary Analysis – This type is used to find out the type and the quality of message found in the
document.

6. Trend Analysis – This is for a study that seeks for future analysis. It is employed in studies to project the
demands or needs of the people.

7. Correlation - This type of study is designed to determine the extent to which different variables are
related to each other in the population of interest. It aims to ascertain how much a variation is caused by
one variable in relation with the variation caused by another variable.

Sampling Designs/Techniques

Definition of Terms
Sampling refers to the process of selecting a sample of individuals from the total population to be studied.
Population – refers to a sub-group or portion of the population selected to represent the population.

Sampling design refers to a scheme, strategy or procedure of arriving at the sample.

Sampling design/technique is needed when the population is large, and the researcher wants to take
samples as representatives of the entire populations. It is practical and convenient for the researcher
because it can save time, money and effort. The sampling design technique could help determine the
correct and exact number of samples (sample size) and selection of samples to represent the population.
In the study. The researcher is allowed to take samples or representatives from the entire members of
the population.
The sample size can be determined using Slovin’s Formula:

N
n=
1+ N ( e2 )

Where:
n = Sample size
N = Population
e = Margin of error = 0.05

Probability Sampling Design/Techniques – In this design techniques, the member or any subject of the
population can be probably included in samples. Each member has an equal chance of being included
from a population.
a. Simple Random Sampling(SRS)
Method of SRS
 Lottery or fish bowl techniques (drawing pieces of paper/drawing cards/ throwing
dice).
 Table of random numbers, usually for big or large population.
b. Systematic Sampling – this is a modified version of SRS. – In this technique, the sampling
interval is computed before selecting the right samples with the formula:

k= N
_____

1+N ( e ) 2

Where: k = sampling interval

N= population
e = margin of error
c. Stratified sampling The sample is drawn in such as to ensure adequate representations for
each of the population sub-grouped or strata in the sample.
After sample is determined, sample size for each group is computed using the formula:

n 1=N 1 ( nt )
_______
Nt
Where:
n 1=sample ¿ first group
N 1= population of first group
Nt=total population
nt=toral sample ¿ ¿
Example:

Group Population(N) Sample(n)

A 250
B 340
c 256
D 312
E 342
Total 1,500 316
d. Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling refers to any entire group of individuals or objects which share similar
characteristics important in the study. The samples are drawn in clusters rather than in
using separate individuals. It is the groups not the individuals that are randomly
selected.
Grouping of individuals is based on different categories/characteristics like the
geographical setting where individuals belong, commodity raised, tribal affiliation, etc.
 e. Multi-stage sampling
This sampling involves several phases in drawing the samples from the population. The
population units re grouped and arranged into hierarchical order or level and sampling
is done successively.
For instance, a nationwide study, the provinces for each region are randomly selected
then, the LGU’s are randomly chosen then, the villages are randomly selected and
finally, the individuals in the village are randomly determined. For each stage, stratified
and simple random sampling techniques will be used to have proper representations
and selection of samples.

2. Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

In this technique, the samples are not randomly selected. Also, not all participants are
given a chance to be included in the samples.

a. Purposive or deliberate Sampling

In this sampling technique, the researcher uses his judgment and an appropriate strategy in
selecting the subjects who will comprise the samples, and so will meet the purposes of the
study.

b. Convenience Sampling
The researcher selects the samples of the study based on his convenience. He may take any
person whom he meets at anytime and anywhere. He may use telephone or other possible
means to reach out samples-individuals efficiently.

c. Quota Sampling
The samples to be gathered depend on the needed participants. It is assumed that he
samples will match the population with regards to the chosen set of characteristics (Vockell
1993)

d. Snowball Sampling
This sampling technique is good when there is no available list of population units to work.
Any person can be taken as sample provided, he can give the needed information relative to
the study.

DATA COLLECTION
Classification of Data According to Form
1. Qualitative data – re4fers to data with textual descriptions of the characteristics of
the objects of investigations.
e.g. descriptions of people as to color, height, etc.

2. Quantitative Data –refers to data with numerical and measurable values.

e.g. statistics on income, scores, grades, etc.
Both sources and forms of data can be used by the researcher.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTIONS

1. The Observation method this is the oldest method, the researcher watches or
observes the situation using his senses like, seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and
smelling. This method is appropriate in researches involving observations about
behavioral patterns like the teaching-learning conditions in classrooms, play
behavior of children, behavior of mentally incapacitated individuals.
 2. Interview Method. It is a method of data gathering frequently used for obtaining
information. It is a face to face interaction between the interviewer and interviewee
or respondent of the study.

Types of Interview
a. The structured or standardized. In this type, the questions are well arranged
and properly organized. The schedule for interview is carefully set/prepared.
b. The unstructured or un-standardized. It is flexible and open. Questions may
not be asked in proper order however, the researcher should ask questions
that will answer the objectives of the study.

Advantages of Interview Method

a. It can be used to almost all segments of population.
b. It obtains much better sample of the general population.
c. It has greater sensitivity to misunderstanding by respondents.
d. .It is more appropriate for very personal information.
e. It avoids missing data needed in the study.

The Use of Survey Questionnaire

The survey questionnaire is used in data gathering. This method is faster and applicable
when more samples are involved. It is less time and effort, and not expensive compared to other
methods of data gathering. The survey questionnaire as an instrument in data gathering must be
well-planned and prepared to avoid error, and to attain the objectives of the study.

Treatment of the Data

This section presents and enumerates the statistical measures and tests that were used on the
gathered data for the study.
In the choice of the needed statistical tests, care must be exercised to insure that only the most
appropriate ones are utilized. The selection of the appropriate tools is guided by the following questions:
1. How many variables are being measured?
2. How many dimensions or points or views are there on the variable being measured?
3. How many levels do the dimensions have?
4. What kind of data or scale will be used in calculating or measuring the variable?
5. How the data shall be distributed in a diagram?

Scales of Measurement
1. Nominal Scale – it names and classifies persons or objects into two or more categories
having a common set of characteristics, such as tall versus short persons, male versus
female, etc.
2. Ordinal Scale – It classifies subjects or objects by ranking them from the highest to the
lowest or from the most to the least.
3. Interval Scale – It is based upon some predetermined equal intervals, like test scores,
obtained in achievement tests. Aptitude tests, intelligence tests, etc.
4. Ratio Scale – It has a zero point, like height, weight, time and other physical features.
STATISTICAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES

A. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

1. Mean (Average) – is a set of data taken from the average of the population or of the sample.
2. Median – is the value found at the middle of the chronologically arranged data.
3. Mode – is defined as the value in a set of scored that occurs most frequently.
 B. Measures od Variation/Dispersion
1. Range – It is the simplest and easiest way in measuring variability by determining the difference
between the highest and the lowest scores. It is the most unreliable measure of variation
(Highest Score-Lowest Score).
2. Average Deviation – it is defined as the sum of the absolute deviations of the arithmetic mean
divided by the number of cases.
3. Variance – it is the square of the standard deviation and is also known as the mean score.
4. . Standard Deviation – it is the most commonly used indicator of the degree of variation, and the
most dependable measure to estimate the variability in a total population from which the sample
came. The Standard Deviation is also known as the square of the variance.

STATISTICS FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING /MEASURES FOR SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE.

1. Z-TEST OF ONE POPULATION MEAN(one-tailed Z-test – it is used to determine whether or

not an obtained sample mean or average of scores is a random sample from a population
with known parameters, it is used when there is a pre-postulated (assumed) hypothesis
going in one direction.
Example: Is the product effective as claimed?

2. Z-test of Independent Proportions (two-tailed Z-test). It is used to test the difference or

proportions in two independent groups. It is used for data expressed in terms of frequencies.
Also, it is used to determine whether or not there is significant difference between two
independent/different groups on situations that call for two types or responses
(dichotomous).
Example: Is there a significant difference between students and teachers in terms of opinion
toward charter change?

3. Z-test of Dependent or Correlated Proportions (two—tailed) – It is used to test the

significance of the difference between pairs of observations from a single group, or to
determine if the responses of the members of the group on two situations are correlated.
Example: did the symposium influence significantly the students’ preference?

4. Z-test of Independent Means or Critical Ratio (two tailed) – it is used to test the significance
of the difference between the means of two independent groups, and for data of the
interval scale; and for number of cases greater than 30.

5. T-test of Independent/uncorrelated Means – t is used to determine whether or not an

observed differences between the averages of two different /independent groups is
statistically significant. The data are of the interval scale or in the form of scores, and the
number of cases us less than 30.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the two groups of children in terms of
achievement in Science?

6. T- test of Dependent Variable/Correlated means – it is used to determine the significance

between two mean obtained by one group from testing conditions.
Example: Is there a significant difference in the pre-test and post test scores of children after
undergoing a remedial class?

7. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) or F-test – It is used to determine whether or not

there are differences among means of three or more groups.
Example: Do the four groups of students significantly differ in terms of academic
performance?
 8. Two- Way analysis of Variance – Factoral F-test – it is used to determine the main and
interaction effects of two independent variables of the intervals type.

9. Chi-square Distribution – it is a versatile statistical tool which is not limited to the evaluation
of one statistic or one difference at one time. It is used when:
a. The data are in the form of frequencies or for data that can be readily transmitted
into frequencies.
b. To test for significance, hypotheses involving more than one set of data and
c. The data are in nominal type or nominal dichotomous and ordinal.
TYPES:

A. CHI-SQUARE Test of Goodness of Fit - It is used to test the significance of difference

among responses in group or it is used to determine whether or not a significant
difference exists between the observed numbers of cases, based on the null hypothesis.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the observed and the expected
distributions of student’s response?

B. Chi-square Test of Association/ Independence – It is used to determine whether or not

there is a correlation relationship, association between two variables. Of the nominal
type.
10. H_ Test or Kruskal Wallis - It is used for rank-sum test which serves to test the null
hypothesis that independent random samples come from identical populations against the
alternative hypothesis that the means of these populations are not all equal. It is alternative
tool for F-Test in parametric tests, comparing three or more independent groups.
Example: Are there significant differences in the average grades of students using the four
methods of teaching?

11. Mann-Whitney U-test or Wilcoxon Rank sum Test - it is a non-parametric alternative to the
small-sample t-test concerning the difference between two means. Also, it is used to test a
null hypothesis that two samples come from identical populations without having to assume
that the populations samples are continuous to avoid ties.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the grades in an English class?

12. Posteriori T-test/ Turque/Honestly Significant test/Duncan Multiple Range Test – It is used
to determine which pairs of comparison is significantly related or associated from among
group mans when the data are interval-ratio scale.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the means of group A and B?

TIPS IN DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE STATISATICAL TOOLS

1. The Distribution. For single variable, Mean is recommended when the data are normally
distributed. For bi-variate data with a normal distribution, Pearson Product Moment
correlation is needed for correlation test and the parametric tests are required to
interpret the significant difference of two variables. If the data showed skewness, either
negatively or positively skewed, the Non-parametric tests are recommended.
2. The type of measuring scale. When the data are categorized as interval and ratio types,
the parametric tests shall be used. For normal and ordinal data, the non-parametric test
are recommended.
3. The number of variables. For single variables, the frequency distribution, the measures
of central tendencies and the Measures of Variations are recommended. Inferential
statistics are generally used to analyze data with two to three variables.
4. The total number of observations/cases. For 30 and below observations, the non-
parametric and correlation tests are generally recommended.
 ASSESSMENT

Define the terms below

1. Mean 5. Parametric Test

2. Median Mode 6. Non-parametric Test
3. Sampling 7. Standard Deviation
4. Sample design 8. Population
II. Compute for correct sample size of each research unit using the stratified random sampling technique
with the following data

Research Unit Population

A 60
B 55
C 37
D 47
E 62

MODULE 4 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Overview This module presents the data gathered, processes and organized prior to the
analysis and interpretation of results.

Presentation of Data
The gathered data should ne sequentially arranged, presented and discussed. To present the
data, start with a brief introductory paragraph by giving the purpose of the data in the table. The data
collected should be presented in textual, tabular and graphical forms to facilitate analysis and
interpretation.

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Data analysis is the examination of gathered and organized data in terms of characteristics,
similarities differences, trends and relationships so as to answer the statement of the problems.

To ensure depth analysis and objective interpretation of data per table, the researcher should
consider the following questions:

1. What do the data or findings mean?

2. How significant are they in terms of the researcher’s own theory and that can be cited
theories of experts?
3. Are there inconsistencies in the findings?
4. What are some of the limitation of the findings?
5. What are the circumstances that may have influenced the unexpected outcomes of the
study?
The theories, ideas, principles and information presented in module 2 which is review related
literature and studies can help in the analysis of the data.

Moreover, the researcher must be knowledgeable on the use of statistics in the

interpretation of results.
MODULE 5 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDTIONS

Overview: In this module, the researcher has to summarize the research report beginning
from the statement of the problems, research methodology, and summary of
findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Findings
The summary of findings are sequentially arranged to give a concise
and accurate reports of results on the various data gathered and analyzed. It
can be presented in numerical or in paragraph form.

Conclusions

The conclusions of the study are formulated to make a final statement

to answer the statement of the problems which were made before the study
was conducted. If possible, conclusions are presented in numerical Form.

Recommendations At this point, the researcher has the opportunity to make his/her
recommendations on certain phenomenon/or issue as a result of investigation
conducted. It must be based on the conclusions made.

MODULE 6 RESEARCH FORMAT

TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL SHEET
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF APPENDICES
ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem
Hypotheses of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Definition of Terms

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

(to be presented in thematic approach)

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design
Subject and Respondents of the Study
Population and Sample Size
 Sampling Techniques
Data Gathering Instrument
Data Gathering Procedure
Methods on Data analysis

CHAPTER 4 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA (all data

are chronologically presented)

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary
Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
Bibliography
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae

References
A. Books

Adanza, Estrella. Research Methods: Principles and app;ications. Copyright 1995.

Aquino Gaudencio, Fundamentals of Research. Copyright 1992
Ardales, Venancio. Basic concepts and methods of Researcch. Published by Great Books Trading.
Quezon city copyright 1992.
Best John. Research in Education. Published by Princeton Hall Inc. copyright 1981
Best, John and James Kahn. Research in Education published by Simon and Schester(Asia).
Creswell, J. w. 2010. Research Design, quantitative, qualitative and Mixed method. 2 nd Edition
Sage Publication California.
Hair, Jr. J. F. Babi, Mone, A. H. et.al. 2003. Essentials of Business Research Methods.wiley USA.
Padua, Roberto. Elements of Research and Statistical Model. Copyright 2000
Sevilla, C. J. Ochave, T, Punsalan, b. Regalaet.al. research Methods. Rex Bookstore copyright 1992

B. Electronic references
www.sage.pub.com/upm-data/350066 The Nature of Mixed method design 2010
www.sage.pub.com/upm-data/36869 Introduction to quantitative Research 2010