UNIT 2- SOIL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

Lesson 1 - Processes and Mechanics of Erosion

Introduction
Soil Erosion: the word „erosion‟ was derived from Latin word „erodere‟, which is to mean „to
eat away‟ or „to excavate‟. The word was first used in geology for describing the eomorphologic
processes that take place on the surface of the earth and rock systems like the terms „hollow‟
created by water in rock systems. However, soil erosion is essentially a smoothening process, with
soil and rock particles being carried, rolled or washed by the gravity, water, wind or other agents.

Definition: “It is defined as detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles from one
place to another place under the influence of wind, water or gravity forces”.

Erosion is a physical process, characterized by significant variations in its intensity and frequency
all over the world. Erosion varies upon many elements, among which the most significant are
climate parameters precipitation and temperature, as well as other parameters such as geology,
topography, vegetation cover and anthropogenic influences.

Soil erosion is a process of mechanical detachment of the soil under the influence of erosive agents
such as water and wind that consists of a detachment of soil particles, transportation of detached
soil and its deposition. The dominant geomorphic process for much of Earth`s land surface is soil
erosion by water agent. The main influence on erosion processes are considered to have climate,
soil, topography, vegetation cover and anthropogenic factors.

Soil erosion which is a global threat responsible for soil nutrient depletion, degradation of soil
quality, destruction of soil structure and disruption of ecosystem; have reduced the availability of
productive lands for cultivation which in turn has greatly reduced chances of food sufficiency and
security.

Soil erosion is a three phase phenomena, consisting the detachment of individual soil particles
from the soil mass and their transport by erosive agents such as running water and wind. When
sufficient energy is no longer available with the erosive agents to transport the particles, then the
third phase called as deposition takes place. The soil erosion may be defined as =detachment„
transportation and deposition of soil particles from one place to another under influence of wind,
water or gravity forces. Most of the time erosion takes place when the rains drops in the upstream
moves to downstream through water, gravity and glacier and also wind in dry area.

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Erosion is a natural process by which soil and rock material is loosened and removed. Erosion by
the action of water, wind, and ice has produced some of the most spectacular landscapes we know.
Natural erosion occurs primarily on a geologic time scale, but when man‟s activities alter the
landscape, the erosion process can be greatly accelerated. Construction-site erosion causes serious
and costly problems, both on-site and off-site.

Erosion is the wearing away of material by naturally occurring agents through the detachment and
transport of soil materials from one location to another, usually at a lower elevation. Natural agents
are mostly responsible for this phenomenon but the extent to which erosion occurs can be
considerably accelerated through human activities.

The term erosion was first used in geology to describe the forming of hollows by water and the
wearing away of solid material by the action of river water.

There are many classifications of soil erosion: by the intensity (Natural or Geologic and
Accelerated), by the erosive agent (water and wind), by stage (Raindrop, Sheet, Rill Gully, Stream
bank and Tunnel).

Water erosion is considered the most severe type of soil erosion where soil detachment and
transportation is caused by two different phenomena, the first being the raindrop impact on soil
and the second water runoff. Water erosion is “a function of forces applied to the soil by raindrop
impact and surface runoff relative to the resistance of the soil to detachment”.

A detachment of sediment from the soil surface was originally considered to be exclusively the
result of raindrop impact, although the importance of overland flow as an erosive agent has later
been recognized. Today, rainwater in the form of runoff is considered the main trigger of water
erosion causing the transport of soil particles and its deposition on lower parts of the catchment.

“Sediment delivery is the amount of eroded material delivered to a particular location, such as
from the eroding portions of a hill-slope (soil loss) or the outlet of a catchment (sediment yield)”.

Soil loss refers to the sediment from the eroding portion of a hill-slope where overland flow occurs.

Major agents of erosion

Agents for Soil Erosion are Water, Wind, Ice (glaciers), Waves, and Gravity (mass wasting)

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1. Water
Water results erosion because it has the power to detach the soil particles and carry them to
somewhere else.

Water erosion refers to the detaching and transporting of the top soil by runoff. Runoff is basically
caused due to rainfall. Therefore, water erosion is linked to the rainfall event in an area.

The factor that most influences soil erosion by water is the mean annual rainfall. In regions of
very low rainfall, there can be very little erosion caused by rain due less runoff since canopy
abstraction of the rainfall. At the other extreme, an annual rainfall of more than 1000mm usually
dense forest vegetation that affords protective covers to the soil, which is a key factor in reducing
water erosion. The most severe erosion will thus tend to be associated with the middle range of
rainfall when the natural vegetation is undisturbed and with higher rainfall when the natural forest
is removed.

2. Wind
 wind is another agent of soil erosion
 It has a great effect on bare soil where the vegetation is very sparse.
 When the wind blows, wind force act on the soil particles to detach and to move its direction.

Agents Active in Water Erosion

Two major agents active in water erosion are falling raindrop and running water. Both of these get
the energy needed to detach and transport soil grains from the force of gravity. The agents of water
erosion are: Raindrop and Running water.

Raindrops
It is now established that collision of rain drops on bare soil and resulting splash is the major cause
of soil erosion by water. About 95% of soil is splashed by falling rain drops and runoff water
erodes less than 5% of the soil.

Processes of Soil Erosion

Important Points:
1. When eroding agents have sufficient capacity to transport more quantity of materials than
the materials supplied through detachment then erosion is termed as “detachment limited “.
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When materials supplied are greater than materials transported then erosion is termed as
transport limited.
2. Two energy forms are involved in erosion process.

a) Potential energy represented by PE = m.g.h,

Where
PE =potential energy in joules, m= g= acceleration due to gravity,
Mass of body in kg, h = elevation Difference.
b) Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a substance by virtue of its motion and
proportional to the product of the moving mass and half of the square of the velocity of
the mass. Kinetic energy represented by KE = ½ mv2,

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Where

m = mass of body in kg,

V = Velocity of running water or falling
KE = Kinetic energy, raindrops
A large amount of energy is lost against frictional resistance of soils surface. Only 3 to 4 % energy
is remained with running water to detached soil particles.

In the course of soil erosion there are three major processes that occur.

A. Detachment of soil particles

This is the first phenomenon that should happen for soil erosion to occur. It refers to detachment
of soil particles from the soil aggregate that was originally developed. Detachment of soil particles
mainly occur because of the action of rain drops, runoff, wind, animal trampling and different
activities of human beings.

The detachment of soil particles is generally caused due to the impact of raindrops wherein the
particles are detached and splashed away. Large quantities of soil are eroded by simple process of
splashing and it is considered to be the first step in erosion process. The soil loss due to splash is
considered to be 50 to 90 times greater than the wash-off losses.

Rain splash is the most important detaching agent, the soil is also broken up by weathering
processes, and tillage operations and by the trampling of people and livestock. All these processes
loosen the soil, so that it is easily removed by the agents of transport.

The smaller the soil particle size, the larger the Kinetic energy required detaching; and vice versa.

B. Transportation of Particles
This is the second important phenomenon for the soil erosion occurrence. Once the soil particles
are detach, running water or wind can easily remove them from their original place and carry them
to somewhere else. The major transporting agents are runoff and wind. It is the process, under
which soil particles dissolved in the running water are carried away from one place to another.

Transportation affected by:

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i. Velocity at which water is running. It offers a force on the soil particles in the flow direction.
At greater velocity comparatively large amount of soil particles are transported. In addition,
large size soil particles are also easily transported at greater velocity.
ii. Load present in the water. Here load indicates the amount of soil/rock existing in the flowing
water. Flowing water containing fewer loads, easily transports the soil mixed while in opposite
case a reverse effect is observed.
iii. Impediments/obstacles present in flow path of water. Actually, these constraints create an
obstruction in the path of water flow, as a result the velocity of water gets reduced, and
thereby the deposition of soil particles over the channel bottom is caused. In other way, it can
be said that, presence of obstacles, reduce the transportation of soil particles and viceversa.
iv. Carrying capacity of running water also affects the soil transportation rate. A stream which
has large flow volume, involves greater soil transportation and vice-versa.

Transportation Process

In water erosion, the process of soil transportation by running water is completed under the
following forms:

2. Solution : The water soluble contents present in the water are transported by the water in
solution form.
3. Suspension: Suspension process involves the transportation of finer soil particles, which
present in suspension form in the flowing water
4. Saltation and surface creep: The saltation mechanism is responsible to transport the medium
size soil particles, which are not able to stand in suspension form, but are mixed in water and
flow over the stream bed in the form of mud. The saltation and surface creep share a major
part of the sediment load, transported by the running water. The transportation of soil particles
by the surface creep action is referred to the courser soil particles, which is activated through
the actions of jumping, collusion and creeping.

C. Deposition/Sedimentation
The deposition of load mixed in the running water, is furnished under the following conditions:

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I. When force, by which the load is transported from one place to another, is reduced to a greater
limit, then the load present in the water tends to settle over the flow path. The reason is when
the force which is acting in the direction of water flow for causing to transport the load,
becomes very less than the resisting force acting in opposite direction, then presence of soil
load in the water is more resisted and thus forcing to settle or deposit the materials over the
flow path.

II. Presence of surface obstructions in the flow path of running water tends to cause the deposition
of load present in the water. These obstructions may be stems of trees, shrubs etc. Actually
these obstructions breakdown the velocity of running water, as a result the weight of soil load
mixed in the flow becomes more effective to get deposit over the path.

III. The curves of meander or winding courses of stream also cause to deposit the soil load running
along the flowing water, because at these points the flow velocity is reduced significantly,
thereby deposition of soil load there

Soil particles that is carried by the water or wind be deposited, when the transporting agent is no
more effective to carry them further distance. Mostly deposition in flat land, depressions and
reservoir„s.

Deposition affected by:

• When the force in the direction of water flow for causing to transport the load becomes very less
than the resisting force acting in opposite direction, then presence of soil load in the water is more
resisted and thus forcing to settle or deposit the materials over the flow path.

The severity of erosion depends upon the quantity of material supplied by detachment over time
and the capacity of the eroding agents to transport it. Where the agents have the capacity to
transport more material than it is supplied by detachment, the erosion is described as detachment-
limited. Where more material is supplied than can be transported, the erosion is transport
limited. The critical water velocity for detachment, transport and deposition of the soil particles is
the function of particles size. The value of critical velocity increases with increase in the grain
diameter.

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A greater force is also required to move larger soil particles. The fine particles are harder to get
erode by water flow, because of the cohesiveness of the clay minerals which comprise them. Once
an individual soil particle comes in motion, it is continued until the velocity reduces below the
threshold value.

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Table1 Role of the three main processes of water erosion

Types of Soil erosion

In broad sense the erosion process can be classified in to two types:- geologic and accelerated
erosion. They represent contrasting type of soil removed.

A. Geological erosion:
Erosion can occur naturally, transforming soil into sediment. This naturally occurring erosion
devoid of man„s influence is called geological or natural or normal erosion. It represents erosion
under the cover of vegetation. It takes place as a result of the action of water, wind, gravity and
glaciers. It is a very slow process and responsible for soil formation as well as soil loss (means that
loss of soil is compensated for by the formation of new soil under natural weathering process).

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Under this erosion type, the process of soil erosion is balanced by the process of soil formation,
creating a state of equilibrium.

Geologic erosion refers to the formation and loss of soil simultaneously which maintain the balance
between formation and various losses.

In its broadest sense it is a normal process, which represents the erosion of soil in its natural
condition without the influence of human being. The geologic erosion is long time eroding process.
The various topographical features such as existing of stream channels; valleys etc. are the results
of geologic erosion.

B. Accelerated erosion:
When the process of soil erosion is influenced by human activities, it is accelerated. Such
accelerated erosion is caused by removal of vegetation, and improper land use and management.
When the vegetation is removed and land is put under cultivation, the natural equilibrium between
soil building and soil removal is disturbed. The removal of surface soil takes place at much faster
rate than it can be built up by the soil forming processes. This is known as accelerated soil erosion
or abnormal erosion. It is destructive in nature and caused much land degradation. Only accelerated
erosion is matter of concern for the agricultural land. The erosion can be classified as water, wind,
and coastal erosion.

Accelerated erosion includes serious deterioration and loss of soil by the nature and human beings.
Accelerated erosion is an excess of geologic erosion. It is activated by natural and man‟s activities
which have brought about changes in natural cover and soil conditions. In usual course, the
accelerated erosion takes place by the action of water, wind, gravity and glaciers. In which water
causes the soil erosion through sheet flow, stream flow, wave action and ground-water flow
.Similarly wind detaches and transports the soil particle and causing a general mixing of the soil
at the surface. The gravity force causes the mass movement such as soil creep, rock creep, rock
slide and subsidence of the soil surface. These are examples of accelerated erosion. In general
accelerated erosion is simply known as soil erosion or erosion only.

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Mechanics of Water Erosion

There are six types of soil erosion: splash, sheet, rill, and gully, and stream and tunnel. Splash
erosion results when the force of raindrops falling on bare or sparsely vegetated soil detaches soil
particles. Sheet erosion occurs when these soil particles are runoff is allowed to concentrate and
gain velocity, it cuts rills and gullies as it with slope length and gradient, gullies become deep
channels and gorges. The volume and velocity of runoff and the greater the resultant damage
1. Raindrop Erosion

Raindrop erosion is also known as splash erosion. Raindrop erosion is soil detachment and
transport resulting from the impact of water drops directly on soil particles or on thin water
surfaces. The impact of raindrops breaks the soil crust and splashes the soil particles away. The
mass of each raindrop is directly proportional to its kinetic energy.

Rain drop erosion is:-

 It Is the first stage in the erosion process

 Results from the bombardment of the soil surface by raindrops
 Is the primary cause of soil detachment and soil disintegration
 Means that resettled sediment blocks soil pores resulting in surface crusting and lower
infiltration.
 Raindrop erosion is soil detachment and transport resulting from the impact of rain drops
directly on the soil particles or on thin water surface
 The effect is to give the surface a dimpled like appearance.
 Studies in America have shown that splashed particles may rise as high as 0.6 meters above
the ground and move up to 1.5 meters horizontally.

2. Sheet (Inter-rill) erosion

Sheet erosion may be defined as: It is the removal of the fairly uniform layer of soil from the land
surface by the action of rainfall and runoff.

Sheet erosion is the movement of soil particles by runoff flowing over the ground surface as
unconcentrated thin sheet layer. The eroding and transporting power of sheet flow are dependent
upon the depth and velocity of sheet flow for a given size, shape and density of soil particle.

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It is caused by the unconfined flow of water running across the surface. Rarely possible to see or
distinguish but accounts for large volumes of soil loss. Sheet erosion is often only recognized when
eroded soil is deposited along a fence line, on lower fields, and when sub soil materials emerge on
the upper soil surface.

Typically it results in the loss of the finest soil particles which contain the bulk of the available
nutrients and organic matter.

Sheet erosion of soil is a conceptual or an idealized form of soil erosion, where the fertile top soil
is removed in uniform layers under the action of runoff water or the overland flow. Such type of
removal of the top soil in the form of a layer or a sheet is very difficult to visualize. Sheet erosion
is affected by flow velocity, flow volume, and physical and chemical properties of soil, etc. In
reality, the sheet flow is carried out by very small definable channels called the inter-rills. Raindrop
detaches very thin layers of soil particles through splash and the detached particles are then carried
through the inter-rills by a very thin layer of the overland flow. The soil erosion by inter-rills is
dependent on the erosion that takes place through rills.

The eroding and transporting power of sheet flow are dependent upon the depth and velocity of
sheet flow for a given size, shape and density of soil particle. Sheet erosion is:-

 Caused by the unconfined flow of water running across the surface

 Thin layers of soil are being removed by water acting over the whole soil surface;
 Is responsible for extensive soil loss in both cultivated and non-cultivated environments.
 Rarely seen/hard to distinguish but accounts for large volumes of soil loss.
 Difficult to observe in the field, sheet erosion is often only recognized when eroded soil is
deposited along a fence line, on lower fields, and when sub-soil materials emerge on the
upper soil surface.
 Typically results in the loss of the finest soil particles which contain the bulk of the
available nutrients and organic matter.

3. Rill Erosion

It is sometime known as micro channel erosion. It is the removal of soil by running water with the
formation of areas of small branching channels. There is no sharp time of demarcation where

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sheets erosion ends and more readily visible than sheet erosion. Rill of small depth can be ordinary
form tillage.

It is regarded as a transition/Intermediate stage between sheet erosion and gully. Rills are small
channels small enough to be obliterated by normal tillage operations. Occurs on recently cultivated
soils where runoff water concentrates in streamlets as it passes downhill.

Rills frequently occur in relatively straight lines between crop rows or along tillage marks.
Concentrated flow is able to detach and transport soil particles. Channels form up to 30cm deep

Prolonged occurrence of soil erosion through inter-rills, results widening of the inter-rills and
formation small channels, called rills.

These rills carry both the overland flow from the inter-rill areas and the direct flow. In a channeled
flow, the depth of flow is more, thus soil erosion is very high from the well-defined channels. Rills
carry the sediment brought by the overland flow through its inter-rills, and have a controlling effect
on the magnitude of soil erosion.

• Has greater scouring action than sheet flow and it removes soil from the edges and beds of the
streamlets

4. Gully Erosion

It is removal of soil by excessive concentration of running water, resulting in the formation of

channels ranging in size from 30cm to 10m.Gully is a steep – sided eroding watercourse which is
an advanced stage of rill erosion.

Normal tillage operations cannot obliterate/destroy it as in the case of rill erosion. These channels
carry water during and immediately after rains.

Gully erosion is responsible for removing vast amounts of soil, irreversibly destroying farmland,
roads and bridges and reducing water quality by increasing the sediment load in streams. Water
running into the gully either scours the face or undercuts the headwall resulting in gully
migration. Believed to be a response to changed hydrological conditions
• Gully initiation is thought to be a response to excessive water in the local environment caused
by the removal of perennial vegetation.

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• Gully head forms as rill erosion deepens and widens creating a characteristic nick/scrach point
or headwall.
• Water running into the gully either scours the face or undercuts the head wall resulting in gully
migration.
• Widening of gully sides occurs by undercutting or slumping.
• Gully head shape indicates if erosion is due to scouring (forward slope) or dispersion
(undercut).

• Some people call it “ a land cancer”

Gully expansion can be undertaken through three directions

 Gully head cut/ Gully migration  Gully bed erosion

 Gully side erosion/fall
Rills are small in size and can be smoothened by tillage operations. When rills get larger in size
and shape due to prolonged occurrence of flow through them and cannot be removed by tillage
operations, these are called gullies.

Large gullies and their networks are called ravines. Some of the major causes of gully erosion are
steepness of land slope, soil texture, rainfall intensity, land mismanagement, biotic interference
with natural vegetation, incorrect agricultural practices, etc.

5. Stream Channel Erosion

Stream channel [bank] erosion is the sourcing of material from the side and bottom of a stream
or water channel a by running water. It is mainly due to removal of vegetation, over grazing or
cultivation on the area near to the streams banks. But in general terms, it is caused due to
watershed degradation.

It is movement of soil particles on the bed and banks of streams and channels due to concentration
of runoff. Scouring, another facet of channel erosion, occurs along channels where eddies form as
a result of sudden expansion, contraction or change in flow direction. Scouring may lead to rapid
soil loss from the channel bed or side slopes.

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6. Tunnel Erosion
Tunnel erosion appears as a series of tunnels that form beneath the soil surface
 It is both a chemical and physical erosion process
 Tunnel erosion is caused by the movement of excess water through dispersive (usually
sodic) subsoil.
 Associated with changes in catchment hydrology or uneven saturation of clay subsoils.

Impacts/ Problems of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a worldwide problem. It affects the land from which soil is washed and damages
the area downstream. Soil erosion is a hazard traditionally associated with agriculture in tropical
and semi-arid areas and is important for its long-term effects on soil productivity and sustainable
agriculture. It is, however, a problem of wider significance occurring additionally on land devoted
to forestry, transport and recreation. Erosion also leads to environmental damage through
sedimentation, pollution and increased flooding.

The effect of soil erosion can be divided into two.

On site effect of soil erosion

On-site, refers to the damage of soil erosion on the original places, where erosion is occurred. On-
site effects are particularly important on agricultural land where the redistribution of soil within
a field, the loss of soil from a field, the breakdown of soil structure and the decline in organic
matter and nutrient result in a reduction of cultivable soil depth and a decline in soil fertility.

Erosion also reduces available soil moisture, resulting in more drought-prone conditions. The net
effect is a loss of productivity, which restricts what can be grown and results in increased
expenditure on fertilizers to maintain yields.

The loss of soil fertility through erosion ultimately leads to the abandonment of land, with
consequences for food production and food security and a substantial decline in land value.

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A. Loss of productive soil

Loss of any soil material from either forms of erosion calls concern, but top soil loss is the most
important. Top soil is generally more friable and contains more organic matter and fertility than
the sub soil.

The surface soil lost with runoff water consists of rich productive soil and frees or active organic
matter. The eroded material, which is ultimately carried into the ocean and thus lost, consists of
colloidal matter, clay, silt and the finest grades of sand .Only a small fraction of the eroded
material ,however reaches the ocean. The coarser material is usually deposited on river beds or
plains when the velocity of water reduces with the reduction of slope of the river bed. The soil
deposited in a river bed reservoir is not unavailable for agricultural use.

B. Plant Nutrient Loss

Plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, etc. can easily be removed along with the
soil from eroding surfaces. The colloidal clay and organic matter are the seats of most the soil‟s
fertility. The loss of colloidal materials in suspension under water erosion and in the clouds of
dust blown under wind erosion from eroding field‟s cause‟s considerable fertility. Top soil which
contains higher concentration of available nutrients than sub soil is lost first by erosion. In this
way eroding soils become progressively less fertile. Of course, a high proportion of nutrient
elements in eroded soil may not immediately be useful to crops and may not become available for
many years to crop.

C. Textural Change
The effect of wind erosion makes the finer soil grains to be carried great distances in suspension
.this selective removal makes originally sandy soil sandier. However medium-or fine-textured soil
may not be altered seriously because the water or wind sorts aggregates, but not individual soil
particles. Both small and large aggregates are usually of similar textural composition. But the
deposition of coarser soils of a field which was with fine or medium texture soil is damage of soil
texture of the field.

Water and wind erosion are selective. Coarse grains are left near the original locations while the
finer ones are transported some distance. The winnowing effect of wind erosion makes the finest

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soil grains to be carried great distances in suspension. This selective removal makes originally
sandy soil sandier.

D. Soil Structure Damage

The beating action of raindrops disintegrates the aggregates and compacts a thin layer into surface
crust. This damages the structure of surface soil. Moreover, percolating water carries suspended
soil particles and grains into the surface pores that lodge in the pores and reduce permeability.

E. Field Dissection
A farmer can continue to farm a field as a unit in the normal way as long as the channels formed
by erosion are small. When the channels become gullies, too large to be crossed with ordinary
machinery, the field must be farmed in two or more smaller units, with shorter lands and much
more turnings. Therefore, formation of gullies in farm fields is damage to the field.

Gullies may divide the farm in to many valleys and ridges. Fields thus become smaller and more
numerous. Crop rows are shortened, movement from field to field is obstructed, and the farm value
is decreased. Roads, buildings and fences are often damaged by gully development.

Off-site effect
Off-site problems arise from sedimentation downstream or downwind, which reduces the capacity
of rivers and drainage ditches, enhances the risk of flooding, blocks irrigation canals and shortens
the design life of reservoirs. Many hydroelectricity and irrigation projects have been ruined as a
consequence of erosion. Sediment is also a pollutant in its own right and, through the chemicals
adsorbed to it, can increase the levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in water bodies and result in
eutrophication. Erosion leads to the breakdown of soil aggregates and clods into their primary
particles of clay, silt and sand. Through this process, the carbon that is held within the clays and
the soil organic content is released into the atmosphere as CO 2.

A. Loss of Crops
Crop damage particularly at the seedling stage, by runoff water on blowing soil often causes
serious concern. Under extreme conditions crops may be completely destroyed. Covering of
established crops or pasturage by drifting soil is anther common result in arid and semi-air areas.

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Grass, trees, shrubs and hedges may be smothered or buried.

B. Silting of Lakes and Reservoirs

Soil erosion from the catchment areas of reservoir results in the deposition of soil, thus reducing
their storage capacity and shortening their useful life.

C. Lowering of water table

With the increase in runoff the quantity of water available for entering the soil is decreased. This
reduces the supply of water to recharge the ground water in wells, which results yield of the well
is reduced.

D. Deposition of sand on productive fields:

In the plains, fertile, lands have been made unproductive by the deposition of coarser material
Brought down from the hills streams and rivers.

E. Damage to engineering structures

Erosion causes great damage to buildings and other engineering structures. Foundation is
undermined by washing and landslides and soil creeps. Approaches to bridges, footing piles and
supports near shore and in midstream are affected by abrasion of soil particles in flowing water,
causing structural weakening and actual failure. Erosion in road ditches and culvert sites often
causes gullies which cut through or under the road and necessitate its closing.

F. Water and Air Pollution

The muddying of streams and lakes reduces their value for home and industrial uses, for recreation
and as habitats for fish and other aquatic life. The greater the sediment load the less suitable the
water is for any of these uses. Another problem of more recent concern involves the contaminants
that are carried in to the streams and lakes. Fertilizers and pesticides may be dissolved in running
water or carried with soil into stream and rivers. In some instances these contaminants affect
plants and aquatic animal lives, even land animals and man. Dust from
Agricultural activities seldom is the direct cause of fatalities, but it can and does cause
accidents and respiratory disorder that sometimes proves fetal. The dust may also carry pathogens
that cause skin disease.

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Principle of Soil Erosion and Modeling - Lecture Note (By Ademe T.)
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Generally soil erosion has the following effects

A. Loss of plant nutrients
B. Soil texture change
C. Soil structure deterioration
D. Disease and public health hazard (water and air pollution)
E. Silting of rivers, Silting of irrigation channels and reservoirs
F. Damage to sea coast and formation of sand dunes.
G. Problems in crop irrigation and consequent need of conserving the water
H. Damages on engineering structures.
I. Field dissection
J. Frequent Floods
K. Water resource depletion
L. Cost of water purification
M. Loss of crops

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Principle of Soil Erosion and Modeling - Lecture Note (By Ademe T.)
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Factors Influencing Erosion

2.1. Factors affecting erosion by water

Factors such as rainfall, runoff, wind soil, slope, plant cover and presence or absence
of conservation measures are responsible for soil erosion. But mainly three following
factors affect the erosion.

A. Energy:It include The potential ability of rainfall, runoff and wind to course
erosion and other factor which affects the power of erosive agents such as
reduction in length of runoff or wind blow through construction of terrace, bunds
etc. are for water erosion, and wind breaks or shelter belts in case of wind erosion.
Erosivity is the ability of rain to cause erosion.

• Erosivity of rainfall is the potential ability of rain to cause erosion.

• It is the function of the physical characteristic of rainfall.
• One storm can cause more erosion than another on the same land.
• The relative measure of the power of each storm to cause erosion is the erosivity of the
rainfall.

Factors, which affect the erosiveness of rain storm, are given as

 Rainfall intensity
• It is referred as the rate of fall of rainfall over the land surface in mm/hr
• Soil erosion is a work process in the physical sense that work is the expenditure of energy,
and energy is used in all the phases of erosion
– In breaking down soil aggregates,
– In splashing them in the air,
– In causing turbulence/instability in surface runoff,
– In scouring/rubbing and carrying away soil particles.
The factors which are most closely related in soil erosion by rain areamount and intensity of
rainfall (Intensity being critical)
The kinetic energy and intensity of rainfall are related; earlier studiesconducted in
widely separated countries show some relationship of thekinetic energy and intensity
of rainfall.  Drop size Distribution
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• The average size of a raindrop is 6 millimeters in diameter, about thesize of a housefly.
 Terminal velocity: the dead or the incurable velocity attained by a falling
object When a raindrop falls to the surface of the Earth, it is acted on by twomain
forces, gravity and drag forces. Usually, air resistance that comes in contact with the
water molecules as they fall causes the drag. The combination of these two forces
causes a raindrop to reach a terminal velocity when the drag force is approximately
equal to the weight of the raindrop. At this point, a raindrop experiences no further
acceleration and therefore falls at a constant velocity, i.e. terminal velocity.

Erodibility
The vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to get erosion is erodibility. It is the
function of physical characteristic of soil (texture, structure, organic matter, land use
pattern etc.) and land management practices used. Storms with same erosivity may
not result equal amount of soil loss from the lands that have different soils. That is,
erosion is a function of the erosivity of rainfall and erodibility of the soil. Erodibility
is more complex than Erosivity owing to the very far influencing characteristics of
soil, management conditions, cropping etc….
In the widest sense Erodibility can be used to include all the variables which affect erosion
except the erosivity of rain.

Relationship between Erosivity and Erodibility

 Erosivity is the function of rainfall properties and to this extent it is dependent on the
soil.
 But measurement of erosivity is not possible without erodibility of the soil.
 Similarly, erodibility on the other hand is the function of physical properties of the soil
and land management practices; it is independent on the rainfall.
 But the erodibility measurement can not be possible without rainfall. Thus, both terms
are not independently quantitative; each may be studied separately, keeping one as
constant.
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 THIS IS TO SAY: WITHOUT EROSIVITY THERE IS NO ERODIBILITY and/or
WITOUT ERODIBLITY THERE IS NO EROSIVITY.

B. Resistance:It is referred to that factors which affect soil erodibility and soil
erosion. Mechanical and chemical properties of soil are responsible for
infiltration rate of soil which reduces runoff and decreases soil erodibility;
Erodibility is the susceptibility of soil to get eroded. For instance, cultivation
decreases the erodibility of clay but increases erodibility of sandy soils.
C. Protection: It refers to plant covers which intercept the raindrop falling on
ground surface reducing their impact on soil. Plant cover also reduces the runoff
and wind velocity, there by soil erosion.
D. Different plant cover offers different protection so suitable cover can be
developed to control erosion.

Factors affecting Water Erosion: Water erosion is due to dispersive and transporting
power of water.

Factors affecting water erosion are:

1. Climatic factors: This includes rainfall characteristics, atmospheric temperature and wind
velocity
2. Soil characteristic: This affect infiltration rate of soil, Infiltration rate depends upon
permeability of soil, surface condition and presence of moisture in it.
3. Vegetation: It creates the obstacle for raindrops as well as glowing runoff. A good
vegetative cover completely reduces the effect of rainfall on soil erosion.
4. Topographic effect: The land slope, length of slope and shape of slope are main factors
which influences soil erosion. As slope of land increases from mild to steep, erosion
increases
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More general: Summary for the factors affecting soil erosion

Table 2Factors affecting soil erosion and the attendant environmental pollution

Factors Affecting Erosion by Wind

• Climatic factors
• Soil factor • Vegetation covers Topography
The major variables affecting soil erosion are climate, soil, vegetation, and
topography. Of these, vegetation and, to some extent, soil and topography may be
controlled. The climatic factors are beyond the power of human being to control.
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I. Climate

However, wind also changes the raindrop velocities and the angle of impact. Humidity
and solar radiation are somewhat less directly involved in that they are associated with
temperature and the rate of soil water depletion.

The climatic factors that affect wind erosion include precipitation, humidity, wind
erosive, and temperature. Humidity, wind speed and temperature influence
evaporation and transpiration of soil moisture, if they are high, they cause high
evaporation that lead the soil to be more susceptible to wind erosion. Temperature
and wind are the most evident through their effects on evaporation and transpiration.

Wind erosivity refers to the capacity of wind to cause soil erosion. The erosiveness
of wind is determined by the wind velocity near the surface, wind turbulence, wind
gustiness (rapid velocity increase), and wind direction (change in direction).
Generally, wind erosion can only happen when the soil surface is dry or only
slightly moist, because surface tension holds the soil particles together when wet.

The climatic factors that influence wind erosion are the characteristics of wind itself
in addition to the precipitation, humidity and temperature. The climatic factors
influence the soil moisture status which in turn influences the susceptibility of the soil
for erosion by wind.

II. Soil

Soil erodibility: Refers to the tendency of the soil to be eroded. This refers to the
ability of the surface soil to resist the erosive forces of wind. Texture, structure,
density of particles, soil mass moisture, organic matter and surface roughness are
the important soil factors affecting wind erosion.

Physical properties of soil affect the infiltration capacity and the extent to which particles can
be detached and transported.

The resistance of a soil to erosion depends on the nature of the soil:

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• Soil structure: The less structure-improving matter a soil has on the surface (organic
matter, iron and free aluminum, lime), the more fragile it will be, while the presence of
sodium or salt often leads to formation of a layer of dust on the surface, which fosters
wind erosion.

• State of the soil surface. If the soil surface is stony, forming a "pavement", the risks
of wind erosion are lower.

A rough surface, left by cloddy tillage or ridges perpendicular to the prevailing wind,
slows down the wind at ground level, thus reducing saltation.

• Vegetation: Stubble and crop residues in the soil cut wind-speed at ground level.

• Soil moisture: increases cohesion of sand and loam, temporarily preventing their erosion
by wind.

Texture: particle removal is the order of: clay>silt>fine sand, decreasing with
increase in particle size. (Sandy soil is more easily eroded than a hard clay soil. In
wind erosion it depends on the cloudiness of the soil. If the soil is cloddy it will be
larger enough to reset the forces of the wind. Clods formed during tillage, their
firmness and stability depend on soil moisture, compaction, organic matter, clay
content, lime and microbial activity. Drier the soil is the more susceptibility for wind
erosion.

More clayey soil is much stickier, better-structured, and hence more resistant. Coarse
sand and gravelly or rocky soils are also more resistant, since the particles are too
heavy to be removed by wind erosion.

In general, soil detachability increases as the size of the soil particles or aggregates
increase, and soil transportability increases with a decrease in the particle or aggregate
size. That is, clay particles are more difficult to detach than sand, but clay is more
easily transported.

Surface roughness: Surface roughness or crust has a retarding influence on the

movement of soil by wind. Smooth soil surface is generally more erodible by wind
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than a rough one. In general, greater the surface roughness the lower is the wind
velocity against the ground and lower is the rate of erosion.

Crusts: Crusts are denser, stable, and resistant to erosion than un-crusted soils. Wind
erosion rates decrease exponentially with increase in soil water content owing to the
cohesive force of water. Surface crusts when formed have a retarding influence on
wind erosion.

III. Vegetation

Type of vegetation, the height of vegetation, density of vegetation and it‟s seasonal
distribution are some of the vegetation factors which influence the soil erosion by
wind. Good vegetation cover is the most permanent and effective way to control wind
erosion. Living or dead vegetation cover protects the soil surface from wind action by
reducing wind speed and by preventing much of the direct wind force from reaching
erodible soil particles. Vegetation cover also reduces rate of erosion by trapping soil
particles. Protection depend on the quantity, size, height and orientation of the
plants in relation to the prevailing wind direction.

Because of the effectiveness of vegetative cover in controlling soil erosion, it is usually the
primary choice for long-term erosion control unless there are reasons for doing otherwise.

Vegetation influences wind erosion, directly when the area is under vegetation or indirectly by
protecting the adjoining areas.

IV. Topography

Topography refers to the shape, length, inclination and aspect of a slope. The length and
inclination are critical factors with longer and steeper slopes producing greater soil erosion.
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Lesson 2: Assessment of Erosion Hazard and Erosion Modelling

3.1. Introduction
There are many conditions on a construction site that contribute to the overall hazard
and risk of soil erosion and sediment pollution to the environment. Hazard (H) is
defined as a description of the magnitude (M) and probability (P) of occurrence
within a specified period of time and within a given area of a potentially damaging
phenomenon . Hence, H = M × P. it is ―source of potential harm or a situation with
a potential to cause loss.

The Erosion Hazard Assessment (EHA) determines whether that risk is „low‟, „medium‟ or
„high‟ by using a series of questions to assess the risk to the environment. Erosion
hazard is a land quality to be considered in land use planning as it influences the
productivity of land. It is a special form of land resources evaluation, and defined by
the expected degree of damage in the near future.

What is the objective of soil erosion hazard studies?

Erosion hazard assessment aims; to identify those areas of land where the maximum
sustained productivity from a given land use is threatened by excessive soil loss or the
off-site damage arising from erosion is unacceptable. A distinction is made between
potential erosion risk, reflecting the local conditions of soil, climate and slope, and
actual erosion risk, which additionally takes account of land cover. It is therefore
possible to recognize areas of high potential risk but low actual risk as a result of the
protection afforded by vegetation.

Erosion hazard assessment also involves the division of land into land use units, similar in
their kind and degree of erosion hazard, as basis for planning soil conservation work.

3.2. Soil Loss Status Based

Usually soil erosion of watershed classified in to four classes:

1) Areas having greater or equal to 200 ton/ha/year as Severe Hazard Zone

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2) Areas having 101-200 ton/ha/year as High Hazard Zone
3) Areas having 51-101 ton/ha/year as Moderate Hazard Zone
4) Areas having up to 50 ton/ha/year as Slight Hazard Zone
( 1 ton = 10 Quintals = 1000Kg= 1000000 grams (1 Million gram=1Mg)

3.3. Methods of Erosion hazard assessment

There are three types of assessments of erosion hazard

1. Generalized assessment : as national level

2. Semi detailed assessment
3. Detailed surveys

3.3.1. Generalized Assessment

Generalized assessments of erosion risk are made at macro/national level / scale. Considered
largely based on analyzing the climatic data or they use measurement of erosion intensity.

1. Factorial Scoring Method

For this method an attempts is made to include factors that influences soil erosion.
The soil erosion factors are described for the area under consideration and each of
them are rated. Land unit can be rated on scale of 1 to 5 based on factors as of erosivity,
erodibility, slope, ground cover and human occupation, the latter taking account of
the density of the population and the type of settlement. The five factor scores were
summed to give total score, which was then compared with an arbitrarily chosen
classification system to categorize areas of low, moderate and high erosion risk. The
score ranges from 1(lower risk of erosion) to 5 high risk of erosions.

Table 3 Factorial scouring example

Factors Land Units / Risk Of Erosion

A B C

K 4 5 1

R 3 2 1

Ls 2 3 5
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C 4 4 5

Total 13 14 12
Which land units are highly severed for erosion? B so we assess first B, next A and the C
Several problems associated with this technique are: First, the classification may be
sensitive to different scoring systems. For example, the use of different slope groups
may yield different assessments of the degree of erosion risk. Second, each factor is
treated independently, whereas there is often interaction between the factors. Third,
the factors are combined by addition. There is no reason why this should be a more
appropriate method of combining them than multiplication, although multiplication
often results in the score for one factor dominating the total score and, for that reason,
is difficult to use with zero values in the scoring system. Fourth, each factor is given
equal weight.

Despite these difficulties, the technique is easy to use and has the advantage that
factors which cannot be easily quantified in any other way can be readily included.
When used carefully, factorial scoring can provide a general appreciation of erosion
risk and indicate vulnerable areas where more detailed assessments should be made.

 Each unit of square or sub-watershed is rated on a scale from 1 to 5 in respect of Erosivity,

Erodibility, Slope, Ground cover, and Population.
 In the scoring „1„is associated with „Low risk‟ and„5‟ is associated with „high risk‟.
 The five factor scores are added and the total is used for a classification of low, moderate, and
high erosion risk area.

2. Erosivity indices (R):

Erosivity data can be used as an indicator of regional variations in erosion potential.
Based on mean annual erosivity values, used to showing that high-risk and low risk
areas. Erosivity is low at the beginning of the wet season and increases as the season
progresses. Erosivity is highest at the time of minimal vegetation cover.

It expresses the erosive potential or power of the rain. The potential ability of rainfall
to cause soil erosion is called erosivity. Therefore rainfall characteristics which
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influence its erosivity such as amount, duration and intensity, drop size and drop
size distribution, terminal velocity and kinetic energy are obtained from
measurements carried out with rain gauges. Rainfall intensity is: amount/duration =
mm/h. Rainfall intensities exceeding 150 mm h -1 are found regularly in the tropics
whereas in temperate regions, rainfall intensity hardly exceeds 75 mm h-1.
Therefore, rainfall erosivity is considered higher for topical rains than temperate rains.
Drop size and drop size distribution are measured using: drop-stain method. Large
drops have higher terminal velocity than small drops. Raindrop size hardly exceeds 5
mm size. Of its Kinetic energy: This is the product of the mass of rain falling per unit
time and the square terminal velocity E = ½mv2 this, in units of kg and m /s, also gives
a value in Joules. The erosivity index is the product of kinetic energy of the storm
(E) its max 30 minute intensity (I 30), R= EI30 = mv2xI30/2, I = intensity of the
storm in mm/hr E = expresses in J/m2, R= J mm m-2 h-1

3. Rainfall aggressiveness

The most commonly used index of rainfall aggressiveness, shown to be significantly

correlated with sediment yields in rivers, sediment production, especially under
natural conditions, in a specific area, dependent on annual and seasonal rain. It
expressed as degradation coefficient(c) for large catchment > 2000km2 is the ratio
p2/P, where p is the highest mean monthly precipitation and P is the mean annual
precipitation. To investigate regional variations in erosion risk using correlation
between p2/P and drainage texture, defined as the number of first-order streams per
unit area. Since drainage texture is analogous to gully density, p2/P may be regarded
as an indicator of the risk of gully erosion. In contrast, mean annual erosivity values
reflect the risk of erosion by rain splash, overland flow and rills.

By super imposing the maps of p2/P and erosivity, a composite picture of erosion risk
is obtained. As expected from the above, there is often a poor relationship between
p2/P and mean annual R. The emphasis given in p2/P to the month with the highest
rainfall underplays the contribution of the rainfall in the rest of the year to erosion. If
the mean annual rainfall increases but the highest monthly total remains the same, the
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p2/P actually falls in value whereas the potential for erosion should increase, since a
proportion of the additional rain is likely to be erosive. Arnoldus (1980) proposed a
way of overcoming this defect by considering the rainfall of all months and
developing a modified Fournier Index (MFI).

Where p is the mean monthly precipitation and P is the mean annual rainfall. Based
on significant correlations between MFI and mean annual R for different climatic
regions, mean annual erosivity maps have been produced for different countries.

3.3.2. Semi Detailed Assessments

Mainly deals with soil erosion risk of a medium scale, it considers land units and farm
fields and analysis all factors of soil erosion. Assessing the land erosion hazard in a
medium level and we look for the land characteristics.

A. Erosion Survey

Three types of erosion survey can be distinguished: static, sequential and dynamic.

Static surveys consist of mapping, often from aerial photographs, the sheet wash, rills and
gullies occurring in an area.

Sequential surveys evaluate change by comparing the results of static surveys undertaken
on two or more different dates.

Dynamic surveys map both the erosion features and the factors influencing them and
seek to establish relationships between the two. Geomorphological mapping system
portrays information on the distribution and type of erosion, erosivity, runoff, slope
length, slope steepness, slope curvature in profile and plan, relief, soil type and land
use.
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In some studies there is no sufficient time or man power to make detailed
measurements of erosion depth. The intensity (I) of erosion is estimated by inspection
of large areas, and mapped on to aerial photographs. This techniques usually
involves the establishment of 3 or 4 categories of erosion intensity ( I ). Areas of
pehaps 5 – 10 ha or individual hill slopes are then classified into one of these
categories.

Table 4 Coding system for soil erosion appraisal in the field

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B. Land Capability Classification
Land capability classification was developed by the United States Natural Resources
Conservation Service as a method of assessing the extent to which limitations such as
erosion, soil depth, wetness and climate hinder the agricultural use that can be made
of the land. The objective of the classification is to divide an area of land into units
with similar kinds and degrees of limitation. There are three categories of land
capability classification
1. Capability unit: The basic unit is the capability unit. This consists of a group of soil types
of sufficiently similar conditions of profile form, slope and degree of erosion to make them
suitable for similar crops and warrant the use of similar conservation measures.
2. Sub class: The capability units are combined into sub-classes according to the nature of the
limiting factor
3. Class: Consist of sub class combined based on the degree of limitation
The United States system recognizes eight classes arranged from Class I, characterized
by no or very slight risk of damage to the land when used for cultivation, to Class
VIII, very rough land that can be safely used only for wildlife, limited recreation and
watershed conservation. The first four classes are designated as suitable for arable
farming. The value of land capability assessment lies in identifying the risks attached
to cultivating the land and in indicating the soil conservation measures that are
required

Land capability classes (United States system)

Table 4 Land capability class and characteristics
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In general used to combine data on soil erosion hazard and limitation and also used to select
appropriate land use and management plan.

Draw backs of these methods are that it:

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 Gives much emphasis to slope and soil conservation
 Does not specify the suitability of land for particular crop.
 Does not give an indication for land value or profitability

C. Land systems classification

Land systems analysis is used to compile information on the physical environment for
the purpose of resource evaluation. The land is classified into real units, termed land
systems, which are made up of smaller units, land facets, arranged in a clearly
recurring pattern. Since land facets are defined by their uniformity of landform,
especially slope, soils and plant community, land systems comprise an assemblage of
landform, soil and vegetation types.

The land systems differed from each other in either their soil erodibility or slope
steepness or, in some cases, both. These results demonstrate that land systems
represent dynamic erosionresponse units that reflect both the extent of erosion at any
one time and its evolution over time.

3.3.3. Detailed surveys

Detailed surveys of erosion are usually carried out in the field at pre-selected points
to give information on the extent and severity of erosion. They are also used as checks
on semi- detailed surveys carried out from aerial photographs and satellite imagery.
The severity of erosion is rated by a simple scoring system. Taking account of features
that are easily visible, such as the exposure of tree roots, crusting of the soil surface,
and formation of splash pedestals, the size of rills and gullies and the type and
structure of the plant cover.

Observations are made using quadrate sampling over areas of 1m 2 for ground cover,
crusting and depth of ground lowering, 10m2 for shrub cover and 100m2 for tree cover.
In interpreting the results of field surveys, it is important to place the data in their time
perspective, particularly with respect to likely seasonal variations in the vegetation
cover and soil erodibility.
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If detailed field surveys are carried out at a sufficient number of places and the results
are shown to be representative of particular soil or landscape conditions, it is possible
to extrapolate the data and produce national scale erosion surveys.

Erosion Estimation and Modeling

The Concept of Modeling

Each definition of “model” is insufficient: It covers only a small range of the reach of use. In
particular all definitions with the terms „original, „reality‟ and representation‟ cannot
convince.

Modeling soil erosion is the process of mathematically describing soil particle

detachment, transport and deposition on land surfaces. It is important to
understanding the processes governing soil erosion, predicting runoff and soil
erosion rates, and identifying or choosing appropriate measures of erosion control.
Modeling permits the: Understanding of the driving processes, Evaluation of on-site
and off-site impacts on soil productivity and water and air pollution on large scale,
Identification of strategies for erosion control, and Assessment of the performance
of soil conservation practices for reducing water and wind erosion.

Three Reasons for modeling erosion: Erosion models can be used

a. As predictive tools for assessing soil loss for conservation planning, project planning, and
soil erosion inventories and for regulation.
b. Physically based mathematical model can predict where and when erosion is occurring,
thus helping the conservation planner target efforts to reduce erosion.
c. As tools for understanding erosion processes and their interaction and for setting research
priorities.

Well-developed and properly calibrated models provide good estimates of soil erosion
risks. Soil erosion results from a complex interaction of soil-plant-atmospheric forces.
Thus, modeling soil erosion requires a multidisciplinary approach among soil
scientists, crop scientists, hydrologists, sedimentologists, meteorologists, and others.
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Models must be able to integrate processes, factors and causes at various spatial
(space) and temporal (time) scales. Time and space based model comprises three main
components: the rainfall inputs, soil erosion environment and outputs.

Lesson 3: Soil Erosion Measurement

Introduction
Data on the amount of soil transported from a field are required to:
Assess the magnitude or severity of erosion and its effects on soil productivity,
Develop mathematical models and test their applicability for soil erosion prediction,
Design and establish erosion control practices,
Understand and manage sedimentation in depositional areas, and
Ascertain effects of erosion on water pollution.
Data on soil erosion and its controlling factors can be collected in the field or, for
simulated conditions, in the laboratory. Whether field or laboratory studies are used
depends on the objective. For realistic data on soil loss, field measurements are the
most reliable, but because conditions vary in both time and space, it is often difficult
to determine the chief causes of erosion or to understand the processes at work. In
general, the ways to measure soil erosion are Estimate how much has been lost from
a site and Estimate how much has accumulated elsewhere.

Indicators of soil erosion

Water erosion leaves many features on the land, which indicates and amount of damage that
occurred on the area. Some of the visual indicators are:
i. Lowering of soil surface after the erosion and observation of many rock
fragments on the field.
ii. Pedestals and Tree mounds
iii. Observation of rills on the fiend. iv. Observation of exposed plant root.
v. Occurrence of gullies on the land
vi. Accumulation of eroded sediment behind conservation structures.
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Visual indicators for wind erosion
If any one of out to the field and try to observe whether there is wind erosion or not the most
important features that should be considered are:
1. Violent and dusty wind
2. Presence of dust on the plants, building...etc
3. Little or no vegetation
4. Deposition of soil in depressions.
5. In area where wind erosion occurred for many years only larger particles like sand and
gravels remain on the land.
6. Occurrence of sand dunes on the area could also be one indicator of wind erosion.

Soil Loss Tolerance

By definition, “Soil loss tolerance for a specific soil is the maximum annual soil loss
expressed in ton/ha/year that will permit current production levels to be maintained
economically and indefinitely.”
 Soil loss tolerance of different soil types based on their depth is different. But in
general, 2- 11.2 ton/ha/year is considered as permissible erosion limit.
 The assumption of this limit is that
1. The rate of soil erosion equals the rate of soil formation
2. Productivity level of the land will not be disturbed The

rationale behind measuring soil erosion is:

 To see the exact soil loss rate of the given land whether it is below or above the
permissible value.
 To decide on how to manage a given land to attain the soil loss rates less or equal
to the permissible limit.
Recommended tolerance values of specific soils are used as a guide for soil conservation
planning, like the following recommended values for maximum permissible soil loss
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Table 1 Recommended values for maximum permissible soil loss

4.3. Techniques of Soil Erosion Measurement

Measuring Splash Erosion
Splash erosion has been measured in the field by means of splashboards or small
funnels or bottles. These are inserted in the soil to protrude 1–2mm above the ground
surface, thereby eliminating the entry of overland flow, and the material splashed
into them is collected and weighed. An alternative approach is the field splash cup,
where a block of soil is isolated by enclosing it in a central cylinder and the material
splashed out is collected in a surrounding catching tray. The amounts of splash erosion
were collected through the hanging splash erosion board and measured by the oven
drying method.

Erosion Pin Method

 A pin made of wood, iron, bamboo, steel; etc. with commonly 300mm length and 5mm
diameter will be driven into the soil.
 The pin must not be rot or decay while staying in the soil.
 Length 300mm is an average; it could be less for shallow soils, and more for loose soils.
 Five mm diameter is preferred because thicker pins will interfere the flow of runoff/surface
flow/ and cause scour.
 The pins will be driven randomly in rectangular or square grid.
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 Surface level change will be monitored after the end of every rain and the length in the pin
above the soil surface is measured and recorded continuously.
 Finally, the average of each pin will be found and the final soil loss will be calculated by the
following formula;

Final soil loss =

Measuring Sheet and Rill Erosion

Pedestals
• Easily eroded soil if protected by stone, tree or grass root, an isolated pedestal capped
by the resistant material are left standing up from the surrounding ground. In this
method splash erosion is mainly detected than surface flow.

Figure 1 indicators for soil erosion

Therefore, using the lost soil depth D we can estimate the amount of soil lost by
averaging. Rill erosion measurement
 The simplest method of assessing rill erosion is to establish a series of transects, 20–100 m
long across the slope
 The cross-sectional area of the rills is determined along two successive transects.
 The average of the two areas multiplied by the distance between the transects gives the
volume of material removed.
 BU-CANR-SRWM/2012/2020/
 Since this method ignores the contribution of inter-rill erosion to the sediment carried in
the rills and also depends upon being able to identify distinctly the edge of the rills, it is
likely to underestimate rill erosion by 10–30 per cent.

Measuring Gully and Stream Bank Erosion

Catch-pit method
• Eroded and transported soil called sediment can be trapped in its way to rivers by
using catchpits which are dug at the outlet of runoff from a given field and lined by
geo-membrane plastics so that the collected sediment and runoff can be hold for
measurement. The catch-pits catch unknown amount/ proportion of the sediment to
be used simply for comparative information, say comparing erosion from terraced
area and erosion from un-terraced area.

4.4. Characterization and Simulation of Erosion at Runoff Plot and Micro

Watershed Scale
 Bounded plots are employed at permanent research or experimental stations to
study the factors affecting erosion. Each plot is a physically isolated piece of land
of known size, slope steepness, slope length and soil type from which both runoff
and soil loss are monitored. The number of plots depends upon the purpose of the
experiment but usually allows for at least two replicates
 Runoff plot is an experimental plot of land used to estimate soil erosion from
specified condition of the plot. A plot with known length, width, slope, cover, and
supporting conservation practices will be selected and bounded by steel sheet to
avoid interference of run-on in to the plot from outside area and to guide the runoff
from the plot not to leave elsewhere but only to the prepared sediment and runoff
collecting tanker/ storage.

NB. Since slot devisor of 10 partitions is used to let on 1/10 of sediment containing runoff to
the collection tank, we require multiplying the final result by 10.