Appl. Phys.

B 88, 297–303 (2007) Applied Physics B

DOI: 10.1007/s00340-007-2717-4 Lasers and Optics

vineet kumar rai Temperature sensors and optical sensors

Departamento de Fı́sica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 50670-901 Recife, PE, Brasil

Received: 17 February 2007/Final version: 31 May 2007 (RTDs), fiber–Bragg-grating temperature sensor, fiber optic
Published online: 6 July 2007 • © Springer-Verlag 2007 temperature sensors etc. [1–7].
The semiconductor (diode) temperature sensor is based
ABSTRACT The dependence of temperature on the fluorescence
upon the temperature dependence of the forward voltage drop
lifetime and fluorescence intensity ratio using Stark sublevels
across a p–n junction. These sensors are typically operated
and thermally coupled (close lying) levels in triply ionized rare
earth ions, doped into a variety of glasses and fibers, have been with a constant current or by voltage measurements. The vari-
reviewed. Also, it is claimed that not only for the two closely ly- ation of the voltage with temperature depends on the materials
ing levels of triply ionized rare earth ion of the same kind, but used in the p–n junction. These are e.g. silicon, gallium ar-
also for two different triply ionized rare earth ions, having their senide and gallium aluminum arsenide. The most important
excited levels very close to each other, may be used to monitor feature is their interchangeability (because the function V(T)
the temperature. follows the standard curve and there is no need for individual
calibration) and they may be used within the 5 – 500 K tem-
PACS 42.70.Ce
perature range [6].
In resistor temperature detectors (RTD) the resistance
changes with temperature. They can have a positive tem-
1 Introduction perature coefficient (PTC) {i.e. the electric resistance R(T)
increases with temperature and varies linearly with T }, or
Optical sensors are novel sensitive devices. Gen- a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) {i.e. the resis-
erally, optical sensors are based on monitoring the intensity tance decreases with increasing T )} [6]. The capacitance
change in one or more light beams or changes in their phases temperature sensors have potential for use in monitoring cryo-
when they interact with the physical systems. The sensors genic and liquid nitrogen temperatures with relatively good
of this type are categorized as either intensity or interfero- sensitivity [7].
metric sensors. There are other optical techniques based on Optical fiber sensors have been developed to measure
light scattering, both Rayleigh and Raman scattering, spectral a wide variety of parameters, such as chemical changes,
transmission changes, radiative losses, reflectance changes strains, electric and magnetic fields, temperatures, pressure,
and magneto–optic or laser–Doppler methods etc.. Research optical rotation, displacement, position etc.. Sensors based on
in the field of optical sensors has significant advantages com- optical devices used for various measurements are explored
pared to conventional sensors in terms of their properties like below in detail.
electrical passiveness, greater sensitivity, freedom from elec-
tromagnetic interference, wide dynamic range, both point and 2 Sensor types
distributed configurations and multiplexing capabilities. In 2.1 Chemical sensors
order to send and receive optical signals over long distances,
a network of sensors or sensor arrays is used. For optical The optical chemical sensors mostly utilize flu-
sensors it is not essential to make a conversion between elec- orescence or absorption spectroscopic techniques. A fiber-
tronics and photonics at each sensing point (site), thereby optic fluorometric technique has been used to perform the
increasing the flexibility and reducing the costs. There are, chemical testing [1]. In this technique antigens specific for
however, some difficulties caused by the superposition of dif- antibodies to be detected are immobilized in the proximity
ferent effects which influence the unambiguous interpretation of a guided optical beam. The antibodies attached to fluo-
of the signals. rophores are allowed to bond to the antigens.
Besides these optical sensors there are many other kinds The distributed chemical sensing may be used by con-
of sensors like capacitance temperature sensors, integrated necting an optical fiber to the side of a plastic rod with an
circuit (IC) sensors, diode temperature sensors (semicon- appropriate polymer. For example, hydrogels (a network of
ductor temperature sensor), resistance temperature detectors natural or synthetic polymer chains that are insoluble in water
and are superabsorbant i.e. they can absorb and retain ex-
u E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] tremely large amounts of a liquid relative to its own mass) can
298 Applied Physics B – Lasers and Optics

be dip coated (i.e. immersion of a substrate into a coating ma- detect any changes caused in that material by electric and
terial) onto a glass fiber-reinforced plastic rod. The swelling magnetic fields. The fiber is used to sense the dimensional
(absorption of the solvent by the network) of the polymer changes of a piezoelectric or piezomagnetic material in the
takes place in contact with water and because of this resultant presence of electric and magnetic fields [10–15]. The details
swelling there exists micro bending losses in the optical fiber, of the electric and magnetic field sensors are described else-
which may be traced using an optical time domain reflectome- where [11–15]. To study the temperature in magnetic field en-
ter (OTDR) [2]. vironments, temperature sensors based on resistance or cap-
acitance measurements are mainly used [6, 7]. For example
2.2 Biomedical sensors ruthenium oxides are well suited for temperature measure-
ments below 1 K. The external fields can influence the signal
High resolution laser absorption spectroscopy to and can impede the calibration. Therefore germanium sen-
study the state to state reaction dynamics of an atom + sors are of little use in magnetic fields because of their large
polyatom system is used in different biomedical sensing ap- magneto-resistance [6].
plications including gastro-enterology through an endoscope
for making blood perfusion measurements in the stomach and 2.4 Temperature sensors
duodenum, dermatology for testing skin irritants, dentistry for
contact probes to measure blood flow during vascular recon- Temperature sensor constitutes the vast class of
struction. This was, for instance, used in differential scattering commercially available optical sensors. There are many dif-
dynamics of the reaction F + CH4 → HF(v, J). The high- ferent phenomena used to perform the sensing. The main
resolution infrared radiation profiles of HF(v, J) product, physical techniques involved are Fabry–Pérot interferometers
exhibits extensive Doppler broadening that directly reflects to measure optical path length changes in a material, remote
quantum state-resolved translational distributions in the lab- pyrometry/black body radiation monitoring, Raman scatter-
oratory frame under single collision conditions [8]. The use of ing and rare earth absorption/fluorescence monitoring. There
high resolution laser sources to study the reaction dynamics is are two types of temperature sensor, (1) distributed, and (2)
twofold. point temperature sensors. In distributed temperature sensing,
one uses a pulsed Nd:YAG laser to excite Raman scattering,
(a) The narrow linewidth (∆υ ∼ 0.0001 cm−1 ) allows prod-
which is detected by an optical time domain reflectometer
uct state detection with full rovibrational quantum state
(OTDR) where up to ∼ 30 km of path length can be realized.
resolution with peak sensitivities, that permit operation at
There has been extensive interest in the study of rare earth
sufficiently low densities to maintain single collision con-
doped materials for use as temperature sensors. In these ma-
ditions.
terials many pairs of energy levels with small separations of
(b) The product velocity resolution is sufficient to observe
the order of the thermal energy are known. For practical sen-
Doppler-broadened line shapes due to the translational en-
sors, the energy levels are not only optically coupled to the
ergy of the product, and thereby to elucidate correlations
ground state but also have a relatively small separation with
between the internal quantum state (i.e. rotation and vibra-
a high probability of non-radiative transitions between the two
tion) and recoil away from the transition state.
levels of the pair. A large number of rare earth ions such as Pr,
It is also used for detecting the blood perfusion in tissues Nd, Sm, Eu, Ho, Er and Yb have pairs of energy levels which
during and after surgery [9]. A very common use of optical satisfy these criterions. The principle of the sensor is based
sensors in gastroenterology is based on spectroscopic tech- on the temperature dependent variation of light transmission
niques using optical fibers. Light from blue and green light- which is at first measured at the reference temperature over
emitting diodes is transmitted through the fiber to a small the wavelength range of interest and then recorded at differ-
cavity between the fiber end and a retro reflector. Any li- ent temperatures. There are some spectral regions where the
quids, such as water, diet tea, etc. are detected by analyzing the absorption spectra decrease as the temperature increases due
relative spectral response. Heavy metal doped fibers of short to the broadening of the absorbing transitions and their shift
lengths are used in monitoring radiation treatment for oncol- to longer wavelengths with rising temperature. For accurate
ogy patients. The treatment of tumors by hyperthermia (is an temperature detection the system should be designed for dual
acute stage/condition which occurs when the body produces wavelength operation because then it would be easy to meas-
or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate) is based on tem- ure the ratio of the signal intensities at the two wavelengths as
perature determination during microwave or radio frequency a function of temperature.
irradiation. There are many optical sensors that have been It is very important to note that with the proper choice of
developed, which are based on mid-IR pyrometry and Fabry– λ1 and λ2 , for all systems studied so far, the fiber attenuation
Pérot interferometers [9]. changed linearly with temperature over the temperature range
of interest. The linear dependence is an essential specifica-
2.3 Electric and magnetic field based sensors tion of a distributed fiber sensor to be used for detecting an
average temperature. Also the fluorescence yield and the life-
Optical fiber sensors are used for measurements time of the two closely lying levels from which fluorescence
of electric and magnetic fields and electrical current due to to a common lower level occur, can be monitored at differ-
their inherently dielectric nature. All electric and magnetic ent temperatures. Temperature sensing based on fluorescence
field sensors based upon fiber optics are hybrid devices; i.e. lifetimes has been investigated by several workers [16–20].
the fiber is attached to some other material and is used to Here pulsed excitation is essential and the temperature depen-
RAI Temperature sensors and optical sensors 299

ably well understood and thus it is easier to predict their

behavior.
Hence, any change in total population due to a change in
excitation power will affect the population of the individual
level to the same extent. For relatively closely spaced energy
levels the fluorescence wavelengths are close, which reduces
FIGURE 1 Energy level scheme for the temperature sensing technique any wavelength dependent effects caused by the fiber bends.
The rate at which the ratio R changes with temperature is
dent fluorescence decay curves from the two upper excited 1 d R ∆E ij
levels are detected with a single detector associated with suit- S= = . (4)
R dT kT 2
able electronics (boxcar averager or computer).
Assuming the rate of relaxation between the two upper ex- From (4) it is clear that having pairs of energy levels with
cited levels i and j due to the rapid thermalization is very large larger energy differences increases the sensitivity. However,
compared with the spontaneous lifetimes of these levels, the as the energy difference becomes larger, the population and
average fluorescence lifetime may be given as, hence the intensity from the upper of the two thermalizing lev-
els will decrease and create problems in measuring very low
⎛ ∆E ij ⎞
g light levels.
1 + gji e− κT
τ =⎝ ⎠, (1) There are a large number of materials having pairs of en-
gj − ∆E ij ergy levels thermally coupled with each other which therefore
Ai0 + A j0 gi e κT
can be used with the FIR method of temperature sensing.
where Ai0 , A j0 are the spontaneous transition probabilities There are other factors that limit the suitability of materials,
for transitions from the two levels i and j to the ground state namely costs and availability, the temperature range for which
(Fig. 1), ∆E ij = energy separation between the two levels, gi the material can be used and the fluorescence yield of the par-
and g j are their respective degeneracies, ‘0’ is the lower level, ticular level of interest. Triply ionized rare earth ions have
k = Boltzmann’s constant and T = Kelvin temperature. been found to obey all these above mentioned requirements,
The sensitivity of temperature determination from meas- while, for example the R-lines of Ruby emitted from a level
urements of the fluorescence lifetime τ can be obtained from pair with an energy difference ∼ 29 cm−1 show at room tem-
(1) as, perature a relatively small FIR temperature sensitivity com-
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ pared to the rare earth ions.
A
1 ∂τ 1 1 − Aj0 For temperature sensors, the energy levels will not only
Ss = = ⎝1 − ⎠⎝ i0 ⎠ have to be thermally coupled but also should satisfy other con-
τ ∂T gj − ∆E ij A j0 gj − ∆E ij
1 + g e κT 1 + A g e κT ditions that depend largely on the host matrix into which the
i i0 i
∆E ij active ions are doped. The factors affecting the energy levels
× . (2) of the rare earth ions are:
kT 2
1. The separation between the energy levels must be more
The fluorescence intensity ratio (FIR) technique, being the than ∼ 200 cm−1 to avoid strong overlapping of the two
main subject of this article, involves utilizing the fluorescence fluorescence wavelengths.
intensities from to two closely spaced energy levels to monitor 2. The energy level separation should be <2000 cm−1 (i.e.
the temperature. In this technique the fluorescence intensities the separation should not be too large) otherwise the upper
from these levels to a common final (lower) level is monitored level would have too small a population for the tempera-
at the desired wavelength. The temperature dependent ratio of ture range of interest.
these intensities is independent of the source intensity since 3. In order to have sufficient fluorescence intensity from the
the emitted intensities are proportional to the population of upper level pair the radiative transitions must dominate the
each energy level involved. Therefore, the fluorescence inten- non- radiative transitions. The non-radiative transition rate
sity ratio R from two thermally coupled energy levels may be decreases with the increase of the energy gap to the next
given as, lower energy levels.
g j σ j0 υ j0 − ∆Eij A detailed survey of the literature indicates that there are only
R= e kT
gi σi0 υi0 a few rare earth ions with a pair of energy levels that fulfill all
∆E ij the above criteria and therefore can be used for sensitive tem-
= Be− κT (3) perature measurements. There are many methods that can be
gj σj0 υ j0 used to measure the FIR of a specific sample. For cooling and
where B = and all the terms have their usual mean-
gi σi0 υi0 heating of the rare earth doped sample, the sample to be tested
ings [20]. is taken in an appropriate holder and its temperature is de-
The use of thermally coupled levels over the use of two tected independently using a thermocouple or a similar device
non-coupled levels has several advantages. in close proximity to the sample.
(i) The population of the individual thermally coupled levels
is directly proportional to the total population. Pr3+ doped host matrix as temperature sensor. Triply ionized
(ii) The theory of relative changes in the fluorescence intensity praseodymium doped into a variety of hosts with two lev-
coming from the two thermally coupled levels is reason- els ( 3P1 and 3P0 ) separated by ∼ 600 cm−1 has been used as
300 Applied Physics B – Lasers and Optics

gain medium for laser oscillators and amplifiers [21–23]. The with an uncertainty of ±0.1 ◦ C has been reported [37, 38].
FIR versus temperature characteristics has been monitored in Also the effect of temperature on the fluorescence intensity
Pr3+ doped in bulk ZBLANP, silica fiber and aluminum silica from the 5D1 and 5D0 levels in Eu3+ doped optical fiber of
fiber by Wade et al. [24–26]. The fluorescence from the ther- 1.84 m in length with 465 nm line as an excitation source
mally coupled levels terminates at both the 3H5 and 1G 4 lev- has been investigated [39]. Recently, we made similar studies
els. This material has been studied in the temperature ranges on Eu3+ doped tellurite/calibo glass within the temperature
20 – 145 ◦ C and 22 – 250 ◦ C respectively using the 466 nm and range of 300 – 500 K with a sensitivity of 2.75%/K. The en-
488 nm lines from an Ar+ laser [19, 21]. The authors observed ergy separation between the two close lying ( 5D1 and 5D0 )
the increase of the fluorescence intensity from the 3 P1 level levels is ∼ 1725 cm−1 [40]. Thus it is clear that the study
while the fluorescence intensity of the bands arising from the based on this rare earth ion is associated with the largest en-
3
P0 decreases with increasing temperature. These changes in ergy gap investigated so far. At lower temperatures (≤ 343 K)
the fluorescence intensities are due to the thermalization be- the intensity of both peaks (i.e. due to 5D1 → 7F1 and 5D1
tween the two close lying ( 3P1 and 3 P0 ) levels. It is very transitions) is reduced but beyond this limit the intensity of
important to note that for each fluorescence test the size of the the peak corresponding to the 5D1 → 7F1 transition increases
sample as well as the settings of the optical spectrum analyzer with temperature whereas the peak due to the 5D0 → 7F1
must be adjusted in such a way that one can obtain the max- transition continues to decrease. The change in the intensities
imum signal to noise ratio. We also performed similar studies of the bands is due to the effect of “decoupling” of the 5D1
on Pr3+ doped tellurite glass and monitored the fluorescence and 5D0 levels at lower temperature and this is similar to the
intensities of the two bands due to the transitions arising from case where there would be a reasonable overlapping of the flu-
the two closely lying ( 3P1 and 3 P0 ) levels to a common lower orescence peaks from the two levels. It appears that overall the
3
H5 level at different temperatures between the 273 – 453 K re- rate of relaxation of the 5D1 level is smaller than the rate of
gion using 476.5 nm radiation from a 10 W Ar+ laser [27, 28]. relaxation of the 5D0 level with temperature. It is also smaller
The lifetime of the 3 P0 level is found to decrease with increas- than the rate of population of the 5D1 level by thermalization
ing temperature. It is concluded that the present system can be and by the laser pumping. The details of these experiments
used to sense the temperature over a wide range with a sensi- are reported elsewhere [40]. Also, it has been reported that
tivity of 1.02%/K. the two rare earths Sm3+ /Tb3+ :Eu3+ doped simultaneously
with their excited energy levels very close to each other, may
Nd3+ doped host matrix as temperature sensor. Nd3+ has be used to predict the temperature [41, 42]. The enhancement
two close levels ( 4F3/2 and 4F5/2 ) with an energy separation in the energy transfer probability caused by the multipolar
∼ 1000 cm−1 [29, 30]. The fluorescence spectra of Nd3+ ions interaction from Sm3+ to Eu3+ is observed with increasing
doped in ZBLANP, YVO4 , YAG and silica fiber hosts have temperature [41].
been recorded for fluorescence transitions from the 4F3/2 and
4
F5/2 levels ending at several lower levels ( 4I9/2,11/2,13/2 ). For Er3+ as temperature sensors. Triply ionized erbium doped
the FIR techniques only two fluorescence bands due to the into a variety of host matrices has two different sets of ther-
4
F3/2 → 4I9/2 and 4F5/2 → 4I9/2 transitions are important. mally coupled ( 2H11/2 and 4S3/2 ) energy levels separated by
The fluorescence bands originating from the upper thermally the energy gap ∼ 800 cm−1 [43, 44]. Bethou and Jorgensen
coupled levels was overlapped by the fluorescence arising have first reported the FIR technique with thermally coupled
2
from the lower energy level ending at the next lower energy H11/2 and 4S3/2 levels of Er3+ doped in fluoride hosts using
terminal level (as the fluorescence due to the 4F3/2 → 4I9/2 either 488 nm or 970 nm excitation over the 20 – 200 ◦ C tem-
transition overlaps with the fluorescence due to the 4F5/2 → perature region. There have been intensive studies on the FIR
4
I11/2 transition). To avoid this problem different excitation method using Er3+ ion doped in silica fiber [44–46] with
wavelengths (∼ 748 nm for YAG and ∼ 757 nm for YVO4 ) temperatures up to 640 ◦ C. Thus by using silica as the host
have been employed in order to get the maximum fluores- material a relatively wide temperature range can be covered
cence intensity. It has been found that the amount of overlap but it shows relatively low fluorescence efficiency. The re-
is reduced in the YAG sample compared to the oxide type search groups in Brazil have tried to improve the fluorescence
hosts [31]. efficiencies of Er3+ doped sensor material using different
host matrices [47, 48]. The temperature sensing behavior of
Sm3+ , Eu3+ and Sm3+ /Tb3+ : Eu3+ as temperature sen- Er3+ doped into different host matrices viz. fluoroindates and
sor. There are two closely lying levels 4F3/2 ; 4G 5/2 (in chalcogenides using different excitation wavelengths such as
triply ionized samarium) and 5D1 ; 5D0 (in triply ionized eu- 1.06, 1.48 and 1.54 µm at powers of the order of milliwatts
ropium) with separations of the order of ∼ 1000 cm−1 and have been studied over a wide temperature range 200 – 300 ◦ C.
∼ 1700 cm−1 respectively. The temperature sensing behav- Zhang et al. [49] studied the temperature dependence of the
ior using these rare earth ions doped into a variety of host FIR in Er3+ doped silica fiber within the temperature range of
matrices has been investigated by several workers [32–35]. 0 – 1100 ◦ C with an uncertainty of the measurement of ±5 ◦ C
The temperature sensing behavior using the FIR technique has in temperature.
been previously reported by Kusama et al. [36] for Y2 OS:Eu The fluorescence intensity ratio measurements using Stark
phosphor with a temperature uncertainty of 10 – 15 ◦ C in the sublevels of 4I13/2 manifold of Er3+ have been studied within
range −173 to 27 ◦ C. A temperature sensor using the fluores- the temperature range region of 12 – 180 ◦ C having a reso-
cence from europium doped lanthanum and gadolinium oxy- lution of ∼ 0.36 ◦ C [50, 51]. The temperature sensing be-
sulphide phosphors in the temperature range −100 to 290 ◦ C havior using thermally coupled levels ( 2H11/2 and 4S3/2 ) in
RAI Temperature sensors and optical sensors 301

FIGURE 2 Comparison of the suitabil-

ity of FL and FIR methods with scaled
dimensional temperature parameters

Sensing materials doped Technique Sensitivity Temperature Reference

with rare earths at 293 K range (K)

3 P , 3 P → 3 H (FIR)
Pr3+ (ZBLANP) 1 0 5 0.71%/K 293–418 [39]
Nd3+ (YAG) 5/2 → I9/2 (FIR)
4F , 4F 4 1.43%/K 299–523 [39]
3/2
Nd3+ (ZBLANP) 4F , 4F
3/2 5/2 → 4I
9/2 (FIR) 1.15%/K 296–473 [39]
Sm3+ (silica) 5/2 → H5/2 (FIR)
4 F , 4G 6 1.84%/K 295–748 [39]
3/2
Eu3+ (silica) 5 D , 5 D → 7 F (FIR) 1.85%/K 293–673 [39]
0 1 1
Pr3+ (silica) 3 P , 3 P → 1G (FIR) 0.48%/K 293–420 [58]
1 0 4
Pr3+ (tellurite) 3 P , 3 P → 3 H (FIR) 1.02%/K 273–453 [27, 28]
1 0 5
(FL) 8.79 × 10−3 %/K [20]
Er3+ (tellurite) Z 1 , Z 2 → 4I15/2 ( 4S3/2 → 4I15/2 ) (FIR) 0.49%/K 300–550 [54]
Eu3+ (calibo/tellurite) 5 D , 5 D → 7 F (FIR) 2.75%/K 298–500 [40]
0 1 1
Eu3+ (calibo) (FL) 0.014%/K [55, 56]
Er3+ (BiLiBaPb) 11/2 , S3/2 → I15/2 (FIR)
2H 4 4 1.22%/K 295–428 [53]
3/2 → I15/2
4S 4
(Stark Component: FIR) 0.44%/K 296–603 [53]
Sm3+ :Eu3+ :calibo 5/2 → H5/2 ; D0 → F2 (FIR)
4G 6 5 7 0.97%/K 273–373 [41]
Sm3+ :calibo 5/2 → H5/2
4 F , 4G 6 1.97%/K 373–600 [32–34]
3/2
Resistance Fiber Bragg Thermocouple/ Integrated Capacitance
temperature grating thermistor circuit (IC) temperature sensor
detector (RTD) temperature sensor (−270–1800 ◦ C)/ temperature sensor (cryogenic/liquid
◦
(−200–850 C) [6] (77–300 K) [5] (−100–500 ◦ C) [6] (−55–150 ◦ C) [6] nitrogen temperature) [7]
Sensitivity 0.30%/◦ C 39 pm/K at 77 K 40 V/◦ C; 4%/◦ C 10 mV/◦ C 0.01 at 2.2 K
and 0.001 at 1 K

TABLE 1 Comparison of the sensitivity at 293 K for several materials used in temperature sensing

Er3+ doped into tellurite as well as bismuth and tellurite (ter- Table 1 lists the details of the FIR/FL with their sensi-
tiary/binary) glass has been reported over a wide range of tem- tivities, and the temperature ranges studied for different rare
peratures with its unique sensitivity [52, 53]. For the first time, earth ions, doped into a variety of host matrices at room
the temperature sensing behavior of the Stark components of temperature.
the 4S3/2 level in Er3+ doped bismuth (tertiary) and tellurite
(binary) glass using ∼ 800 nm radiation from a Ti:sapphire 3 Conclusions
laser has been studied [53, 54]. It was concluded that not only
the two thermally coupled levels,but also the Stark sublevels A detailed survey of studies based on temperature
of a level very close to each other, can be used to measure the sensing has been given. It is emphasised, that many factors
temperature with an enhanced temperature range. have to be taken into consideration in any practical compar-
A plot of the FIR/FL versus scaled temperature is shown ison of the responses, including the spectroscopic details of
in Fig. 2. where the dimensionless temperature parameter t = the dopant ion, the levels of particular ions involved and the
kT /∆E is plotted. technical issues associated with developing a sensitive sen-
302 Applied Physics B – Lasers and Optics

sor. The signal to noise ratio achieved is strongly associated cluded that the fluorescence intensity ratio is suitable for sens-
with many factors such as the source used for excitation, its ing purposes over a wider range of temperatures than that for
wavelengths, the detection sensitivity etc.. As the population the fluorescence lifetime technique.
of the individual thermally coupled levels is directly propor-
tional to the total population, changes in the total population ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to the Con-
selho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Brazil
of the levels involved due to changes in the excitation power for financial assistance.
will affect the individual levels to the same extent. This re-
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