ASSESSMENT – ASSIGNMENT (20%)

TITLE: TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

___________________________________________________________________

BACHELOR OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE (HONS)

FACULTY OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE AND POLICY STUDIES

ADS560: SOUTHEAST ASIAN AFFAIRS

KAM2285D

PREPARED BY:

NO. NAME STUDENT ID GROUP

1. ANIS NAJWA BINTI ABD GHANI 2022912689 4
2. PUTERI MAZIDAH BINTI MEGAT MOHD NADZIR 2022920065 4
3. NUR FATNIN RAWAHAH BINTI ABDULLAH 2022782677 4
4. NUR AINA SYAZWANI BINTI ARMAN 202278703 4
5. NURUL AQILAH BINTI MOHAMMAD NASIR 2022991415 4

SUBMITTED TO:

SIR ADNAN BIN AMINUDDIN

SUBMISSION DATE:

22nd JUNE 2023

 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The purpose of this written assignment is to study and provide a comprehensive analysis
of “Terrorism in Southeast Asia”, including its factors, issues, problems, parties involved, and
potential solutions and recommendations. The objective of this study is to offer insights and
recommendations based on the findings of our research towards several terrorism incidents in
Southeast Asia. The methodology used to gather information includes a thorough review of
relevant literature, analysis of statistical data, and examination of case studies.

The research findings indicate that terrorism is a significant threat to the stability and
security of Southeast Asia. The factors of terrorism in the region are complex, including social,
political and economic factors. The issues and problems of terrorism are far-reaching and
include loss of life, damage to property, and a decline in social growth.

The research highlights several key issues and problems faced by many parties involved
in the fight against terrorism in Southeast Asia, including terrorism by Abu Sayyaf Group
(ASG) in Philippines, terrorism by Jamaah Ansharut Daulah (JAD) in Indonesia and 2019
Bombing Attacks in Thailand. In addition, this research also identifies several implications
toward Southeast Asia.

The recommendations provided in this research are designed to address these issues
and problems as to strengthen the capacity of parties involved to respond to the threat of
terrorism. The recommendations include promoting social cohesion and integration, preventing
radicalization, enhancing regional cooperation and strengthening border security. Overall, this
written assignment provides a comprehensive overview of valuable contributions to the
understanding of terrorism in Southeast Asia, analyzing its factors, issues, problems, parties
involved and countermeasures.
Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 1
2.0 ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA ..................... 2
2.1 ISSUES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA .................................................. 2
2.1.1Philippines: The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) ............................................................... 2
2.1.2 Indonesia: Jamaah Ansharut Daulah (JAD) .............................................................. 3
2.1.3 Thailand: Bombing Attacks ....................................................................................... 4
2.2 PROBLEMS OF TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA ............................................... 4
2.2.1 Philippines: Maritime Terrorism ............................................................................... 4
2.2.2 Indonesia: Suicide Bomb Attack ............................................................................... 5
2.2.3 Thailand: 2019 Bangkok Bombings .......................................................................... 6
3.0 IMPLICATIONS OF TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA...................................... 7
3.1 European Union Joint Initiative for Supporting South East Asian Countries to Counter
Terrorism ............................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 ASEAN Political Security Community to Counter Terrorism ........................................ 9
3.3 Loss of Human Lives and Psychological Impact ........................................................... 10
3.4 Damage to Infrastructure and Economy ......................................................................... 12
4.0 SUGGESTIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS ON TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST
ASIA ........................................................................................................................................ 14
4.1 Promoting Social Cohesion and Integration .................................................................. 14
4.2 Preventing Radicalization .............................................................................................. 15
4.3 Enhance Regional Cooperation ...................................................................................... 16
4.4 Strengthen Border Security ............................................................................................ 17
5.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 18
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 19
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Terrorism has a devastating and long-lasting effect on huge amounts of people. The
word 'terror' comes from the Latin 'terrere,' which means to ‘frighten’ or fear (Alexander &
Klein, 2005, 98). In the Oxford Dictionary, terrorism is defined as the illegal use of violence
and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve or promote a specific political goal
and ideological or religious agenda (Ritchie et al., 2013). According to Balakrishnan, terrorism
is defined as an act that is carried out by a person or a group using force without the agreement
of the adversary and involves the use of firearms etc (Balakrishnan, 2002:5). It is also the
intentional use of violence against innocent people in order to intimidate them or others into
taking action they would not otherwise take or against their own will (Primoratz, 1990, 129).
When terrorism occurs, there will be a general feeling of fear in a place where people no longer
feel safe from the threat of random violence. Terrorism is a breakdown of humanity,
undermining human rights and the legal system that safeguards them.

The threat of terrorism has been long persisted in Southeast Asia due to numerous
attacks by a wide range of extremist organizations. Several factors, including socio-political
grievances, religious radicalization, separatist movements, transnational networks, and the
influence of global terrorist organizations, have made this region a target, which includes
countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. The prevalence of
international networks, as well as the influence of organizations such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS,
has increased Southeast Asia's terrorist threat (Jenkins, 2023). These networks offer local
militant groups with ideological inspiration, training, and financial support, raising the danger
of assaults and radicalization. This has led to an increase in the amount of terrorist attacks that
have occurred in South East Asia. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) and Jamaah Ansharut Daulah
(JAD) are examples of well-known terrorist groups operating in Southeast Asia. These terrorist
organisations frequently aim their attacks at innocent individuals, institutions of the
government, and popular tourist locations in an effort to instil fear, jeopardise social order, and
further their extreme goals (Jenkins, 2023). They are capable of carrying out a variety of
criminal acts, including bombings, murders, kidnappings, and hostage-takings (Jenkins, 2023).

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 2.0 ISSUES/PROBLEMS OF TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
2.1 Issues of Terrorism in Southeast Asia
2.1.1 Philippines: The Abu Sayyaf Group

The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) is an organized crime syndicate that is superficially
Islamic and seeks wealth through the use of terrorist tactics and banditry (Banlaoi, 2008).
According to Vaughn (et al 2009), the group's original goal was to liberate the Moro Muslim
minority from the Christian government in the Philippines and establish an independent Islamic
state that would uphold Sharia law. This envisioned state would include the Muslim
populations from Southern Thailand, the island of Borneo, the Sulu Archipelago, and
Mindanao. The Salafist-Wahabist characterization of the group is a product of Abdurajak
Abubakar Janjalani's zeal. Originally, the ASG was a splinter group of hardcore radicals from
the Moro National Liberation Front who were entering negotiations with the Philippine
government in 1991 (Banlaoi, 2008).

Inadequate education may not directly lead to assaults by the Abu Sayyaf group, but it
can contribute to a range of socio-economic problems that could foster an atmosphere
favourable to extremist recruitment. The ASG operates in the southern part of the Philippines,
which is one of the poorest and most underdeveloped regions in the country. This area typically
has limited access to essential services, such as education and healthcare. Individuals who lack
education and economic opportunities are more vulnerable to extremist recruitment because
they are more likely to be drawn to the promise of economic and social benefits offered by
extremist groups such as ASG. In addition, Abu Sayyaf is a well-known Islamic extremist
organisation that has been responsible for numerous attacks and kidnappings in the Philippines.
The group's ideology is based on a distorted interpretation of Islam that justifies violence,
terrorism, and the use of force to achieve their objectives. Religious extremism provides a
pretext for the Abu Sayyaf to carry out attacks, and its leaders use religious rhetoric to recruit
new members and legitimise their actions as a form of holy war or jihad against non-believers.
In this context, extremist groups like Abu Sayyaf can exploit the grievances and frustrations of
individuals to recruit them into their group and engage in terrorism in Southeast Asia.

The Global Terrorism Database records show that ASG is accountable or suspected in
280 terrorist attacks from February 18, 1994, to December 31, 2013 (GTD, 2014). In 2013, the
group's primary forms of attack were hostage-taking, armed assault, and bombings. It is
disconcerting that the group's activities have continued to increase despite the Philippine

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government's aggressive stance. The government has engaged in multiple firefights with the
group over the past few years. Although Abuza's report (2010) suggests that government forces
have been successful in decreasing terrorist attacks, the group's activities have degenerated into
kidnappings. The kidnappings are primarily for financial reasons rather than political motives,
such as pressuring the government for policy change or releasing terrorist members from
prison. Despite its banditry tendencies, there have been numerous attacks that undoubtedly
qualify as terrorism. Notable post 9/11 attacks include the 2003 Davao International Airport
bombing, which killed 21 people, the 2004 Superferry 14 bombing, which killed 116 people,
and the 2005 Valentine's Day bombing, which killed 20 people.

2.1.2 Indonesia: Jamaah Ansharut Daulah

Political factors are one of the reasons why terrorist attacks take place in some
countries. In this political context, it refers to war and other forms of violent conflict,
criminality, political instability, ineffectiveness of the administration, and corruption (Břeň et
al., 2019). Extremist groups frequently take advantage of political tensions within a particular
community or region in order to forward their own agenda. Extremist groups can thrive in
places where the government does not appear strong, the state doesn't have much control, or
there are security problems. In these places, these groups can take advantage of the lack of
security, find people to join them, and carry out their plans with relative ease (Břeň et al.,
2019)

Jamaah Ansharut Daulah, also known as JAD, is an example of one of the terrorist
organisations that originated in Indonesia. It is a group that began its formation at the end of
2014 in the neighbourhood of Kembangkuning Nusakambangan Lapas, which is located in the
province of Central Java (Huda & Syauqillah, 2019). The head of this terrorist organisation is
Aman Abdurrahman and he has high hopes that the JAD will one day be able to function as an
umbrella organisation for support groups operating in Indonesia that are affiliated with ISIS
(Huda & Syauqillah, 2019). Then, in the year 2015, JAD is known to have ties to ISIS and it is
the organisation that declared their allegiance to the Islamic State (IS), commonly referred to
as ISIS. JAD is also regarded as a Salafi-jihadist organisation, and it has been linked to acts of
terrorism carried out within the country (Huda & Syauqillah, 2019). The coverage of terrorism
in Indonesian media is almost entirely dominated by JAD.

2.1.3 Thailand: Bombing Attacks

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 For many years, Thailand has been facing recurring bombing attacks which have caused
significant damage to property and have resulted in the loss of many lives. The country has
experienced several terrorist attacks, with the most recent one occurring in 2019. However,
there is one of the most notable bombings in Thailand happened on August 17, 2015, when a
bomb exploded at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. This popular tourist attraction was targeted,
causing the death of 20 people and injuring more than 120 others. The attack was carried out
by a group of individuals who were allegedly part of a network of people smuggling Uighur
Muslims out of China. This incident came as a shock to the Thai people, who are known for
their peaceful way of life and welcoming nature towards tourists.

Next, in 2016, a number of bombings and arson attacks took place in various popular
tourist destinations in Thailand. Hua Hin, a resort town, was targeted on August 11, 2016, when
two bombs exploded, resulting in the loss of one life and injuring more than 20 people. The
following day, Surat Thani, a southern province, experienced two bomb explosions, leading to
the death of one person and several injuries. In May 2019, two bombs exploded outside a
shopping mall in Pattani province, causing three fatalities and over 30 injuries. Subsequently,
in August 2019, another bomb exploded outside a police station in Bangkok, injuring three
police officers. Although the Thai government has taken various steps to combat these attacks,
including increasing security measures in public places and cracking down on extremist
organizations, the threat of terrorism remains a concern for both local residents and tourists
visiting Thailand.

2.2 Problems Of Terrorism In Southeast Asia

2.2.1 Philippines: Maritime Terrorism

Maritime terrorism in Southeast Asia refers to the use of violence or threat of violence
by terrorists to disrupt maritime activities, particularly in the waters surrounding Southeast
Asia. This type of terrorism can take many forms, including piracy, kidnapping, bombings, and
hijacking of vessels. The aim of maritime terrorism is to create fear and instability, damage the
economy, and potentially harm individuals or groups. One terrorist group that has developed a
capability to wage maritime terrorism in Southeast Asia is the Abu Sayyaf Group. Most ASG
members and followers belong to Muslim families with strong, centuries old seafaring
traditions. Their deep knowledge of the maritime domain gives them ample capability to
conduct maritime terrorism. In addition, Abu Sayyaf also possesses equipment that can be used
for maritime operations. The Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations (DCSO-J3) of

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the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) reports that it has used night-vision devices, thermal
imagers, sniper scopes, various types of commercial radio, satellites, cellular phones, and high-
speed water craft. Further, ASG has a proven ability to establish linkages with like-minded
terrorist groups in Southeast Asia. One of them in particular, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front,
has seaborne resources that can be harnessed for maritime terrorism. MILF demonstrated its
maritime terrorist capability in February 2000, when it attacked the vessel Our Lady Mediatrix,
killing forty persons and wounding fifty.

On May 27, 2001, the ASG carried out a maritime terror attack by abducting three
American citizens and seventeen Filipinos from the Dos Palmas resort in Palawan. This act can
be considered a maritime attack, because the target was a maritime area, a beach resort. Some
members of the ASG disguised themselves as diving instructors during the attack. The incident
gained international attention as several victims, including an American citizen, were brutally
murdered and beheaded. During a rescue operation mounted by the Filipino government in
2002, two victims, one of them a U.S. citizen, were killed. Despite the Philippine government's
view of the ASG as a "spent force" due to a decline in activity and influence after military
operations against them, the group continued to carry out attacks such as kidnappings,
bombings, and piracy. The ASG targets both civilians and security forces, and has been
responsible for some of the deadliest terrorist attacks in the Philippines. However, despite the
efforts to eradicate the group, Abu Sayyaf remains active to this day and continues to pose a
significant security threat in the region. Nonetheless, the ASG has apparently become more
innovative in its terrorist tactics not only in the Philippines but in neighboring countries of
Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia.

2.2.2 Indonesia: Suicide Bomb Attack

The terrorist organisation in Indonesia which is the Jamaah Ansharut Daulah (JAD) has
been linked to suicide bombings. It is responsible for a significant number of crises that arise
in that country and involve a big loss of many innocent lives. The suicide bombings is
happenned where people who are willing to give up their own lives to hurt others and cause
fear to others. JAD is one of the the extremist organisations that are capable of carrying out
suicide bomb attacks in order to further their political goals. These political goals may include
destabilising the government, spreading fear in the society at large, or asserting power over a
particular region or community. On 31st May 2021, in Makassar, South Sulawesi, a church
was the target of a suicide bombing that was carried out by a husband-wife duo who are

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believed to be members of Jemaah Ansharut Daulah (JAD) (Dass & Rahmah, 2021). This
attack is not only a continuation of suicide bombs at churches in Indonesia, but it also shows
how Islamic State (IS)-affiliated groups like JAD use family ties to carry out terror attacks. Not
only that, in the year 2018, a family of six comprising the husband, wife, and their three
children carried out simultaneous suicide attacks on three churches in the city of Surabaya
(Dass & Rahmah, 2021). These explosions, along with subsequent attacks on the Surabaya
Police Headquarters and an apartment complex in Sidoarjo, were again carried out by JAD,
which was also responsible for the attacks that took place shortly after. These attacks were the
first time in Southeast Asian history when family groupings consisting of multiple members,
including women and children, were utilised in terrorist operations (Dass & Rahmah, 2021).

In addition, according to Crisis 24 newspaper article, in 7th December 2022, there are
at least one person was killed which is the police officer and ten people were injured in a case
suspected to be a suicide bombing carried out by JAD in Bandung, which is located in West
Java, Indonesia (Crisis 24, 2022). The report states that the assault took place at the Astana
Anyar police station in Bandung, which is located in West Java. The report further states that
the assailant rode a motorbike into the police compound and exploded explosives as the officers
were conducting the morning roll call (Crisis 24, 2022). It is known that the authorities in law
enforcement and the police are being the principal targets of this terrorist organisation. This is
primarily due to the perception that law enforcement officers and police officers themselves
represent a symbol of an un-Islamic state authority. As an act of retaliation for the arrests of IS
followers, several of the attacks on law enforcement officers were carried out (Crisis 24, 2022).
Here, we can see that these suicide bombs are motivated by a desire for vengeance or payback
against people who are regarded to be their opponents or who the perpetrators believe have
harmed their faith or cause.

2.2.3 Thailand: 2019 Bangkok Bombings

In 2019, Thailand experienced a series of terrorist attacks, beginning in January. These

incidents included a car bomb detonation outside a security base in Songkhla Province, which
resulted in two police officers sustaining injuries, the shooting of four defense volunteers who
were guarding a school in Pattani Province, and an attack on a police station in Narathiwat
Province that claimed the life of one police officer. On January 18, two Buddhist monks were
killed in an insurgent attack in Narathiwat Province, marking the first time in three years that
monks had been targeted. Prior to this, three imams had been killed by unknown assailants in

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the preceding two months. No deaths or injuries were caused by a series of homemade pipe
bombs that exploded in Satun and Phattalung during March 9 until 10. Although both provinces
border the Deep South, neither has a history of insurgent-related activity. A railway station
bombing in Songkhla Province on May 26 resulted in one police officer's death and three others'
injuries. The next day, a motorcycle bomb exploded at a flea market in Pattani Province, killing
at least two people and injuring nine others. While no group claimed responsibility for the
attack, it has been attributed to the Barisan Revolusi Nasional separatist group.

On August 2, 2019, a series of small bombs were detonated at five different locations
in the Bangkok Metropolitan Area. The explosion sites included the Chong Nonsi BTS Station,
near the King Power Mahanakhon tower, the Chaengwattana Government Complex, the Royal
Thai Armed Forces Headquarters, and inside a branch of Miniso. Military equipment and
supplies stored at Siam Square One were also affected. August 2, the city of Pattani was struck
by the first attack. Two explosive devices detonated, resulting in the loss of two lives and
multiple injuries. Following this event, several other tourist hotspots such as Phuket, Trang,
and Surat Thani were targeted in a series of attacks, which included the deployment of
improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and acts of arson. The initial investigation was conducted
by the Thai police, who reported that the insurgent suspect is linked to the same group
responsible for similar attacks in 2016, when two bombs exploded in the Thai resort town of
Hua Hin, killing one person and injuring 23, many of whom were tourists. The 2019 bombing
attacks in Thailand serve as a reminder of the security challenges the country faces, especially
in the southern regions where separatist groups are very active.

3.0 IMPLICATIONS
3.1 European Union Joint initiative for Supporting South East Asian
Countries to Counter Terrorism

The threat posed by terrorism has grown steadily over the past few decades, and it has
spread all the way to South-East Asia and Europe. This was made abundantly clear by the
bombings that occurred in Bali, Indonesia in 2002 and 2005 and in trains in Madrid, Spain in
2004. It is impossible for a single nation to defeat organised terrorist groups because they
operate on a global scale and at the international level.

As a direct result of terrorism itself, the European Union has launched a joint initiative
to assist South-East Asian countries in their fight against terrorism. As part of this initiative,
the EU assists Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, the Philippines, and Vietnam in strengthening their

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anti-terrorism measures. The initiative provides funding for a research project that is analysing
the implications of radicalization on policy and programming. It does this by providing
training, which enhances the effectiveness of collaborative investigations and prosecutions of
terrorist cases.

In addition to this, it contributes to the efforts that are being made by Indonesia to
combat radicalization, as well as the efforts that are being made in Cambodia, Laos, and
Vietnam to draught laws that combat terrorism and the financing of terrorism. South-East Asia
has benefited from the European Union's contributions in recent years. Terrorist attacks are
something that nations in South-East Asia do not want to see as it could have a negative impact
on their economies as well as their public order and security. The assistance provided by the
European Union in the fight against terrorism is very much appreciated, and in addition to the
opportunities for research, capacity building, and training that it provides, cooperation also
allows for the sharing of experiences and information. At the end of the day, there should be
less of a chance of terrorist attacks.

This initiative had an effect not only on the United States but also on the European
Union. Strong economic ties, both in terms of trade and commerce, exist between businesses
based in South-East Asia and those based in the European Union. South and Southeast Asia
are becoming increasingly popular destinations for vacations among citizens of the European
Union. In order for these and a great number of other business activities to take place, it is
essential that South-East Asia and the European Union maintain a safe and secure environment.
Terrorist attacks in South-East Asia would not only compromise the safety and security of
European Union citizens living in the region but would also cause damage to the local
economy. Both Europe and Southeast Asia stand to benefit from the European Union's
assistance to South-East Asia in the fight against terrorism. To fight terrorism on a global scale
while upholding human rights is part of the European Union's Strategic Commitment. Another
part of this commitment is to make Europe safer so that its citizens can live in an environment
characterised by freedom, security, and peace.

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 3.2 ASEAN Political Security Community to Counter Terrorism

The establishment of the ASEAN Political Security Community will elevate the level
of political and security cooperation among ASEAN member states. The APSC will work to
ensure that the people and member states of ASEAN are able to coexist peacefully with one
another and with the rest of the world in an atmosphere that is democratic, just, and harmonious.
The ASEAN Charter requires that the APSC advance political development while adhering to
the principles of democracy, the rule of law, and good governance, as well as respecting,
promoting, and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms. The APSC is tasked with
carrying out these responsibilities. It shall be a means by which ASEAN Member States can
pursue closer interaction and cooperation to forge shared norms and create common
mechanisms to achieve ASEAN's goals and objectives in the political and security fields. This
shall be a function of the mechanism.

In this regard, it promotes a people-oriented ASEAN in which all sectors of society,

regardless of gender, race, religion, language, or social and cultural background, are
encouraged to participate in, and benefit from, the process of ASEAN integration and
community building. This is regardless of the fact that all sectors of society are encouraged to
participate in, and benefit from, the process of ASEAN integration and community building.
During the process of putting the Blueprint into action, the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) should also work towards the goals of promoting and supporting gender
mainstreaming, tolerance, respect for diversity, equality, and mutual understanding. At the
same time, in the interest of preserving and enhancing peace and stability in the region, the
APSC seeks to strengthen the mutually beneficial relations between ASEAN and its Dialogue
Partners and friends. This is done in the interest of preserving and enhancing peace and stability
in the region. By doing so, it maintains the centrality and proactive role of ASEAN in a regional
architecture that is open, transparent, and inclusive, while simultaneously remaining actively
engaged, forward-looking, and non-discriminatory.

The Asia-Pacific Security Commission (APSC) adheres to a holistic perspective on

security, which recognises the interconnected nature of the political, economic, social-cultural,
and environmental facets of development as well as the interdependence of these elements. It
encourages people to give up aggressive behaviour as well as the threat or use of force or other
actions that are in any way inconsistent with international law. Instead, it encourages people to
rely on peaceful means to settle disputes. In this regard, it upholds existing ASEAN political

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instruments such as the Declaration on Zone of Peace, Freedom, and Neutrality (ZOPFAN),
the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in SouthEast Asia (TAC), and the Treaty on the Southeast
Asian Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (SEANWFZ), all of which play a pivotal role in the area of
confidence building measures, preventive diplomacy, and peaceful approaches to conflict
resolution. Additionally, it intends to deal with non-traditional security concerns.

3.3 Lost of Human Lives and Psychological Impact

Terrorism has emerged as a major threat to global peace and security, causing severe
damage to societies around the world. This essay aims to explore the implications of the loss
of human life and the psychological impact of three major incidents: maritime terrorism in the
Philippines, the 2019 Bangkok bombings in Thailand and suicide bombings in Indonesia. There
are several multifaceted consequences of violence on the individuals and communities affected.

On the issue of Maritime Terrorism in the Philippines, an example is the Siege of

Marawi 2017. In this incident, groups allied with ISIS seized control of Marawi City, resulting
in a five-month conflict. An estimated 1,200 people died during the battle. While most of these
were armed extremists, Amnesty International reported that the militants took civilians as
hostages and carried out extrajudicial killings. A number of civilians who were killed during
the siege remain unidentified (Santos, 2021). Other than that, in Basilan and Sulu provinces,
militants carried out a series of suicide bombings between 2018 and 2020 – the first such attacks
in the Philippines. Some were perpetrated by foreign fighters, indicating that Mindanao
continued to attract jihadists from abroad after the Marawi siege, although in small numbers.
Militants in central Mindanao, on the other hand, have been unable to stage large-scale
operations, even hit-and-run attacks on soldiers, once common, have fallen off (International
Crisis Group, 2022). The psychological impact on survivors and witnesses is profound, leading
to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders and depression. From this incident
the loss of human life such as during a maritime terrorist incident causes families to be
destroyed, communities to mourn, and communities to struggle with the trauma of such an
attack. The lasting impact is felt not only by immediate family members but also by the entire
community affected by the loss of a productive and active citizen. Whereas, individuals who
survived a maritime terrorist incident or witnessed such acts experience severe psychological
trauma. Long-term psychological effects include nightmares, flashbacks, survivor's guilt, and
hypervigilance, leading to decreased quality of life. Traumatised individuals may struggle to
reintegrate into society and face challenges in maintaining relationships and employment.

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 In August 2019, bombings took place in Bangkok, Thailand, targeting a popular tourist
destination. The attack resulted in multiple casualties, including death and injuries, and caused
fear and panic among locals and tourists. The psychological impact of this incident is
widespread, affecting the mental well-being of those directly affected and creating a climate of
anxiety throughout the country. The loss of life has also occurred in the Bangkok bombings
highlighting the indiscriminate nature of violence, affecting both Thai citizens and foreign
tourists. The loss of innocent lives creates a sense of vulnerability and insecurity, creating fear
and anxiety among the public. Thus, terrorist Attacks leave a lasting impact on society,
increasing the level of anxiety among individuals. Fear of future attacks can limit daily
activities, hinder economic growth, and deter foreign investment and tourism. The global
reputational damage to Thailand’s image as a safe destination, the impact of tourists killed from
these countries will be especially acute (Behnken & Beirman, 2015). The psychological effects
of terrorism can result in a long-term burden on the overall stability and well-being of a country.

In Indonesia has faced several suicide bombings, such as the 2018 Surabaya church
bombing, carried out by families linked to extremist groups. TATP, the explosives used in the
three Surayba church attacks, is the same sensitive and tricky-to-make high explosive used in
major attacks in Paris, Brussels, and Manchester between 2015 and 2017. These bombings
indicate both an increase in the capability of Islamic State sympathizers in Indonesia as well as
a new modus operandi (Schulze, n.d.). These attacks targeted religious institutions and caused
significant loss of life.The coordinated attacks killed 18 people, including the bombers, and
injured more than 40 (BBC, 2018). Suicide bombings in Indonesia have resulted in massive
loss of life, shaken communities and undermined the sense of security. Such incidents leave
lasting scars on families who have lost loved ones, disrupt the fabric of society and create an
atmosphere of fear. Attacks on religious institutions deepen existing tensions in communities,
fostering a climate of suspicion and mistrust. These incidents can exacerbate divisions and
result in social disunity, hindering social cohesion and inter-religious harmony.

As a summary, the loss of human life and the psychological impact of maritime
terrorism and suicide bombings have profound implications for affected individuals, families,
communities, and society at large. The devastation caused by such incidents creates insecurity,
fear and trauma that can persist long after the attack is over. Efforts must be made to provide
support, rehabilitation and psychological assistance to survivors and witnesses, in addition to
addressing the root causes of violence to prevent further incidents and reduce the widespread
consequences on society.

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 3.4 Damage to Infrastructure and Economy

Acts of terrorism have far-reaching consequences that extend beyond human casualties.
In Southeast Asia, countries such as the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia have experienced
various incidents of terrorism, resulting in severe damage to their infrastructure and economies.

In recent years, the Philippines has faced challenges related to maritime terrorism,
particularly in the southern region. Abu Sayyaf, a militant group, has been responsible for
numerous kidnappings and attacks targeting both locals and foreigners. These acts of terrorism
not only endanger lives but also have severe economic implications. Maritime terrorism
hampers economic activity, as terrorists target critical infrastructure such as ports and sea lanes.
This maritime violence poses a serious threat to the Philippines due to its vast coastline and
archipelago nature. It disrupts trade and commerce, as it targets important sea lanes and ports.
Attacks on ships transporting goods can lead to increased insurance costs, higher freight
charges and delays in delivery schedules. Damage to the shipping industry can result in a
decrease in foreign direct investment and impact on tourism, which ultimately leads to a decline
in the overall economy. For example, the Abu Sayyaf group planted a bomb on SuperFerry 14,
a passenger ship in the Philippines. Hence, a total of 116 people, including 114 passengers and
two crew members, lost their lives in the blast (The Editorial Team, 2019). This incident
highlights the vulnerability of maritime infrastructure and its impact on the economy. The
incident has attacks on ports, piers and coastal infrastructure that can disrupt transport and
logistics networks. It was believed that Abu Sayyaf bombed Superferry 14 because the
company that owned it, WG&A, did not comply with a letter demanding $1 million in
protection money in 2003 (The Editorial Team, 2019). Damage to these critical facilities affects
the flow of goods and services, hampers maritime operations, and requires significant
investment in repairs and security enhancements. Even such damage can seriously affect the
country's development and hinder efforts to attract foreign investment. In addition, the tourism
industry is particularly vulnerable to maritime terrorism. Frequent attacks on resorts, passenger
ships, and dive sites prevent tourists from visiting the affected areas. The decline in tourism
revenue has a direct impact on the local economy, causing job losses and reducing investment
in infrastructure development.

Besides, Thailand experienced a bombing incident at a busy intersection in central

Bangkok. These attacks showcase the impact of terrorism on infrastructure and the economy.
For example, A bomb exploded on August 17, 2015, outside Erawan Shrine in Bangkok,

12
Thailand, killing at least 21 people including two Hongkongers and injuring more than 120
others (South China Morning Post, n.d.). The attack directly targeted a popular tourist
destination, causing panic and fear among locals and international visitors. Furthermore, this
incident resulted in a significant decrease in tourism and affected Thailand's overall economic
growth. The bombing caused extensive damage to buildings, public transportation systems,
and other critical infrastructure. The popular Erawan Temple, a major tourist attraction, was
also targeted. Therefore, there was a sudden situation where two pipe bombs exploded outside
a luxury shopping mall in the same area in February, but caused little damage. Police said that
attack was aimed at raising tension when the city was under martial law (Lefevre & Marshall,
2015). Such attacks not only require vast resources for reconstruction but also undermine
public confidence in the safety and security of the affected areas. Reconstruction and repair
costs require substantial financial resources, diverting funds from other development projects.
The need to increase security measures in public areas further burdens the country's finances.
Thailand relies heavily on tourism as a major economic driver. Terrorist incidents such as the
Bangkok bombing erode investor confidence and destabilize the economy as a whole. It also
reduced foreign investment and negative perceptions of security can deter potential investors,
leading to a slowdown in economic growth. Incidents of violence have damaged investor
confidence, both at home and abroad.

In addition, Indonesia has experienced several suicide bombings by extremist groups,

including Jemaah Islamiyah and Jemaah Ansharut Daulah. This attack has severe implications
for the country's economy and infrastructure. Terrorist attacks create uncertainty and
undermine investor confidence in the security and stability of a country. Foreign direct
investment may decline as potential investors fear the potential risks associated with the
incident. Moreover, this reduction in investment affects economic growth, job creation, and
hinders infrastructure development. For example, the 2018 Surabaya Bombings that occurred
in May resulted in several suicide bombings targeting churches and police stations in Surabaya,
resulting in the deaths. These attacks not only cause immediate death but also have long-lasting
implications. This causes investors' confidence to waver and has an impact on Indonesia's
economy and hinders potential investment. Thus, suicide bombings cause extensive damage to
infrastructure, including public spaces, transportation systems and government buildings. The
cost of reconstruction is compounded by enhanced security measures. Thus, this can affect the
government budget and divert funds from other important social programs and infrastructure
development.

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 In short, maritime terrorism and bombings in the Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia have
had profound implications for the infrastructure and economies of the affected countries. These
incidents disrupted trade, hindered tourism, damaged critical infrastructure and undermined
investor confidence. Therefore, it is important for governments and international organisations
to work together to improve security measures, promote regional cooperation and invest in
infrastructure resilience to reduce the impact of terrorism on economic development in
Southeast Asia.

4.0 SUGGESTIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Promoting Social Cohesion and Integration

In recent years, terrorism has become a major concern for countries around the world.
It is crucial to focus on preventing individuals from becoming terrorists in the first place
through programs aimed at promoting social cohesion and integration. Such a comprehensive
approach would require the coordination of various government agencies, civil society
organisations, and international partners. Therefore, it has been argued that promoting social
cohesion and integration can be an effective measure to stop terrorism in countries. Several
scholars have suggested that creating a sense of community and promoting intercultural
dialogue can reduce the social marginalisation and alienation that often leads individuals to
resort to extremist ideologies or engage in terrorist activities. For instance, following the 2005
London bombings carried out by UK-born terrorists, policies on integration and social cohesion
have gained prominence in discussions on countering terrorism. Moreover, the United Nations'
counter-terrorism strategy includes collective counter-terrorism measures that involve civil
society and the private sector, which can play a significant role in fostering social cohesion and
integration at the community level.

ASEAN must also prioritise social cohesion and integration measures to prevent
terrorism in the region. Several studies have shown that counter-terrorism policies, which focus
primarily on policing and surveillance, can negatively impact the civic and humanitarian efforts
of Muslim charitable practitioners in particular, thereby hampering their integration potential.
Therefore, policymakers must shift their focus toward promoting social cohesion and
integration as a long-term solution to preventing terrorism in the country. Furthermore, the
government should ensure that its counter-terrorism efforts are consistent with international
human rights norms and laws. The UK's approach to counter-terrorism is an example of a multi-
faceted approach that involves enlisting communities through programs like Prevent. It is also

14
important to critically evaluate the effectiveness of current counter-terrorism strategies and
adjust them as necessary based on evidence-based research. Furthermore, addressing the role
of the media in perpetuating extremist ideologies and propaganda should be prioritised. Hence,
it is crucial to build strong social cohesion.

4.2 Preventing Radicalization

Radicalisation can be referred to as conveying the idea of a process through which an

individual adopts an increasingly extremist set of beliefs and aspirations. Terrorism and
religious extremism are interlinked and they present a growing threat to social stability around
the globe. Preventing radicalization to stop terrorism is a critical issue faced by ASEAN
countries. The rise of violent extremism and terrorism in the region has highlighted the need
for proactive measures to address radicalization. Given that the ASEAN mechanism, known as
ASEAN WAY, strongly enforces the principle of state sovereignty and non-intervention in
internal affairs of its member countries, it is important to develop an effective and collaborative
approach to preventing radicalization that respects the sovereignty of each nation (Puspita,
2020). To do this, governments can adopt a precautionary prevention approach such as the
"drain the swamp" strategy utilised by countries such as the UK (Ilyas, 2021). The goal of
preventing radicalisation is to stop individuals from becoming involved in terrorism and ensure
they receive the necessary advice and support to avoid being drawn into terrorism.

This approach aims to remove conditions that contribute to radicalization, such as

illiberal ideas and values, extremist groups and politics that are seen as being against the
country's social fabric and political interest (Ilyas, 2021). In addition, it is important to develop
preventive measures that work at the community level, fostering social and economic
development that reduces grievances and marginalisation. For instance, ASEAN and the United
States have developed a Strategic Partnership (2021-2025), as part of the ASEAN Plan of
Action to Prevent and Counter Radicalization and Violent Extremism (2018-2025).
Furthermore, ASEAN countries can cooperate in sharing intelligence and good practices to
identify and prevent radicalization online, which is increasingly a significant arena for
recruitment of individuals by extremist groups. The federal government, as well as state and
local law enforcement agencies, are committed to combating and preventing terrorism. Hence,
by taking proactive measures to prevent radicalization and terrorism, ASEAN countries can
safeguard the security and stability of the region while respecting each nation's sovereignty.

4.3 Enhance Regional Cooperation

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 In our perspective we recommend ASEAN to enhance regional cooperation. Regional
cooperation can be defined as the political and institutional mechanisms that countries in a
general geographical region devise to find and strengthen common interests as well as
promoting their national interests, through mutual cooperation and dialogue (Baporikar, 2023)
.

Enhancing regional cooperation can facilitate collaboration among ASEAN member

states to combat terrorism effectively. This can involve sharing expertise, conducting joint
training exercises, and coordinating efforts to disrupt terrorist networks and their financing
(ASEAN, n.d). Moreover, ASEAN needs to have a strong commitment to enhance cooperation
in countering terrorism which covers the prevention and suppression of all forms of terrorist
acts (ASEAN, n.d). That means they need to improve regional cooperation on counter
terrorism and undertake effective measures through deepening cooperation among ASEAN law
enforcement agencies and relevant authorities in countering terrorism.

Even Though, ASEAN has established a joint Cooperation Committee with each of
them to promote economic and development cooperation. There is still a risk of terrorism act
in Asian countries. For example, the terrorist acts that happen in ASEAN countries like
Indonesia, Philippine and Thailand show that ASEAN needs to enhance regional cooperation
with China , India , Japan, Korea etc. Moreover, the European Union (EU) is one example of
an area that works well together. A political and economic union made up of 27 member states,
the majority of which are in Europe (European Union, 2023). The group was established with
the intention of promoting regional peace, stability, and prosperity through increased
integration and cooperation (European Union, 2023). As a result, due to having strong regional
cooperation, the EU can decrease the terrorist attack by only having fifthteen terrorist attacks
in 2021 (European Union, 2023) compared to Asian countries that have been attacked by
terrorists around seventeen in 2021 (BenarNews, 2022). Thus it shows that enhancing regional
cooperation is very important to avoid terrorism in ASEAN as well as Asian countries.

4.4 Strengthen Border Security

The last recommendation is that ASEAN should strengthen border security.

Strengthening border security measures include making border controls more effective and
preventing the misuse of passports and other travel or identification documents. To strengthen
border security, ASEAN member states must prioritise collaboration and information sharing.
Regular meetings, joint exercises, and the establishment of an efficient information-sharing

16
mechanism should be implemented. By fostering closer cooperation, member states can
collectively address border security threats, exchange intelligence, and share best practices to
avoid terrorism. This collaborative approach will create a unified front against transnational
crimes and terrorist activities.

Furthermore, it’s important to have a strong and secure border environment that
contributes significantly to protecting ASEAN member states. This is because ASEAN's
objective is to promote regional peace and stability of ASEAN member states. For example,
the country that has the strongest border security is the United States (Paudyal & Guide, 2016).
The United States strengthens the border by improving infrastructure at ports of entry,
facilitates public-private partnerships aimed at increasing investment in foreign visitor
processing, and continues supporting the use of technologies that help to secure the land and
maritime borders of the United States (White House, n.d.).

17
 5.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, terrorism can be seen as a global threat that has affected countless lives
and caused widespread devastation. Stopping terrorism is very crucial for several reasons
which include against international law and human rights, violate basic human rights and put
civilians in harm's way. It has a negative impact on the global economy while lowering the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) which negatively impacts economic growth. The spread of
terrorism can lead to political instability as well as social unrest in which this can further
exacerbate poverty and inequality, paving the way for extremist groups to take advantage of
vulnerable communities. Terrorism also instils fear and creates division among people of
different races, religions, and cultures. The losses faced by the government will demonstrate a
government’s inability to safeguard its people and property, which undermines the public
confidence in its authority. Therefore, stopping terrorism is essential to promote peace and
security and foster a more tolerant and inclusive society. Stopping terrorism is not just an
ethical or moral obligation, but it is a crucial step towards ensuring a safe and prosperous future
for all. Also, it is important to build a great system of governance and security which can lead
to the reduction of the occurrence of terrorism in the country. Hence, the government must take
various actions in order to combat the terrorism before it becomes worse.

18
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