Migrant Tribes / Nomads

UNIT 1 MIGRANT

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Migration in India: a historical appraisal
1.3 Migration of tribes of India
1.3.1 Written and oral narratives on migration
1.3.2 Causes of migration
1.3.3 Migration of tribes of India: a general outline
1.4 The migrant tribes of India: their typology
1.4.1 Man
1.4.2 Siddi
1.4.3 Chakma
1.4.4 Bhotia
1.4.5 Banjara
1.5 The effects of migration among the tribes of India
1.6 Let us sum up
1.7 Activity
1.8 References and further reading
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Possible answers to questions

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After having read this Unit, you will be able to:
x get an introduction to migration with regard to time and place;
x understand the way of life of the Nomadic tribes of India, their different
types with detailed and specific examples; and
x become familiar with the effects of migration upon the tribes of India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present Unit we will deal with the phenomenon of migration with specific
examples of some of the Migrant tribes of India in detail.

Structurally this Unit is divided into three main sections. In this first section of
the Unit we will discuss the phenomenon of migration in general and the historical
background of migration in India and the factors that cause migratory movement
of peoples. It will also deal with a general outline of migration of tribes of India.

In this second section of the Unit we will look into some of the migrant tribes of
India and their way of life in a detailed manner.
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Tribal Cosmogenies Finally in the third section of the Unit we will look into some of the effects of
migration on the tribes of India.

As you go through the Unit, you can start mapping the migratory routes of the
Indian tribes in your mind. This can help you to grasp the sheer distances and
geographical terrains that have been crossed by large numbers of people through
time.

1.2 MIGRATION IN INDIA: A HISTORICAL

APPRAISAL
The phenomenon of population movements into the Indian subcontinent started
in around the second half of the second millennium B.C. and continued till about
the nineteenth century. This shaped the culture, social structure and political
systems of the region in many ways.

The earliest known population movement is that of the Aryans who were a group
of pastoralists who are said to have migrated from Iran through Afghanistan in
around 1500 B.C. from the north-western side of the Indian subcontinent. They
eventually displaced the Indus Valley culture and made this region their home.
This was followed by the Greeks led byAlexander the Great in the fourth century.
He traveled through Persia and Afghanistan to the Gangetic Plains. Historians
have discussed in detail the effects this movement of the Greeks had upon political
systems and culture of the times. From arts such as sculpture to literature and
philosophy the exchange between local and immigrant cultures has been rich.
This was again followed by other invasions from the West and Central Asia like
the Scythians known as the Sakas in India and the Yue-Chi from Central Asia
who extended the kingdom to Mathura. The Arabs from Baghdad in the eighth
century and the Turks of Afghanistan who extended their power till Delhi in the
thirteenth century were two other significant population movements. Central
Asian invaders under Babur in the sixteenth century were attracted to the
subcontinent which laid the foundation of the Mughal rule in India.

Apart from these invasions, migrant communities had come to India as merchants,
traders religious practitioners and even as slaves.

Interestingly migrant communities coming to India over the centuries became a

part of the Indian cultural life and were absorbed into the Indian population
make-up. This has contributed to the composite culture of India resembling a
mosaic where each individual cultural and social component retains its identity
while being part of a larger entity. This was partly because it was not easy to
penetrate into the endogamous caste-based social system of the existing society,
however some of the immigrant communities did adapt to Hindu ways of life.

However, the Europeans who came to India in the Sixteenth century were different
in the sense that they never became a part of the Indian sub-continent as
extensively as other populations through history. They ruled from outside and
returned back to their country on completion of their work except those few who
married Indians.

The largest single flow of population to India took place at the time of Partition
in 1947 on the basis of religion.
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Approximately 35-40 million people have moved between India, Pakistan, Migrant Tribes / Nomads
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan since 1947. For instance, the Chakmas,
an indigenous Sino-Tibetan Buddhist community fled from Bangladesh to India
in the seventies.

In the post-independence period, population movement takes place for a variety

of reasons like socio-political conflicts and economic pressures among other
reasons. Displacement of people is also affected by various developmental
schemes. For instance, under the Land Acquisition Act, the government can
acquire land for public purposes. This includes the construction of dams, forest
reserves, sanctuaries and national parks, canals, highways, etc. As a result many
people are forced out of their natural or traditional habitat. The loss of habitat
also implies a change in traditional modes of life and community interaction.
Out of the total number of displaced people, one-third is made up of tribal people.
For the tribal communities the effects of dislocation and displacement are severe
as they depend on the land and forests for livelihood and their economic pursuits
are of a non-commercial nature.

An organised type of migration through the middlemen and contractors is a fairly

new phenomenon which has been in operation since the last 30-35 years. Such
migration is seasonal depending on the need of labour in the labour-deficient
areas. This aspect of migration is not dealt in this Unit. It will be dealt in Course
4 Block3 Unit 2 in a detailed manner.

1.3 MIGRATION OF TRIBES OF INDIA

Migration has been taking place among different communities of India since
time immemorial. For varied reasons, either the whole community or a section
of it had migrated to near or far off places.

There are also instances where a section of a particular community has migrated
from its traditional geographical location. This can happen when a particular
community becomes very large and branches out into recognizable sub-groups.
These sub-groups may perceive themselves to be distinct from the parent
community over time or want to move away due to economic reasons. For
instance, the Kulis are a migrant community who are believed to be an offshoot
of the Kols of Central India. They later sub-grouped and settled in Orissa. Again,
the Lepchas, also called the Rongkup or Mutanchi Rongkup, claim themselves
to be the original inhabitants of Sikkim. They believe that their original homeland
was the legendary kingdom of Mayel near Mount Kachangangha. Two subgroups
are found among the Lepchas- the Rong and the Khamba who represent two
successive phases of their migration to the present habitat in Sikkim as well to
the Darjeeling area of West Bengal.

1.3.1 Written and oral narratives on migration

Very often there are no adequate historical records about the movement of people
from one location to another. Sometimes we do find oral narratives among
communities that relate to their migratory journey. Mention may be made of a
Bharwad legend that narrates that they migrated with Lord Krishna from
Brindavan to Mathura and then to Dwaraka from where they spread over the
entire region of Saurashtra. Some even went upto Mewar in Rajasthan. It is said
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Tribal Cosmogenies that the Bharwads are of the same caste as the Mehers to whom Lord Krishna’s
foster father Nand Meher belonged to.

The oral narratives of the Karavazhi, one of the sub-groups of the Hill Pulaya
reveals that they migrated from Tamil Nadu to the present area of inhabitance in
Kerala. Legends say the Lotha, Sema, Rengma and Angami Nagas migrated
from the south-east through the Mao and Khezakenoma in Manipur to their
present habitat in Nagaland.

The Mundas have several folk-tales suggesting that their ancestors had originally
settled down on the Mundar mountains and that several sections of their
population dispersed in different directions.

The Malmi also known as Mali is distributed in the Lakshadweep. Their

migration to this present habitat is well recorded in the historical accounts as
well as in their oral traditions.

1.3.2 Causes of migration

Most of the causes behind the movement of people are not known. It may take
place for a variety of reasons like socio-political conflicts, economic pressures,
and so on.

Economic causes

This is one of the main causes for people to migrate from one place to another.
This may be either forced movement as was the case during the colonial rule or
else out of choice. The Eastern side of the country attracted many communities
to work in the tea plantations situated in this part of the country. They were often
brought as labourers by the British.
Some of such communities are as follows:
The Mahalis or Mahlis are a basket making community of Orissa. They are
migrants from the Singhbhum District of Bihar. Another group of them settled
in West Bengal after they were brought to this place as labourers for indigo
cultivation during the colonial rule.
A section of the Nagesias of Central India were brought to the Darjeeling and
Jalpaiguri Districts of West Bengal by the British during the colonial rule as tea
plantation labourers and settled here. They converse in Hindi and Bengali even
though they speak in Sadri among themselves. Similarly a section of the Oraon
tribe was brought to Tripura from the undivided Bengal Province in 1916 to
work as tea plantation labourers.
A group of the Hos migrated to Orissa from the Kolhan area of Bihar while
another group migrated to different areas of West Bengal to work in tea
plantations.
The Mundas were brought to Tripura in 1916 from Assam as tea plantation
labourers. The Santhals also migrated to Tripura to work in tea plantations.
The original habitat of the Kabui or Rongmei Naga as they call themselves lies
in Tamenglong which forms a vast tract of hilly region situated along the western
border of Manipur. Some Kabui migrated to the Naga Hills during the British
74 colonial period to work as porters.
A section of the Kols of Maharashtra had migrated to Madhya Pradesh as migrant Migrant Tribes / Nomads
labourers.

Ecological change/ natural calamities

The Khairwars believe that their ancestors were catechu manufacturers

inhabiting the Brindavan area of Uttar Pradesh. When the catechu trees decreased
in that area, they migrated to the present habitat in Madhya Pradesh. The Lodhas
concentrated in the Midnapore area of West Bengal and in Orissa. Originally
they inhabited a rugged terrain covered with jungles but deforestation compelled
them to migrate towards the east in search of food and shelter.

A group of the Khamyiangs, a Buddhist community of Assam is believed to

have migrated to the Lohit and Tirap Districts of Arunachal Pradesh following
the great earthquake in Assam in 1950.

The Santhals began migrating to the Birbhum and Santal Pargana since 1770
after Chotanagpur plateau, their original homeland was affected by famine.

Socio-religious causes

Sometimes certain social-religious causes are behind movements of people. For

instance, the Kurichian is a community of Wayanad District of Kerala. A section
of this community converted themselves to Christianity following the introduction
of the Christian tenets by Fr. Jeffrino of the French Mission Society way back in
1908. This was against the conservative traditions of the Kurichian and thus
those who deviated from the traditional norms were ex-communicated. These
ex-communicated Kurichian formed a separate sub-group called Anchilla
Kurichian and migrated to further north to the Tirunelly area of the Wayanad
District.

Conflicts

Due to various socio-political economic or religious factors, conflicts arise in

any society which results in the migration of a community or a section of it. For
instance, the migration of the Chakmas from Bangladesh to India (For details
See Section 1.4.3).

1.3.3 Migration of tribes of India: a general outline

The scanty available records have been successful to some extent in mapping
the movement of people in the Indian subcontinent. The movements of some of
the communities of India are enumerated below.
The Hakkipikkis are distributed in Mysore, Kolar, Shimoga and Hassan Districts
of Karnataka. Their total population is 8414 (2001 Census).They claim to be
originally the inhabitants of the region bordering Gujarat and Rajasthan who
later migrated to Andhra Pradesh till they had come to their present area of
habitation. Their mother tongue is Vaghri, an Indo-Aryan language.
The Binjhias were originally the inhabitants of the Kolanagari in the Vindhya
Valley from where they migrated to Bihar, Jharkhand and the Sambalpur and
Keonjhargarh districts of Orissa. Similar to the Binjhias, the Binjhwars were
also originally the inhabitants of the Vindhya Valley from where they migrated
to Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
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Tribal Cosmogenies A portion of the Chik Baraik, a weaver tribe inhabiting the Chotanagpur plateau
of Bihar migrated to West Bengal. They number about 17,824 in West Bengal
according to the 2001 Census.

Kaipeng Halam, one of subgroups of the Halam tribe has migrated to its present
location form Doapathar, an area close to the border between India and Burma.

According to H.H. Risley, the Jamatia, one of the original settlers of south
Tripura is a sect of the Tipperah tribe in the hill tracts of Chittagong.

The Mags are a Buddhist community of Tripura. They are believed to have
migrated from an area lying further east through the Arakan hills and the
Chittagong hill tracts and are spread all over the state with maximum population
density in the South Tripura District.

The Zeliang Nagas were the last sub-group of the Nagas to migrate from Manipur
to their present habitat in Nagaland.

The Minas of Madhya Pradesh who describe themselves as a traditional warrior

community migrated from Rajasthan.

The Mishmis of Arunachal Pradesh are divided into three sub-groups- the Digaru,
Idu and the Mijus. The origin and migration of the community is traced from the
northern and eastern direction. Among these three sub-groups, the Mijus were
the last to migrate to the Lohit Valley, their present habitat.

The Lohar Kols of Orissa recall their migration from the bordering districts of
West Bengal and Bihar.

The Dhor Koli of Dadra and Nagar Haveli traces their migration from
Maharashtra and Gujarat some three generations back.

The Kathodias are concentrated in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Dadra and

Nagar Haveli. They were brought by the Parsis during the Portuguese rule to the
Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

The Mijis are believed to have migrated to their present habitat in Arunachal
Pradesh from the plains of Assam where they had links with the Ahom Kings.

The Sherpa has their roots in Tibet from where they migrated to West Bengal,
Sikkim. They are known as Solu-Khambuwan in Sikkim where they have settled
having migrated from Nepal.

The Rabaris believe that their forefathers lived in Dwaraka and Brindavan from
where they have migrated to Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. At present they are distributed
in the arid and semi-arid districts of Mahasena, Surat, Ahmedabad, Baroda and
Sabarkantha.

The Bakarwals consider the Jammu region to be their original homeland in

India since their ancestors emigrated from the valleys of Allai and Kunhar now
in Pakistan some hundred and fifty years back. In Jammu and Kashmir, they are
found in all three regions of the state including Jammu, the Kashmir Valley and
Ladakh.

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It is believed that the Gujjars, migrated to Jammu and Kashmir from Gujarat Migrant Tribes / Nomads
(via Rajasthan) and settled in their present habitat in the districts of Rajouri,
Poonch, Anantnag, Udhampur and Doda of Jammu and Kashmir.

The Oraons originally inhabited an area lying south-west of the Ganga. But
over the time, they have migrated to Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa.

The period of the migratory movements of the above mentioned communities

are often vague due to the lack of historical records corroborating the same.
However, there are certain communities whose migration can be pin-pointed in
time. Some of them are:

The Mala Kuravan also called the Malai Kuravar and Malakkuravan as
well as the Malai Vedans are believed to have migrated to their present habitat
in the Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu from the Travancore region. The
former migrated during the Pandyan regime.

The ancestors of the Mudugars were the subjects of the Vijaynagar Empire.
They migrated from the Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu to Kerala way back
in the fifteenth century.

A section of the Rengma Nagas migrated to Assam in the early part of the
nineteenth century and settled in the Karbi Anglong District of Assam.

The Singphos are a Buddhist community settled in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
They migrated to Arunachal Pradesh around 1793 and settled in the Tirap Districts
of the state.

The Lisus also called the Yobin are distributed in the Tirap District of Arunachal
Pradesh. They migrated to their present habitat from a place called Putao lying
to the north about seventy years back in search of cultivable land.

As cited in E. Thurston’s Castes and Tribes of Southern India, according to the

1891 census report, the Maratis were actually the Marathi non-Brahmin castes
who had come to the south as soldiers or camp followers in the armies of the
Marathi invaders. The community was later notified as a scheduled tribe.

The Kondhs in Madhya Pradesh migrated from Orissa about two centuries back.

The Korwas living in Bihar and Orissa are said to have migrated from Madhya
Pradesh.

The Lalung also referred to as the Tiwas inhabit the Nagaon, Morigaon, Karbi
Anglong and Kamrup districts of Assam. They have migrated from a place further
north of their present habitat. It is believed that they migrated to the plains of
Assam around the middle of the Seventeenth century.

The Khamyiangs, a Buddhist community of Assam is believed to have left its

earlier habitat in the Patkai ranges owing to oppression from the Sigpho (Kachin)
and migrated to Assam between 1807 and1814.

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Tribal Cosmogenies
Check Your Progess 1
Note: 1) Your answers should be about thirty words each.
2) You may check your answers with the possible answers given at
the end of this Unit.
1) What are the causes of migration of tribes in India?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Fill in the Blanks:
A) The Mundas were brought to Tripura in ................ from Assam as
tea plantation labourers.
B) The Jamatia of Tripura is a sect of the ....................... tribe from the
hill tracts of Chittagong.
C The Khamyiangs, a Buddhist community of Assam migrated to this
state between .......................... and ..........................
D) The Malmi is distributed in the ..............................
E) The author of the book “The Tribes and Castes of Bombay” is
..............................
F) The Chakmas were originally the inhabitants of the ................... in
Bangladesh.
G) The ................................. is a weaver tribe.
1) There are some communities in their migratory routes. Can you spot them?
A C B H O T I A R
I F A J A E J P Y
S A N T H A L P O
I K J V P E P I L
D S A L M U N D A
D A R X A R H P B
I P A K N Y B T E

1.4 THE MIGRANT TRIBES OF INDIA: THEIR

TYPOLOGY
In the preceding Section we had a glimpse of the migration of tribes of India in
general. In this section we will go through the details of some of the migrant
tribes of India.
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1.4.1 Man Migrant Tribes / Nomads

Man literally means a Burmese migrant. According to legends they had come as
a part of an invading army later to be employed by David Scott as sepoys to fight
the Garos- an ethnic community of Meghalaya, way back in the second decade
of the Nineteenth century. They later settled down in the Garo Hills and entered
into marriage alliances with the women of the neighbouring communities like
Koch, Hajong, Assamese and Bengalis and formed a separate entity.

At present the Mans are settled in six villages of the Dadengiri sub-division of
the West Garo Hills District of Meghalaya. Here they number 617 (2001 Census).
A section of the community numbering about 739 migrated to Assam and inhabits
the Tinsukia District of the state.

The Mans are assimilated with the Assamese culture. They have adopted
Assamese as their mother tongue and use the Assamese script. They also use
Bengali and Hindi language. Their attire is similar to that of the Assamese. They
celebrate Bihu which is the most significant festival of the Assamese. They have
also assimilated many Assamese folk songs and dances into their own cultural
realms. The Mans share many socio-cultural and religious elements with the
Koch, Hajong, Assamese and Bengali communities.

The Mans observe community endogamy. They do not have any clan structure.
Marriage is arranged through negotiation. Junior levirate and Sororate marriages
are permitted. Monogamy is the rule. They follow a patrilineal social structure
following a patrilocal rule of residence.

They profess Buddhism of the Hinayana sect. Interestingly, they still worship
and believe in elements of the Hindu pantheon like Lakshmi and Saraswati.
Marriages are solemnized by a Buddhist monk or pathak reciting hymns from
Pali scriptures.

The Mans are primarily agriculturalists and wet paddy cultivators. They have
eventually taken up other professions like business, government jobs and teaching.

1.4.2 Siddi
The Siddis, also known as Habshis and Badshas, are believed to be of African
origin. They were brought to India by the Portugese towards the end of the
seventeenth century. At present, they are distributed along the western coast of
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. They are notified as a scheduled tribe in
Gujarat, Goa and the union territory of Daman and Diu. Their total population in
Gujarat is 8662, 155 in Goa and 108 in Daman and Diu (2001 Census). They
speak Gujarati as their mother tongue though many of them are conversant with
the Hindi and Urdu language.

Physically, the Siddis are long and narrow headed people with medium facial
breadth and long and broad noses. The colour of their skin is dark brown or
black, eyes are black brown or dark brown with black curly or frizzy hair
indicating the presence of Negrito features.

The Siddis are divided into several exogamous clans which include Moshul
Mozgul, Parmar, Mori, Chotiyara, Rayeka, Bagis, Sirwan, Nobi and Valia.
79
Tribal Cosmogenies Religiously, the Siddis can be divided into Christian, Hindu and Muslim groups.
The Muslim section has two divisions- the Wilaites which means newcomers
and the Muwallads which means countrymen.

Monogamy is the prevalent practice. Cross cousin marriage with the father’s
sister’s daughter as well with mother’s brother’s daughter is permissible. After
marriage, they follow the patrilocal rule of residence. Marriage outside the
community is a serious offence. Dissolution of marriage is through divorce.
Remarriage of divorcees, widows and widowers are permissible. Levirate and
sororate marriage are prevalent among them. Inheritance is through the male
line.

They have their traditional council called jamat who settles disputes within the
community.

In 1922 R.E. Enthoven in his book “The Tribes and Castes of Bombay” stated
that the Siddis of Gujarat and Kannara districts begged by singing and worked
as field labourers.

Initially the Siddis subsisted on hunting and gathering but eventually they came
to depend primarily on agriculture and agricultural labour and later in allied
services like the transport sector, animal husbandry, etc.

A lot of assimilation has taken place in the socio-cultural realms with their
neighbouring communities. Their traditional folk dance is called dhamal and is
famous for its vigour and vibrancy.

1.4.3 Chakmas
The Chakmas are a Sino-Tibetan Buddhist community inhabiting Tripura,
Mizoram, Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal. In Mizoram they live in the
south-western part along the river Karnafuli, in Assam they are settled in the
Karbi Anglong, North Cachar districts and in Tripura they are concentrated in
the northern part of the state.

They were originally the inhabitants of the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh
from where they had migrated to India resulting from land disputes. Land purchase
of the Chittagong Hill Tracts was closed by the non-Chakmas until 1964 when
the Government of Pakistan ceased the special status of the region as an ‘excluded
area’. When thousands of Bengali families settled in this area in the late 1970s
and 80s and planned to settle in larger numbers, the Chakmas formed the
Chittagong Hill Tracts Peoples Solidarity Association through which they tried
to assert their rights. They demanded regional autonomy and the restitution of
all land taken by the Bengali immigrants since the 1970s as well as a ban on
further immigration. When their demands were not met, the problems accelerated
leading to an armed insurrection. As a result many Chakmas fled across the
international border towards Tripura and Mizoram in India.

At present, their population is 71,283 in Mizoram, 64,293 in Tripura, 2478 in

Assam, 642 in West Bengal, 126 in Meghalaya according to the 2001 Census.

The Chakmas speak Chakma, an Indo-Aryan language. Apart from this they
speak in Bengali, Assamese and Hindi.
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The Chakma society in Tripura is divided into three endogamous subgroups- Migrant Tribes / Nomads
Anokhia, Tantungia and Mongla. Each is constituted of several clans which are
also endogamous. Monogamy is the rule and marriage partners are acquired by
mutual consent, negotiation, elopement or service. Bride price is paid by the
groom’s family. Levirate and sororate marriages are prevalent. Families are mostly
nuclear but extended families are also found among them. Sons inherit the father’s
property equally and the eldest son inherits the father’s authority.

The traditional occupation of the Chakmas is shifting cultivation but gradually

they have started plough cultivation. They profess fishing and wage labour as
subsidiary occupations and few have also engaged themselves in the government
and private sectors.

The Chakmas are Buddhists and gradually they took to other religious beliefs
like Hinduism, Christianity and Islamic religion.

1.4.4 Bhotia
Bhotia refers to several groups of people inhabiting the Himalayan ranges.
Etymologically the word bhotia is said to have originated from the term bhot or
bod which means Tibet which itself indicates their original abode.

The Bhotias today are concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, West Bengal
and Sikkim. The total population is 36,438 in Uttaranchal; 3491 in Uttar Pradesh;
70,308 in Sikkim and 60,091 in West Bengal according to the 2001 Census. A
small population of 29 Bhotias is also found in Tripura.

Historical accounts state that they are the descendants of the Bhil Kira or the
Mon Khmer who entered India from the eastern direction. Eventually different
groups like the Monpas, Rankas, Rongpas and Shauka settled in this region. The
later migrants are believed to have migrated from Nepal. In West Bengal, the
Bhotias are a migrant community comprising of Bhotias who immigrated to this
region from Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet inhabiting the Darjeeling district.

Physically, the Bhotias are below-medium or short statured, round headed and
show a medium facial profile with a long to medium nose form.

They used to practice shifting cultivation, but taken up other professions like
business, government service, trade and even as porters.

1.4.5 Banjara
The Banjaras are the largest group in India. They are known by different names
in different parts of India like Brinjara, Boipari, Laman, Lambani/ Lambadi,
Sugali, Sukali.

According to some authorities, the actual Banjara lineage goes back to some
2000 years. They are said to be the descendants of the Roma gypsies of Europe
who migrated to India through the rugged mountains of Afghanistan and finally
settled down in Rajasthan. A group of the Banjaras began to travel down to the
South in the 14th century. Many of their families and pack bullocks crossed the
Vindhya as and reached the Deccan following the invasion by the armies of
Aurangzeb.
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Tribal Cosmogenies Their unique dress, heritage, customs and language distinguish them from the
majority population, and they maintain a separate lifestyle. The Banjara gypsies
love storytelling, music, songs and dance.

The Banjara are primarily Hindu-Animists with their own gods and goddesses,
festivals, and animistic worship practices. They offer goat sacrifices and are
also bound by superstitions, fears and witchcraft. Banjara women are easily
recognized by their colorful traditional costume with mirrors and coins stitched
into their clothing.

1.5 THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION AMONG THE

TRIBES OF INDIA
Migration leads to many changes in the immigrant communities living in new
ecological settings.

A lot of cultural borrowing and acculturation as well as assimilation take place

between them and the neighbouring communities. As a result, many new traits
creep into the cultural mosaic of the immigrant communities and many traits
also die out.

The most obvious aspect of culture borrowing is seen in the language of the
immigrant communities and its structure. Many immigrant communities start
conversing in the local language of the new area for inter-group communication
while they speak their original language amongst themselves. At times, the latter
also die out if the local language is more dominant. For instance, the Dhor Koli
of Karnataka uses the Kanada language for inter-group communication whereas
they speak in Marathi within themselves which indicates that their original habitat
was in Maharashtra and Gujarat some three generations from where they migrated.

Some of the elders of the Konda Reddi of Tamil Nadu speak Telegu which
indicates that their ancestors lived in Andhra Pradesh from where they migrated
to their present habitat in search of livelihood.

The resemblance of the mother tongue of the Pomlas with Telegu led R.E.
Enthoven to state that they must have originally belonged to the southern part of
the country before eventually migrating to their present habitat in Gujarat.

Changes are also seen in the economic sphere or the subsistence pattern of a
community due to the migratory movements of peoples. For instance, the Chik
Baraik is a weaver tribe inhabiting the Chotonagpur plateau of Bihar. However
when a sizeable portion of their population migrated to West Bengal they gave
up their traditional occupation of weaving and took up new ways of subsistence
like wage labour, etc.

Changes are usually seen in other aspects of the socio-cultural life of immigrant
communities like food, dress, religion, etc. For instance the Bhotia of the eastern
Himalayas follow Buddhism while those of the central Himalayas are Hindus.
There is an obvious difference in the dress between the Gujjars settled in the
cold region in the Jammu and Kashmir and those inhabiting the arid region of
Rajasthan.

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 Migrant Tribes / Nomads
Check your progress 2
Note: 1) Your answers should be around thirty words each.
2) You may check your answers with the possible answers given at
the end of this Unit.
1) Enumerate some of the migrant tribes of India.
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2) Discuss the effects of migration on the tribes of India.
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1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you have read about the phenomenon of migration in general, the
historical background of migration in India and the causes of migratory movement
of peoples. It also dealt with a general outline of migration of tribes of India,
some of the migrant tribes with specific details of each types and their way of
life. It also looked into some of the effects of migration on the tribes of India.

1.7 ACTIVITY
Try to look up further references on this topic at the nearest library. If there are
documentaries on this topic available to you at special screenings or on TV
make it a point to watch the same and record your observations. You can attempt
to locate pictures of such tribes and note features such as costumes, habitat etc.

1.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

x Weiner, Myron, 2003; Migration in The Oxford India Companion to
Sociology and Social Anthropology Edited by Veena Das; Oxford University
Press: New Delhi.
x Singh, K.S., 1997; The Scheduled Tribes in People of India; Anthropological
Survey of India & Oxford University Press.
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Tribal Cosmogenies
1.9 GLOSSARY
Acculturation : The process by which culture is transmitted through
continuous first hand contact of groups with different
cultures, one often having a more developed culture.
Assimilation : The process through which groups living in a common
territory but of a heterogenous backgrounds reach a
broad-based cultural solidarity.
Bride price : Valuables given to the bride’s family by the groom or
his family.
Catechu : Any of several water-soluble, resinous, astringent
substances used in tanning and dyeing.
Cultural borrowing : The taking over by one culture of a feature of another
culture.
Endogamous : The compulsory restriction of marriage to members
of the same segment or class.
Juniour levirate : The practice in which a younger brother inherits the
widow of his older brother.
Patrilineal : A unilateral male-centered society.
Patrilocal : The practice of a married couple living in the
husband’s community/ wife settling in the home of
her husband.
Sororate : A man marrying his wife’s sister after the latter’s death
on a mandatory or permissible basis.

1. 10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check your progress 1
1) Read Section 1.3.2
2) Fill in the Blanks
A) The Mundas were brought to Tripura in 1916 from Assam as tea
plantation labourers.
B) The Jamatia of Tripura is a sect of the Tipperah tribe in the hill tracts of
Chittagong.
C) The Khamyiangs, a Buddhist community of Assam migrated to this state
between 1807 and 1814.
D) The Malmi is distributed in the Lakshadweep.
E) The author of the book “The Tribes and Castes of Bombay” is R.E.
Enthoven.
F) The Chakmas were originally the inhabitants of the Chittagong Hill Tracts
in Bangladesh.
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 G) The Chik Baraik is a weaver tribe. Migrant Tribes / Nomads

3) There are some communities in their migratory routes. Can you spot them?
B H O T I A
A
S A N T H A L
I J
D A M U N D A
D R A
I A N

Check your progress 2

1) Read Section 1.4

2) Read Section 1.5

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