Lean manufacturing

Lean manufacturing is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production
system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. It is closely related to another concept
called just-in-time manufacturing (JIT manufacturing in short). Just-in-time manufacturing tries to match
production to demand by only supplying goods which have been ordered and focuses on efficiency,
productivity (with a commitment to continuous improvement) and reduction of "wastes" for the producer
and supplier of goods. Lean manufacturing adopts the just-in-time approach and additionally focuses on
reducing cycle, flow and throughput times by further eliminating activities which do not add any value for
the customer.[1] Lean manufacturing also involves people who work outside of the manufacturing process,
such as in marketing and customer service.

Lean manufacturing is particularly related to the operational model implemented in the post-war 1950s and
1960s by the Japanese automobile company Toyota called "The Toyota Way" or the Toyota Production
System (TPS).[2][3] Toyota's system was erected on the two pillars of just-in-time inventory management
and automated quality control. The seven "wastes" (muda in Japanese), first formulated by Toyota engineer
Shigeo Shingo, are the waste of superfluous inventory of raw material and finished goods, the waste of
overproduction (producing more than what is needed now), the waste of over-processing (processing or
making parts beyond the standard expected by customer), the waste of transportation (unnecessary
movement of people and goods inside the system), the waste of excess motion (mechanizing or automating
before improving the method), the waste of waiting (inactive working periods due to job queues), and the
waste of making defective products (reworking to fix avoidable defects in products and processes).[4]

The term Lean was coined in 1988 by American businessman John Krafcik in his article "Triumph of the
Lean Production System", and defined in 1996 by American researchers James Womack and Daniel Jones
to consist of five key principles: "Precisely specify value by specific product, identify the value stream for
each product, make value flow without interruptions, let customer pull value from the producer, and pursue
perfection."[5]

Companies employ the strategy to increase efficiency. By receiving goods only as they need them for the
production process, it reduces inventory costs and wastage, and increases productivity and profit. The
downside is that it requires producers to forecast demand accurately as the benefits can be nullified by
minor delays in the supply chain. It may also impact negatively on workers due to added stress and
inflexible conditions. A successful operation depends on a company having regular outputs, high-quality
processes, and reliable suppliers.

History
Fredrick Taylor and Henry Ford documented their observations relating to these topics, and Shigeo Shingo
and Taiichi Ohno applied their enhanced thoughts on the subject at Toyota in the 1930s. The resulting
methods were researched from the mid-20th century and dubbed Lean by John Krafcik in 1988, and then
were defined in The Machine that Changed the World[6] and further detailed by James Womack and Daniel
Jones in Lean Thinking (1996).

Evolution in Japan
The exact reasons for adoption of just-in-time manufacturing in Japan are unclear, but it has been suggested
it started with a requirement to solve the lack of standardization. American supply chain specialist Gergard
Plenert has offered four reasons, paraphrased here. During Japan's post–World War II rebuilding of
industry:

1. Japan's lack of cash made it difficult for industry to finance the big-batch, large inventory
production methods common elsewhere.
2. Japan lacked space to build big factories loaded with inventory.
3. The Japanese islands lack natural resources with which to build products.
4. Japan had high unemployment, which meant that labor efficiency methods were not an
obvious pathway to industrial success.

Thus, the Japanese "leaned out" their processes. "They built smaller factories ... in which the only materials
housed in the factory were those on which work was currently being done. In this way, inventory levels
were kept low, investment in in-process inventories was at a minimum, and the investment in purchased
natural resources was quickly turned around so that additional materials were purchased." Plenert goes on
to explain Toyota's key role in developing this lean or just-in-time production methodology.[7]

American industrialists recognized the threat of cheap offshore labor to American workers during the
1910s, and explicitly stated the goal of what is now called lean manufacturing as a countermeasure. Henry
Towne, past president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, wrote in the foreword to
Frederick Winslow Taylor's Shop Management (1911), "We are justly proud of the high wage rates which
prevail throughout our country, and jealous of any interference with them by the products of the cheaper
labor of other countries. To maintain this condition, to strengthen our control of home markets, and, above
all, to broaden our opportunities in foreign markets where we must compete with the products of other
industrial nations, we should welcome and encourage every influence tending to increase the efficiency of
our productive processes."[8]

Continuous production improvement and incentives for such were documented in Taylor's Principles of
Scientific Management (1911):

"... whenever a workman proposes an improvement, it should be the policy of the

management to make a careful analysis of the new method, and if necessary conduct a
series of experiments to determine accurately the relative merit of the new suggestion and of
the old standard. And whenever the new method is found to be markedly superior to the old,
it should be adopted as the standard for the whole establishment."
"...after a workman has had the price per piece of the work he is doing lowered two or three
times as a result of his having worked harder and increased his output, he is likely entirely to
lose sight of his employer's side of the case and become imbued with a grim determination
to have no more cuts if soldiering [marking time, just doing what he is told] can prevent it."

Shigeo Shingo cites reading Principles of Scientific Management in 1931 and being "greatly impressed to
make the study and practice of scientific management his life's work".[9], [10]

Shingo and Taiichi Ohno were key to the design of Toyota's manufacturing process. Previously a textile
company, Toyota moved into building automobiles in 1934. Kiichiro Toyoda, founder of Toyota Motor
Corporation, directed the engine casting work and discovered many problems in their manufacturing, with
wasted resources on repair of poor-quality castings. Toyota engaged in intense study of each stage of the
process. In 1936, when Toyota won its first truck contract with the Japanese government, the processes
encountered new problems, to which Toyota responded by developing Kaizen improvement teams, into
what has become the Toyota Production System (TPS), and subsequently The Toyota Way.
Levels of demand in the postwar economy of Japan were low; as a result, the focus of mass production on
lowest cost per item via economies of scale had little application. Having visited and seen supermarkets in
the United States, Ohno recognized that the scheduling of work should not be driven by sales or production
targets but by actual sales. Given the financial situation during this period, over-production had to be
avoided, and thus the notion of "pull" (or "build-to-order" rather than target-driven "push") came to
underpin production scheduling.

Evolution in the rest of the world

Just-in-time manufacturing was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British Motor Corporation
(Australia) at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to Toyota.[11] News
about just-in-time/Toyota production system reached other western countries from Japan in 1977 in two
English-language articles: one referred to the methodology as the "Ohno system", after Taiichi Ohno, who
was instrumental in its development within Toyota.[12] The other article, by Toyota authors in an
international journal, provided additional details.[13] Finally, those and other publicity were translated into
implementations, beginning in 1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout industry in the United States
and other developed countries. A seminal 1980 event was a conference in Detroit at Ford World
Headquarters co-sponsored by the Repetitive Manufacturing Group (RMG), which had been founded 1979
within the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) to seek advances in
manufacturing. The principal speaker, Fujio Cho (later, president of Toyota Motor Corp.), in explaining the
Toyota system, stirred up the audience, and led to the RMG's shifting gears from things like automation to
just-in-time/Toyota production system.[14]

At least some of audience's stirring had to do with a perceived clash between the new just-in-time regime
and manufacturing resource planning (MRP II), a computer software-based system of manufacturing
planning and control which had become prominent in industry in the 1960s and 1970s. Debates in
professional meetings on just-in-time vs. MRP II were followed by published articles, one of them titled,
"The Rise and Fall of Just-in-Time".[15] Less confrontational was Walt Goddard's, "Kanban Versus MRP II
—Which Is Best for You?" in 1982.[16] Four years later, Goddard had answered his own question with a
book advocating just-in-time.[17] Among the best known of MRP II's advocates was George Plossl, who
authored two articles questioning just-in-time's kanban planning method[18] and the "japanning of
America".[19] But, as with Goddard, Plossl later wrote that "JIT is a concept whose time has come".[20]

Just-in-time/TPS implementations may be found in many case-study articles from the 1980s and beyond.
An article in a 1984 issue of Inc. magazine[21] relates how Omark Industries (chain saws, ammunition, log
loaders, etc.) emerged as an extensive just-in-time implementer under its US home-grown name ZIPS (zero
inventory production system). At Omark's mother plant in Portland, Oregon, after the work force had
received 40 hours of ZIPS training, they were "turned loose" and things began to happen. A first step was
to "arbitrarily eliminate a week's lead time [after which] things ran smoother. 'People asked that we try
taking another week's worth out.' After that, ZIPS spread throughout the plant's operations 'like an
amoeba.'" The article also notes that Omark's 20 other plants were similarly engaged in ZIPS, beginning
with pilot projects. For example, at one of Omark's smaller plants making drill bits in Mesabi, Minnesota,
"large-size drill inventory was cut by 92%, productivity increased by 30%, scrap and rework ... dropped
20%, and lead time ... from order to finished product was slashed from three weeks to three days." The Inc.
article states that companies using just-in-time the most extensively include "the Big Four, Hewlett-Packard,
Motorola, Westinghouse Electric, General Electric, Deere & Company, and Black and Decker".

By 1986, a case-study book on just-in-time in the U.S.[22] was able to devote a full chapter to ZIPS at
Omark, along with two chapters on just-in-time at several Hewlett-Packard plants, and single chapters for
Harley-Davidson, John Deere, IBM-Raleigh, North Carolina, and California-based Apple Inc., a Toyota
truck-bed plant, and New United Motor Manufacturing joint venture between Toyota and General Motors.
Two similar, contemporaneous books from the U.K. are more international in scope.[23] One of the books,
with both conceptual articles and case studies, includes three sections on just-in-time practices: in Japan
(e.g., at Toyota, Mazda, and Tokagawa Electric); in Europe (jmg Bostrom, Lucas Electric, Cummins
Engine, IBM, 3M, Datasolve Ltd., Renault, Massey Ferguson); and in the US and Australia (Repco
Manufacturing-Australia, Xerox Computer, and two on Hewlett-Packard). The second book, reporting on
what was billed as the First International Conference on just-in-time manufacturing,[24] includes case
studies in three companies: Repco-Australia, IBM-UK, and 3M-UK. In addition, a day two keynote
address discussed just-in-time as applied "across all disciplines, ... from accounting and systems to design
and production".[24]: J1–J9 

Rebranding as "lean"

John Krafcik coined the term Lean in his 1988 article, "Triumph of the Lean Production System".[25] The
article states: (a) Lean manufacturing plants have higher levels of productivity/quality than non-Lean and
(b) "The level of plant technology seems to have little effect on operating performance" (page 51).
According to the article, risks with implementing Lean can be reduced by: "developing a well-trained,
flexible workforce, product designs that are easy to build with high quality, and a supportive, high-
performance supplier network" (page 51).

Middle era and to the present

Three more books which include just-in-time implementations were published in 1993,[26] 1995,[27] and
1996,[28] which are start-up years of the lean manufacturing/lean management movement that was
launched in 1990 with publication of the book, The Machine That Changed the World.[29] That one, along
with other books, articles, and case studies on lean, were supplanting just-in-time terminology in the 1990s
and beyond. The same period, saw the rise of books and articles with similar concepts and methodologies
but with alternative names, including cycle time management,[30] time-based competition,[31] quick-
response manufacturing,[32] flow,[33] and pull-based production systems.[34]

There is more to just-in-time than its usual manufacturing-centered explication. Inasmuch as manufacturing
ends with order-fulfillment to distributors, retailers, and end users, and also includes remanufacturing,
repair, and warranty claims, just-in-time's concepts and methods have application downstream from
manufacturing itself. A 1993 book on "world-class distribution logistics" discusses kanban links from
factories onward.[35] And a manufacturer-to-retailer model developed in the U.S. in the 1980s, referred to
as quick response,[36] has morphed over time to what is called fast fashion.[37][38]

Methodology
The strategic elements of lean can be quite complex, and comprise multiple elements. Four different notions
of lean have been identified:[39]

1. Lean as a fixed state or goal (being lean)

2. Lean as a continuous change process (becoming lean)
3. Lean as a set of tools or methods (doing lean/toolbox lean)
4. Lean as a philosophy (lean thinking)

The other way to avoid market risk and control the supply efficiently is to cut down in stock. P&G has
completed their goal to co-operate with Walmart and other wholesales companies by building the response
system of stocks directly to the suppliers companies.[40]
In 1999, Spear and Bowen[41] identified four rules which characterize the "Toyota DNA":

1. All work shall be highly specified as to content, sequence, timing, and outcome.
2. Every customer-supplier connection must be direct, and there must be an unambiguous yes
or no way to send requests and receive responses.
3. The pathway for every product and service must be simple and direct.
4. Any improvement must be made in accordance with the scientific method, under the
guidance of a teacher, at the lowest possible level in the organization.

This is a fundamentally different approach from most improvement methodologies, and requires more
persistence than basic application of the tools, which may partially account for its lack of popularity.[42]
The implementation of "smooth flow" exposes quality problems that already existed, and waste reduction
then happens as a natural consequence, a system-wide perspective rather focusing directly upon the
wasteful practices themselves.

Takt time is the rate at which products need to be produced to meet customer demand. The JIT system is
designed to produce products at the rate of takt time, which ensures that products are produced just in time
to meet customer demand.[43]

Sepheri provides a list of methodologies of just-in-time manufacturing that "are important but not
exhaustive":[44]

Housekeeping: physical organization and discipline.

Make it right the first time: elimination of defects.
Setup reduction: flexible changeover approaches.
Lot sizes of one: the ultimate lot size and flexibility.
Uniform plant load: leveling as a control mechanism.
Balanced flow: organizing flow scheduling throughput.
Skill diversification: multi-functional workers.
Control by visibility: communication media for activity.
Preventive maintenance: flawless running, no defects.
Fitness for use: producibility, design for process.
Compact plant layout: product-oriented design.
Streamlining movements: smoothing materials handling.
Supplier networks: extensions of the factory.
Worker involvement: small group improvement activities.
Cellular manufacturing: production methods for flow.
Pull system: signal [kanban] replenishment/resupply systems.

Key principles and waste

Womack and Jones define Lean as "...a way to do more and more with less and less—less human effort,
less equipment, less time, and less space—while coming closer and closer to providing customers exactly
what they want" and then translate this into five key principles:[45]

1. Value: Specify the value desired by the customer. "Form a team for each product to stick with
that product during its entire production cycle", "Enter into a dialogue with the customer"
(e.g. Voice of the customer)
 2. The Value Stream: Identify the value stream for each product providing that value and
challenge all of the wasted steps (generally nine out of ten) currently necessary to provide it
3. Flow: Make the product flow continuously through the remaining value-added steps
4. Pull: Introduce pull between all steps where continuous flow is possible
5. Perfection: Manage toward perfection so that the number of steps and the amount of time
and information needed to serve the customer continually falls

Lean is founded on the concept of continuous and incremental improvements on product and process while
eliminating redundant activities. "The value of adding activities are simply only those things the customer is
willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified, reduced, or
integrated".[46]

On principle 2, waste, see seven basic waste types under The Toyota Way. Additional waste types are:

Faulty goods (manufacturing of goods or services that do not meet customer demand or
specifications, Womack et al., 2003. See Lean services)
Waste of skills (Six Sigma)
Under-utilizing capabilities (Six Sigma)
Delegating tasks with inadequate training (Six Sigma)
Metrics (working to the wrong metrics or no metrics) (Mika Geoffrey, 1999)
Participation (not utilizing workers by not allowing them to contribute ideas and suggestions
and be part of Participative Management) (Mika Geoffrey, 1999)
Computers (improper use of computers: not having the proper software, training on use and
time spent surfing, playing games or just wasting time) (Mika Geoffrey, 1999)[47]

Implementation

One paper suggests that an organization implementing Lean needs its own Lean plan as developed by the
"Lean Leadership". This should enable Lean teams to provide suggestions for their managers who then
makes the actual decisions about what to implement. Coaching is recommended when an organization
starts off with Lean to impart knowledge and skills to shop-floor staff. Improvement metrics are required for
informed decision-making.[48]

Lean philosophy and culture is as important as tools and methodologies. Management should not decide on
solutions without understanding the true problem by consulting shop floor personnel.[49]

The solution to a specific problem for a specific company may not have generalized application. The
solution must fit the problem.[50]

Value-stream mapping (VSM) and 5S are the most common approaches companies take on their first steps
to Lean. Lean can be focused on specific processes, or cover the entire supply chain. Front-line workers
should be involved in VSM activities. Implementing a series of small improvements incrementally along the
supply chain can bring forth enhanced productivity.[51]

Naming
Alternative terms for JIT manufacturing have been used. Motorola's choice was short-cycle manufacturing
(SCM).[52][53] IBM's was continuous-flow manufacturing (CFM),[54][55] and demand-flow manufacturing
(DFM), a term handed down from consultant John Constanza at his Institute of Technology in
Colorado.[56] Still another alternative was mentioned by Goddard, who said that "Toyota Production
System is often mistakenly referred to as the 'Kanban System'", and pointed out that kanban is but one
element of TPS, as well as JIT production.[17]: 1 1 

The wide use of the term JIT manufacturing throughout the 1980s faded fast in the 1990s, as the new term
lean manufacturing became established[57], [58] as "a more recent name for JIT".[59] As just one testament
to the commonality of the two terms, Toyota production system (TPS) has been and is widely used as a
synonym for both JIT and lean manufacturing.[60], [61]

Objectives and benefits

Objectives and benefits of JIT manufacturing may be stated in two primary ways: first, in specific and
quantitative terms, via published case studies; second, general listings and discussion.

A case-study summary from Daman Products in 1999 lists the following benefits: reduced cycle times 97%,
setup times 50%, lead times from 4 to 8 weeks to 5 to 10 days, flow distance 90%. This was achieved via
four focused (cellular) factories, pull scheduling, kanban, visual management, and employee
empowerment.[62]

Another study from NCR (Dundee, Scotland) in 1998, a producer of make-to-order automated teller
machines, includes some of the same benefits while also focusing on JIT purchasing: In switching to JIT
over a weekend in 1998, eliminated buffer inventories, reducing inventory from 47 days to 5 days, flow
time from 15 days to 2 days, with 60% of purchased parts arriving JIT and 77% going dock to line, and
suppliers reduced from 480 to 165.[63]

Hewlett-Packard, one of western industry's earliest JIT implementers, provides a set of four case studies
from four H-P divisions during the mid-1980s.[64] The four divisions, Greeley, Fort Collins, Computer
Systems, and Vancouver, employed some but not all of the same measures. At the time about half of H-P's
52 divisions had adopted JIT.
 Computer
Greeley Fort Collins Vancouver
Systems

Inventory reduction 2.8 months 75% 75%

Labor cost reduction 30% 15% 50%

Space reduction 50% 30% 33% 40%

22 days to 1
WIP stock reduction
day

Production increase 100%

30% scrap, 79% 30% scrap &
Quality improvement 80% scrap
rework rework

Throughput time 17 days to 30

50%
reduction hours

Standard hours
50%
reduction
No. of shipments
20%
increase

Use in other sectors

Lean principles have been successfully applied to various sectors and services, such as call centers and
healthcare. In the former, lean's waste reduction practices have been used to reduce handle time, within and
between agent variation, accent barriers, as well as attain near perfect process adherence.[65] In the latter,
several hospitals have adopted the idea of lean hospital, a concept that prioritizes the patient, thus
increasing the employee commitment and motivation, as well as boosting medical quality and cost
effectiveness.[66]

Lean principles also have applications to software development and maintenance as well as other sectors of
information technology (IT).[67] More generally, the use of lean in information technology has become
known as Lean IT. Lean methods are also applicable to the public sector, but most results have been
achieved using a much more restricted range of techniques than lean provides.[68]

The challenge in moving lean to services is the lack of widely available reference implementations to allow
people to see how directly applying lean manufacturing tools and practices can work and the impact it does
have. This makes it more difficult to build the level of belief seen as necessary for strong implementation.
However, some research does relate widely recognized examples of success in retail and even airlines to the
underlying principles of lean.[69] Despite this, it remains the case that the direct manufacturing examples of
'techniques' or 'tools' need to be better 'translated' into a service context to support the more prominent
approaches of implementation, which has not yet received the level of work or publicity that would give
starting points for implementors. The upshot of this is that each implementation often 'feels its way' along as
must the early industrial engineering practices of Toyota. This places huge importance upon sponsorship to
encourage and protect these experimental developments.
Lean management is nowadays implemented also in non-manufacturing processes and administrative
processes. In non-manufacturing processes is still huge potential for optimization and efficiency
increase.[70] Some people have advocated using STEM resources to teach children Lean thinking instead
of computer science. [71]

Criticism
According to Williams, it becomes necessary to find suppliers that are close by or can supply materials
quickly with limited advance notice. When ordering small quantities of materials, suppliers' minimum order
policies may pose a problem, though.[72]

Employees are at risk of precarious work when employed by factories that utilize just-in-time and flexible
production techniques. A longitudinal study of US workers since 1970 indicates employers seeking to
easily adjust their  workforce in response to supply and demand  conditions respond by creating more
nonstandard work arrangements, such as contracting and temporary work.[73]

Natural and man-made disasters will disrupt the flow of energy, goods and services. The down-stream
customers of those goods and services will, in turn, not be able to produce their product or render their
service because they were counting on incoming deliveries "just in time" and so have little or no inventory
to work with. The disruption to the economic system will cascade to some degree depending on the nature
and severity of the original disaster and may create shortages.[74][75] The larger the disaster the worse the
effect on just-in-time failures. Electrical power is the ultimate example of just-in-time delivery. A severe
geomagnetic storm could disrupt electrical power delivery for hours to years, locally or even globally. Lack
of supplies on hand to repair the electrical system would have catastrophic effects.[76]

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused disruption in JIT practices, with various quarantine restrictions on
international trade and commercial activity in general interrupting supply while lacking stockpiles to handle
the disruption; along with increased demand for medical supplies like personal protective equipment (PPE)
and ventilators, and even panic buying, including of various domestically manufactured (and so less
vulnerable) products like panic buying of toilet paper, disturbing regular demand. This has led to
suggestions that stockpiles and diversification of suppliers should be more heavily focused.[77][78][79][80]

Critics of Lean argue that this management method has significant drawbacks, especially for the employees
of companies operating under Lean. Common criticism of Lean is that it fails to take into consideration the
employee's safety and well-being. Lean manufacturing is associated with an increased level of stress among
employees, who have a small margin of error in their work environment which require perfection. Lean
also over-focuses on cutting waste, which may lead management to cut sectors of the company that are not
essential to the company's short-term productivity but are nevertheless important to the company's legacy.
Lean also over-focuses on the present, which hinders a company's plans for the future.[81]

Critics also make negative comparison of Lean and 19th century scientific management, which had been
fought by the labor movement and was considered obsolete by the 1930s. Finally, lean is criticized for
lacking a standard methodology: "Lean is more a culture than a method, and there is no standard lean
production model."[81]

After years of success of Toyota's Lean Production, the consolidation of supply chain networks has brought
Toyota to the position of being the world's biggest carmaker in the rapid expansion. In 2010, the crisis of
safety-related problems in Toyota made other carmakers that duplicated Toyota's supply chain system wary
that the same recall issue might happen to them. James Womack had warned Toyota that cooperating with
single outsourced suppliers might bring unexpected problems.[82]
Lean manufacturing is different from lean enterprise. Recent research reports the existence of several lean
manufacturing processes but of few lean enterprises.[83] One distinguishing feature opposes lean
accounting and standard cost accounting. For standard cost accounting, SKUs are difficult to grasp. SKUs
include too much hypothesis and variance, i.e., SKUs hold too much indeterminacy. Manufacturing may
want to consider moving away from traditional accounting and adopting lean accounting. In using lean
accounting, one expected gain is activity-based cost visibility, i.e., measuring the direct and indirect costs at
each step of an activity rather than traditional cost accounting that limits itself to labor and supplies.

See also
A3 problem solving Just In Case
Cellular manufacturing Kaizen
Computer-aided lean management Kanban
CONWIP Production flow analysis
Efficiency Movement Takt time

Notes
1. According to Kamarudin Abu Bakar; Mohd Fazli Mohd. Sam; M.I. Qureshi (2022), "Lean
Manufacturing Design of a Two-Sided Assembly Line Balancing Problem Work Cell", in
Mohd Najib Ali Mokhtar; Zamberi Jamaludin; Mohd Sanusi Abdul Aziz; Mohd Nazmin
Maslan; Jeeferie Abd Razak (eds.), Intelligent Manufacturing and Mechatronics:
Proceedings of SympoSIMM 2021, Springer Nature, p. 250: "While Just-In-Time
manufacturing focuses on efficiency of inventory strategy to eliminate waste and enhance
productivity, Lean manufacturing uses efficiency in its system setups to reduce cycle, flow,
and throughput times being the added values to customers."
2. Ohno, Taiichi (1988). Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production. CRC
Press. ISBN 978-0-915299-14-0.
3. Shingo, Shigeo. 1985. A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System. Stamford, Ct.:
Productivity Press
4. Jonathan Law, ed. (2009), A Dictionary of Business and Management, Oxford University
Press
5. Womack, James P.; Jones, Daniel T. (2003), Lean Thinking: Banish Waste And Create
Wealth In Your Corporation (https://books.google.com/books?id=QZrZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP
1), Simon and Schuster, p. 10, ISBN 9781471111006, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20211022143733/https://books.google.com/books?id=QZrZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1) from the
original on October 22, 2021, retrieved October 2, 2020
6. Womack, James P.; Jones, Daniel T.; Roos, Daniel (1990), Machine that Changed the World
(https://books.google.com/books?id=_n5qRfaNv9AC&pg=PR4), New York: Rawson
Associates, ISBN 9780892563500, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220219163438/
https://books.google.com/books?id=_n5qRfaNv9AC&pg=PR4) from the original on February
19, 2022, retrieved October 2, 2020
7. Plenert, G. 2007.Reinventing Lean: Introducing Lean Management into the Supply Chain.
Oxford, U.K.: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 41–42.
 8. Levinson, William A. (2016). Lean Management System LMS:2012: A Framework for
Continual Lean Improvement (https://books.google.com/books?id=8v0GCvH8LR4C&q=%22
We%20are%20justly%20proud%20of%20the%20high%20wage%20rates%22&pg=PA11).
CRC Press. p. 11. ISBN 9781466505384. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202108200
71237/https://books.google.com/books?id=8v0GCvH8LR4C&q=%22We%20are%20justly%
20proud%20of%20the%20high%20wage%20rates%22&pg=PA11) from the original on
August 20, 2021. Retrieved May 5, 2019.
9. Shingo, Shigeo (1987). The Sayings of Shigeo Shingo: Key Strategies for Plant
Improvement (https://books.google.com/books?id=e0laDwAAQBAJ&q=The%20Sayings%2
0of%20Shigeo%20Shingo%3A%20Key%20Strategies%20for%20Plant%20Improvement&p
g=PT18). Translated by Dillon, Andrew P. New York: Productivity Press. ISBN 0-915299-15-
1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220219163409/https://books.google.com/books?i
d=e0laDwAAQBAJ&q=The+Sayings+of+Shigeo+Shingo%3A+Key+Strategies+for+Plant+I
mprovement&pg=PT18) from the original on February 19, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2020.
10. Shingo, Shigeo (1985). A Revolution In Manufacturing: The SMED System (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=ooXVVIfqEQwC&pg=PA6). Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press.
ISBN 0-915299-03-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210820093656/https://books.
google.com/books?id=ooXVVIfqEQwC&pg=PA6) from the original on August 20, 2021.
Retrieved October 2, 2020.
11. "Archived copy" (https://portal.engineersaustralia.org.au/system/files/engineering-heritage-a
ustralia/nomination-title/BMC_Plant_Nomination.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20210904201027/https://portal.engineersaustralia.org.au/system/files/engineering-he
ritage-australia/nomination-title/BMC_Plant_Nomination.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
September 4, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
12. Ashburn, A., 1977. Toyota's "famous Ohno system", American Machinist, July, 120–123.
13. Sugimori, Y.; Kusunoki, K.; Cho, F.; Uchikawa, S. (1977). "Toyota Production System and
Kanban System: Materialization of Just-in-time and Respect-for-human System" (https://doi.
org/10.1080%2F00207547708943149). International Journal of Production Research. 15
(6): 553–564. doi:10.1080/00207547708943149 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F002075477089
43149). ISSN 0020-7543 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7543).
14. "The Founding of the Association for Manufacturing Excellence: Summarized at a Meeting of
its Founders, February 2, 2001" (https://www.ame.org/sites/default/files/target_articles/01-17-
3-Founding_AME.pdf) (PDF). Target. Association for Manufacturing Excellence. 17 (3): 23–
24. 2001. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210309053843/https://www.ame.org/site
s/default/files/target_articles/01-17-3-Founding_AME.pdf) (PDF) from the original on March
9, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021. "1980: At Bendix in Southfield, MI, the mood darkened.
John Kinsey, Ken Wantuck, Doc, Larry and others at this meeting had been exposed to
"Japanese manufacturing." While we dinked with MRP, the Japanese were eating our lunch;
something more significant was needed. Afterward, Mac and Nick visited the APICS
president to seek recognition as a special interest group of APICS. We became the
Repetitive Manufacturing Group (RMG) of APICS, but to front the next workshop, we opened
our own bank account. By APICS rules, we weren't supposed to do that. [...] In October, the
Detroit APICS Chapter supported by several members of the Repetitive Manufacturing
Group sponsored the first-known conference in the United States on "Japanese
Manufacturing" at Ford World Headquarters Auditorium. The featured speaker was Fujio
Cho, now president of Toyota."
15. Landvater, Darryl. 1984. "The rise and fall of just-in-time". Infosystems. November, p 62.
16. Goddard, W. 1982. "Kanban versus MRP II—which is best for you?" Modern Materials
Handling. November 5, 1982, p 40-48.
17. Goddard, Walter E. 1986. Just-in-Time: Surviving by Breaking Tradition. Essex Junction, Vt."
Oliver Wight Ltd.
18. Plossl, G.W. 1981. Japanese productivity: myth vs. reality. P&IM Review and APICS News,
September, pp 59–62.
19. Plossl, G.W. 1984. The redirection of U.S. manufacturing. P&IM Review and APICS News.
November, pp 50–53.
20. Plossl. G.W. 1986. "J.I.T. – fad or fact of life?" P&IM Review and APICS News, February
1986, p. 24.
21. Walters, C.R. 1984. Why everybody's talking about "just-in-time." Inc. (March 1) 77–90.
22. Sepehri, Mehran. 1986. Just-in-Time: Not Just in Japan: Case Studies of American Pioneers
in JIT Implementation. Falls Church, Va.: American Production and Inventory Control Society
23. Mortimer, J. (1986). Just-in-Time: An Executive Briefing. Kempston, Bedford, UK: IFS Ltd.
24. Ingersoll Engineers. 1986. Just in Time Manufacturing: Proceedings of the First International
Conference. London, UK. April 8–9, 1986.
25. "Archived copy" (https://www.lean.org/downloads/MITSloan.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20200212110809/https://www.lean.org/downloads/MITSloan.pdf) (PDF)
from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved February 10, 2020.
26. Schniederjans, M.J. 1993. Topics in Just-in-Time Management. Needham Heights, Mass.:
Allyn & Bacon
27. Jasinowski, Jerry, and Robert Hamrin. 1995. Making It in America: Proven Paths to Success
from 50 Top Companies. New York: Simon & Schuster.
28. Kinni, T.B. 1996. America's Best Plants: Industry Week's Guide to World-Class
Manufacturing Plants. New York: Wiley
29. Womack, James P., Jones, Daniel T., and Roos, Daniel. 1990. The Machine That Changed
the World: The Story of Lean Production. New York: Rawson Associates.
30. Thomas, P.R. 1991. Getting Competitive: Middle Managers and the Cycle Time Ethic. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
31. Blackburn, Joseph T. 1991. Time-based Competition: The Next Battleground in American
Manufacturing. Homewood, Ill.; Business One Irwin, p 28.
32. Suri, R. 1998. Quick Response Manufacturing: A Companywide Approach to Reducing Lead
Times. Portland, Ore.: Productivity Inc.
33. Hirano, Hiroyuki. and Makota Furuya. 2006. JIT Is Flow: Practice and Principles of Lean
Manufacturing. Vancouver, Wash.: PCS Press,
34. Pettersen, Jan-Arne. 2010. "Pull Based Production Systems: Performance, Modeling and
Analysis," doctoral thesis. Lulea, Sweden: Lulea University of Technology.
35. Harmon, R.L. 1993. Reinventing the Warehouse: World Class Distribution Logistics. New
York: Free Press.
36. Lowson, B., R. King, and A. Hunter. 1999. Quick Response – Managing the Supply Chain to
Meet Consumer Demand. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
37. Hines, T. 2001. "From analogue to digital supply chains: Implications for fashion marketing ,"
in Fashion Marketing: Contemporary Issues. eds, T. Hines and M. Bruce. Oxford: Butterworth
Heinemann, 26–47.
38. Hines, T. 2004. Supply Chain Strategies: Customer Driven and Customer Focused. Oxford,
UK: Elsevier.
39. Pettersen, J., 2009. Defining lean production: some conceptual and practical issues. The
TQM Journal, 21(2), 127 - 142.
40. "Shining examples" (http://www.economist.com/node/7032179). Special report: Logistics:
The Economist. June 15, 2006. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180220040311/htt
p://www.economist.com/node/7032179) from the original on February 20, 2018. Retrieved
June 13, 2017.
41. Spear, Steven; Bowen, H. Kent (September 1999). "Decoding the DNA of the Toyota
Production System" (https://hbr.org/1999/09/decoding-the-dna-of-the-toyota-production-syste
m/ar/1). Harvard Business Review. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160307014648/
https://hbr.org/1999/09/decoding-the-dna-of-the-toyota-production-system/ar/1) from the
original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
42. Liker, Jeffrey K. and Michael Hoseus (2008) Toyota Culture: The Heart and Soul of The
Toyota Way, McGraw-Hill, New York p. 3-5 ISBN 978-0-07-149217-1
43. Jaiswal, Vishal. "Just-in-Time (JIT): Principle, Components, Revolution, Advantages, &
Disadvantages" (https://www.mechanicalsite.com/2023/05/just-in-time-jit.html). Retrieved
May 6, 2023.
44. Sepheri, M., p. 277.
45. James P Womack, Daniel T Jones, Lean Thinking, 2nd Edition, ISBN 978-0-7432-4927-0,
March 1, 2003)
46. D. Rizzardo, R. Brooks, Understanding Lean Manufacturing, Maryland Technology
Enterprise Institute, 2003
47. Bicheno, John; Holweg, Matthias (2009). The Lean Toolbox. PICSIE. ISBN 978-0-9541244-
5-8.
48. Dombrowski, U.; Mielke, T (2014). "Lean Leadership – 15 Rules for a Sustainable Lean
Implementation" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procir.2014.01.146). Procedia CIRP. 17: 565–
570. doi:10.1016/j.procir.2014.01.146 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procir.2014.01.146).
49. Hopp, Wallace; Spearman, Mark (2008), Factory Physics: Foundations of Manufacturing
Management (http://www.factoryphysics.com/) (3rd ed.), ISBN 978-0-07-282403-2, archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20190520211234/http://factoryphysics.com/) from the original
on May 20, 2019, retrieved January 5, 2014.
50. Pederson, Joseph. "Author" (https://archive.today/20140427062032/http://thebusinessdudeb
log.com/2014/04/23/fancy-lean-terms-are-not-always-your-solution/). the business dude.
WordPress.com. Archived from the original (http://thebusinessdudeblog.com/2014/04/23/fan
cy-lean-terms-are-not-always-your-solution/) on April 27, 2014. Retrieved April 27, 2014.
51. Merrill Douglas (June 2013). "The Lean Supply Chain: Watch Your Waste Line" (http://www.i
nboundlogistics.com/cms/article/the-lean-supply-chain-watch-your-waste-line/).
inboundlogistics. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190327084116/https://www.inbou
ndlogistics.com/cms/article/the-lean-supply-chain-watch-your-waste-line/) from the original
on March 27, 2019. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
52. Heard, Ed. 1987. Short cycle manufacturing: the route to JIT. Target. 2 (3) (fall) 22–24.
53. High, W. 1987. Short cycle manufacturing (SCM) implementation: an approach taken at
Motorola. Target, 3 (4) (Winter), 19–24.
54. Barkman, William E. 1989. In-Process Quality Control for Manufacturing. Boca Raton, Fl.:
CRC Press.
55. Bowers, G.H., Jr. 1991. Continuous flow manufacturing. Proc. SPIE1496, 10th Annual
Symposium on Microlithography. (March 1, 1991), 239–246.
56. Roebuck, Kevin. 2011. Business Process Modeling: High-impact Emerging Technology —
What You Need to Know: Definitions, Adoptions, Impact, Benefits, Maturity, Vendors. Tebbo,
p 32.
57. Womack, James P.; Jones, Daniel T.; Roos, Daniel (2007). The Machine That Changed the
World: The Story of Lean Production (https://books.google.com/books?id=9NHmNCmDUUo
C&pg=PP1). Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781416554523. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20210602234403/https://books.google.com/books?id=9NHmNCmDUUoC&pg=PP1)
from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
58. Black, J. Temple; Hunter, Steve, L. (2003). Lean Manufacturing Systems and Cell Design (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=VuPTsESCTXMC&pg=PA307). Society of Manufacturing
Engineers. p. 41. ISBN 9780872636477. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021060223
1525/https://books.google.com/books?id=VuPTsESCTXMC&pg=PA307) from the original on
June 2, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
59. Hyer, Nancy; Wemmerlov, Urban (2001). Reorganizing the Factory: Competing Through
Cellular Manufacturing (https://books.google.com/books?id=qfJgCYGRJHgC&pg=PA41).
CRC Press. p. 41. ISBN 9781563272288. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202106022
33647/https://books.google.com/books?id=qfJgCYGRJHgC&pg=PA41) from the original on
June 2, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021. "Lean manufacturing is a more recent name for JIT.
As with JIT, lean manufacturing is deeply rooted in the automotive industry and focuses
mostly on repetitive manufacturing situations." "
60. Monden, Yasuhiro, ed. 1986. Applying Just in Time: The American/Japanese Experience.
Norcross, Ga.: Institute of Industrial Engineers. This collection of JIT articles includes
multiple references to TPS.
61. Womack, J.P. and D. Jones. 2003. Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth in Your
Corporation. Revised. New York: Free Press. Numerous references to both lean and TPS.
62. Grahovec, D. and Bernie Ducan, Jerry Stevenson, Colin Noone. 1999. How lean focused
factories enabled Daman to regain responsiveness and become more agile. Target. 4th
quarter, pp 47–51.
63. Caulkin, Simon. 1990. Britain's best factories. Management Today. November 60–89.
64. Simpson, Alex. Effective just-in-time manufacture at Hewlett-Packard. In Mortimer (1986),
pp. 123–128.
65. Adsit, Dennis (June 11, 2007). "Cutting-Edge Methods Help Target Real Call Center Waste"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080414194658/http://www.isixsigma.com/library/content/c07
0611a.asp). iSixSigma.com. Archived from the original (http://www.isixsigma.com/library/con
tent/c070611a.asp) on April 14, 2008.
66. Alkalay, M.; Angerer, A.; Drews, T.; Jäggi, C.; Kämpfer, M.; Lenherr, I.; Valentin, J.; Vetterli, C.;
Walker, D. (2015). Walker, Daniel (ed.). The Better Hospital: Excellence Through Leadership
And Innovation. Medizinisch Wissenschaftliche verlagsgesellschaft. ISBN 9783954662241.
67. Hanna, Julia. "Bringing ‘Lean' Principles to Service Industries (http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/57
41.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150801115015/http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5
741.html) August 1, 2015, at the Wayback Machine”. HBS Working Knowledge. October 22,
2007. (Summary article based on published research of Professor David Upton of Harvard
Business School and doctoral student Bradley Staats: Staats, Bradley R., and David M.
Upton. "Lean Principles, Learning, and Software Production: Evidence from Indian Software
Services.”. Harvard Business School Working Paper. No. 08-001. July 2007. (Revised July
2008, March 2009.)
68. Radnor, Zoe; Walley, Paul; Stephens, Andrew; Bucci, Giovanni (2006). Evaluation of the
Lean Approach to Business Management and ITs Use in the Public Sector (https://www.gov.
scot/Resource/Doc/129627/0030899.pdf) (PDF). Scottish Executive Social Research.
ISBN 0755960564. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180128221757/http://www.gov.
scot/Resource/Doc/129627/0030899.pdf) (PDF) from the original on January 28, 2018.
Retrieved June 13, 2017.
69. Ruffa, Stephen A. (2008). Going Lean: How the Best Companies Apply Lean Manufacturing
Principles to Shatter Uncertainty, Drive Innovation, and Maximize Profits (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=_Q7OGDd61hkC). AMACOM. ISBN 978-0-8144-1057-8. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20170302041151/https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q7OGDd61hkC)
from the original on March 2, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2016.
70. JANUŠKA, M., ŠŤASTNÁ, L. Industrial Engineering in the Non-Manufacturing Processes. In
Proceedings of the 22nd International Business Information Management Association
Conference. neuveden: International Business Information Management Association
(IBIMA), 2013. s. 747-766. ISBN 978-0-9860419-1-4
71. "We need to teach our kids to think Lean | Opinion" (https://www.nj.com/opinion/2022/02/we-
need-to-teach-our-kids-to-think-lean-opinion.html). February 3, 2022.
72. Williams, John T. "Pros & Cons of the JIT Inventory System" (http://smallbusiness.chron.co
m/pros-cons-jit-inventory-system-3195.html). Houston Chronicle. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20210603131945/https://smallbusiness.chron.com/pros-cons-jit-inventory-syste
m-3195.html) from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021. "Supply-chain
relationships require retooling that involves multiple suppliers, closer locations, or
companies that can supply materials with little advance notice. Companies ordering smaller
amounts of goods may encounter difficulty meeting minimum orders, requiring a different
contract or a way to break up a large order over time or among several smaller
manufacturers."
73. L., Kalleberg, A. (2009). "Precarious Work, Insecure Workers: Employment Relations in
Transition" (https://www.academia.edu/2673815). American Sociological Review. 74 (1): 1–
22. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1030.231 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1
030.231). doi:10.1177/000312240907400101 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00031224090740
0101). ISSN 0003-1224 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1224). S2CID 29915373 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29915373). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
10819223738/https://www.academia.edu/2673815) from the original on August 19, 2021.
Retrieved June 1, 2021.
74. "What are the main problems with a JIT (just in time) production strategy?" (https://www.inve
stopedia.com/ask/answers/040215/what-are-main-problems-jit-just-time-production-strategy.
asp). Investopedia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190414190621/https://www.inve
stopedia.com/ask/answers/040215/what-are-main-problems-jit-just-time-production-strategy.
asp) from the original on April 14, 2019. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
75. Krolicki, Nick Carey, Noel Randewich, Kevin (March 21, 2011). "Special Report: Disasters
show flaws in just-in-time production" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-supplychain-
sp-idUSTRE72K5AL20110321). Reuters. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202106022
20943/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-supplychain-sp-idUSTRE72K5AL2011032
1) from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021 – via www.reuters.com.
76. "Severe Space Weather--Social and Economic Impacts | Science Mission Directorate" (http
s://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/21jan_severespaceweather/).
science.nasa.gov. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210602030948/https://science.n
asa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/21jan_severespaceweather) from the original
on June 2, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
77. " 'Just-in-time' economy out of time as pandemic exposes fatal flaws" (https://www.abc.net.a
u/news/2020-05-02/coronavirus-pandemic-exposes-just-in-time-economy/12206776).
www.abc.net.au. May 1, 2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200520151852/http
s://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-02/coronavirus-pandemic-exposes-just-in-time-economy/
12206776) from the original on May 20, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
78. "Companies should shift from 'just in time' to 'just in case' " (https://www.ft.com/content/606d1
460-83c6-11ea-b555-37a289098206). Financial Times. April 22, 2020. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20200504110301/https://www.ft.com/content/606d1460-83c6-11ea-b555-
37a289098206) from the original on May 4, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
79. Evans, Dave. "Coronavirus Shows That Supply Chains are Outdated and Unfit For Modern
Manufacturing" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/daveevans/2020/02/18/coronavirus-shows-sup
ply-chains-outdated/). Forbes. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200722205819/http
s://www.forbes.com/sites/daveevans/2020/02/18/coronavirus-shows-supply-chains-outdate
d/) from the original on July 22, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
80. Skidelky, Robert (April 22, 2020). "The coronavirus pandemic shows why the West must
transform its economic logic" (https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/economy/2020/04/cor
onavirus-economics-stockpiling-global-supply-chain). newstatesman. newstatesman.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220016/https://www.newstatesman.com/poli
tics/economy/2020/04/coronavirus-economics-stockpiling-global-supply-chain) from the
original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved September 30, 2020.
81. "What Is the Criticism of Lean Manufacturing?" (https://www.brighthubpm.com/methods-strat
egies/105933-criticism-of-lean-manufacturing/). www.brighthubpm.com. February 8, 2011.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200815083705/https://www.brighthubpm.com/meth
ods-strategies/105933-criticism-of-lean-manufacturing/) from the original on August 15,
2020. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
82. The Economist, 2010, Toyota's overstretched supply chain -The machine that ran too hot
:The woes of the world's biggest carmaker are a warning for rivals
83. Nash-Hoff, Michele. "Why Lean Manufacturers Are Not Lean Enterprises" (http://www.industr
yweek.com/blog/lean-sustainability-requires-change-culture). Industryweek.com.
Industryweek.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190327085726/https://www.indu
stryweek.com/blog/lean-sustainability-requires-change-culture) from the original on March
27, 2019. Retrieved May 1, 2015.

References
Anderson, Barry (ed.) 2012. Building Cars in Australia: Morris, Austin, BMC and Leyland
1950-1976. Sydney: Halstead Press.
Billesbach, Thomas J. 1987. Applicability of Just-in-Time Techniques in the Administrative
Area. Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska. Ann Arbor, Mich., University Microfilms
International.
Goddard, W. E. 2001. JIT/TQC—identifying and solving problems. Proceedings of the 20th
Electrical Electronics Insulation Conference, Boston, October 7–10, 88–91.
Goldratt, Eliyahu M. and Fox, Robert E. (1986), The Race, North River Press, ISBN 0-
88427-062-9
Hall, Robert W. 1983. Zero Inventories. Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin.
Hall, Robert W. 1987. Attaining Manufacturing Excellence: Just-in-Time, Total Quality, Total
People Involvement. Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin.
Hay, Edward J. 1988. The Just-in-Time Breakthrough: Implementing the New Manufacturing
Basics. New York: Wiley.
Hohner, Gregory (1988). "JIT/TQC: integrating product design with shop floor effectiveness".
Industrial Engineering. 20 (9): 42–48.
Hum, Sin-Hoon (1991). "Industrial progress and the strategic significance of JIT and TQC for
developing countries". International Journal of Operations & Production Management. 110
(5): 39–46. doi:10.1108/01443579110145320 (https://doi.org/10.1108%2F01443579110145
320).
Hyer, Nancy; Wemmerlov, Urban (2001). Reorganizing the Factory: Competing Through
Cellular Manufacturing (https://books.google.com/books?id=qfJgCYGRJHgC&pg=PP1).
CRC Press. ISBN 9781563272288.
Jackson, Paul (1991). "White collar JIT at Security Pacific". Target. 7 (1): 32–37.
 Ker, J. I., Wang, Y., Hajli, M. N., Song, J., Ker, C. W. (2014). Deploying Lean in Healthcare:
Evaluating Information Technology Effectiveness in US Hospital Pharmacies
Lubben, R. T. 1988. Just-in-Time Manufacturing: An Aggressive Manufacturing Strategy.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
MacInnes, Richard L. (2002) The Lean Enterprise Memory Jogger.
Mika, Geoffrey L. (1999) Kaizen Event Implementation Manual
Monden, Yasuhiro. 1982. Toyota Production System. Norcross, Ga: Institute of Industrial
Engineers.
Ohno, Taiichi (1988), Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production,
Productivity Press, ISBN 0-915299-14-3
Ohno, Taiichi (1988), Just-In-Time for Today and Tomorrow, Productivity Press, ISBN 0-
915299-20-8.
Page, Julian (2003) Implementing Lean Manufacturing Techniques.
Schonberger, Richard J. 1982. Japanese Manufacturing Techniques: Nine Hidden Lessons
in Simplicity. New York: Free Press.
Shingo, Shingeo; Dillon, Andrew P. (1989). A Study of the Toyota Production System: From
an Industrial Engineering Viewpoint (https://books.google.com/books?id=RKWU7WElJ7oC
&pg=PP1). ISBN 9780915299171.
Suri, R. 1986. Getting from 'just in case' to 'just in time': insights from a simple model. 6 (3)
295–304.
Suzaki, Kyoshi. 1993. The New Shop Floor Management: Empowering People for
Continuous Improvement. New York: Free Press.
Voss, Chris, and David Clutterbuck. 1989. Just-in-Time: A Global Status Report. UK: IFS
Publications.
Wadell, William, and Bodek, Norman (2005), The Rebirth of American Industry, PCS Press,
ISBN 0-9712436-3-8
Womack, James P.; Jones, Daniel T. (2003). Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create
Wealth in Your Corporation (https://books.google.com/books?id=QZrZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP
1). Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781471111006. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021
1022143733/https://books.google.com/books?id=QZrZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1) from the
original on October 22, 2021. Retrieved October 2, 2020.
Womack, James P.; Jones, Daniel T.; Roos, Daniel (1990). The Machine that Changed the
World (https://books.google.com/books?id=_n5qRfaNv9AC&pg=PR4). New York: Rawson
Associates. ISBN 9780892563500. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220219163440/
https://books.google.com/books?id=_n5qRfaNv9AC&pg=PR4) from the original on February
19, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2020.

External links
Lean Enterprise Institute (https://www.lean.org/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lean_manufacturing&oldid=1165911645"