pubs.acs.

org/journal/ascecg Research Article

Fungal Mycelium Bio-Composite Acts as a CO2‑Sink Building

Material with Low Embodied Energy
Achiya Livne,* Han A. B. Wösten, David Pearlmutter, and Erez Gal
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ABSTRACT: As part of the global transformation to a circular economy, modern society faces the
challenge of developing sustainable building materials that do not deplete nonrenewable resources or
generate environmentally destructive waste. Bio-composites based on fungal mycelium grown on
agricultural waste streams have the potential to serve this purpose, reducing the ecological impact of
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the construction industry and the conventional materials on which it currently relies. In addition to
the possible advantages in the production and postuse phases of their life cycle, mycelium bio-
composites are lightweight and highly insulating, thus providing valuable thermal properties for
reducing energy consumption and emissions over the operational lifespan of the building. In this study, a comprehensive life cycle
assessment of mycelium bio-composites was conducted, focusing on the embodied energy (EE) and embodied carbon (EC). Part of
the CO2 that is emitted is the result of the fungal growth. Therefore, a novel calculation method was developed to assess the
metabolic carbon emissions as a function of weight loss during the growth period. Using a cradle-to-gate model of the production
process, the EE of the mycelium bio-composite was estimated to be 860 MJ m−3, which represents a 1.5- to 6-fold reduction
compared with that of the common construction materials. The EC was calculated to be −39.5 kg CO2eq m−3, its negative value
indicating that the fungal bio-composite effectively functions as a CO2 sink, in contrast to currently used construction materials that
have a positive EC. The incubation stage of mycelium bio-composite production made up the largest portion (73%) of the overall
energy, while metabolic CO2 comprised a significant proportion (21%) of the overall emissions as well. Altogether, our results
demonstrate that using bio-composite building materials based on fungal mycelium and local plant residues can provide a sustainable
alternative to current practice.
KEYWORDS: building materials, life cycle assessment, fungal mycelium bio-composite, embodied energy, embodied carbon,
circular economy

■ INTRODUCTION
A central challenge for society is to transform our economy into
to be environmentally friendly since it relies entirely on circular
biological processes, and the final product is biodegradable. In
a sustainable system by reducing CO2 emissions and minimizing addition, these bio-composites tend to be extremely lightweight,
the production of waste through the use of nature-based circular with a typical density < 200 kg m−3. Furthermore, they have a
processes. thermal conductivity that can be below 0.04 W/m·K,8 which is
Building operation and construction, including the produc- lower than that of other biomass derived bio-composites for
tion of building and insulating materials, are responsible for the insulation (Table 1). Therefore, these materials can provide very
largest share of global energy use (36%) and energy-related CO2 effective thermal insulation, which is crucial in the operation of
emissions (39%).1−4 More than 33 billion tons of cement-based buildings where much of the energy is consumed for heating and
concrete are produced every year worldwide, and the cement cooling.9,10 Moreover, fungal bio-composites provide very good
industry alone accounts for some 8% of global CO2 emissions.5,6 acoustic insulation (70−75% absorbance at frequencies < 1500
The energy demand and carbon footprint of the construction Hz)11 and have mechanical properties that are characteristic of
industry are expected to rise because of the growing world natural materials (with a compressive strength ranging from 0.17
population and the fact that urbanization processes continue to to 1.1 MPa and tensile strength ranging from 0.025 to 0.18
MPa),12−14 being weaker than other bio-composites used for
accelerate in developing countries.5 Hence, the realization of
insulation (Table 1).
long-term sustainability goals is highly dependent on the
development and use of building materials with a lower
environmental impact. Received: March 4, 2022
Mycelium bio-composites are a new kind of material, which Revised: August 18, 2022
have gained increasing interest in the last decade.7 These
materials are based on a cellulose- or lignocellulose-rich
substrate colonized by fungal mycelium and, as such, represent
an upcycled agricultural residue. Their production is considered

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Table 1. LCA Metrics and Physical Properties of the Fungal Mycelium Bio-Composite (“Mycoblock”) as Compared with Those
of Commercial Insulators, Other Bio-Composites, and Commercial Building Materials
bulk density thermal conductivity [W compressive strength EC
Material [kg m−3] m−1K−1] [MPa] [kg CO2eq m−3] EE [MJ m−3]
8 12−14
Mycoblock 163 0.04−0.08 0.15−0.51 −39.5 860.3
commercial insulation materials
expanded polystyrene (EPS) 2121 0.03621 0.17−0.3322 22423 271024-356523
polyurethane (PUR) 3023−11025 0.0326 0.9825 52523 303024-879023
mineral wool 10027 0.03527 N/A 26623 166024-399723
class wool 2523 0.0426 N/A 10023 143823
sheep wool 2028 0.03628 N/A 87828 93028
biomass-derived bio-composites for
insulation
Hemp-Lime 45029 0.1129 0.25−1.229 −53.7−14529 171029
Hay-Rosin 79130 0.093830 5.8230 N/A N/A
rise husk + PLA/PBAT 37831 0.0831 14.531 N/A N/A
flexible hemp batt 3421 0.0421 N/A N/A N/A
commercial building materials
Concrete 240923 232 2523 36123 258123
−285224
concrete blocks 140023 0.832 1523 20023 121624-220023
autoclaved aerated concrete 55023 0.1832 2.3−3.833 38523 153624-467323

In order to evaluate the overall impact of mycelium bio- resulting from fungal metabolism during the production of the
composites on the environment, a comprehensive life cycle mycelium material. To this end, the fungus Trametes betulina was
assessment (LCA) is needed. As can be seen in Table 1, not grown on rapeseed straw and recycled cellulose (separately) in 280 mL
much LCA research has been done on bio-composites, and it is microboxes for 14 days. The carbon content in the samples was
quantified using an elemental microanalyzer at the start and during the
therefore hard to compare which of these materials is more growth process and related to the substrate dry weight. Mycelium bio-
sustainable. The first LCA model of fungal mycelium bio- composites were produced using biological triplicates by growing the
composites was published recently by Stelzer et al.,15 showing an fungus T. betulina in 15 g of rapeseed straw (Gedizo, The Netherlands)
improvement in the climate change, water scarcity, acidification, and 30 g of recycled cellulose (ReCell, The Netherlands) with 35 or 70
and smog criteria but worsening land use and eutrophication g of water, respectively, in a cylindrical 280 mL microbox (SacO2,
criteria when compared to commercial building materials. They Belgium). After sterilization, the substrate was inoculated with 3%
have made an attempt to assess the environmental impact of a spawn (T. betulina pregrown on millet grains; detailed below) based on
scaled-up process, comparing it to commercially produced the dry weight and incubated at 25 °C for up to 4 weeks, after which
bricks. While the LCA was done in great detail and mostly based samples were dried at 60 °C and weighed. Control samples without
fungal growth were made identically but were immediately dried
on accurate lab results, two main contributors were left out of the without incubation at 25 °C. Samples were homogenized to a fine
calculations: the sequestered CO2 in the substrate and the powder by grinding in a 450 W blender (Waring, USA) for 45 s
metabolic CO2 emissions during the fungal growth. The results followed by grinding in a TissueLyser II (QIAGEN, Germany) for 2
of the model were presented in six different categories of impact min. Samples were dried in a 60 °C oven, after which 3 μg was loaded in
on the environment but without the embodied energy (EE), a tin capsules for elemental microanalysis using 4−5 technical replicates.
key criterion to allow easy comparison to other building The capsules were kept in a desiccator with dried silica to avoid
materials, especially with today’s motivation to mitigate climate humidity absorption until element analysis using an EA1110 analyzer
change by reducing exploitation of resources by the industry. (Carbo Erba Instruments, Germany). 2,5-Bis(5-tert-butyl-benzoxazol-
While data about sequestered carbon in agricultural residues or 2-yl)thiophene (BBOT), acetanilide, and atropine were used for
calibration. C-measurements had an error <1.47% based on a linear
the carbon content in plants are available,16,17 no data have been regression of the standards.
reported in the literature about the metabolic carbon emissions To calculate metabolic CO2 emission, carbon loss in the samples was
from the fungal growth process on solid substrates. assumed to be caused by CO2 emission to the atmosphere. The carbon
In this paper, a comprehensive LCA for mycelium-based bio- loss was calculated as the difference between the carbon content at time
composites is described that includes the metabolic fungal CO2 0 (Ct = 0 ) and the final carbon content (Cf)
emission. To this end, a method was developed to measure the
C = Ct = 0 Cf (1)
metabolic CO2 emissions during the production of a mycelium
bio-composite. With a cradle-to-gate life cycle energy assess- The carbon content was calculated as the weight of the sample
ment (LCEA) and life cycle CO2 assessment (LCCO2A), we multiplied by the carbon percentage as measured by elemental
demonstrate that the EE and embodied carbon (EC) for the microanalysis. The CO2 emission was then calculated from the lost
production of a unit volume of mycelium-based bio-composites carbon, adding the weight of oxygen in the molecule
are highly favorable when compared to commonly used i m(C) zy
construction and insulation materials and, in fact, that these m(CO2 ) = n(C) ·MW (CO2) = jjjj zz·MW(CO2 )
z
mycelium bio-composites can act as a net CO2 sink. k MW (C) {
44

■ MATERIALS AND METHODS

CO2 Measurements. The first step toward a comprehensive LCA
=
12
·m(C) = 3.667· m(C)

where m(CO2 ) is the weight of CO2, n(C) is the amount of carbon

(2)

of mycelium bio-composites is the quantification of CO2 emissions lost in mol, MW(CO2) is the molar mass of CO2, m(C) is the weight of

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Figure 1. Calibration curve between the weight loss of T. betulina and CO2 emission when grown on rapeseed straw (circles) and recycled cellulose
(stars). Squares represent control samples.

Figure 2. Flowchart of the production process of a fungal mycelium bio-composite (“mycoblock”). The system boundaries include the production and
processing of the raw materials, the CO2 fixation of the substrate, the production of bags and molds, transportation, and the growth process of the
fungus. Manufacturing and transport of the lab equipment (autoclave, incubator, and laminar flow hood) and machinery for the processing of the raw
materials (e.g., grinding instruments) were not included in the analysis.

carbon lost, and MW(C) is the molar mass of carbon. A calibration Stage 1: The spawn was prepared by sterilizing a mixture of 2.98 kg of
graph was plotted to assess the correlation between the weight loss and millet grain and 2.98 L of water in an aerated bag (SacO2, 47 × 57 PP) in
CO2 emissions using a confidence interval of 0.95 (Figure 1). a UTKBS-200LV autoclave (MRC, Israel) at 121 °C for 30 min (cooled
Life Cycle Assessment. Goal and Scope Definition. The goal of down to room temperature without a temperature input), followed by
the cradle-to-gate LCA was to evaluate the environmental impact of inoculating the mixture with 184 g of the spawn from a former batch
fungal mycelium material production focusing on the EE and EC. The and incubating the millet at 25 °C for 5 days (MRC BOD-550
functional unit was defined as 1 m3 of the material. System boundaries incubator, Israel).
included the production of bags, molds, and spawns; the processing of Stage 2: The substrate was prepared by mixing 96.5 kg of recycled
raw materials; and the manufacturing process (Figure 2). Trans- cellulose and 96.5 kg of rapeseed straw by hand in batches of 2.1 kg,
portation was taken into account in the former two stages. followed by mixing 450.33 L of water (4.9 L per batch). The substrate
was sterilized (as in stage 1) in 92 aerated bags (SacO2, 47 × 57 PP)
Manufacturing and transport of the lab equipment (autoclave,
each with 7 kg of the substrate.
incubator, and laminar flow hood) and machinery for the processing
Stage 3: The spawn was added to the substrate (3 wt % of the dry
of the raw materials (e.g., grinding instruments) were not included in substrate, 63 g per bag) in a laminar flow hood (MRC BBS-DDC 940,
the analysis. The manufacturing process is calculated for a lab scale Israel). The inoculated substrate was incubated in four batches (each
using lab equipment. with 23 bags) in an incubator (MRC BOD-550 incubator, Israel) at 25
Production of the Mycelium Bio-Composite. Growing mycelium- °C for 8 days, after which the colonized substrate was cast into
based bio-composites is a multistep process that can be done with many poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) molds (20 cm × 20 cm × 40 cm;
variations. The process that is covered in this LCA is detailed here. It is about 9.44 kg of the substrate into each mold). Growth was prolonged
based on the standard growth protocol used in the lab with a 20 × 20 × for 4 days at 25 °C in the incubator, after which the mycelium bio-
40 cm fungal mycelium bio-composite, a “mycoblock”. All material composite was transferred to a ripening box (polypropylene crates with
quantities are normalized with respect to the functional unit (1 m3) of small slits, where four blocks can be placed without touching each
the analysis. other) for another 2 days at 25 °C in the incubator.

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Stage 4: After a total growth period of 14 days, the mycelium bio- where m(CO2) is the mass of CO2, n(C) is the amount of carbon in
composite materials were dried at ambient temperature, followed by a mol, MW is the molecular weight, and %C is the measured carbon
heat treatment for 4 h at 60 °C to inactivate the fungus. percentage from the elemental microanalysis�determined to be 1.581
Life Cycle Inventory. The life cycle inventory (LCI) reported here and 1.593 g of sequestered CO2 per gram of straw and recycled
is based on EE and EC coefficients taken from the work of this study, cellulose, respectively.
data from the scientific literature, the Ecoinvent 3 database, and The final density of the “mycoblock” material was 161 kg m−3, while
reasoned engineering assessment when no other option was available. the average weight loss was 16.58 ± 1.8% (see Supporting Information,
The basic unit is a “mycoblock” with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 40 cm to Table S3). According to these results, 193 kg of the substrate
match the size of a standard hollow concrete block. The calculations in (combining straw and cellulose at a 1:1 ratio) and 450.3 L of water are
the inventory are based on this unit and multiplied by 62.5 to achieve required to grow 1 m3 of the mycelium bio-composite material.
the functional unit of 1 m3. Inputs in the process can be divided into two Life Cycle Energy and CO2 Assessment. The life cycle
categories: material inventory and process inventory. The material assessment was conducted using SimaPro v.8, and EC was calculated
inventory was composed of disposable materials (e.g., alcohol and using the IPCC 2013 GWP 100a V1.01 method (modified to account
aerated bags) and wear-subjected materials (e.g., molds). Supporting for metabolic CO2, as described above). Data for commercial building
Information, Text S1, describes the different inputs in the process, materials, which may be replaced by mycelium materials, were taken
which are summed up in Supporting Information, Table S1, normalized from the literature.
per cubic meter. It contains assumptions for the amount of the material Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis. Since the process for
used and the number of equipment use cycles (e.g., a PMMA mold can commercial production of mycelium materials is still under develop-
be used on average 100 times before replacement). The packaging ment, there are uncertainties that can influence the results of this LCA.
materials of raw materials are excluded due to lack of information in the We have performed sensitivity analyses to scrutinize the variations in
Ecoinvent 3 database. Transportation processes are calculated using a the overall EE and EC that result from different scenarios, including (1)
16-ton lorry with an Euro6 engine as all the transportation distances the incubation time, (2) the transportation distance of the raw
range from 15 to 200 km. The process inventory (Supporting materials, and (3) the EE and EC of raw materials.
Information, Table S2) comprised the different processes in the (1) Incubation time. The incubation time is a crucial parameter in the
method, describing the required inputs of the material and energy and growth process and influences the properties of the final
the outputs. Energy usage was measured using smart switch plugs for material. A range of 1−3 weeks were used in the sensitivity
electricity, measuring the real consumption of the different stages in the analysis. One week of incubation results in EE = 316.6 MJ m−3
process. The different processes are divided into batches depending on and EC = 85.2 kg CO2eq m−3 in the SimaPro calculation.
the equipment size. The description of each individual batch and the Increasing or reducing the incubation time by 1 week will
number of batches in each process are specified in Supporting increase or reduce the EE of the material by 37%. The fixed
Information, Text S1. The electrical generation fuel mix is based on carbon will range between −124.7 and +45.7 kg CO2eq m−3
standard values for the power grid in the Netherlands. when varying between 1 and 3 weeks of incubation.
The raw materials for the production process are treated as waste (2) Transportation distance of the raw materials. A more optimistic
streams composed of carbohydrates and therefore have a negative scenario is described by positioning the manufacturing plant
carbon starting value. Soil organic carbon was not included in this close to the grinding and wastewater treatment plants, avoiding
model as it is assumed that the mycelium materials will be reintroduced the second transportation stage of the straw and reducing the
back to the field at the end of life. The calculations for rapeseed straw total cellulose transport distance to 15 km. In such a scenario,
include transportation from fields (a 100 km range) to a processing the transportation EE and EC are, respectively, reduced by 48.4
plant, grinding, and another transportation of 100 km to the production MJ m−3 and 2.99 kg CO2eq m−3 when compared to the two 100
factory. The energy input for the straw processing is 21.67 kW h per km steps in transportation for straw and 100 km for cellulose.
ton,18 from the stage of field collection to final processing (crushed 5− The other extreme is to have the manufacturing plant further
10 mm straw fibers, which represents a higher level of processing than is away from the raw materials, increasing the distance to 200 km
required for our bio-composites). Since specific data on rapeseed straw for both ground straw and cellulose. In this scenario, the
were not available in Ecoinvent 3, the option of “wheat straw” was used transportation EE and EC increase by 52.4 MJ m−3 and 3.23 kg
as a proxy, adding to it the energy for processing and the sequestered CO2eq m−3, respectively. The resulting impact is small
carbon. Recycled cellulose is a waste stream from wastewater treatment compared to the overall CO2 emission (−0.98% for the short
plants (WWTPs) that requires processing from sludge to a workable distance scenario and 1.05% for the long distance scenario) but
substrate. Since this processing is part of the WWTP, in this case, a is more significant in the EE of the process (−5.6 and 6.1%,
single 100 km transportation step was included in the LCA. Based on an respectively).
LCA done as part of project SMART-plant under Horizon 2020,19 the
(3) EE and EC of raw materials. The highest level of uncertainty in
overall energy demand for the cellulose treatment, in contrast to that for
the data pertains to the energy needed to produce the raw
a standard WWTP, is negative (i.e., the filtration and drying of the
materials. The influence of doubling or halving the energy
cellulose consume less energy than what is saved downstream in the
needed to produce straw and cellulose was assessed in the
wastewater treatment). Drying of cellulose is accomplished mainly with
sensitivity analysis. Doubling the processing energy will add 16
excess heat from the treatment process to a level of 90% dry matter.
MJ m−3 EE and 3 kg CO2eq m−3 EC to the process, while
Final drying and pelleting require 50 kW h of energy per ton of cellulose.
reducing it by half will result in respective decreases of 9 MJ m−3
As an estimation, drying without compression would only require about
and 1.5 kg CO2eq m−3.
50% of the energy. Since this process is not relevant to the wastewater
treatment, we included 25 kW h ton−1 as energy needed for producing Taking the extreme scenarios for all three parameters, we obtain an
the recycled cellulose. EE ranging from 486.3 to 1245 MJ m−3 and an EC ranging from −129
Elemental microanalysis showed a carbon content in the straw and to 52 kg CO2eq per m3 for the fungal mycelium materials.
cellulose of 43.11 and 43.44%, respectively. Since the source of this
carbon is atmospheric CO2 absorbed by plants, the total CO2 values can
be calculated as follows.
■ RESULTS
Metabolic CO2 Measurements. A linear relationship
m(C)
(MCO2 = 1.761*Δm − 0.0521) was obtained between the
d

m(CO2 ) = n(C) ·MW (CO2) = ·MW (CO2 ) amount of emitted CO2 and the dry weight loss Δm irrespective
MW (C)
of the substrate that was used. During 14 days of fungal
MW (CO2 ) 44
= · %C ·m = ·%C·m colonization, 15.07% ± 0.67% and 18.08% ± 2.37% of the dry
MW (C) 12 (3) weight mass of the rapeseed straw and the recycled cellulose
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Figure 3. Energy consumption (A), overall CO2eq emission (B), relative energy consumption (C), and relative CO2eq emissions (D) of the different
stages in the fungal mycelium bio-composite production process. The relative CO2eq (D) is calculated as a percentage of the “positive” emissions only,
neglecting the sequestered CO2 in order to highlight the emission “hotspots” in the process. It is possible to see the different contributions to the energy
or emissions by the colors described in the legend below the columns.

were lost, respectively (Supporting Information, Table S3). a net carbon sink, which is explained by the high rate of CO2
Similar results were obtained when using a 1:1 ratio of rapeseed fixation during the growth of rapeseed and the source of
straw and recycled cellulose as the substrate (Supporting cellulose in the field.
Information, Table S4). Hotspots in the Manufacturing Process. The growing
Life Cycle Assessment. A comprehensive LCA was stage of the fungus is by far the most energy-demanding stage of
performed for the production of 1 m3 mycelium bio-composite the bio-composite production, consuming 73% of the overall
blocks (40 cm × 20 cm × 20 cm each) resulting from the growth energy used throughout the five-stage process (Figure 3A,C).
of T. betulina in rapeseed straw mixed with recycled cellulose Nearly all (99.5%) of the growing-stage energy is consumed for
(1:1 w/w) for 14 days (see the Materials and Methods). The maintaining the incubator temperature, while the remaining part
cradle-to-gate LCA model was built in SimaPro v.820 with the is used by the laminar flow hood during the inoculation.
overall energy consumption and CO2 emissions per cubic meter Notably, the energy for preculturing and for the production of
of the blocks as outputs of the process. Production and molds and bags used in the process is negligible. The growing
processing of the raw materials were included as well as the CO2 stage of the fungus is also highest in CO2 emissions, accounting
fixation of the substrate, the production of bags and molds, for 64.1% of the total (Figure 3B,D). Fungal metabolic CO2 (as
transportation, and the growth process of the fungus (Figure 2 detailed in the Materials and Methods) represents 21% of the
and Supporting Information, Tables S1 and S2). Stages of the emitted CO2 in the whole process and about 33% of the
process of mycelium bio-composite production were defined as emissions during the growing stage. Another significant CO2
follows: (0) production of molds and bags; (1) preculturing the source (7.9%) is the production of the bags and molds, which are
fungus on millet including the cultivation of the grain, made from fossil fuel-based polymers.
transportation, sterilization, inoculation, and culturing; (2) Sensitivity Analysis. The sensitivity of the LCA model to
production of the substrate including cultivation of rapeseed variations in particular parameters was analyzed with respect to
(modeled as wheat) and separation of cellulose at the WWTP, the time of fungal growth in the substrate, the distances for
transportation and processing of the straw and the cellulose, and transportation, and the processing energy of raw materials
sterilizing in bags; (3) growing the materials, including (detailed in the Materials and Methods). The sensitivity analysis
inoculation in a laminar flow hood, incubation, and molding; shows that transportation distances and processing energy of the
and (4) inactivation of the blocks at 60 °C (see Figure 2). The raw materials have a relatively minor impact on the LCA, with
model resulted in an EE value of 860.3 MJ and an EC of −39.5 kg the EE ranging from 802.9 to 928.7 MJ m−3 and the EC between
CO2eq per cubic meter for the “mycoblock” (Table 1). The −44 and −33.27 kg CO2eq m−3 when assuming 115 km of
latter means that the material is fixing CO2 and thereby acting as transportation for straw and cellulose with half the processing
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energy or 500 km of transportation and double the processing shorter life than the current construction materials and might
energy. As mentioned above, the incubation time is a critical need to be replaced a few times during the 50 year operation of a
value in the process, which is confirmed in the sensitivity building. If we assume that the life time of the material is one-
analysis. When growing the fungus for 3 weeks instead of 2 third of the EPS or PUR life time, the EE of mycelium bio-
weeks, the material is no longer a CO2 sink�with an EC value of composite insulation will be 2580 MJ m−3, lower than that of
+45.7 kg CO2eq m−3 and an EE of 1176.9 MJ m−3. In contrast, EPS (271024−356523 MJ m−3) or PUR (303024−879023 MJ
incubating for 1 week results in an EC of −125 kg CO2eq m−3 m−3). It should be noted that in many cases, the EE of the
and an EE of 543.7 MJ m−3. construction materials only represents 10−20% of the life-cycle
building energy costs,36 with 80−90% of the overall energy
■ DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Mycelium materials can play a key role in the transition to a
consumed during the use-phase of the building, mainly for
climate control.9,37 The latter can be reduced by improving the
circular economy because the production of these biodegradable insulation of the building and in some new buildings get below
materials involves upcycling of organic waste streams.34 Here, 50%.29 Notably, the thermal conductivity of mycelium materials
we show that these materials can act as a net CO2 sink, helping is very low with values similar to those of commercial insulators
achieve net-zero or even negative emission buildings. such as EPS. Thus, mycelium bio-composites can also contribute
Metabolic CO2 Emissions. A comprehensive cradle-to-gate to the reduction of the energy consumption during the use-
energy and carbon LCA of a mycelium bio-composite was phase of the building.38
performed. To this end, a method was developed to include the The advantage of using the fungus as the binder in the bio-
metabolic CO2 that results from the growth process of the composite is the low energy needed for its growth and the
fungus. Because metabolic CO2 is of a biogenic source, it is often encapsulation of air bubbles which improve the thermal
excluded from the LCA calculation (as is the case for the insulation of the grown material, which will help in reducing
commonly used IPCC 2013 GWP100 method).35 However, this the operational energy (OE). When comparing the matrix of
biogenic source can represent a considerable part of the total mycelium to other possible matrixes as lime or cement, as in
emissions, illustrated by the fact that the metabolic CO2 of the “hempcrete”, the energy and carbon footprint of the latter are
mycelium bio-composite analyzed here represented 21% of the higher. In hemp-lime composites, the density is 450 kg m−3, and
total emitted CO2. As a result, the magnitude of the “negative” the amount of lime is 63% in weight.29 The EC of lime is 1.43 kg
net EC was reduced by about 60%�from −95.5 to −39.5 kg CO2 kg−1, and the EE is 5.3 MJ kg−1. For a cubic meter of hemp
CO2eq m−3. Still, the bio-composite is a net CO2 sink, in sharp lime, there is a need for 283.5 kg of lime, with a cost of 405 kg
contrast with common construction materials such as cast CO2 and 1502 MJ, without transportation costs, and without the
concrete products and EPS (Table 1). expected calcification of the product at the end. Replacing lime
The amount of metabolic CO2, as calculated using an with cement23 (assuming the same weight) will result in a higher
elemental analyzer (where samples were grinded, see the EE (11.8 MJ kg−1 or 3345 MJ m−3) and a bit lower EC (1.3 kg
Materials and Methods), was related to the loss in dry weight CO2eq kg−1 or 368.55 kg CO2eq m−3), without the potential to
of the substrate. Theoretically, the amount of metabolic CO2 sequester CO2 in the calcification process over time. Both
could have been calculated from the chemical equation of alternatives end up with a higher EE and higher EC compared to
burning cellulose based on the assumption that all the weight those of the fungal bio-composite (the EC of growing the
loss is due to CO2 emissions. This would yield a conversion ratio mycelium sum up to 208 kg CO2eq m−3).
of 1.63 g CO2 emissions for each 1 g substrate reduction. As Carbon Sequestration. The negative carbon footprint, or
described in the results, the experimental conversion ratio is EC, of the material comes from the sequestered CO2 during the
1.761 g CO2 per 1 g of the reduced substrate (the slope of the plant growth, which later acts as the substrate for the fungal
calibration curve), a difference of 8%. The explanation for this growth. The substrate (rapeseed straw and recycled cellulose)
gap can be found in the different carbon contents of the sequesters 306 kg of CO2 m−3 via photosynthesis and emits 58.3
substrate and the fungus�a lower carbon content in the fungus kg CO2eq m−3 during the cultivation process, with most of the
allows higher mass with less carbon. We measured the total emissions in the substrate stage (58%) resulting from the straw
weight loss and not the weight loss of the substrate itself, and cultivation itself. Since we modeled the straw using the existing
therefore, losing 2 g of the substrate and gaining 1 g of the fungus “wheat straw” option in Ecoinvent 3, which is a byproduct of
will result in 1 g weight loss, with higher carbon loss than if we wheat cultivation, the straw does not count as a waste with zero
would burn 1 g of the substrate. Therefore, the latter simple and energy but as an agricultural byproduct. It is important to note
nondestructive method can be used for future LCAs with T. that taking residues from the field could reduce the soil organic
betulina and similar or identical substrates. Determining the carbon and minerals over time and would therefore not be
relation between the metabolic CO2 and dry weight loss for sustainable.39 However, mycelium materials can be reintro-
other fungi and substrates will be beneficial to assess LCAs for duced on the fields at their end of life and as such will not have an
other mycelium materials and also for industrial production of impact on the soil quality. In addition, using pure waste streams
edible and medicinal mushrooms and the use of waste streams such as cellulose from WWTP or municipal pruning waste will
that are produced by this industry.34 Notably, this method will reduce the EC and, in the long run, will support the
also enable us to identify low-CO2-emitting fungi that would be reintroduction of the carbon lost in today’s waste streams back
of preferred use for the production of fungal materials. to the soil.
Comparison of the EC and EE of Common Building Process Efficiency Improvements and Sensitivity
Materials. The EE of the mycelium bio-composite was found to Analysis. In the present study, the fungal growth process
be 860.3 MJ m−3, which is 1.5−6-fold lower than that of current (stage 3, Figure 1) was found to be the major contributor to the
construction and insulation materials such as concrete, concrete EE and EC of the mycelium bio-composite because of the energy
blocks, autoclaved aerated concrete, EPS, and PUR (Table 1). input required to control the climatic conditions during this
However, mycelium bio-composites are expected to have a process. The energy efficiency of this stage can be improved
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ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering pubs.acs.org/journal/ascecg Research Article

when scaling up the production process. Scaling up the LCA to a Material inventory and process inventory for production
factory level is important in order to compare to commercial of a 1 m3 fungal biocomposite, results from the metabolic
products, where the production process has been improved for carbon experiment, data about cubic samples grown using
decades. In addition, scaling up will demand more energy input the method mentioned in the Materials and Methods, and
for processes such as mixing the substrate and moving from detailed LCI description for the different materials and
place to place, which are now done by hand. There is a big processes in the production process with description of
uncertainty in scaling up and therefore should be taken as the assumptions for every step (PDF)
limited. Scaling up the sterilization process from a 200 to 10,000
L autoclave, using a method as suggested in a paper by Piccinno
et al.40 for scaling up LCA processes, would reduce the needed
energy for sterilization by 7.6% per m3 of the material. Since the
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
absolute numbers for the 200 L autoclave are higher than the Achiya Livne − Department of Civil and Environmental
values we have measured, we stress here the difference in Engineering, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva
percentage only. In the same way, calculating the difference for 84105, Israel; orcid.org/0000-0001-8289-7410;
the inactivation at 60 °C in a 10,000 L oven instead of the 550 L Phone: +972544831084; Email: [email protected]
oven we have used in the described process yielded a reduction
of 8.2%. Applying these results into our model will reduce the Authors
sterilization energy from 58.59 to 54.20 MJ and the inactivation Han A. B. Wösten − Department of Microbiology, Utrecht
energy from 69.12 to 63.45 MJ, overall saving 10.06 MJ, or 1.2%, University, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
of the overall process. In the scale-up model suggested by Stelzer David Pearlmutter − Department of Geography and
et al.,15 which is based on opinions of experts in the field, Environmental Development, Ben Gurion University of the
sterilization was done with steam, reducing the energetic cost to Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
28.99 MJ m−3, reducing the sterilization energy in our model by Erez Gal − Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
29.6 MJ or 49.5%. Since it is based on experts’ knowledge with Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
practical experience with sterilization and not generalized values, Complete contact information is available at:
we believe it is more accurate than the method mentioned https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c01314
above. It is harder to assess the incubation energy of a scaled-up
factory using the method mentioned above since the desired Notes
temperature is equal to the room temperature. Since this LCA The authors declare no competing financial interest.
model is based on our specific growth method, it is impossible to
quantify its uncertainty to mycelium bio-composites in general.
However, the general trend is that scaling up will reduce the
needed incubation energy for a cubic meter of the material.
■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Israeli Ministry of Energy (grant
Moreover, the EE and EC can be improved by reducing the number 21/2021).
incubation time. A reduction in incubation time may be
achieved by using a higher amount of the spawn in the
inoculation stage. For instance, a reduction of the incubation
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