CCP 21CS111 (UNIT1) Updated

PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH
PROGRAMMING
Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 1

Unit-1
Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer System
Introduction to Computer generations and types, CPU, Primary Memory, Secondary

Memory, Ports and Connections.
Problem solving, Program Development steps, Introduction to Algorithms and Flowcharts.
Chapter 2: Introduction to C Programming Language

Evolution & Characteristics of C Language, Structure of a C Program, C Compilation
Model.
Characters set, C tokens, Keywords and identifiers, Constants, Variables, Data Types,
and Declaration of Variables.
Chapter 3: Operators and Expressions

Arithmetic operators, Relational operators, Logical operators, Assignment operators,
Increment, Decrement operators, conditional operator, Bitwise operators, Special
Operators.
Arithmetic expressions, Evaluation of expressions, Precedence of Arithmetic operators,

Type conversions in expressions, Operator precedence and associativity.
Chapter 4: Managing Input and Output Operations

Reading a character, Writing a Character, Formatted Input and Formatted Output.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer System
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Today, almost all of us in the world make use of computers in one way or the other. It
finds applications in various fields of engineering, medicine, commercial, research and others.
Not only in these sophisticated areas, but also in our daily lives, computers have become
indispensable. They are present everywhere, in all the devices that we use daily like cars, games,
washing machines, microwaves etc. and in day to day computations like banking, reservations,
electronic mails, internet and many more.
The word computer is derived from the word compute. Compute means to calculate.
The computer was originally defined as a superfast calculator. It had the capacity to solve
complex arithmetic and scientific problems at very high speed. But nowadays in addition to
handling complex arithmetic computations, computers perform many other tasks like accepting,
sorting, selecting, moving, comparing various types of information. They also perform arithmetic
and logical operations on alphabetic, numeric and other types of information. This information
provided by the user to the computer is data.
The information in one form which is presented to the computer is the input information
or input data. Information in another form is presented by the computer after performing a
process on it. This information is the output information or output data. The set of instructions
given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the computer program. The
process of converting the input data into the required output form with the help of the computer
program is called as data processing. The computers are therefore also referred to as data
processors. Therefore a computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing
system that accepts data, performs various operations on the data, has the capability to store the
data and produce the results on the basis of detailed step by step instructions given to it.
The terms hardware and software are almost always used in connection with the
computer.
The Hardware:

The hardware is the machinery itself. It is made up of the physical parts or devices of the
computer system like the electronic Integrated Circuits (ICs), magnetic storage media and
other mechanical devices like input devices, output devices etc. All these various hardware
are linked together to form an effective functional unit. The various types of hardware used in
the computers, has evolved from vacuum tubes of the first generation to Ultra Large Scale
Integrated Circuits of the present generation.
The Software:
The computer hardware itself is not capable of doing anything on its own. It has to be given
explicit instructions to perform the specific task. The computer program is the one which
controls the processing activities of the computer. The computer thus functions according to
the instructions written in the program. Software mainly consists of these computer programs,
procedures and other documentation used in the operation of a computer system. Software is
a collection of programs which utilize and enhance the capability of the hardware.
Functionalities of a Computer
There are three basic functionalities of a Computer System and they are
1. Input
2. Process
3. Output
But if we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions:
Step 1 - Takes data as input.
Step 2 - Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 - Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 - Generates the output.
Step 5 - Controls all the above four steps.
Generations of Computers
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an
entire computer system.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate
dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers.
Sl. No. Generation & Description
First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.
7
First Generation Computers
The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing
Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse
frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to
afford it.
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper
tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this
generation used machine code as the programming language.
The main features of the first generation are:
• Vacuum tube technology
• Unreliable
• Supported machine language only
• Very costly
• Generates lot of heat
• Slow input and output devices
• Huge size
• Need of AC
• Non-portable
• Consumes lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
• ENIAC
• EDVAC
• UNIVAC
• IBM-701
• IBM-750
8
Second Generation Computers
The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were
used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first -generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores
were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices.
In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and
multiprogramming operating system.
The main features of second generation are:
• Use of transistors
• Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
• Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
• Generates less heat as compared to first generation computers
• Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
• Faster than first generation computers
• Still very costly
• AC required
• Supported machine and assembly languages
• IBM 1620
• IBM 7094
• CDC 1604
• CDC 3600
• UNIVAC 1108
9
Third Generation Computers
The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors,
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming
operating system were used. High- level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
The main features of third generation are:
• IC used
• More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
• Smaller size
• Generated less heat
• Faster
• Lesser maintenance
• Costly
• AC required
• Consumed lesser electricity
• Supported high-level language
• IBM-360 series
• Honeywell-6000 series
• PDP (Personal Data Processor)
• IBM-370/168
• TDC-316
10
Fourth Generation Computers
The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and
other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real
time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C,
C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
The main features of fourth generation are:
• VLSI technology used
• Very cheap
• Portable and reliable
• Use of PCs
• Very small size
• Pipeline processing
• No AC required
• Concept of internet was introduced
• Great developments in the fields of networks
• Computers became easily available
• DEC 10
• STAR 1000
• PDP 11
• CRAY-1(Super Computer)
• CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
Fifth Generation Computers

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic
components.
This generation is based on parallel
processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software. AI is an
emerging branch in computer science,
which interprets the means and
method of making computers think
like human beings. All the high-level
languages like C and C++, Java, .Net
etc., are used in this generation.
11
The main features of fifth generation are:
• ULSI technology
• Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language processing
• Advancement in Parallel Processing
• Advancement in Superconductor technology
• More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
• Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
• Desktop
• Laptop
• Notebook
• Ultrabook
• Chromebook
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:
Computers are broadly classified into two categories depending upon the logic used in their
design as:
1. Analog computers:
In analog computers, data is recognized as a continuous measurement of a physical
property like voltage, speed, pressure etc. Readings on a dial or graphs are obtained as the
output, ex. Voltage, temperature; pressure can be measured in this way.
2. Digital Computers:
These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are programmable. They process
data by way of mathematical calculations, comparison, sorting etc. They accept input and
produce output as discrete signals representing high(on) or low (off) voltage state of
electricity. Numbers, alphabets, symbols are all represented as a series of 1s and Os.
Digital Computers are further classified as General Purpose, Digital Computers and
Special Purpose Digital Computers. General Purpose computer can be used for any
applications like accounts, payroll, data processing etc. Special purpose computers are
used for a specific job like those used in automobiles, microwaves etc.
Another classification of digital computers is done on the basis of their capacity to access
memory and size like:
 Microcomputers: Microcomputers are generally referred to as Personal Computers
(PCs). They have smallest memory and less power. They are widely used in day to day
applications like office automation, and professional applications, ex. PCAT, Pentium
etc.

 Note Book and Laptop Computers: These are portable in nature and are battery
operated. Storage devices like CDs, floppies etc. and output devices like printer scanners
can be connected to these computers. Notebook computers are smaller in physical size
than laptop computers. However, both have powerful processors, support graphics, and
can accept mouse driven input.

  Hand Held Computers:
These types of computers are mainly used in applications like collection of field data.
They are even smaller than the note book computers.

 Hybrid Computers: Hybrid Computers are a combination of Analog and Digital
computers. They combine the speed of analog computers and accuracy of digital
computers. They are mostly used in specialized applications where the input data is in an
analog form i.e. measurement. This is converted into digital form for further processing.
The computers accept data from sensors and produce output using conventional
input/output devices.

 Mini Computers: Mini computers are more powerful than the micro computers. They
have higher memory capacity and more storage capacity with higher speeds. These
computers are mainly used in process control systems. They are mainly used in
applications like payrolls, financial accounting, Computer aided design etc. ex. VAX,
PDP-11.

 Mainframe Computers: Main frame computers are very large computers which process
data at very high speeds of the order of several million instructions per second. They can
be linked into a network with smaller computers, micro computers and with each other.
They are typically used in large organizations, government departments etc. ex.
IBM4381, CDC.
 Super Computers: A super computer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive
computer which is used for complex tasks that require a lot of computational power.
Super computers have multiple processors which process multiple instructions at the
same time. This is known as parallel processing. These computers are widely used in
very advanced applications like weather forecasting, processing geological data etc. ex.
CRAY-2, NEC - 500, PARAM.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS:
Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern world. Some of
the major application areas include:
1. Scientific, Engineering and Research:

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are used in areas
which require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, Computer
Fundamentals/10weather forecasting, and complex mathematical and engineering
applications. Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing
(CAM) help in designing robotics, automobile manufacturing, automatic process control
dev ices etc.
2. Business:
Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts are all the areas
of business and industry where computers are used to a great extent. Database
management is one of the major areas where computers are used on a large scale. The
areas of application here include banking, airline reservations, etc. where large amounts
of data need to be updated, edited, sorted, and searched from large databases.
3. Medicine:
Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient data like, pulse
rate, blood pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis. Modern day medical
equipment’s are highly computerized today. Computers are also widely used in medical
research.
4. Information:
This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet, networks
are all based on computers.
5. Education:
The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students develop the
habit of thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving techniques.
CDs on a variety of subjects are available to impart education. Online training programs
for students are also becoming popular day by day. All the major encyclopedias,
dictionaries and books are now available in the digital form and therefore are easily
accessible to the student of today. Creativity in drawing, painting, designing, decoration,
music etc. can be well developed with computers.
6. Games and Entertainment:
Computer games are popular with children and adults alike. Computers are nowadays
also used in entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS:
1. Speed:
The speed of a computer is measured in terms of the number of instructions that it can
perform or execute in a second. The speeds of computers are measured in milli seconds
(10~3 sec), micro-seconds (10~6 sec), and nano-seconds (10~9sec). Computers are
superfast machines and can process millions of instructions per second. Smaller
computers can execute thousands of instructions per second, while the more complex
machines can execute millions of instructions per second.
2. Accuracy:
Computers are very accurate. They are capable of executing hundreds of instructions
without any errors. They do not make mistakes in their computations. They perform each
and every calculation with the same accuracy.
3. Efficiency
The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age. The computer scan perform
repeated tasks with the same efficiency any number of times without exhausting
thereselves. Even if they are instructed to execute millions of instructions, they are
capable of executing them all with the same speed and efficiency without exhaustion.
4. Storage Capability
Computers are capable of storing large amounts of data in their storage devices. These
dev ices occupy very less space and can store millions of characters in condensed forms.
These storage devices typically include floppy disks, tapes, hard disks, CDs etc, the data
stored on these devices can be retrieved and reused whenever it is required in future.
5. Versatility
Computers are very versatile. They are capable not only of performing complex
mathematical tasks of science and engineering, but also other non-numerical operations
fielding air-line reservation, electricity bills, data base management etc.
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS:
Although the computers of today are highly intelligent and sophisticated they have their
own limitations. The computer cannot think on its own, since it does not have its own brain. It
can only do what is has been programmed to do. It can execute only those jobs that can be
expressed as a finite set of instructions to achieve a specific goal. Each of the steps has to be
clearly defined. The computers do not learn from previous experience nor can they arrive at a
conclusion without going through all the intermediate steps. However the impact of computers
on today’s society in phenomenal and they are today an important part of the society.
Any system is defined as a group of integrated parts which are designed to achieve a common
objective. Thus, a system is made up of more than one element or part, where each element
performs a specific function and where all the elements (parts) are logically related and are
controlled in such a way that the goal (purpose) of the system is achieved. Each of these units
performs a specific task. However, none of them can function independently on their own. They
are logically related and controlled to achieve a specific goal. When they are thus integrated they
form a fully-fledged computer system.
Hardware Overview
Modern-day computer systems usually contain, at a minimim, the following hardware

components:
 The System Unit

o Motherboard (aka System Board)
o CPU (Central Processing Unit)
o Memory, such as RAM, ROM, Cache, and Flash
o Ports
o Expansion Slots
 Secondary Storage, such as hard disk drives, CD-ROMs, etc.
 Input / Output Devices
 Communications Devices
The System Unit
 The Motherboard is the main circuit board for the computer, containing both soldered,
nonremovable components along with sockets or slots for components that can be
removed. The motherboard holds the CPU, RAM and ROM chips, etc.
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer. It executes
instructions (from software) and tells other components what to do.
o The Intel Pentium is a popular processor for IBM-PCs.
o The PowerPC is a popular processor for Macintoshes.
o There are 2 parts of the CPU: The ALU and Control Unit.
o The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations (such as
addition and subtraction) and logical operations (such as comparing two values).
o An optional math co-processor can take the place of the ALU. It performs the
same operations, only it is faster.
o The Control Unit deciphers and carries out instructions.
o Different CPUs have different types of instructions, so software made for one
type of CPU will not run on other kinds.
o The word size denotes how many bits of data a CPU can process at once. 32 bits
is the standard word size for CPU's used in personal computers today. The higher
the word size, the faster a CPU can execute instructions.
 The System Clock is an "electrical pulse generator" that sends out a pulse of electricity at
regular intervals. The electronic components of the computer need these electric pulses in
order to perform work. The more pulses sent out by the system clock, the faster the
computer. The first personal computers had clock speeds of 8 MHz (8 million pulses per
second); today's PC's have clock speeds greater than 3.2 GHz (3.2 billion pulses per
second).
 Bus Lines are "electrical data roadways" (i.e. wires) through which bits of information
are transmitted between the CPU and other components. The bus size denotes how many
bits can be transmitted at once. In general, this should be the same as the CPU word size.
 Memory Chips
o Random Access Memory (RAM), also known as Main Memory or Primary
Storage, is used to hold instructions and data while they are being used. RAM is
volatile, meaning its contents are lost when the power goes off. RAM is more than
1000x faster than the fastest secondary storage (see below).
o Cache memory is special high-speed memory that temporarily stores instructions
and data the CPU is likely to use frequently. This speeds up processing. Level 2
or external caches generally range in size from 64 Kilobytes to 2 Megabytes.
o Read Only Memory (ROM) chips are non-volatile memory that generally
contains instructions for "booting" the computer (i.e. loading the operating system
when the computer starts up).
o CMOS chips are powered by a battery and contain so-called "flexible
information" such as the type of hard drive your computer is using and the current
date and time.
o Flash chips do not require electricity or a battery yet are non-volatile. They are
used in computers, cell phones, digital cameras, etc.
 Expansion Slots are sockets on the motherboard that you can plug expansion cards into.
To plug a card into a slot, you must open the system unit. A card contain a socket on its
end that sticks out from the system unit so a cable can be plugged into it. Common types
of cards are graphics, sound, and network cards.
 Ports are sockets that are on the outside othe system unit, meaning you can easily plug a
cable into a port without opening the system unit.
o Serial ports transmit one bit of data at a time.
o Parallel ports transmit 8 bits of data at a time.
o Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports are much faster than serial or parallel ports and
allow multiple devices to be connected to the same port.
Secondary Storage
 Devices that "permanently" hold data and information (i.e. programs).
 Non-volatile memory; when the power goes off, contents are still saved (unless there is
an error).
 Used to store instructions and data while they are not being used.
 A floppy disk is a removable (i.e. portable) platter made of mylar plastic that is
magnetized. Bits of information are stored in concentric rings called tracks on either side
of the platter. The current floppy disk standard is a 3 1/2" platter in a hard plastic case
that holds 1.44 Megabytes of information. A Zip disk, on the other hand, can hold up to
250 Megabytes.
 A hard disk is similar to a floppy disk but uses metal platters to store information. Hard
disks are not only much faster than floppy disks but can hold huge amounts of data
(hundreds of gigabytes).
 Both floppy and hard drives use a read/write head, which is basically a magnet, to
read/write information from/to tracks on a platter. In a hard drive, the read/write head and
platter(s) are enclosed together in an air-tight package, making hard drives less
susceptible to damage. The read/write head hovers above the platter but should not touch
it. If touched, the platter can be damaged, resulting in the loss of some or all the data on
the platter. This is known as a head crash.
 Magnetic tape is used mostly for backups. These are very slow because you have to fast
forward or rewind to the right spot. However, they are very reliable.
 Optical discs use optical technology (i.e. lasers) instead of magnetic technology to store
information.
o CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc - Read Only Memory.
o CD-R stands for Compact Disc - Recordable and can be written to only once.
(Also known as CD-WORM: Compact Disc - Write Once, Read Many.)
o CD-RW stands for Compact Disc - Re-writeable (or Read/Write).
o DVD-ROM stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Read Only Memory.
o DVD-R stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Recordable and can be written to only
once.
(Also known as DVD-WORM: Digital Versatile Disc - Write Once, Read Many.)
o DVD-RW stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Re-writeable (or Read/Write).
o CD's can hold approximately 650 Megabytes of data while DVD's can hold up to
17 Gigabytes.
Input / Output Devices
 Input devices translate data into a form the computer can understand.
o The keyboard is the most common input device, but this type of data entry is
very slow and error-prone.
o Direct input devices are much faster and less error-prone.
 Pointing devices such as the mouse, trackball, and touchpad allow you to
manipulate a cursor on the screen.
 Scanning devices read data directly. For example, OMR (Optical Mark
Recognition) devices (such as a scantron machine) can sense marks on
paper. Even more advanced are OCR (Optical Characgter Recognition)
devices, which attempt to read letters. Bar Code Readers are often used in
grocery stores (i.e. with the UPC - Universal Product Code system) to scan
items.
 Output devices translate information into a form humans can understand.
o The Monitor (or Display Screen) is the most common type of output device. It
produces softcopy (i.e. temporary) output on a screen.
o The Printer is the most second most common type of output device. It
produces hardcopy (i.e. "permanent") output on paper.
 A Laser Printer uses a photoelectric drum and powdered ink, similar to a
copying machine, to produce output.
 An Inkjet Printer produces output by spraying droplets of liquid ink onto
the paper from small nozzles. It is the most common type of printer in use
today and is generally very inexpensive.
Communications Devices
 These allow your computer to send/receive data to/from other computers.

 A modem sends information over a phone line. Modems are slow and susceptible to
problems such as phone line static.
 A network card sends information over a network cable. These can be used to hook up a
computer to a local area network (LAN) or to an Internet Service Provider via a cable
modem or DSL (for Internet access).
Measurements in Computer Science
 Bit (Binary Digit): Can only have a value of either 0 or 1.

 Byte: 8 bits (also known as a Character).
o ASCII: A code that assigns characters, such as 'a', 'b', etc. unique 8-bit (i.e. 1
byte) values. This allows information created on one computer to be understood
by other computers. Contains English letters only.
o Unicode: A code that assigns characters, such as 'a', 'b', etc. unique 16-bit (i.e. 2
byte) values. This code contains letters for all major languages but still
understands ASCII.
o There are other codes besides ASCII and Unicode, but they are the most common
and are used in virtually all personal computers and most larger computers as
well.
 Kilobyte: 1024 bytes (or 2^10 bytes).
 Megabyte: 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^20 bytes). Roughly one million bytes.
 Gigabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^30 bytes). Roughly one billion bytes.
 Terabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^40 bytes). Roughly one trillion bytes.
Types of Computer Ports

A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input
according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output. As we
know that we can connect multiple external devices with the computer system. Now, these
devices are connected with the computer using Ports. The ports are the physical docking points
present in the computer through which the external devices are connected using cables. Or in
other words, a port is an interface between the motherboard and an external device of the
computer. There are different types of ports available:
 Serial port
 Parallel port
 USB port
 PS/2 port
 VGA port
 Modem port
 FireWire Port
 Sockets
 Infrared Port
 Game Port
 Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port
 Ethernet Port
Now let us discuss these ports one by one:
1. Serial port(COM Port):
A serial port is also called a communication port and they are used for connection of external
devices like a modem, mouse, or keyboard (basically in older PCs). Serial cables are cheaper to
make in comparison to parallel cables and they are easier to shield from interference. There are
two versions of it, which are 9 pin model and 25 pin model. It transmits data at 115 KB/sec.
2. Parallel Port (LPT ports):

Parallel ports are generally used for connecting scanners and printers. It can send several bits at
the same time as it uses parallel communication. Its data transfer speed is much higher in
comparison with the serial port. It is a 25 pin model. It is also known as Printer Port or Line
Printer Port.
3. USB (Universal Serial Bus):

In 1997 USB was first introduced. This can connect all kinds of external USB devices, like
external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc. There are minimum of two USB Ports
provided in most of the computer systems. It is a kind of new type serial connection Port that is
much faster than the old serial Ports and These USB Ports are much smarter and more versatile,
as it allows the “daisy chaining” of up to 127 USB peripherals connected to one port. The data
transfer rate in this is Data12 megabits per second. It also provides plug & plays communication.
4. PS/2 Port:
PS/2 ports are special ports used for connecting old computer keyboard and mouse. It was
invented by IBM. In old computers, there are minimum of two PS/2 Ports, each for the keyboard
and the mouse. It is a 6 pin mini Din connector.
5. VGA Port:
VGA ports also known as Video Graphic Array connector are those which connect the monitor
to a computer’s video card. VGA port has 15 holes and it is similar to the serial port connector.
But VGA Ports have holes in it and the serial port connector has pins in it.
6. Sockets:
Microphones and speakers are connected with the help of Sockets to the sound card of the
computer.
7. FireWire Port:
The IEEE 1394 interface, which is developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple as
FireWire. It can transfer large amount of data at very high speed. It is used to connect
camcorders and video equipment to the computer. It comes up with three variants which are 4-
Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.
8. Infrared Port:
An Infrared(IR) port is used to sends and receives infrared signals from other devices. It is a kind
of wireless type port with a limited range of 5-10ft.
9. Game Port:
These ports are used previously to connect a joystick to a PC. But nowadays it is replaced by
USB ports.
10. Modem Port:
As the name suggests, a Modem port is used to connects a PC’s modem to the telephone
network.
11. Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port:

DVI Port is used to connects LCD(flat panel) monitor to the computer’s high-end video graphic
cards and it is very popular among video card manufacturers.
12. Ethernet Port:

Ethernet Port helps to connect to a network and high-speed Internet (provided by LAN or other
sources). It connects the network cable to a computer and resides in a Ethernet card. It provides a
data travel speed of 10 Mb to 1000 Mb(megabits) per second.
PROBLEM SOLVING ASPECT
Problem solving is a creative process. It is an act of defining a problem, determining the

cause of the problem, identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution and
implementing a solution.
A problem can be solved successfully only after making an effort to understand the problem.
To understand the problem, the following questions help:
1. What do we know about the problem?
2. What is the information that we have to process in order the find the solution?
3. What does the solution look like?
4. What sort of special cases exist?
5. How can we recognize that we have found the solution?
It is important to see if there are any similarities between the current problem and other problems
that have already been solved. We have to be sure that the past experience does not hinder us in
developing new methodology or technique for solving a problem. The important aspect to be
considered in problem-solving is the ability to view a problem from a variety of angles.
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT STEPS

Problem solving is a creative process. It is an act of defining a problem, determining the
cause of the problem, identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution and
implementing a solution.
It is important to see if there are any similarities between the current problem and other
problems that have already been solved. We have to be sure that the past experience does not
hinder us in developing new methodology or technique for solving a problem. The important
aspect to be considered in problem-solving is the ability to view a problem from a variety of
angles.
The various steps involved in Program Development are:
  Defining or Analyzing the problem

  Design (Algorithm)
 Coding

  Documenting the program
  Compiling and Running the Program
  Testing and Debugging
 Maintenance
Defining or Analyzing the Problem:
In general terms, this step entails

 Identifying the desired results (output),

 Determining what information (input) is needed to produce these results,

 Figuring out what must be done to proceed from the known data to the desired output
(processing).
Although this step is described in one sentence, actually it may be the hardest part. And it
is certainly the most important part! When you analyze the problem, you determine what the
result will be. If you don’t do this correctly, all the elegant code in the world, written and
executed flawlessly, will not solve your problem.
Design (Algorithm):
To design a program means to create a detailed description, using relatively ordinary

language or special diagrams of the program to be created. Typically, this description is created
in stages, proceeding from simple to more complex, and consists of a number of step by-step
procedures (algorithms) that combine to solve the given problem. An algorithm is like a recipe. It
is a step-by-step method for solving a problem or doing a task. Algorithms abound in
programming, mathematics, and sciences and are common in everyday life as well. For example,
you are making use of an algorithm when you follow a recipe to bake a
cake or go through the process of using an ATM machine. Therefore, an algorithm must contain
  clear,
  unambiguous,
  step-by-step instructions.
 No step, not even the most basic and elementary, can be left out.
When we design a program, we do not completely define the algorithms all at once. As we
develop the program and break down major components into smaller pieces, the algorithms for
each task become more complex and detailed.
Coding
Once you have designed a suitable program to solve a given problem, you must translate
that design into program code; that is, you must write statements (instructions) in a particular
programming language such as C++, Visual Basic, or JavaScript etc. to put the design into a
usable form.
Additional statements are included at this point to document the program. Documentation
is a way to provide additional explanation in plain English (or other mother tongue) that the
computer ignores but which makes it easier for others to understand the program code. Normally,
a programmer provides internal and external documentation. Internal documentation exists
within the code and explains it. External documentation is provided separate from the program in
a user’s guide or maintenance manual.
The ways that specific words and symbols are used by each language is called its syntax
(the rules that govern the structure of the language).

Documenting the program
Documentation explains how the program works and how to use the program.
Documentation can be of great value, not only to those involved in maintaining or modifying a
program, but also to the programmers themselves. Details of particular programs, or particular
pieces of programs, are easily forgotten or confused without suitable documentation.
Documentation comes in two forms:
 External documentation, which includes things such as reference manuals, algorithm
 descriptions, flowcharts, and project workbooks
 Internal documentation, which is part of the source code itself (essentially, the
declarations, statements, and comments)
Compiling and Running the Program
Compilation is a process of translating a source program into machine understandable

form. The compiler is system software, which does the translation after examining each
instruction for its correctness. The translation results in the creation of object code.
After compilation, Linking is done if necessary. Linking is the process of putting together
all the external references (other program files and functions) that are required by the program.
The program is now ready for execution. During execution, the executable object code is loaded
into the computer’s memory and the program instructions are executed.
Testing and Debugging
Testing is the process of executing a program with the deliberate intent of finding errors.
Testing is needed to check whether the expected output matches the actual output. Program
should be tested with all possible input data and control conditions. Testing is done during every
phase of program development. Initially, requirements can be tested for its correctness. Then, the
design (algorithm, flow charts) can be tested for its exactness and efficiency.
Debugging is a process of correcting the errors. Programs may have logical errors which
cannot be caught during compilation. Debugging is the process of identifying their root causes.
One of the ways to ensure the correctness of the program is by printing out the intermediate
results at strategic points of computation.
Some programmers use the terms “testing” and “debugging” interchangeably, but careful
programmers distinguish between the two activities. Testing means detecting errors. Debugging
means diagnosing and correcting the root causes. On some projects, debugging occupies as much
as 50 percent of the total development time. For many programmers, debugging is the hardest
part of programming because of improper documentation.
Maintenance
Programs require a continuing process of maintenance and modification to keep pace

with changing requirements and implementation technologies. Maintainability and modifiability
are essential characteristics of every program. Maintainability of the program is achieved by:
  Modularizing it
  Providing proper documentation for it
 Following standards and conventions (naming conventions, using symbolic
constants etc.)
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
What is a Programming Language?

Computer Programming is an art of making a computer to do the required operations, by means
of issuing sequence of commands to it.
A programming language can be defined as a vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for
instructing the computer to perform specific tasks. Each programming language has a unique set
of characters, keywords and the syntax for organizing programming instructions.
The term programming languages usually refers to high-level languages, such as BASIC, C,
C++,COBOL, FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal.
Why Study Programming Languages?

The design of new programming languages and implementation methods have been evolved and
improved to meet the change in requirements. Thus, there are many new languages. The study of
more than one programming language helps us:
# to master different programming paradigms

# to enhance the skills to state different programming concepts
# to understand the significance of a particular language implementation

# to compare different languages and to choose appropriate language
# to improve the ability to learn new languages and to design new languages
TYPES AND CATEGORIES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:
Types of Programming Languages
There are two major types of programming languages:

# Low Level Languages
# High Level Languages
Low Level Languages

The term low level refers closeness to the way in which the machine has been built. Low level
Languages are machine oriented and require extensive knowledge of computer hardware
architecture and its configuration. Low Level languages are further divided in to Machine
language and Assembly language.
(a) Machine Language

Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the computer. It does not
need any translator program. The instructions are called machine instruction (machine code) and
it is written as strings of 1's (one) and 0’s (zero). When this sequence of codes is fed in to the
computer, it recognizes the code and converts it in to electrical signals.
For example, a program instruction may look like this: 1011000111101

Machine language is considered to be the first generation language. Because of its design,
machine language is not an easy language to learn. It is also difficult to debug the program
written in this language.
Advantage
#The program runs faster because no translation is needed. (It is already in machine
understandable form)
Disadvantages
# It is very difficult to write programs in machine language. The programmer has to know
details of hardware to write program
# It is difficult to debug the program
(b) Assembly Language
In assembly language, set of mnemonics (symbolic keywords) are used to represent machine
codes. Mnemonics are usually combination of words like ADD, SUB and LOAD etc. In order to
execute the programs written in assembly language, a translator program is required to translate
it to the machine language. This translator program is called Assembler. Assembly language is
considered to be the second-generation language.
Advantages:
# The symbolic keywords are easier to code and saves time and effort
# It is easier to correct errors and modify programming instructions
# Assembly Language has utmost the same efficiency of execution as the machine level
language, because there is one-to-one translation between assembly language program and its
corresponding machine language program
Disadvantages:
#Assembly languages are machine dependent. A program written for one
computer might not run in other computer.
High Level Languages

High level languages are the simple languages that use English like instructions and
mathematical symbols like +, -, %, /, for its program construction. In high level languages, it is
enough to know the logic and required instructions for a given problem, irrespective of the type
of computer used. Compiler is a translator program which converts a program in high level
language in to machine language. Higher level languages are problem-oriented languages
because the instructions are suitable for solving a particular problem.
For example, COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is mostly suitable for business
Oriented applications. There are some numerical & mathematical oriented languages like
FORTRAN (Formula Translation) and BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code).
Advantages of High Level Languages

#High level languages are easy to learn and use

Categories of programming languages
 Numerical Languages
Early computer technology dates from the era just before World War 2 in the late 1930s to the
early 1940s. These early machines were designed to solve numerical problems and were
thought of as ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS. Numerical calculations were the dominant
form of application for these early machines.
 Business Languages
Business data processing was an early application domain developed after numerical
applications. In 1959, the US department of Defence sponsored a meeting to develop COMMON
BUSINESSLANGUAGE (CBL), which would be a business-oriented language that used English
as much as possible for its notation. This, in turn, led to the formation of a Short Range
Committee to develop COBOL.
 Artificial Intelligence Languages (AI)

The first step towards the development of AI languages commenced with the evolution of IPL
(Information Processing Language) by the Rand Corporation. The major breakthrough
occurred, When John McCarthy of MIT designed LISP (List Processing) for the IBM 704.
Later, more AI languages like SNOBOL & PROLOG were designed.
 Systems Languages
Because of the need of efficiency, the use of assembly language held on for years in the system
area long after other application domains started to use higher-level languages. Many systems
programming languages such as CPL & BCPL were designed, though not widely used. The
major landmark here is the development of UNIX, where high level languages also proceed to
work effectively.
What makes a Good Language?

Every language has its strengths and weaknesses.
For example, FORTRAN is a particularly good language for processing numerical data, but it
does not lend itself very well to organize large programs.
PASCAL is very good for writing well structured and readable programs, but it is not as flexible
as the C programming language.

C++ embodies powerful object-oriented features, but it is complex and difficult to learn. The
choice of which language to use depends on the type of computer used, type of program, and the
expertise of the programmer.
Following are the most important features that would make a programming language efficient
andeasy to use:
Clarity, Simplicity and Unity: A programming Language provides, both a conceptual frame
work for thinking about algorithms and a means for expressing these algorithms. The syntax of a
language should be such that programs may be written, tested and maintained with ease.
Orthogonality: This refers to the attribute of being able to combine various features of a
language in all possible combinations, with every combination being meaningful. Orthogonality
makes a language easy to learn and write programs, because there are fewer exceptions & special
cases to remember.
Naturalness for the application: A language needs syntax that when properly used allows the
program structure to reflect the underlying logical structure of the algorithm. The language
should provide appropriate data structures, operations, control structures and natural syntax for
the problem to be solved.
Support for abstraction: Even with the most natural programming language for an application,
there is always a substantial gap remaining between the abstract data structures & operations that
characterize the solution to a problem and the particular data structures and operations built into
a language.
Portability of Programs: Portability is an important criterion for many programming projects

which essentially indicates the transportability of the resulting programs from the computer on
which they are developed to other computer systems. A language whose definition is
independent of the features of a particular machine forms a useful base for the production of
transportable programs.
Cost of use: Cost of use is measured on different languages like:

# Cost of program execution: Optimizing compilers, efficient register allocation, design of
efficient run-time support mechanisms are all factors that contribute towards cost of program
execution. This is highly critical for large programs that will be executed continuously.
# Cost of Program creation, testing & use: This implies design, coding, testing, usage&
maintenance solutions for a problem with minimum investment of programmer time &energy.
Cost of Program Maintenance: The highest cost involved in any program is the total life-
cycle costs including development costs & the cost of maintenance of the program while it is in
production use.
ALGORITHM
Algorithm is a step – by – step procedure which is helpful in solving a problem. If, it is written
in English like sentences then, it is called as ‘PSEUDO CODE’.
PROPERTIES OF AN ALGORITHM
An algorithm must possess the following five properties −
 Input
 Output
 Finiteness
 Definiteness
 Effectiveness
Example
Algorithm for finding the average of three numbers is as follows −
 Start
 Read 3 numbers a,b,c
 Compute sum = a+b+c
 Compute average = sum/3
 Print average value
 Stop
FLOW CHART
Diagrammatic representation of an algorithm is called flow chart.

Symbols used in flowchart are mentioned below –
Name Symbol Purpose
Terminal start/stop/begin/end
Oval
Input/output Input/output of data
Parallelogram
Process Any processing to be performaed

can be represented
Rectangle
Decision Decision operation that determine

box which of the alternative paths to
be followed
Diamon
Connector Used to connect different parts of

flowchart
Circle
Flow Join 2 symbols and also represents

flow of execution
Arrows
Pre defined Module (or) subroutines specified

process else where
Double Sided Rectangle

Name Symbol Purpose
For loop shows initialization, condition and

symbol incrementation of loop variable
Hexagon
Example
Given below is the flowchart for finding an average of three numbers −

Chapter 2: Introduction to C Programming
EVOLUTION & CHARACTERISTICS OF C LANGUAGE
During second generation of Computers (1956-57), commercial application problems used

computers and this further increased in mid 60s.
 This lead to the development of a series of High-Level programming languages like
BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, PASCAL, SNOBAL, PROLOG, LISP, etc.,
 which were effectively used in problem solving.
 These High-Level programming languages were application specific
 Nowadays high level languages like C, C++, C# are becoming increasingly popular and
earlier programming languages like BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, etc. are
becoming outdated.

 This is because C language being a high level language satisfies varying requirements of
 users - like
It can be used as systems programming language.
The UNIX OS has been written in C.
 Algol appeared only few years after FORTRAN, but was much more sophisticated.
 CPL was also big, but had very large number of features which made it difficult to learn and
 implement it.
 BCPL was modified CPL including only basic features.
 B was written by Ken Thompson for an early implementation of UNIX, which was a further
 simplification of CPL.
 (Both BCPL and B were useful only while dealing with certain kind of problems)
 Ritchie’s achievement in C was to restore some of the lost generality in BCPL & B, mainly
 by the cunning USE OF DATA TYPES.
 In 1978, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan jointly published a detailed description of C
language document, known as K & R ‘C’. It was extensively used in Bell labs before it was
 released to commercial applications in 1978.
 Some of the drawbacks of K & R ‘C’ implementations are overcome by ANSI (American
National Standards Institute) standards.

Characteristics of ‘C’
 ‘C’ is a general purpose programming language.

(1) It can be used for systems programming, and
(2) It can be used to develop application programs required to solve a variety of
scientific and engineering problems.
 ‘C’ language offers a close interaction with the interior (hardware) of the computer. It can be
used to configure or change the hardware set-ups, memory locations/register contents, etc.
Hence ‘C’ may be called a Middle Level language as it can be used both as a High Level
language and a Low Level language.

 ‘C’ is a structured programming language. Program can be structured in form of
functional modules or blocks. A proper collection of these modules makes a complete
program. Such modular structure makes program debugging, testing and maintenance easier.

 ‘C’ is highly portable. That is, programs written on one computer can be run on any other
 computer with little or no modifications.
 ‘C’ has a rich set of built-in-functions and operators which can be used to write any
 complex program.
 ‘C’ supports various data types like integer numbers, floating point numbers, characters,
 etc.
 ‘C’ has a very few keywords (reserved words – only 32).
 ‘C’ is case sensitive, for example num is different from NUM.
 ‘C’ supports pointers and operations on pointers.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF A ‘C’ PROGRAM
Documentation Section
Link Section
User Definition Section
Global Declaration Section
main( ) Function Section
{
Local Declaration Part
Executable Part
}
Subprogram Section
Function 1
Function 2
USER DEFINED FUNCTIONS
Function n
Documentation Section:
 Consists of a set of comment lines giving the name of the program, author, and other
 details which the programmer would like to use later.
 These are non executable lines i.e., compiler ignores these comment lines.
Example:
/* Computing and Printing Employee’s Salary Slip */
/* Prepared and compiled at NMAMIT, NITTE */
/* Prepared on April, 2021 */
Link Section:
It provides instruction to the compiler to link functions from the system library.
Example : #include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

#include <string.h>
User Definition Section:

In this section the user defines all SYMBOLIC CONSTANTS
Example : #define PI 3.141
#define CITY “Bangalore”
#define CONDITION ‘y’
#define AVEARGE 76.35
Note: Link Section and User Definition Section are together called as the ‘PREPROCESSOR
STATEMENTS’ OR ‘PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES’
Global Declaration Section:

 Some variables or functions in the program are required to be accessed by more than one
 function. They have to be declared as global variables or global functions.
 Such Global declaration have to be made before the main( ) function.
main( ) Function:
  Every ‘C’ program must have only one main( ) function.
  Execution of ‘C’ program starts from the main( ) function.
  It should be written in lower case letters and should not be terminated by a semicolon.
 It calls other library functions and user defined functions
Braces:
  A pair of curly braces ‘{’ & ‘}’ are used in the main( ) function section.
 The left brace {represents the beginning of execution of the main function and the right
 brace} represents the end of execution of the main function.
 These braces are also used to indicate the begining and end of user-defined functions and
compound statements.
Local Declaration Part:

  This part of the main( ) function declares all the variables used in the executable part
 Some of the variables may be initialized, i.e., assigned with initial values.
Examples: int a,b=11,c;
float m=23.05,n;

char c1=’y’,c2=’ ’,c3=’n’;
void Show(int x,int y);
Executable Part:
 This part consists of statements which are instructions to computer to perform specific
 operations.
 They may be input-output statements, arithmetic statements, control statements and other
 statements.
 All such statements terminate with a semi colon.
Sub Program Section:

  This section consists of user defined functions.
  User defined functions are functions written by user to perform a specific task.
  They are declared in the Global or Local declaration section.
 They may be written after or before the main( ) function.
/***********DOCUMENTATION SECTION*************/
/* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE AREA OF A
CIRCLE PREPARED BY XYZ
PREPARED ON 26-02-2006 */
/*************LINK SECTION*******************/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
/***********USER DEFINITION SECTION**********/

#define PI 3.141
/**********GLOBAL DEFINITION SECTION**********/

void Accept();
void Compute();
void Show();
float rad,area;
/**********MAIN() FUNCTION SECTION***********/

void main()
{ /* Start of main() function */
clrscr(); /* To clear the dispaly screen */
Accept(); /* To read in the input data values */
Compute(); /* To compute the result */
Show(); /* To display the result */
} /* End of main() function */
/***********SUB PROGRAM SECTION***************/
void Accept() /*User defined function 1 */

{
printf("\n\n\tEnter the radius of the circle:");
scanf("%f",&rad);
return; /*Return to main function */
}
void Compute() /*User defined function 2 */

{
area=PI*rad*rad;
return; /*Return to main function */}
void Show() /*User defined function 3 */

{
printf("\n\n\tThe Area of circle is: %f",area);
getch();
return; /*Return to main function */
}
C COMPILATION MODEL
Compiling and Executing a ‘C’ Program:
 Compiling a ‘C’ program means translating it into a computer understandable form

known as machine language. Compilation is done by a ‘C’ compiler.

 A compiler is a program which accepts the source code (actual ‘C’ program) as input and
 translates it to machine understandable form.
 ‘C’ compilers are available with or without editors. An editor is a program which allows
 the programmer to type in (key in) the program and modify (edit) it.
 Integrated Development Environment (IDE): It is an environment (a package) where we
find the compiler, editor, debugging tools, linking facilities, tracing and testing tools.
Example: Code Blocks, Turbo C (TC), Borland C, Microsoft C/C++, ANSI C, etc.

 The procedures used in compiling and executing a ‘C’ program differ from one operating
system to other.
Executing a C program written in C involves a series of steps, These are

  Creating the Program
  Compiling the Program
  Linking the program with the functions that are needed from the C library, and
 Executing the program.
Figure below illustrates the process of creating, compiling, and executing of C program, although
these steps remains the same irrespective of the operating systems( OS) commands for
implementing the steps and conventions for naming files may differ on different systems.
An OS is a program that controls the entire operation of computer system. All input/output
operations are channeled through the OS. The OS which is an interface between the hardware
and the user, handles the execution of user program.

‘C’ CHARACTER SET
Upper Case A to Z
Alphabets
Lower Case a to z
Digits 0 through 9
, Comma / Slash
. Period % Percentage
Special : Colon & Ampersand
Characters ; Semicolon ^ Caret
‘ Apostrophe (single quote) ~ Tilde
“ Double quote < Less than

? Question mark > Greater than
! Exclamatory mark \ Back slash
_ Under score ( Left parenthesis
# Hash ) Right Parenthesis
= Equal sign [ Left bracket
| Pipeline character ] Right bracket
+ Plus sign { Left brace
 Minus sign } Right brace
* Asterisk
‘C’ TOKENS
They are the smallest units or primitive elements of the grammar or syntax of ‘C’
language. Each and every line of a ‘C’ program will contain one or more ‘C’ tokens.
There are six types of tokens in ‘C’:

(1) Keywords (Reserved words)
(2) Identifiers (Variable names)
(3) Constants (Literals)
(4) Strings
(5) Operators
(6) Other special symbols
Example1: Consider the declaration statement in ‘C’

int n1, n2, sum ;
Here ‘C’ tokens are: int is a keyword
n1 n2 sum are identifiers/variables
,,; are special symbols used as delimiters
Example2: Consider an assignment statement in

‘C’ bal = amount – debit ;
Here ‘C’ tokens are:
=, - , are operators
bal ,amount ,debit -> are identifiers/variables

; is a special symbol used as delimiters
KEYWORDS AND IDENTIFIERS
Keywords used in ‘C’:
auto double int struct

break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static While
Identifiers:
 They are names of variables representing data, labels, function names, array names, user-
 defined names, user-defined objects, etc.
 They are formed by sequences of alphabets and digits
Rules for forming identifier names:

(1) The first character must be an alphabet (uppercase or lowercase) or an underscore
“_”
(2) All succeeding characters must be either letters or digits
(3) Uppercase and lowercase identifiers are different in ‘C’ i.e., identifiers are case
sensitive
(4) No special characters or punctuation symbols are allowed except the underscore
“_”
(5) No two successive underscores are allowed
(6) Keywords should not be used as identifiers
Examples of VALID identifiers in C

ping sumup2 at_a_rate story_of_1942
tick20 _check balance Q123

qlty_02 iNUM Cost one2next
Examples of INVALID identifiers in C

1stnum +point rate_in_$ flash@
min bal Rs.. break continue
tot__pay
 Names of the identifiers once declared in C cannot be used to declare some other function
 name or array name in a single program.
 Number of significant characters to be recognized in an identifier varies from C compiler
to C compiler
Constants and Variables are two essential ingredients for Data Processing Applications
without which we may not be able to develop programs in any of the high level programming
languages.
CONSTANTS
These are fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program. They are also
known as literals.
In ‘C’ constants can be classified as:

Constants
Numeric Constants Non-Numeric Constants
Integer Constants Character Constants
Floating Point Constants String Constants
Numeric Constants:
 They are simply numbers, a collection of one or more decimal digits.

 They are used for performing numeric calculations.
Non-Numeric Constant:
  These comprise of both numerals and letters of alphabets including special symbols.
 They are used in string manipulation applications like Natural Language Processing
(NPL)
Integer Constants:
  Integer constants in ‘C’ represent whole numbers without any fractional part.
  It is a sequence of digits without a decimal point.
  It can be prefixed with a plus or minus sign.
  When minus sign doesn’t precede the number, it is assumed to be a positive one.
 There should not be any special symbols like blank spaces, comma, etc.
The general form of an integer constant is:
Sign Digits
where,
Sign optional plus sign for positive numbers and minus sign for negative numbers.
Digits a sequence of digits
INTEGER CONSTANTS
VALID INVALID
2006 123902 +27 999 0.015oC 1,25,200 10 456
06 +2 0.027345+ 100.

THREE TYPES OF INTEGER CONSTANTS IN ‘C’
DECIMAL  Any combination of digits from 0 to 9
INTEGER  Preceded by optional + or – sign
CONSTANTS  Valid examples: 123, 109,78, 0, 76594, +236
 Any sequence of one or more digits from 0 to 7
OCTAL
 An octal constant must start with 0
INTEGER
 It can be a positive or negative octal number with signs ‘+’ or ‘’
CONSTANTS
 Valid examples: 027,0126, +052, 0551
 Any sequence of one or more digits from 0 to 9 inclusive of alphabets
HEXA
from ‘A’ to ‘F’ or ‘a’ to ‘f’.
DECIMAL
 An octal constant must start with 0x or 0X
INTEGER
 It can be a positive or negative hex number with signs ‘+’ or ‘’
CONSTANTS
 Valid examples: 0X2, 0x9F, 0Xbcd,0x23E
Floating Point Constants:
Floating point constants are real numbers with a decimal point embedded in it.
A floating point constant can be written in two forms:
1. Decimal or Fractional form:

  It should contain atleast one digit to the right of the decimal point.
 A ‘+’ sign or a ‘’ sign may precede it. If the sign doesn’t precede then the
number is assumed to be positive.
 The general form of the Decimal form of floating point constant is:
Sign Integer part Decimal point Fractional part
where,
Sign  optional plus or minus sign
Integer part  a sequence of digits before the decimal point
Decimal point  period symbol
Fractional part  a sequence of digits after the decimal point

 Examples: 1.50.563 123.0 27009.023 999.99
2. Exponential or Scientific form:
 The floating point constant in the exponential form can be expressed as:
Mantissa e Exponent
where,
Mantissa is either a real number expressed in decimal form or an integer
e  alphabet ‘e’ (lower case) or ‘E’ (upper case)
Exponent it is an integer number with an optional ‘+’ or ‘’ sign
 Examples: 0.4876E12 235.46e102 +0.001E97

43.2e06 156E+05 1.234e07
 Exponential notation is useful for representing numbers that are either very large
or very small in magnitude. Example: 3500000000 may be written as 3.5E9
&0.000000456 can be written as4.56E7
Character Constants:
  A character constant in ‘C’ is a single character enclosed within a pair of single quotes.
  Examples: ‘u’, ‘s’, ‘$’, ‘6’, ‘ ’, ‘?’, ‘!’, etc.
  Each character constant in ‘C’ is identified with its ASCII integer value.
 Character constants in ‘C’ are used mainly to represent some coding during data output.
String Constants:
 A string constant in ‘C’ denotes a sequence of one or more characters enclosed within a
pair of double quotes.
 Examples: “Hi” “y2k problem” “15th August” “2006”
“Welcome to C” “20% Loss”
 A single character string doesn’t have an equivalent integer value, but a single character
constant has an integer value. Eg. “A” and ‘A’ are not the same.

Backlash Character Constants:
 ‘C’ supports some special backlash character constants that are used in output function
 printf to obtain special print effects.
  It is a combination of two characters in which the first character is always a backlash ‘\’.
 The second character can be any one of the characters a, b, f, n, t, v, ’, ”, \ and 0.
  They are also known as ‘Escape Characters’ or ‘Escape Sequences’.
 A list of the Backlash Constants used are listed in table below:
Backlash Constants Meaning

\a System Alarm (Bell or Beep)
\b Backspace
\f Form feed
\n New line (Line feed)
\r Carriage return (CR)
\t Horizontal tab (Fixed amount of space)
\v Vertical tab
\” Double quote
\’ Single quote
\? Question mark
\0 Null character
\\ Backlash character itself
VARIABLES
A variable may be a data name that may be used to store data value.
  They are used to identify different program elements, hence also known as ‘Identifiers’.
  A variable may take different values at different times during execution of the program.
 Each variable refers to specific memory locations in the Memory Unit where numerical
values or characters can be stored.

 Example: sum = n1 + n2 here, n1 & n2 are variable names representing two different
quantities in two distinct memory locations. Similarly, sum is also a variable name which
 holds the sum of n1 and n2.
 Other examples: area, amount, class_strength, condition, etc.
Rules for forming variable or identifier names:
1. The first character must be an alphabet (uppercase or lowercase) or an underscore “_”

2. All succeeding characters must be either letters or digits.
3. An ANSI standard recognizes a length of 31 characters. Many compilers treat only first 8
characters in the variable name as significant. (Presently, there is no limit on the variable
name length).
4. Uppercase and lowercase identifiers are different in ‘C’ i.e., identifiers are case sensitive,
so Sum SUM and sum each are different variable names.
5. No special characters or punctuation symbols are allowed except the underscore “_”
6. No two successive underscores are allowed, white spaces not allowed.
7. Keywords should not be used as identifiers.
8. Writing the variable names in lower case letters is a good practice.
9. Choose meaningful names to variables which reflect the functionality or nature of the
variable.
Valid Variables Invalid Variables

part_no , author 2006salary , %sum
x2 , ph_value (actual_bill) , ph value
total_marks_2006 total__marks , long
DATA TYPES IN C
The Four fundamental data types:
‘C’ supports four basic data types:
Data type Keyword Size (in bytes)

Integer int 2
Real (Floating point) float 4

Double precision real double 8
Character char 1
int data type:
  int is the key word used to denote integer number.

  Integer constants in ‘C’ represent whole numbers without any fractional part.
  Integer numbers are stored on 16 bits (2 bytes).
  It is a sequence of digits without a decimal point.
  It can be prefixed with a plus or minus sign.
  When minus sign doesn’t precede the number, it is assumed to be a positive one.
  There should not be any special symbols like blank spaces, comma, etc.
 The range of integer number that can be stored depends on the word length of the
 computer. (word length: No. of bits accessed by processor at a time)
 For a 8 bit computer, range of int is given as:
-28-1 integer number +28-1-1
-128 integer number +127
 For a 16 bit computer, range of int is given as: -

216-1 integer number +216-1-1
-32786 integer number +32767
 Examples of valid int data type: 2006 123902 +27 999 06 +2
o
 Examples of invalid int data type: 0.0 15 C 1,25,200 10 456 0.027
345+ 100.
float data type:
 float is the key word used to denote a real number or floating point number (both in
 fractional form and exponential form).
 Floating point numbers are stored in 32 bits (4 bytes) with 6 digits of precision.
 Examples: 1.5 0.563 123.0 27009.023 999.99
0.4876E12 235.46e102 +0.001E97
43.2e06 156E+05 1.234e07

double data type:
  double is the key word used to denote a double precision floating point number.
 This is similar to float data type, only difference is that it is used to represent more
 precision of the floating point number.
 Double precision floating point numbers are stored in 64 bits (8 bytes) with 16 digits of
precision.
char data type:
  char is the keyword used to denote a character data type.

  A character constant in ‘C’ is a single character enclosed within a pair of single quotes.
  A character data type is stored on 8 bits (1 byte)
  Examples: ‘u’, ‘s’, ‘$’, ‘6’, ‘ ’, ‘?’, ‘!’, etc.
 Each character constant in ‘C’ is identified with its ASCII integer value.
Character ASCII Character ASCII Character ASCII Character ASCII
‘A’ 65 ‘a’ 97 ‘0’ 48 ‘=’ 61

‘Z’ 90 ‘z’ 122 ‘&’ 38 ‘{’ 123
Data type modifiers:
The storage size in bytes and range of values being represented by basic data types can be
modified with the help of the following modifiers or qualifiers as prefixes.
1. signed
2. unsigned
3. long
4. short
signed
 This modifier can be applied to integer variables although default integer declaration
already assumes a signed number.

 In a signed data type, the first bit (known as the most significant bit) is used to store the
 sign. If this bit is 0, the number is positive. If it is 1, the number is negative.
  A signed int data type can hold values in the range32786 to 32767
 When signed modifier is prefixed to char data type, it can store small integers in the
range128 to +127.
unsigned
  This modifier can be applied to both int and char data type variables.
 However, char data type is unsigned by default and can hold integer values in the range
 0 to 255.
 An unsigned int data type can hold integer values in the range 0 to 65535
long
  This modifier can be applied to both int and double data types.
  When applied to int, it doubles the storage size from 2 bytes to 4 bytes.
  long int can store integer values in the range2147483648 to +2147483647
  A long integer can also be declared as long int or simply long.
  When applied to double data type, the storage size increases from 8 bytes to 16 bytes.
 Long double can store floating point number values in the range 3.4E4932 to
+1.1E+4932
short
  This modifier can be applied to integer data type.

 It changes the size of int to its half. But since most of the compilers have 16 bits int, and
the same size is maintained for short int also.
Modifier Size (Bytes) Range of values

int 2 32768 to +32767
signed int 2 32768 to +32767
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535
short int 2 32768 to +32767
long int 4 2147483648 to +2147483647
unsigned short int 2 0 to 65535
unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295

char 1 128 to +127
signed char 1 128 to +127
unsigned char 1 0 to 255
float 4 3.4E+48 to +3.4E+48
double 8 1.7E+308 to +1.7E+308
long double 16 3.4E4932 to +1.1E+4932
DECLARATION OF VARIABLES
  All the variables must be declared before they are used in a ‘C’ program
 Declarations are necessary to indicate to the compiler the type of variable and to reserve
 the amount of memory required to store the values held by them.
 The syntax for declaring a variable is as follows:
data type variable list semicolon

where,
data type  Basic data type such as int, float, char, double, etc
variable list  one or more variables of the above data type.
Semicolon  a delimiter of this declaration.
Examples:
int count, i, j;
float average, sum, K[100];
char ch, ans;
double populn, cluster;
char city[30], train[20];
Assigning values to variables:
 The process of giving values to variables is known as “Assignment of values” to

variables.

  The assignment operator ‘=’ is used to assign a value to a variable.
 The value assigned to the variable is stored in the memory location that was reserved
for it during declaration.
Its syntax is:
Variable_name = value ;
Where,
Variable_name  represents the name of the variable where it must be stored.
=  is the assignment operator
value  is a constant or a variable
Two methods of assigning values to variables:
1. Assigning initial values to variables within the declaration section. This is called
initialization.
Example:int i, gd = 10, gm;
float n1, n2, sum = 0.0;char status, condn = ‘y’;
char place[ ] = “NITTE”, college[50];
2. Assigning values to variables in the executable part of the program.

Example: int k, num =30;
float m;
char ch; Declaration
char name[50];
k = num;
m = 3.45;
Assignment
name = “MsBeautiful”;

ch = ‘N’;
Assignment Statements:
 An assignment statement has the following format (or syntax)
Variable_name = Expressio ;
Where, n
Variable_name  represents the name of the variable where it must be stored.
=  is the assignment operator
Expression  is
  constant or a variable
  function name or function call
  array reference or structure reference
 variables and/or constants coupled with operators
Examples of valid assignment statements:
bonous_pay = (basic_pay * 12)/100;
test_avg = (t1m + t2m + t3m)/3 ;
d = b * b 4 * a * c; y = num[8];
int_rate = 5.25; big = largest(a,b,c);
Examples of invalid assignment statements:
x-y = x + y;
basic_pay + hra = gross_pay;
balance + 120 = int_rate * principal;
(a * a – b)/2.6 = d * d – c * c;
125 = reg_no;

Note: Expression must always come to the right side of the assignment operator ‘=’
Short hand assignment operators:
‘C’ has special short hand operators which will simplifies representation of certain assignment
statements.
Examples:
sum_of_digits_of_numbers=sum_of_digits_of_numbers+digit;
decrement_of_loop = decrement_of_loop – 1;
The above assignment statements can be written using short hand operators as:
sum_of_digits_of_numbers += digit;
decrement_of_loop –= 1;
Here the special operators ‘+=’ and ‘-=’ are short hand operators.
The general syntax for using short hand operators in assignment statements is:
Variable_name operator = expression ;
Short hand operator Meaning

+= Add and assign
= Subtract and assign
*= Multiply and assign
/= Divide and assign
%= Find remainder and assign
Valid examples of short hand operators:
Expression with short hand operator Meaning

sum += heights; sum = sum + heights;
p += a-b; p = p + (a-b);
down_count= 1; down_count = down_count 1;
q -= 1+r; q = q – (1+r);
x_to_pn *= a; x_to_pn = x_to_pn * a;
A *= 2/(B*B); A = A * 2/(B*B);
income /= tax; income = income / tax;
xyz /= sd-mn*a; xyz = xyz / (sd-mn*a);
profit %= (inv*4-loan); profit= profit%(inv*4-loan);
Benefits of using short hand operators:
  Assignment expressions are concise and easy to use

  Considerable saving over length of source code
 The variable name used on LHS of ‘=’ operator need not be re-typed in the RHS.
Multiple assignment statements:
‘C’ allows us to assign a single value to more than one variable name at a time.
Example: x = y = z = 0.0;
z is assigned a value 0.0, now value of z is assigned to y; and then value of y is assigned to x.
 In multiple assignment statements, the assignment is ‘Right associative’ as evaluation or

assignment will take place from right to left.
Example 1: a = b = (x+y=z)/2;
1. evaluation of (x+y+z)/2 will take place first

2. then the result is assigned to variable name b
3. finally, value of b will be assigned to a
Example 2: l = m= n *= p;
l = (m= (n *= p)); (right to left)

1. n = n*p
2. m = n
3. l = m
Note: Multiple assignments cannot be done during declaration of variable names.
Therefore, int p = int q = int r = 0;

ARE INVALID IN ‘C’
int x = y = z = 144;
(In the above statements first the variables must be declared and then multiple assignment
statements may be used)
Symbolic Constants:
 ‘C’ allows defining a variable name as having a constant value using a preprocessor
 directive #define
 Such preprocessor statements are placed at the beginning of the program and are not a
 part of the C program.
  Such statements begin with the # symbol and hence do not end with a semicolon.
 A symbolic constant can be used to define a numeric constant or a character/string
 constant.
  Once defined, a symbolic constant’s value can be used at many places in the program.
The syntax of symbolic constant is:
#define symbolic_name value of constant
Examples:
#definePI 3.141
#defineCLASS “H Section”
#defineMINI_BAL 500.0
#defineFLAG ‘Y’
Note:
 A symbolic constant should not be used as any other variable name

 Once a symbolic constant is defined, its value should can not be changed in the
program. Example: MINI_BAL = 1000.0; is illegal.
 There should not be white space between # and define
Declaring variables as Constant and as Volatile: [ADDITIONAL INFORMATION]
const type modifier:
 It is sometimes required that the value of a variable should denote a single value
 through out the program execution.
 A qualifier or modifier ‘const’ is use to do so. This modifier ‘const’ must be placed
before a data type declaration.
Examples:
const int max_count = 25;
const float int_rate = 6.25;
const char C = ‘Y’;
The above values of variables once initialized by the compiler cannot be changed.
volatile type modifier:
 It is sometimes required to dynamically change the value of a variable during program

 execution.
 The modifier or qualifier volatile is used for this purpose.
Examples:
volatile int score;
volatile float rate;
Delimiters:
  These indicate the boundary between the elements of a program
  They are also known as separators
  They separate constants, variables and statements.
 Comma, semicolon, single quotes, double quotes, blank spaces, etc. are the most
commonly used delimiters.

Chapter 3: Operators and Expressions
 C supports a rich set of operators. Operators are used in programs to manipulate data
 variables.
 An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical or logical
 manipulation.
 Operators usually form a part of the expressions and indicate the type of expressions –
 mathematical or logical expressions.
 The values that can be operated by these operators are called operands.
Major categories of operators in ‘C’:

C OPERATORS
Unary Operators Binary Operators Ternary Operator Special Operators
 Unary Minus  Arithmetic  A type of  Comma Operator
 Logical NOT Operators conditional  sizeof() operator
 Bitwise  Logical Operators operator in C  Address operator
Complementation  Relational  Dot operator
Operators  Arrow operator
 Bitwise Operators
(A) Unary Operator:
An operator that acts on only one kind of operand is known as unary operator.
Types of unary operators are:
(1) Unary Minus (2) Logical NOT operator (3) Bitwise complementation
(1) Unary Minus:

Any positive operand with unary minus operator changes its value to negative. In effect, a
positive number becomes negative, and a negative number becomes positive. Example:
Let x = 10, y = 5
z = x + (-y)

=10+(-5)=5
The logical NOT operator is considered later in Logical operators and bitwise complementation
is considered in bitwise operators.
(B) Binary Operators:
These operators act on two operands and hence are named as binary operators. Following are the
four types of binary operators:
(1) Arithmetic Operators (3) Logical Operators
(2) Relational Operators (4) Bitwise Operators
(1) ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
 The basic arithmetic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be
 performed on any built-in data type of C using these operators.
 Another operator, the modulus operator is added to the list of Arithmetic operators. It is used
to find the remainder after integer division.
Operator Meaning
+ Addition
 Subtraction or Unary Minus
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus or Modulo Division
Note:
(1) The modulus operator % can be used only for integer operands and not for floating point
operands.
(2) C does not have an operator for exponentiation. This can be performed by a library function
pow().
Examples of arithmetic operators are:

a–b a+b
where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are operands
a*b a/b
a%b -a * b
(a) Integer Arithmetic:

 When both the operands in a single arithmetic expression are integers, the expression is called
 integer expression and the operation is called integer arithmetic.
 Integer arithmetic always yields an integer value.
Examples: if a = 17 and b = 4, the following are the results of integer arithmetic.
a – b = 13
a + b = 21
a * b = 68
a / b = 4 (decimal part truncated)
a % b = 1 (remainder of division)
/**** Use of Modulus Operator ****/

#include <stdio.h>
int main() Output of Program:
{ Enter the no. of days: 200

int months,tot_days,days;
printf("\n\n\tEnter the no. of
days:"); scanf("%d",&tot_days); 200 days = 6 months & 20 days
months=tot_days/30;
days=tot_days%30;
printf("\n\n\t%d days = %d months & %d days", tot_days, months,
days); return 0;
}
(b) Floating Point or Real Arithmetic:

 An arithmetic expression involving only real (or floating point) operands is called Real
 Arithmetic.
 A real operand may assume values either in the decimal or exponential form.
 The result of real arithmetic operation is an approximation of the correct result to the number
of significant digits permissible.

 The modulus operator % cannot be used with real operands.
Examples: if x = 8.3, y = 3.2 and z are floats, then we will have:
z = x + y = 11.500000
z = x / y = 2.593750 z
= -y/x = -0.385542
(c) Mixed-mode Arithmetic:

 The arithmetic operation in which one of the operand is real and the other is integer, is called
 mixed-mode arithmetic operation.
 The value of such an expression is a float.
 But if the result is assigned to an int variable, the decimal portion of the result is truncated and
 only integer portion is assigned to the int variable.
 Example: int n;
n = 1 + (1.5) = 2.5
But ‘n’ is an integer variable, so only the integer part of 2.5 i.e., 2 is assigned to
‘n’. Therefore, n = 2.
Arithmetic Expressions:
 An expression involving arithmetic operators is called as an arithmetic expression.
 These expressions connect one or more operands (integer or real) through arithmetic
 operators.
 The conventional mathematical expressions that we normally write must be converted into
equivalent C expressions as C compiler understands only the symbols provided in the C
character set.
Some sample expressions and their C equivalent expressions are:

Mathematical Expression C Equivalent
a b
(a+b)/(a-b)
a b
2x2  (1 m2 ) (2*x*x/(p+q))*(1-m*m) OR
p q (2*x*x*(1-m*m))/(p+q)
T 2m1m2  g T = 2*m1*m2*g/(m1+m2) OR
m m T = (2*m1*m2/(m1+m2))*g
1 2

side a2 b2 2ab cos(x) side=sqrt(a*a+b*b-2*a*b*cos(x))
 v2
E mgh   E=m*(g*h+v*v/2)
 2 
exp(abs(a))+b // abs() returns the absolute value of an
ea  b integer.
y
X=exp(abs(y/sqrt(1.0+sin(theta))))
x e 1sin
Evaluation of Arithmetic expressions:

 Arithmetic expressions are evaluated from left to right
 Operands associated with highest priority are operated first
Arithmetic Operations Priority

Multiplication, Division and Modulus Highest priority
Addition and Subtraction Lowest priority
Rules for evaluation of arithmetic expressions:

 If the given expression involves parentheses, then the expression inside the parentheses must
 be evaluated first.
 The parenthesized and unparenthesized expressions follow the operator precedence as given
 in table above.
 If a unary minus is present in the expression, then the term associated with unary minus must
be evaluated before any other expressions.
Example:
2*((i/3)+4*(j-2)) // given i=8 and j=5;
=2*((8/3)+4*(5-2))
=2*(2+4*(5-2))
=2*(2+4*3)
=2*(2+12)
=2*14
=28

INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS
 C has two very useful operators generally not found in other languages.
 They are: Increment Operator denoted by ++
 The increment operator ++ adds 1 to the operand while -- subtracts 1 from the operand
 associated with it.
 These operators act only on integer operands.
 Both are unary operators taking the form
++m or m++ which is equivalent to m = m + 1 --m or

m-- which is equivalent to m = m - 1
 Increment and Decrement Operators are used extensively in for and while loops.
 ++m and m++ (or --m and m--) mean the same when they are used independently in
 statements which are not expressions.
 They behave differently when they are used in expressions on right-hand side of an
assignment statement as shown in table below.
Expression Meaning Known as

Pre increment – Integer variable on RHS will be
a = a+1;
x = ++a; incremented first, then it’s new value is assigned to
x = a;
variable on LHS.
Post increment – Present value of integer variable on
x = a;
x = a++; RHS is first assigned to variable on LHS, then integer
a = a+1;
on RHS is incremented.
Pre decrement– Integer variable on RHS will be
b = b-1;
y = --b; decremented first, then it’s new value is assigned to
y = b;
variable on LHS.
Post decrement– Present value of integer variable on
y = b;
y = b--; RHS is first assigned to variable on LHS, then integer
b = b-1;
on RHS is decremented.

/*** Use of increment and decrement operators
***/ #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ Output of the program:
int a=10,b=12;
Given a = 10 and b = 12
printf(“Given a = %d and b =
%d”,a,b); printf(“\na++ = %d”,a++); a++ = 10
printf(“\nb-- = %d”,b--); printf(“\nNow
b-- = 12
a = %d”,a); printf(“\nNow b = %d”,b);
printf(“\n++a = %d”,++a); printf(“\n--b Now a = 11
= %d”,--b); return 0;
Now b = 11
++a = 12
}
--b = 10
(2) RELATIONAL OPERATORS
 These are used to compare two operands. For example, compare the ages of two persons,
 compare the prices of two or more items, etc.
 They result in either a TRUE (Non-zero) value or FALSE (Zero) value.
Operator Meaning Precedence Associativity
< Lesser than 1 L to R
<= Less than or equal to 1 L to R
> Greater than 1 L to R
>= Greater than or equal to 1 L to R
== Equal to 2 L to R
!= Not equal to 2 L to R
Examples: x>y
age = = 25
cost <= 125.5

i != 10
days < 365
Relational Expressions:
 A simple relational expression contains only one relational operator. Its syntax is a follows:
ae1 relational_operator ae2
where, ae1 and ae2 are arithmetic expressions, which may be simple constants, variables or
combination of them.
 When arithmetic expressions are used on either side of a relational operator, the arithmetic
expressions will be evaluated first and then the results compared. That is, arithmetic operators
 have a higher priority over relational operators.
 Relational expressions are used in decision statements such as if and while to decide the
course of action of a running program.

Suppose a and b are two float point variables holding values 4.5 and 10.0,
Expression Interpretation Value
a <= b TRUE 1
a < -b FALSE 0
a*9 > 0 FALSE 0
a+5<b*2 TRUE 1
a*b == b*a TRUE 1
/*** Program to illustrate the use of relational operator

***/ #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, b;
float n1, n2;
printf(“\n\nEnter two integers and two real numbers:”);
scanf(“%d %d %f %f”,&a, &b, &n1, &n2);
if(a = = b)
printf(“\n\n a and b are equal”);
else
printf(“\n\n a and b are unequal”);
if(n1 > n2)

printf(“\n\n n1 is greater than n2”);
else
printf(“\n\n n1 is not greater than n2”);
return 0;
}
Output of Program:
1. Enter two integers and two real numbers: 10 20 2.5 0.25
a and b are unequal
n1 is not greater than n2
2. Enter two integers and two real numbers: 6 6 25 12.5

a and b are equal
n1 is greater than n2
(3) LOGICAL OPERATORS
 Logical operators are used in C for decision making.

 C has the following three logical operators:
Operator Meaning Precedence Associativity

&& Logical AND 2 L to R
|| Logical OR 3 L to R
! Logical NOT 1 L to R
 && and || are binary operators and ! is a unary operator.

 The result of these operators is either TRUE (ONE) or FALSE (ZERO).

 The logical operators are used to connect one or more relational expressions.
 Such an expression which combines two or more relational expressions is called as logical
 expression or compound relational expression.
 While using logical AND,
o If both the operands are TRUE, then the result of the logical expression is TRUE.
o Even if one of the operands is FALSE, then the result of the logical expression is FALSE.
 While using logical OR
o Only if both the operands are FALSE, then the result of the logical expression is FALSE.
o Even if, one of the operands is TRUE, then the result of the logical expression is TRUE.
 While using logical NOT, the compliment of the operand is obtained. That is, if the operand is
 TRUE, than the result will be FALSE or vice-versa.
 The results of the operands are shown in Truth table shown below:
Value of Expression
Op1 Op2
Examples Op1 && Op2 Op1 || Op2 !Op1 !Op2 of Logical
T T T T F F
T F F T F T
F T F T T F
F F F F T T
Expressions:
1. if(age > 55 && salary < 50000)
2. if(number < 0 || number > 100)
Suppose a, b and c are integers having values, 2, 4 and 3,

a && b || c && (!b)
= 2&&4||3&&(!4)
= 2&&4||3&&0
= 1||3&&0
= 1||0
=1
/*** PROGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE USE OF LOGICAL OPERATORS ***/

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ Output of the program:
int a,b,c;
a = 10; b = 5; 1 1 1
c = a && b;
b = a || b || c;
a = a && b || c;
printf(“\n\n%d %d %d”,a,b,c);
return 0;
}
(4) BITWISE OPERATORS IN ‘C’
 All the data stored in the computer memory are in sequences of bits (0’s and 1’s).
 Some applications require the manipulation of these bits.
 Manipulation of individual bits is carried out in machine language or assembly language.
 ‘C’ provides six operators to perform bitwise operations.
 These operators work only with int and char data-types. They cannot be used with floating
point numbers.
The six bitwise operators in ‘C’ are:

Operator Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Exclusive OR (XOR)
~ 1’s complement
<< Left shifting of bits
>> Right shifting of bits
(a) Bitwise AND:

b1 b2 b1 & b2
Result of bitwise AND is 1 when both the bits are 1, otherwise
Deptitis. ofzeroCSE,. NMAMIT Page 56
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Examples:
1. Considering normal binary
digits. int a = 4, b = 3; Decimal Binary
Equivalent binary value of a = 4 is 0000 0100
Equivalent binary value of b = 3 is 0000 0011 0 000
a&b is 0000 0000
1 001
2. Considering BCD (Binary Coded
Decimal). int m = 120, n = 060, p; 2 010
Equivalent BCD of m = 120 is 001 010 000
3 011
Equivalent BCD of n = 060 is 000 110 000
p=m&n is 000 010 000 4 100
5 101
6 110
(b) Bitwise OR (|): 7 111
Result of bitwise OR is 1 when one of the bits is 1,

otherwise (when both bits are 0s) it is zero. b1 b2 b1 | b2
0 0 0
0 1 1
Examples:
1 0 1
1. Considering normal binary
digits. int a = 6, b = 4; 1 1 1
Equivalent binary value of b = 4 is 0000 0100
a|b is 0000 0110
2. Considering BCD (Binary Coded

Decimal). int m = 340, n = 723, p;
Equivalent BCD of m = 340 is 011 100 000
Equivalent BCD of n = 723 is 111 010 011
p=m|n is 111 110 011
(c) Exclusive OR (XOR ^) :

Result of bitwise XOR is 1 if the bits are different (1 and 0 b1 b2 b1 ^ b2
0 0 0
or 0 and 1), otherwise (when both bits are 0’s and both bits
0 1 1
are 1’s) it is zero. 1 0 1
1 1 0
Examples
Considering normal binary digits.
int a = 6, b = 4;
Equivalent binary value of b = 4 is 0000 0100
a^b is 0000 0010
(d) One’s Complement (~):

 The bitwise complement operator is an unary operator which reverses the state of each bit
 within an integer or character.
 Each ‘zero’ get changed to ‘one’ and each ‘one’ gets changed to ‘zero’.
Example:
int b = 12;
= 1100 (in binary form)

 a = ~b
= 0011
(e) Left Shift Operator (<<) and Right Shift Operator (>>):

The left shift operator << shifts the bits to the left and the right shift operator >> shifts the bits to
the right.
General syntax for bitwise shift operator:
variable shift operator no. of bits
Number of bits to be shifted
Left or Right shift operator
Variable holding int or char data

type
Examples: m >> 2
n << 1
Example for bitwise left shifting:

Consider an integer variable a = 32
In binary form of 32 = 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
a << 2 = (128) = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Example for bitwise right shifting:

Consider an integer variable a = 32
In binary form it is a =
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
a >> 2 = (8) 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
/*** PROGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE USE OF BITWISE SHIFT OPEATORS ***/

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int x,y;
x = 128; y = 32;
printf(“\n\nBefore right shifting, x = %d”,x);
printf(“\nBefore left shifting, y = %d”,y);
x = x >> 2;
y = y << 3;
printf(“\n\nAfter right shifting x by 2, x =
%d”,x); printf(“\nAfter left shifting y by 3, y =
%d”,y); return 0;
}
Output of the program:
Before right shifting, x = 128
Before left shifting, y = 32
After right shifting x by 2, x = 32
After left shifting y by 3, y = 256
(C) TERNARY/CONDITIONAL OPERATOR
 It takes three operands.

 There is only one such operator in ‘C’ and it is called the ‘Conditional Operator’.
 It uses character pair ?:
 Its general syntax is
test_exp ? exp1 : exp2
where, test_exp is a test condition, usually a relational expression like a > b

exp1 and exp2 can be any valid arithmetic expressions or variables or constants.
 The ? : operator pair works as follows:

o If the result of the test_exp is TRUE, exp1 is evaluated and the value of exp1 is the
value of conditional operation.
o If the value of test_exp is FALSE, exp2 is evaluated and the value of exp2 is the
value of the conditional operation.

Examples:
(1) m = x > y ? a : b - 146;
if x > y is TRUE, the value of ‘a’ is assigned to ‘m’,
or if x > y is FALSE, the value of ‘b-146’ is assigned to ‘m’.
(2) flag = (c == ‘y’ || c == ‘Y’) ? 1 : 0;

if (c == ‘y’ || c == ‘Y’) is TRUE, 1 is assigned to ‘flag’
or if (c == ‘y’ || c == ‘Y’) is FALSE, 0 is assigned to ‘flag’.
/*** THE USE OF CONDITIONAL OPERATOR ***/

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b,min,max;
printf(“\n\nEnter two integer Enter two integer numbers: 23 56
numbers:”); scanf(“%d %d”,&a,&b);
printf(“\n\na = %d b = %d”,a,b);
max = a > b ? a : b; min = a < b ? a : a = 23 b = 56
b;
printf(“\n\nMaximum of a and b is
%d”,max); printf(“\nMinimum of a and b is Maximum of a and b is 56
%d”,min); return 0;
Minimum of a and b is 23
}
(D) SPECIAL OPERATORS
(i) The sizeof() Operator:

 The sizeof() operator returns the size (number of bytes) of the operand.
 The operand may be a constant, variable or any valid data-type.
 The operand is written within the parentheses of the sizeof operator.

 It is commonly used to determine the lengths of arrays and structures when their sizes are not
 known to the programmer.
 It is also used to allocate memory space dynamically to variables during the execution of the
program.
Examples:
a = sizeof (int);
y = sizeof (avg);
/**** USE OF SIZEOF() OPERATOR ****/
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x;
float y;
char ch = ‘y’; Size of x = 2 Size
x = 10; y = 100.0;
of y = 4 Size of
printf(“\n\nSize of x = %d”,sizeof(x));
printf(“\nSize of y = %d”,sizeof(y)); ch = 1 Size of
printf(“\nSize of ch = %d”,sizeof(ch));
double = 8
printf(“\nSize of double = %d”,sizeof(double));
return 0;
}
(2) The Comma Operator:

 The comma operator can be used to link the related expressions together.
 A comma linked list of expressions are evaluated left to right and the value of the right most
 expression is the value of the combined expression.
 Examples:
(1) value = (x = 10, y = 5, x+y); first assigns the value 10 to x, then assigns 5 to y, and finally
assigns 15 (i.e., 10+5) to value.
(2) temp = a, a = b, b = temp; the comma operator is also used to exchange the values stored
in two memory locations.
(3) if(n1 > n2) temp = n1, n1 = n2, n2 = temp;
 It is also used in for loops
to initialize two variables simultaneously and
also increment or decrement two variables simultaneously.
(1) for(n = 1, m = 10; n <= m; n++, m++)

(2) for(i = 0; i < 10; k--, ++i)
 The comma operator can also be used in while loop statements.
 Examples:
(1) while(r = pnum % z, r != 0)
(2) while(ch = getchar(), ch == ‘y’)
/**** USE OF COMMA OPERATOR ****/
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b,temp;
b = (a = 20,a + 10);
printf(“\n\nBefore swapping, a = %d & b = %d”,a,b);
temp = a, a = b, b = temp;
printf(“\nAfter swapping, a = %d & b = %d”,a,b);
return 0;
}
Before swapping, a = 20 & b = 30
After swapping, a = 30 & b = 20
Shorthand Assignment Operators:

 Shorthand assignment operators associated with arithmetic operations have already been seen.
 The bitwise operators can also be written in shorthand form.
The shorthand arithmetic operators and bitwise operators:

Operator Assignment Expression Shorthand Assignment
+ (plus) a=a+b a += b
- (minus) a=a–b a -= b
* (asterisk) a=a*b a *= b
/ (slash) a=a/b a /= b
% (percentage) a=a%b a %= b
& (bitwise AND) a=a&b a &= b
| (bitwise OR) a=a|b a |= b
^ (XOR) a=a^b a ^= b
<< (left shift) a = a << b a <<= b
>> (right shift) a = a >> b a >>= b
C EXPRESSIONS
Expressions are basically operators acting on operands. An expression in C is defined as 2 or

more operands are connected by one operator. All operators discussed above can form different
expressions.
When an expression can be interpreted in more than one way, there are rules that govern how the
expression gets interpreted by the compiler. Such expressions follow C’s precedence and
associativity rules. The precedence of operators determine a rank for the operators.
PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY OF C OPERATORS
Operator Description Associativity Precedence

() Function call
L to R 1
[] Array references
+ Unary plus
- Unary minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement R to L 2
! Logical negation
~ Ones complement
* Pointer reference
& Address
sizeof() Size of an object
(type) Type cast (conversion)
* Multiplication
/ Division L to R 3
% Modulus
+ Addition
L to R 4
- Subtraction
<< Bitwise left shift
L to R 5
>> Bitwise right shift
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
L to R 6
> Greater than
>= Grater than or equal to
== Equal to
L to R 7
!= Not equal to
& Bitwise AND L to R 8
^ Bitwise XOR L to R 9
| Bitwise OR L to R 10
&& Logical AND L to R 11
|| Logical OR L to R 12
?: Conditional expression R to L 13
=
*= /= %=
+= -= &= Assignment operators R to L 14
^= |=
<<= >>=
, Comma operator L to R 15
For example, the expression a * b + c can be interpreted as (a * b) + c or a * (b + c), but the first
interpretation is the one that is used because the multiplication operator has higher precedence
than addition.

TYPE CONVERSION IN C
 The process of converting one type of data type to another, say change int to float or float
 to int is known as data type conversion or type casting.
 The general form of type casting is
Syntax:
(data type)variable
Example:
int a = 3; int a = 3;
float sum;
sum = 20/a;
float sum;
………………………………
Value of ‘sum’ is 6.00000 sum = 20/(float)a;

Value of ‘sum’ is 6.666666
Data type conversion can be done in two ways:

1. Implicit type conversion
2. Explicit type conversion
Implicit type conversion:
This type of conversion is usually performed by the compiler when necessary without any
commands by the user. Thus it is also called "Automatic Type Conversion". The compiler
usually performs this type of conversion when a particular expression contains more than one
data type. The compiler first performs integer promotion; if the operands still have different
types, then they are converted to the type that appears highest in the following hierarchy.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i = 17;
char c = 'c'; /* ascii value is 99 */
float sum;
sum = i + c;
printf("Value of sum : %f\n", sum );
}
Output:
Value of sum : 116.000000
Here, first c gets converted to integer, but as the final value is double, usual arithmetic
conversion takes place and the compiler converts i and c into 'float' and adds them yielding a
'float' result.
Explicit type conversion:
In Explicit type conversion, the user explicitly defines within the program the datatype, to which
the operands/variables of the expression need to be converted.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
double a = 4.5;
double b = 4.6;
double c = 4.9;
int result;
result = (int)a + (int)b + (int)c; //explicitly defined by
user printf("Result = %d", result); return 0;
Output:
Result = 12
Here, output result is 12 because in the resulting expression the user has explicitly defined the
operands (variables) as integer data type. Hence, there is no implicit conversion of data type by
the compiler.
(Additional Information)
Mathematical functions:
 C provides a large number of mathematical functions which readily calculate the values of
 trigonometric, hyperbolic and other functions.
 All these functions are defined in the header file math.h.
 Some of the most commonly used mathematical functions are:
Function Return type Meaning
acos(x) double Arc cosine of x (cos-1 x)
asin(x) double Arc sine of x (sin-1 x
atan(x) double Arc tangent of x (tan-1x)
Trigonometric
atan2(x,y) double Arc tangent of (x/y) [tan-1(x/y)]
cos(x) double Cosine of (x)
sin(x) double Sine of (x)

tan(x) double Tangent of (x)
cosh(x) double Hyperbolic cosine of x
Hyperbolic sinh(x) double Hyperbolic sine of x
tanh(x) double Hyperbolic tangent of x
abs(x) int Absolute value of x
ceil(x) double x rounded up to nearest integer
exp(x) double e to the power of x (ex)
fabs(x) double Absolute value of x
floor(x) double x rounded down to nearest integer
Other functions
fmod(x,y) double Remainder of x/y
log(x) double Natural log of x, x > 0 (logex)
log10(x) double Base 10 log of x, x > 0 (log10x)
pow(x,y) double x to the power of y (xy)
sqrt(x) double Square root of x, x >= 0
/*** USE OF MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS ***/

#include <stdio.h> Output of the program:
#include <math.h>
#include <conio.h> x = 40.000000 & y = 30.000000
#define PI 3.141 Square Root of x = 6.324555
int main() Sine of x = 0.642687

{ Cosine of y = 0.866075
float x = 40, y = 30; clrscr(); printf(“\n\nx =
%f & y = %f”,x,y); printf(“\n\nSquare Root Tangent of y = 0.577219
of x = %f”,sqrt(x)); printf(“\nSine of x =
8th power of x = 6553600000000.000000
%f”,sin(x*PI/180)); printf(“\nCosine of y =
Logarithm of x to base 10 = 1.602060
%f”,cos(y*PI/180)); printf(“\nTangent of y
= %f”,tan(y*PI/180)); printf(“\n8th power
of x = %f”,pow(x,8));
printf(“\nLogarithm of x to base 10 =
%f”,log10(x)); return 0;
}

Chapter 4: Managing Input and Output Operations
 Reading, processing and writing are the three essential functions of a computer.

 Every computer program has to take some data as input and write/print/display
the processed data as output.
There are two methods of data input:
1. Non-Interactive method:
Values are assigned to the variables in the program itself.
Example:
2. Interactive Method:
Data is supplied to the computer by the user through standard input device like the
key board.

Examples are the input functions like scanf, getchar, gets, etc. of ‘C’ which are
used to read data into the computer.
INPUT – OUTPUT FUNCTIONS
 ‘C’ is a functional programming language. i.e., a ‘C’ program is constructed by

making use of functions. ‘C’ provides a set of functions to perform the basic
input/output (I/O) operations.

 All these I/O functions are stored in a header file by name standard input output
library and is denoted by stdio.h

 We attach this header file to our C program by using the preprocessor
directive #include <stdio.h> at the beginning of the program.

#include <stdio.h> tells the compiler to search for the file named stdio.h and place
its contents at this point in the program. The contents of the header file become a part
of the source code when it is compiled.

 Some of the standard I/O functions frequently used in ‘C’ are:
scanf() printf() putchar()

getchar() getch() getche()
gets() puts()
 Note that the functions getch() and getche() are defined in another header
file by name conio.h
There are two types of I/O functions in ‘C’:
Formatted I/O functions: These enable the user to specify the type of data and the way in
which it should be read or written out.
Unformatted I/O functions: Using these types of functions, the user cannot specify the type

of data and the way in which it should be read or written out.
Input function/s Output function/s

Formatted scanf() printf()
getchar(),getch(), gets(),
putchar(), puts() etc.
Unformatted
getche(), etc.
FORMATTED INPUT
It refers to the input of one or more data types arranged in a particular format.
For example, consider

23.06 192 Nitte
A single line consists of three pieces of data arranged in a particular format.
The first part 23.06 must be read into a float variable.

The second part 192 must be read into an integer variable
The third part “Nitte” must be read into a string variable.
Such data must be read according to the sequence of their appearance. This can be done using
the input function scanf() in ‘C’.
For the above example the scanf() function is written as:

scanf(“%f %d %s”,&weight,&height,name);
Syntax of scanf() function:

scanf(“control string”, address_list);
OR
scanf(“control string”, &var1, &var2,… ...&varn);
“control string” contains one or more character groups (or field specifiers) which direct
the interpretation of input data.
address_list OR &var1, &var2,… ............................... &varn specify the address locations of
the variables where the data is stored.

Each character group (field specifier) starts with a % symbol.
Without the optional number which specifies the field width, the character group format is
% data type character
The table below shows a list of the character groups (or field specifiers) commonly used:
Character group Meaning
%c Read a single character

%d Read a decimal integer
%e Read a floating point number

%f Read a floating point number
%g Read a floating point number
%h Read a short integer
%i Read a decimal or hexadecimal or octal integer
%o Read an octal number
%p Read a pointer
%s Read a string
%u Read an unsigned integer
%x Read a hexadecimal number
Examples of scanf()functions:
scanf(“%d%f%c”, &n1,&n2,&ch);
scanf(“%d,%f,%c”,&num,&avg,&c1);
scanf(“%d %f %s”,&a, &total, msg);
Rules that govern the syntax of scanf():
 Control string must be enclosed with double quotes.


 For every input variable there must be one character group.

 Multiple number of character groups are allowed in a control string. They must be
separated by blank spaces.

 Each input variable must in the address_list must be preceded by an ampersand

(&) symbol.

 White spaces may be included in the address_list, but all variables in the
address list must be separated by commas.
 Address_list must not be enclosed within double quotes.

 The number of character groups, data type and sequence in the control string
should match those of the variables in the address_list.

 A comma should separate the control string and the address_list.
Reading Integer numbers:
The character group (or the field specifier) for reading the integer number is:
% w d
Data type character (d) – indicates that the

number to be read is in decimal integer
mode.
An integer number (w) – it specifies the

field width of the number to be read.
The conversion character (%) – it

indicates that the conversion
specification follows.
Consider the following example:
scanf(“%2d %5d”,&num1,&num2);
When the computer executes this statement, it waits for the user to enter values for
the variables num1and num2.
Let the values entered be: 50 31426.

50 will be assigned to num1and 31426 to num2.
Suppose the values entered are: 31426 50

num1 will be assigned with 31 (because of the field width %2d)
num2 will be assigned with 426 (unread part of 31426)
The value 50 that is unread will be assigned to the first variable in the next scanf() statement.
These kinds of errors can be eliminated if we use character groups without specifying the field
width (w).
Thus the statement scanf(“%d %d”,&num1,&num2);
will read the data 3142650 correctly and assign 31426 to num1and 50 to num2.
If we enter a floating point number instead of an integer, the fractional part may be ignored
and scanf() may skip reading further input.
In place of the optional field width specifier (w) if we use a asterisk * symbol, that particular
input field will be skipped.
For example, for the input statement scanf(“%d %*d %d”,&a,&b,&c);
if we enter 123 45 97, 123 will be assigned to a and 97 will be assigned to b, 45 will not
be assigned to b and will be skipped. garbage value will be assigned to c.
The data type character ‘d’ may be preceded by the letter ‘l’ (i.e., % ld) to read long integers.
Example:
/******READING INTEGER NUMBERS**************/
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b,c,x,y,z;

int p,q,r;
printf(“\n\n\tEnter three integer numbers:”);

scanf(“%d %*d %d”,&a,&b,&c);
printf(“\n\t a=%d b=%d c=%d”,a,b,c);
printf(“\n\n\tEnter two 4-digit integer numbers:”);

scanf(“%2d %4d”,&x,&y);
printf(“\n\t x=%d y=%d”,x,y);
printf(“\n\n\tEnter two integer numbers:”);

scanf(“%d %d”,&a,&x);
printf(“\n\t a=%d x=%d”,a,x);
printf(“\n\n\tEnter a nine digit integer number:”);

scanf(“%3d %4d %3d”,&p,&q,&r);
printf(“\n\t p=%d q=%d r=%d”,p,q,r);
printf(“\n\n\tEnter two 3-digit integer numbers:”);

scanf(“%d %d”,&x,&y);
printf(“\n\t x=%d y=%d”,x,y);
return 0;
Output of program:

Enter three integer numbers:
1 2 3
a=1 b=3 c=-29730
Enter two 4-digit integer numbers:

6789 4321
x=67 y=89
Enter two integer numbers:

44 66
a=4321 x=44
Enter a nine digit integer number:

123456789
p=66 q=1234 r=567
Enter two 3-digit integer numbers:

123 456
x=89 y=123
Reading real (floating point) numbers:
 Real numbers (both fractional and exponential notations) can be input by using
either of the character groups %f %e %g

For example, scanf(“%f %f %f”,&x,&y,&z);
with the input data 475.89 43.21E-1 678
will assign 475.89 to x, 4.321to y and 678.0to z

 If the number to be read is a double precision one, then the character group
%lf instead of %f must be used.


 A number may be skipped by using the %*f specification.
/********READING OF REAL NUMBERS**************/

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
float x,y;
double p,q;
printf("\n\n\tENTER THE VALUES OF X AND Y:");
scanf("%f %g",&x, &y);
printf("\n\t x=%f\n\ty=%f",x,y);
getch();
printf("\n\n\t ENTER THE VALUES OF P AND Q:");

scanf("%lf %lf",&p,&q);
printf("\n\t p=%.12lf\n\tq=%.10e",p,q);
return 0;
}
Output of program:
ENTER THE VALUES OF X AND Y:12.3456 12.3e-2
x=12.345600

y=0.123000
ENTER THE VALUES OF P AND Q:1.123456789 2.987654321
p=1.123456789000
q=2.9876543210e+00
Reading a single character:
 The simplest way of reading a single character from the standard input device
(Keyboard) is by using the function getchar() available in the header file stdio.h.

 The syntax of the getchar function is:
var_name = getchar();
where, var_name is a valid variable name, initially declared as chartype.
 When this statement is encountered, the computer waits until a key is pressed and
then assigns this character as a value to the getchar function.

For example,

char ch;

ch = getchar();

Suppose we enter the character ‘y’ through the keyboard, ‘y’ is assigned to ch.

 Since getchar is a function, it is used with a set of parenthesis ()

 Other functions that are used to read single variables are (available in conio.h):
getch(): Enables the user to enter only one character through the keyboard
without pressing the enter key.
getche(): Enables the user to enter only one character through the keyboard
without pressing the enter key, and will echo (display on monitor) the character
typed in. (The last letter ‘e’ in getche()stands for echo)
 The getchar function when executed waits until any character of the keyboard is
keyed in followed by pressing the ENTER (\n) key. Only after ENTER key is pressed,
execution is returned to the next statement of program.

 The getchar function echoes (displays on monitor) the character that has been
keyed in.

 We may use the scanf() function also to read a single character. For the above
example the use of scanf()would be:

char ch;
scanf(“%c”,&ch);
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ans;
printf(“\n\n\tWould you like to know my
name?”); printf(“\n\tEnter Y for YES and N for
NO:”); ans=getchar();
if(ans == ‘Y’ || ans == ‘y’)
{
printf(“\n\n\tMy name is BUSY BEE...!!!”);
getch();
}
else
{
printf(“\n\n\tYou are good for nothing...!!!”);

getch();
}
return 0;
}
1. Would you like to know my name? Enter Y

for YES and N for NO: Y My name is
BUSY BEE...!!!
2. Would you like to know my name? Enter Y

for YES and N for NO: N
You are good for nothing...!!!
Reading Character Strings:
 Suppose we want to read the string “Handsome” and assign it to a string variable
name
char name[20];
scanf(“%10c”,name); OR scanf(“%s”,name);
 Instead of the character group %10cif %6cis used, then only first 6 characters
of Handsome i.e., Handso will be assigned to name.

 Suppose for the above first scanf statement we enter Balaguru Swamy, only first
10 characters will be stored in name i.e., Balaguru S

Whereas with the second scanf statement, only Balaguru will be stored in name. (i.e.,
when %s is used, if white space is encountered, scanf will terminate)
 ‘C’ supports some special character groups for string variables only. They are
Example:
Special character
Meaning
groups for strings
Only the characters specified in the square brackets
%[characters] are permissible in the string.
If any other character is tried to enter, the string is
terminated by putting a NULL constant.
The characters specified in the square brackets after

the carot (^) symbol are not permitted.
%[^characters]
The reading of the string will get terminated when one
of these characters are encountered.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int no;
char name1[15],name2[15],name3[15];
printf(“\n\n\tEnter serial number and name1:”);

scanf(“%d %15c”,&no,name1);

printf(“\n\t%d %15s”,no,name1);
getch();

scanf(“%d %s”,&no,name2);
printf(“\n\t%d%15s”,no,name2);
getch();

scanf(“%d %15s”,&no,name3);
printf(“\n\t%d %15s”,no,name3);
return 0;

Reading Mixed Data Types (Mixed mode Input):
 The scanf()function can be used to read more than one type of data (mixed mode).

  In such situations, the programmer should take care of the
(1) number of input variables, (2) data type and (3) their order.
 If there is a type mismatch, scanf()function does not read the values input.

 For example, consider the scanf() statement
scanf(“%d %c %f %s”,&count,&code,&ratio,name);
The input values entered must be of the form 15 p 1.575 coffee for successful
reading of the values respectively to count, code, ratio and name.
 For the above example, on successful reading, the scanf() function will return a value
4 (i.e., the number of data types successfully read).

 Suppose the input values to the above example are of the form:
15 p coffee 1.575
o Then, scanf() function will return a value 2 because only two data
types have been successfully read.
o There is match between the control string parameters and address_list
parameters only for first two input values.
rd
o The 3 data was expected to be a floating type number, but a string data
type has been encountered. So scanf() terminates the scan soon after
reading the first two data types.
 If the input values for the above scanf()statement were of the form,
20 150.25 motor
The return value would be 1 since only one data (first data) has been correctly
read
 Making use of the return values, we can check the correctness of data input.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,r; float b; char c;
printf(“\n\n\tEnter the values of a, b and c:”);
r=scanf(“%d %f %c”,&a,&b,&c);
if(r==3)
printf(“\n\ta=%d b=%f c=%c”,a,b,c);
else
printf(“\n\tERROR IN INPUT...!!”);

return 0;
}
Output of program:
1. Enter the values of a, b and c:
12 3.45 A
a=12 b=3.45 c=A

23 78 9
a=23 b=78.000000 c=9
3. Enter the values of a, b and c: Y

12 67
ERROR IN INPUT...!!

15.75 23 X
a=15 b=0.750000 c=2
FORMATTED OUTPUT
 It refers to display of the processed values or results and messages on the display
screen according to the format (way of appearance) as desired by the programmer.

 It is highly desirable that the messages and values must be displayed in the most
legible (understandable) form.

 The printf() function is a standard formatted output function defined under the header
file stdio.h.

It’s general syntax is:
printf(“control string”, var_list);

OR
printf(“control string”, arg1,arg2,……argn);
 The control string indicates how many arguments follow and what their
types are.

Control string consists of three types of items:

1. Characters that will be placed on the screen as they appear
2. Character groups (format specifiers) that define the output format
for display of each item.
3. Escape sequence (backslash constants) such as \n, \t, \b, etc.
 arg1, arg2,…….argn are the list of arguments (variables) whose values are
formatted and printed according to the specifications of the control string.
The general format of the character group (format specifier)used in printf()is
%w.p type_specifier
where,
w is an integer number that specifies the total number of columns of output value
p is another integer which specifies the number of digits to the right of the decimal
point of the floating point number.
or
it is the number of characters to be printed from a string.
Both w and p are optional.
type_specifier is the character group (format specifier) like d, f, c, s, etc.

Output of integer numbers:
 The format specification for printing an integer number is
%wd
where,
w specifies the minimum field width for output. However is a number is greater
than the specified field width, it will be printed in full overriding the minimum
specification.
d specifies that the value to be printed is an integer.
 The number is written right justified in the given field width.


 Leading blanks will appear as necessary.

 Preceding w with a minus sign (−) will cause the number to be displayed in left
justification.
 Examples :
printf(“%d”,9876) 9 8 7 6
printf(“%6d”,9876) 9 8 7 6
printf(“%2d”,9876) 9 8 7 6
printf(“%-6d”,9876) 9 8 7 6
printf(“%06d”,9876) 0 0 9 8 7 6

Output of floating point numbers:
 The format specification for a floating point number in decimal notation is
%w.pf
 The format specification for a floating point number in exponential notation is
%w.pe
where,
w is an integer which specifies the minimum number of positions that are to be
used for the display of the value.
p is an integer which specifies the precision i.e., the number of digits to
be displayed after the decimal point.

 w and p are both optional specifications
For both the type of notations,
 The default precision is 6 decimal places.


 The negative numbers will be printed with a minus sign.

 The value when displayed, is rounded off to p decimal places and printed right
justified in the field of w columns.

 Padding the leading blanks with zeros can be done by preceding w with a zero.

 Printing with left-justification is possible by putting a minus sign before w.
A special field specification character “%*.*f”that lets the user define the field size during
run-time may also be used.
For example, printf(“%*.*f”,7,2,num);
is same as printf(“%7.2f”,num);
The advantage of this format is that the values for the width and precision may be supplied
during run-time, thus making the format a dynamic one.

Example: Consider the display of the number y = 98.7654 under different format specifiers.
printf(“%7.4f”,y); 9 8 . 7 6 5 4
printf(“%7.2f”,y); 9 8 . 7 7
printf(“%-7.2f”,y); 9 8 . 7 7
printf(“%f”,y); 9 8 . 7 6 5 4
printf(“%10.2e”,y); 9 . 8 8 e + 0 1
printf(“%11.4e”,-y); - 9 . 8 7 6 5 e + 0 1
printf(“%-10.2e”,y); 9 . 8 8 e + 0 1
printf(“%e”,y); 9 . 8 7 6 5 4 0 e + 0 1
/******PRINTING OF FLOATING POINT NUMBERS******/
#include <stdio.h> Output of the program:

int main()
{
float y = 98.7654; clrscr(); 98.7654
printf(“\n\n\t%7.4f”,y); 98.765404
printf(“\n\t%f”,y); 98.77
printf(“\n\t%7.2f”,y); 98.77
printf(“\n\t%-7.2f”,y); 0098.77
printf(“\n\t%07.2f”,y); 98.77
printf(“\n\t%*.*f”,10,2,y);
printf(“\n\n\t%10.2e”,y);
printf(“\n\t%12.4e”,-y); 9.88e+001
printf(“\n\t%-10.2e”,y); -9.8765e+001
printf(“\n\t%e”,y); 9.88e+001
return 0; 9.876540e+001
}

Printing of Single Character:
 Using the formatted output, a single character can be displayed in a

desired position using the format

%wc
 The character will be right justified in the field of w columns.

 The display can be made left justified by placing a minus sign before w

 The default value of w is 1.
Printing of Strings:
 The format specification for printing strings is similar to that of floating

point numbers.

%w.ps
 where w specifies the field width for display

 p specifies that only first p characters of the string are to be displayed.

 The display is right justified

Unformatted output of single character:
 Using unformatted output, a single character can be output by using the function
putchar() available under the header file stdio.h.

 The syntax of putchar()is:
putchar(var_name);
where var_nameis a char type variable containing a character.
 This statement displays the character contained in var_nameon the display monitor.

Unformatted output of a string:
 Using unformatted output, a string can be output using the function

puts() available under the header file stdio.h.

 The syntax of puts()function is
puts(string);
where, stringis either a variable name containing a string or it is a string constant.
 This statement displays the string on to the display terminal and appends a
new line character(\n) in the end.
Additional Info : Character Testing Functions:
‘C’ has a set of library functions which are used to test the type of character, i.e., whether
a character is a lower case or upper case alphabet or a digit or printable character, etc.
All these functions are stored in a header file by name ctype.h
Some of the Character Testing Functions

Function Test
isalnum(c) Is c an alphanumeric character?
isalpha(c) Is c an alphabetic character?
isdigit(c) Is c a digit?
islower(c) Is c a lower case letter?
isupper(c) Is c an upper case letter?
isprint(c) Is c a printable character?
ispunct(c) Is c a punctuation mark?

isspace(c) Is c a white space character?

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PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer System

Introduction to Computer generations and types, CPU, Primary Memory, Secondary

Chapter 2: Introduction to C Programming Language

Chapter 3: Operators and Expressions

Arithmetic expressions, Evaluation of expressions, Precedence of Arithmetic operators,

Chapter 4: Managing Input and Output Operations

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 2

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 3

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Sl. No. Generation & Description

Fifth Generation Computers

1. Scientific, Engineering and Research:

Modern-day computer systems usually contain, at a minimim, the following hardware

 The System Unit

The System Unit

Input / Output Devices

 These allow your computer to send/receive data to/from other computers.

Measurements in Computer Science

 Bit (Binary Digit): Can only have a value of either 0 or 1.

Types of Computer Ports

2. Parallel Port (LPT ports):

3. USB (Universal Serial Bus):

11. Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port:

12. Ethernet Port:

Problem solving is a creative process. It is an act of defining a problem, determining the

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT STEPS

The various steps involved in Program Development are:

  Defining or Analyzing the problem

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 9

Defining or Analyzing the Problem:

In general terms, this step entails

To design a program means to create a detailed description, using relatively ordinary

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 11

Compiling and Running the Program

Compilation is a process of translating a source program into machine understandable

Testing and Debugging

Programs require a continuing process of maintenance and modification to keep pace

INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

What is a Programming Language?

Why Study Programming Languages?

# to master different programming paradigms

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 13

TYPES AND CATEGORIES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:

Types of Programming Languages

There are two major types of programming languages:

Low Level Languages

(a) Machine Language

For example, a program instruction may look like this: 1011000111101

High Level Languages

Advantages of High Level Languages

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 15

 Artificial Intelligence Languages (AI)

What makes a Good Language?

Dept. of CSE, NMAMIT Page 16

Portability of Programs: Portability is an important criterion for many programming projects

Cost of use: Cost of use is measured on different languages like:

/*USER DEFINITION SECTION/

/GLOBAL DEFINITION SECTION/

/MAIN() FUNCTION SECTION*/

/*SUB PROGRAM SECTION*****/

void Accept() /User defined function 1 /

void Compute() /User defined function 2 /

void Show() /User defined function 3 /