Biology for Engineers

B.Tech. Sem.-3 (For Mechanical & Civil Engineering)

Model questions for the year 2023 exam
Set-1
1. How is the five-kingdom classification more advantageous than the two-kingdom
classification?
Ans: The five-kingdom classification is based on the following criteria:
 The structure of the cell
 The structure of the body
 The mode of nutrition
 The kind of reproduction and
 Phylogenetic relationships among different organisms and kingdoms.
The two-kingdom classification is based simply on plants and animals.
2. Who proposed the five-kingdom classification?
Ans: RH Whittaker proposed the five-kingdom classification. The five kingdom classification
includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
3. What are the similarities between virus particles and non-living objects?
Ans: Virus particles are intermediate between living and non-living things. They behave like
living things inside their hosts and like non-living crystals outside their host cells. They resemble
non-living things in the following aspects:
 Inert nature without living activities.
 They cannot reproduce themselves.
4. Mention the main difference between a virus and a viroid?
Ans: A virus contains protein coal called the capsid and a core containing the genetic material.
That genetic material may be either DNA or RNA. But, the viroid contains only genetic material,
but a protein coat.
5. What are the eukaryotic kingdoms of the five-kingdom classification proposed by RH
Whittaker?
Ans: The organisms with cells containing a true nucleus are called eukaryotic organisms. The
four eukaryotic kingdoms in the five-kingdom classification include Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and
Animalia.
6. State whether the chemosynthetic bacteria are autotrophic or heterotrophic?
Ans: The chemosynthetic bacteria are autotrophic because they prepare their own food.
7. What are the economic uses of archaebacteria and heterotrophic bacteria?
Ans: Archaebacteria converts milk into curd and cheese and produces methane gas in biogas
plants. Heterotrophic Bacteria improve the fertility of the soil by nitrogen
fixation, ammonification and nitrification. Example: Rhizobium bacteria.
8. How can a farmer improve his crop yield by using cyanobacteria in his agricultural
fields?
Ans: Blue-green algae that belong to the kingdom monera are also called cyanobacteria. They
have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen due to the presence of heterocysts. After the death
and decay of their filaments, a lot of nitrate-nitrogen is mixed up with the soil. Crop plants can
absorb this nitrate nitrogen, grow vigorously, and produce more grains.
Short Answer Type Questions (2 Marks)
9. Why are both autotrophic cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria classified under
eubacteria of the kingdom Monera?
Ans: The similar features of autotrophic cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria are as follows:
 They do not have a true nucleus with a nuclear membrane.
 DNA is directly present in the cytoplasm without a protein coat.
 All the ribosomes are of the 70S type.
 All the membranous organelles are absent.
10. Why is Trypanosoma included in the kingdom Protista?
Ans: Trypanosoma is a unicellular organism. It consists of a true nucleus with a nuclear
membrane. It also consists of membranous organelles. So, it is a unicellular eukaryote. All
unicellular eukaryotic organisms are included in the kingdom Protista. The other features of
Trypanosoma are the presence of nuclear endosomes, granular food particles, and binary fission.
11. What are the differences between three fruiting bodies produced by different
ascomycetes fungi?
Ans: The fruiting bodies of ascomycetes are called ascocarps. There are three types. The
differences between apothecium, perithecium, and cleistothecium are as follows:

Apothecium Perithecium Cleistothecium

It is cup-shaped. It is flask-shaped. It is a closed spherical structure.
Eg., Peziza cups Eg., Neurospora Eg., Penicillium
12. Why is Neurospora extensively used in genetic experiments?
Ans: Neurospora is used in genetic experiments for three reasons.
(1) It can easily be grown in a nutrient medium containing simple organic substances, mineral
salts, vitamins, and hormones in the lab.
(2) Its life cycle is very short.
(3) It is very easy to introduce mutations in Neurospora by using X-rays.
13. Define the terms ‘phycobiont’ and ‘mycobiont’?
Ans: Lichens consist of a permanent association between an alga and a fungus. The algal
component is called phycobiont, and the fungal component is mycobiont. In this permanent
symbiosis, the fungus mycelium absorbs and supplies water and mineral nutrients to the alga.
The alga prepares food by photosynthesis and supplies it to the fungus.
14. Why are some flowering plants parasitic?
Ans: Some plants become parasitic to absorb water, minerals, foot materials from other plants,
as they do not have chlorophyll to manufacture food. Cuscuta, Cassytha, Orobanche, Loranthus,
and Striga are parasitic plants.
15. Why do polluted water bodies show more numbers of Nostoc and Oscillatoria under the
microscope?
Ans: A water body suddenly turns green due to the rapid growth of algae. This is called an algal
bloom. If you collect that water and observe it under the microscope, you can find a number of
algal species including Nostoc and Oscillatoria.

Long Answer Questions (3 Marks)

16. What is Taxonomy? What is its scope?
Ans: The branch of science that deals with the nomenclature, identification, description, and
classification of both living and extinct organisms are called taxonomy. The living organisms
include bacteria, fungi, non-flowering plants, flowering plants, protozoans, helminth
worms, annelids, arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms, and vertebrates. It is based on the
external features, internal features, and phylogenetic relationships of organisms. The organisms
are classified into different taxa or levels like Kingdom, Phylum, Division, Class, Order, Family,
Genus and Species.
17. What are ‘pearls of the ocean’? What are their deposits?
Ans: Diatoms are nicknamed “pearls of the ocean”. They are so-called because of the
ornamentations on their cell walls. The siliceous cell walls of diatoms are called the frustules.
They are the chief autotrophs in the surface waters of oceans.
After death, diatom cells reach the bottom of the ocean and accumulate there for billions of
years. These deposits are for the diatomaceous earth. It has a number of applications in different
industries.
18. How are fungi useful in our daily lives?
Ans: Saprophytic fungi keep the earth and our surroundings clean by decomposing dead plants
and animals. Fungal mycelium binds the soil particles together and improves the soil structure.
Some fungi can be used in the biological control of pests and diseases. Edible mushrooms are
rich in proteins and vitamins. Some fungi are cultured in labs to produce useful organic acids.
Yeast is used in the bakery industry and also in the fermentation of carbohydrates into alcohol.
19. How are ‘fairy rings’ formed on the forest floor after heavy rains?
Ans: Soil consists of a thick mat for the mycelium of mushrooms. After heavy rains, nutrients in
the soil get dissolved in soil moisture and are easily absorbed by mycelia. The mycelia grow in
such a way that the central part gets exhausted and the peripheral part grows in diameter. The
mycelia produce a ring of fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. They appear like fairy rings.
20. What are insectivorous and parasitic plants? Give some examples
Ans: The insect-eating plants are called insectivorous plants. They live in soils that are
deficient in nitrogen, So, they depend on insects for available nitrogen. They are butterworts,
pitcher plants, sundews, and venus flytrap. Plants that depend on other plants for
water, minerals, and food are called parasitic plants. The roots of parasitic plants are called
haustoria. Some of the parasitic plants are dodder, Orobanche, Loranthus, Striga.

Very Long Answer Questions (4 Marks)

21. What are the merits of the five-kingdom classification?
Ans: The merits of the five-kingdom classification are given below:
1. The system of classification proposed by RH Whittaker is more scientific, accurate, and
natural with evolutionary relationships.
2. It takes into account the presence of the cell wall, nucleus, mode of nutrition, and
reproduction into consideration.
3. In the five-kingdom classification, the living organisms are classified into different
groups based on their similarities and evolutionary relationships.
4. The five-kingdom classification makes us understand the phylogeny and evolutionary
origins of organisms.
22. How are bacteria classified?
Ans: (i) Bacteria are classified on the basis of the shapes of cells
1. A rod-shaped bacterium is called bacillus.
2. A spiral-shaped bacterium is called the spirillum.
3. A comma-shaped bacterium is called the vibrio.
4. The spherical shaped bacterium is called the coccus.
5. A corkscrew-shaped bacterium is called the spirochaete.
(ii) Bacteria are classified on the basis of the nature of the cell wall
1. Gram-positive bacteria.
2. Gram-negative bacteria.
(iii) Bacteria are classified on the basis of the type of respiration
1. Aerobic bacteria or Aerobes in the presence of oxygen.
2. Anaerobic bacteria or Anaerobes in the absence of oxygen
(iv) Bacteria are classified on the basis of mode of nutrition
1. Autotrophic Bacteria: prepare their own food material
2. Heterotrophic Bacteria: cannot prepare their own food material
23. What are the different characteristic features of euglenoids?
Ans: The characteristic features of euglenoids are given as follows:
 They are unicellular organisms with a true nucleus.
 They are commonly found in freshwater bodies.
 The outer hard and tough cell membrane is called a pellicle.
 The anterior part of the cell has two flagella.
  There is a photosensitive eyespot near the flagella.
 They are autotrophic in nutrition due to the presence of a photosynthetic pigment
called chlorophyll.
 In the absence of sunlight, euglenoids behave as heterotrophs.
24. What are the different asexual spores produced by algae?
Ans: Algae reproduce by asexual spores like zoospores, aplanospores, tetraspores, akinetes,
exospores, and endospores.
 Zoospores: Motile spores are called zoospores. They are motile due to the presence
of flagella. Chlamydomonas produces biflagellate zoospores, Ulothrix produces quadri-
flagellate zoospores and Oedogonium produces multi-flagellate zoospores.
 Aplanospores: The non-motile spores produced inside the sporangium are called
aplanospores. They are formed during unfavourable conditions. Eg., Microspora
 Tetraspores: These are haploid aplanospores formed on diploid plants in a
tetrasporangia. Eg., Red algae
 Akinetes: Akinetes are thick-walled spores with abundant reserve food material. They
are formed to tide over unfavourable conditions.
 Exospores: They are externally formed without a sporangium. Eg., Chamaesiphon
 Endospores: The protoplast of the mother cell divides to form many endospores. They
are also called conidia or conidia. Eg., Dermocarpa.

Set-2
1. Bacteria Cannot Be Seen With the Naked Eyes, but These Can Be Seen With the Help of
a Microscope. If You Have to Carry a Sample from Your Home to Your Biology
Laboratory to Demonstrate the Presence of Microbes Under a Microscope, Which Sample
Would You Carry and Why?
Ans. A sample, Curd, can be used for the study of microbes. Numerous lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) or Lactobacillus are present in Curd. Acids are produced by these bacteria that coagulate
and digest milk proteins.
In the research laboratory, a tiny low drop of curd is carried because it contains multitudes of
bacteria, which might be easily observed under a microscope which are of varied shapes and
sizes.
2. Give Examples to Prove That Microbes Release Gases During Metabolism.
Ans. For the release of gases during metabolism, the examples are:
(a) A puffed appearance is seen in dough which is used for making idli and dosa . This is Due to
the action of bacteria; carbon dioxide is released. This CO₂ released from the dough gets caught
within the dough, hence giving it a puffed appearance.
(b) During wastewater treatment, the digestion of sludge produces a bacteria which is a mixture
of gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide.

3. In Which Food Would You Find Lactic Acid Bacteria? Mention Some of Their Useful
Applications.
Ans.Lactic acid bacteria is present in curd.
Their useful applications are as follows:
(i) Formation of milk into curd is produced by this bacterium.
(ii) Multiplication of the bacterium increases its number, which converts the milk into curd.
(iii) The content of vitamin B12 increases in the curd.
(iv) Presence of lactic acid bacteria in the stomach keeps a check on the disease- causing micro-
organisms.

4. Name Some Traditional Indian Foods Made of Wheat, Rice and Bengal Gram (or Their
Products) Which Involve Use of Microbes.
Ans.
(i) In the making dosa and idli, rice powder is fermented by bacteria and for creating bread (from
wheat), yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is employed.
(ii) Gutta (made from black gram) also uses bacteria.
(iii) Microbes are accustomed to ferment fish, soya bean and bamboo shoots to create foods.

5. In Which Way Have Microbes Played a Major Role in Controlling Diseases Caused by
Harmful Bacteria?
Ans.
(i) Several microorganisms are used for preparing medicines. In order to kill other disease-
causing microorganisms antibiotics were developed which are produced by certain
microorganisms.
(ii) Medicines are usually obtained from bacteria and fungi. Either they get killed or the growth
gets stopped by disease-causing microorganisms.
(iii) For the treatment of life-threatening diseases such as plague, whooping cough (kali khansi),
diphtheria (galghotu) and leprosy (kusht rog) and for many other common infections different
antibiotics were used which are Streptomycin, tetracycline, and penicillin are common ones .
(iv) Growth of Staphylococci bacteria in the body was checked by chemical penicillin produced
by Penicillium notatum, a fungus.
(v) Bacteria were destroyed by weakening their cell walls by antibiotics. Due to this weakening,
certain immune cells such as the white blood cells enter the bacterial cell and cause cell lysis.
The process of destroying cells such as blood cells and bacteria is cell lysis.

6. Name Any Two Species of Fungus, Which are Used in the Production of Antibiotics.
Ans.
Antibiotics are drugs produced by certain microorganisms to fight disease-causing
microorganisms. These medications are frequently derived from microbes and fungus.
The following fungi are used in the production of antibiotics.

Antibiotic Fungus Origin

Penicillin Penicillium notatum

Cephalosporin Acremonium (previously known as Cephalosporium)

7. What is Sewage? In Which Way Can Sewage Be Harmful to Us?

Ans.The municipal waste matter is the sewage which is carried away in sewers and drains.
It consists of both liquid and solid wastes, which is rich in organic matter and microbes. Most of
these microbes are pathogenic and may cause several water- borne diseases. Sewage water is a
major source of polluting drinking water. Hence, it is important that sewage water should be
properly collected, treated, then disposed of.
8. What is the Key Difference Between Primary and Secondary Sewage Treatment?
Ans.

Primary Sewage Secondary Sewage

Removal of large and small particles from the sewage It includes the biological digestion
through filtration and sedimentation by physical means. of organic matter by microbes.

It is less expensive and complicated relatively. It is an extremely expensive and

time-consuming operation.

9. Do You Think Microbes Can Also Be Used as a Source of Energy? If Yes, How?
Ans.Yes, microbes can be used as an energy source. Bacteria like Methane bacterium are
employed for the generation of gobar gas or biogas.
(i) In a biogas plant, the generation of biogas is an anaerobic process which consists of a concrete
tank (10-15 feet deep) with sufficient outlets and inlets.
(ii) Slurry is formed by the mixture of dung and water and is further thrown into the tank. The
digester of the tank contains numerous anaerobic methane-producing bacteria, which produce
biogas from the slurry.
(iii) Biogas can be used as a source of energy after removal through the pipe, while the spent
slurry is removed from the outlet and is used as a fertilizer.

10. Microbes Can Be Used to Decrease the Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides.
Explain How This Can Be Accomplished.
Ans.Organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil are the microbes which can be
employed as acterium zers .Bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria are the main sources of
acterium zers . By this, fertility of the soil is increased in many ways
(i) Nodules on the roots of leguminous plants (a symbiotic association) that is formed by
Rhizobium fixes the atmospheric nitrogen into organic form, which is used by the plant as a
nutrient.
(ii) Fixing atmospheric nitrogen by Azospirillum and Azotobacter , while living freely, and
enhancing the nitrogen content of the soil.
(iii) Symbiotic association is formed by the many members of the genus Glomus (fungi) with
vascular host plants known as mycorrhiza that:
a. Helps within the absorption of phosphorus from soil and pass it to the plant.
b. Resistance to root-borne pathogens are developed within the plants.
c. Overall increase in plant growth and development can be done by increasing their
tolerance to salinity and drought.
(iv) Cyanobacteria autotrophic microbes, e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria can fix
atmospheric nitrogen, in aquatic and terrestrial environments and also add organic matter to the
soil and increase its fertility.

11. Three Water Samples Namely River Water, Untreated Sewage Water and Secondary
Effluent Discharged from a Sewage Treatment Plant Were Subjected To BOD Test. The
Samples Were Labelled A, B and C; but the Laboratory Attendant Did Not Note Which
Was Which. The BOD Values of the Three Samples A, B and C Were Recorded as 20
mg/L, 8 mg/L and 400 mg/L, Respectively. Which Sample of the Water Is Most Polluted?
Can You Assign the Correct Label to Each Assuming the River Water is Relatively Clean?
Ans.The amount of oxygen required by micro-organisms to decompose the waste present in the
water supply is determined using the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) method. When the
water supply contains high levels of organic wastes, the number of decomposing bacteria also
increases, leading to a higher BOD value. Consequently, water supplies that are more polluted
tend to have higher BOD values. Sample C, with a BOD value of 400 mg/L, is the most polluted
among the three samples. The discharge of secondary effluent from a sewage treatment plant is
more polluted than river water, which explains why sample A has a higher BOD value of 20
mg/L compared to sample B, which has a BOD value of 8 mg/L and is sourced from a river.
Hence, the correct label for each samples are:

Label BOD Value Sample

Sample A 20 mg/L Secondary effluent discharge from a sewage treatment plant

Sample B 8 mg/L River water

Sample C 400 mg/L Untreated sewage water

12. Find Out the Name of the Microbes from Which Cyclosporin a (an Immunosuppressive
Drug) and Statins (Blood Cholesterol Lowering Agents) are Obtained
Ans.

Drug Function Microbe

Cyclosporine –A Immuno suppressive drug Trichoderma polysporum

Statin Blood cholesterol lowering agent Monascus purpureus

13. Find Out the Role of Microbes in the Following.

(a) Single cell protein (SCP)
(b) Soil
Ans.(a) Single Cell Protein (SCP) refers to harmless microbial cells that may be used as an
alternate source of excellent protein. Just like mushrooms (a fungus) is eaten by many
individuals and yeast utilized by athletes as a protein source; similarly, other sorts of microbial
cells can also be used as food rich in protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrates and vitamins. On an
industrial scale, microbes like Spirulina and Methylophilus methylotrophus are grown on
materials containing starch like waste, water from potato processing plants, straw, molasses,
animal manure and even sewage. These single cell microbes may be used as a source.
(b) Soil: An important role is played by microbes in maintaining soil fertility. By the process of
decomposition, they help in the formation of nutrient-rich humus . The ability to fix atmospheric
nitrogen into usable form is done by many species of bacteria and cyanobacteria . A symbiotic
bacteria found in the root nodules of leguminous plants is a Rhizobium. Free living nitrogen-
fixing bacteria are Azospirillum and Azotobacter, whereas Anabaena, Nostoc, and Oscillitoria
are examples of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.

14. Arrange the Following in the Decreasing Order (most Important First) of Their
Importance, for the Welfare of Human Society. Give Reasons for Your Answer.
Biogas, Citric acid, Penicillin and Curd
Ans.Penicillin > Biogas > Curd > Citric acid
  Penicillin is the most crucial product for human welfare in society. It is an antibiotic that
is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
 Biogas is the second most important product. It is an environmentally friendly form of
energy as it is non-polluting decent fuel that is produced as a byproduct of sewage
treatment.
 Curd, a food item produced by the action of lactobacillus bacteria on milk, it has
excellent nutrient value, providing vitamin-B12 and replaces unfavourable bacteria of
the stomach.
 Citric acid, which is acteriu as a food preservative, is the next most important product.

15. How Do Biofertilizers Enrich the Fertility of the Soil?

Ans.Fertility of the soil can be increased by the use of acterium zers. Selection of beneficial
microorganisms are involved that help in improving plant growth by providing plant nutrients.
To mobilize the availability of nutrients by their biological activity, these are introduced to
seeds, roots, or soil. Therefore, they are extremely beneficial in enhancing the soil with organic
nutrients. The ability to fix free atmospheric nitrogen is shown by many species of acterium. A
symbiotic bacteria found in the root nodules of leguminous plants is a Rhizobium. Free living
nitrogen-fixing bacteria are Azospirillum and Azotobacter, whereas Anabaena, Nostoc, and
Oscillitoria are examples of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.
Bio-fertilizers are cost effective and eco-friendly.
Set-3
1. How is diapause different from hibernation?
Ans: Diapause could be a stage of suspended development to cope with unfavorable conditions.
Diapause is a coping mechanism used by many species of Zooplankton and insects to survive
adverse climatic conditions. Hibernation is the period of dormancy during winter months so is
also called winter sleep. Their metabolism slows during the winter so they can escape the cold
weather. The development of hibernation is exhibited by bats, squirrels, and other rodents.

2. If a marine fish is placed in a freshwater aquarium, will the fish be able to survive? Why
or why not?
Ans: If a marine fish is placed in a freshwater aquarium, then its possibilities of survival will
diminish. This is often because their bodies are adapted to high salt concentrations of the marine
environment. In water conditions, they are unable to control the water entering their body
(through osmosis). Water enters their body due to the hypotonic environment outside. This ends
up in the swelling up of the body, eventually resulting in the death of the marine fish.

3. Most living organisms cannot survive at temperatures above 45°C. How are some
microbes able to live in habitats with temperatures exceeding 100°C?
Ans: In hot water springs and deep sea hydrothermal vents, archaebacteria (thermophiles) grow.
They are able to survive in high temperatures (which far exceed 100°C) because their bodies
have adapted to such environmental conditions. Organisms that withstand high temperatures
contain enzymes with specialized thermal-resistance in order to perform metabolic functions.

4: List the attributes that populations but not individuals possess.

Ans: A population is defined as a group of individuals belonging to the same species living
together in a particular geographic area at the same time. For example, all individuals living at a
particular place at a particular time represent the population of humans. The most attributes or
characteristics of a population residing during a given area are:
 Birth Rate (Natality): It is the ratio of live births per thousand people in an area. It is
expressed because the range of number of individuals added to the population with
respect to the members of the population.
 Death Rate (Mortality): This is a measure of the percentage of deaths in an area to the
total population. It is expressed as the loss of individuals with respect to the members of
the population age groups. The age distribution pattern is usually represented through age
pyramids.
 Population Density: It is defined as the number of individuals of a population present
per unit space at a given time.

6. Name important defense mechanisms in plants against herbivory.

Ans: The presence of morphological and chemical shielding mechanisms is present in several
plants in order to defend themselves against herbivores.
(1) Morphological Defense Mechanisms:
 Cactus leaves (Opuntia) are modified into sharp spines (thorns) to deter herbivores from
feeding on them.
 Besides leaves, Acacia has sharp thorns to deter herbivores.
 Some plants have margins of their leaves that are spiny or have sharp edges that stop
insects from eating them.

(2) Chemical Defense Mechanisms:

 A herbivore might be fatally affected if they eat any part of a Calotropis weed.
 Several chemicals are produced in plants as a part of self-defense, including nicotine,
caffeine, quinine, and opium.

7. An orchid plant is growing on the branch of a mango tree. How do you describe this
interaction between the orchid and the mango tree?
Ans: An orchid growing on a mango tree branch is an epiphyte. Epiphytes are plants growing on
other plants which however, do not derive nutrition from them. This relationship therefore exists
as commensalism . There is a commensalism between a mango tree and an orchid, where one
species benefits from the other while the other remains unaffected. The orchid is benefited by the
above interaction because it receives support, while the mango tree remains unaffected.

8. What is the ecological principle behind the biological control method of managing pest
insects?
Ans: Variable biological control methods are based on a concept known as predation. In
predation, the predator feeds on the prey. Hence, predators regulate the population of prey in a
habitat, helping in the control of pest insects.

9: Distinguish between the following:

(a) Hibernation and Aestivation,
Ans: (a)
Hibernation Aestivation

Aestivation is a state of reduced

Hibernation is a state of reduced activity in some
activity in some organisms to escape
organisms to escape cold winter conditions.
desiccation due to heat in summers.

Bears and squirrels inhabiting cold regions are Fishes and snails are examples of
examples of animals that hibernate during winters. organisms aestivating during summers,

(B) Ectotherms and Endotherms

Ans:

Ectotherm Endotherm

Ectotherm are cold blooded animals, Endotherms are warm blooded animals. They maintain
their temperature varies with their a constant body temperature. Birds and mammals are
surrounding endothermic animals.

Fishes, amphibians and reptiles are

Birds and mammals are endothermic animals.
ectothermic animals.

10: Write a short note on

(a) Adaptations of desert plants and animals
(b) Adaptations of plants to water scarcity
(c) Behavioral adaptations in animals
(d) Importance of light to plants
(e) Effect of temperature or water scarcity and the adaptations of animals.
Ans :
(a) Adaptations of desert plants and animals:
(i) Adaptations of desert plants:
Many desert plants have been well adapted to cope with harsh conditions in the desert, including
water adequate and hot. Plants have an extensive root system to tap underground water. There
are thick cuticles and sunken stomata on the surface of their leaves to reduce transpiration.
Opuntia is a species of plant that has spines entirely as parts of its leaves, Photosynthesis is
carried out by green stems. Plants in the desert have special pathways. It is the CAM (C4
pathway) pathway that synthesizes food. To reduce water loss through transpiration, the stomata
can remain closed during the day.

(ii) Adaptations of desert animals:

Desert animals such as desert kangaroo rats, lizards, snakes, etc. are well adapted to their habitat.
In Arizona, kangaroo rats do not drink water. In order to conserve water, it is capable of
concentrating its urine. Desert lizards and snakes bask in the sun throughout the early morning
and burrow themselves in the sand during afternoons to escape the heat of the day. Desert
animals have developed these adaptations to stop the loss of water.

(b) Adaptations of plants to water scarcity:

Due to water scarcity and heat, desert plants are well adapted to survive in deserts. To obtain
water from underground, plants have extensive root systems. They bear thick cuticles and sunken
stomata on the surface of their leaves to reduce transpiration. In Opuntia, the leaves form spines,
while the green stems are responsible for photosynthesis. Desert plants have special pathways to
synthesize food, called CAM (C4 pathway). It enables their stomata to remain closed during the
day to reduce water loss by transpiration.

(c) Behavioral adaptations in animals:

There are some organisms that are affected by temperature changes. To cope with environmental
stress, these organisms undergo adaptations such as hibernation, aestivation, migration, etc.
These adaptations in behavior of an organism are referred to as behavioral adaptations. Some
ectothermic animals and certain endotherms exhibit behavioral adaptations. Ectotherms are cold
blooded animals such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, etc. Depending on their environment, they
have different body temperatures. During the early hours of the day when the temperatures are
quite low, desert lizards bask in the sun. As the temperature rises, the lizard burrows into the
sand to avoid the scorching sun. Similar burrowing strategies are exhibited by other desert
animals. Certain endotherms (warm-blooded animals) such as birds and mammals escape cold
and hot weather conditions by hibernating during winters and aestivating during summers. They
hide themselves in shelters like caves, burrows, etc. to protect against temperature variations.

(d) Importance of light to plants

Sunlight acts as the ultimate source of energy for plants. Plants are autotrophic organisms, which
need light for carrying out the process of photosynthesis. Light also plays an important role in
generating photoperiodic responses occurring in plants. Plants respond to changes in intensity of
light during various seasons to fulfill their photoperiodic changes in intensity of light during
various seasons to meet their photoperiodic requirements for flowering. Light also plays an
important role in aquatic habitats for vertical distribution of plants in the sea.

(e) Effects of temperature or water scarcity and the adaptations of animals.

Temperature is the most vital ecological factor. Average temperature on the Earth varies from
one place to another. These variations in temperature affect the distribution of animals on the
Earth. Animals that can tolerate a wide range of temperatures can be referred to as eurythermals.
Those which can tolerate a narrow range of temperature are called stenothermal animals.
Animals also undergo adaptations to suit their natural habitats. For example, animals found in
colder areas have shorter ears and limbs that prevent the loss of heat from their body. Also,
animals found in Polar regions have thick layers of fat below their skin and thick coats of fur to
prevent the loss of heat. Some organisms exhibit various behavioral changes to suit their natural
habitat. These adaptations present in the behavior of an organism to escape environmental
stresses are called behavioral adaptations. For example, desert lizards are ectotherms. This means
that they do not have a temperature: regulatory mechanism to escape temperature variations.
These lizards bask in the sun during early hours when the temperature is quite low. As the
temperature begins to increase, the lizard burrows itself inside the sand to escape the scorching
sun. Similar burrowing strategy is seen in other desert animals.

Water deficiency is another factor that forces animals to undergo certain adaptations to suit their
natural habitat. Animals found in deserts such as desert kangaroo rats, lizards, snakes, etc. are
well adapted to stay in their habitat. The kangaroo rat found in the deserts of Arizona never
drinks water in its life. It has the ability to concentrate its urine to conserve water. Desert lizards
and snakes bask in the sun during early morning and burrow in the sand as the temperature rises
to escape the heat of the day. Such adaptations can be used to stop the loss of water.

11: List the various abiotic environmental factors.

Ans: Abiotic components are all non-living elements in an ecosystem. Temperature, soil, water,
and light are all aspects to consider.

Temperature: This is the most important environmental component in terms of ecology. It

changes seasonally on land and gradually diminishes from the equator to the poles, as well as
from plains to mountain summits. It varies from sub-zero temperatures in polar regions to high
altitudes. Eurythermal animals, such as most mammals and birds, can withstand and thrive in a
wide range of temperatures, whereas stenothermal organisms, such as polar bears and
amphibians, can only tolerate a small range of temperatures.

Soil: The nature and qualities of soil vary greatly depending on where you are. It is mostly
determined by the following factors
 The weather
 The weathering procedure
 The process of soil growth
The soil's water holding capacity and percolation are determined by a variety of factors,
including soil chemistry, grain size, and aggregation. The sort of plants that can grow in a
particular habitat is determined by these qualities of soil, as well as its pH, mineral content,
topography, and other factors.

Water: Water is known to have given birth to life on Earth, and it is impossible to survive
without it. The pH, chemical composition, and temperature of water are all vital to aquatic
creatures. They are also affected by water salinity, which ranges from less than 5 parts per
thousand in inland water to 30-35 parts per thousand in the sea and 100 parts per thousand in
some hypersaline lagoons. Euryhaline organisms can tolerate a large range of salinity, whereas
stenohaline organisms can only tolerate a narrow range. Because of osmotic difficulties induced
by high salt, many freshwater creatures cannot thrive in sea water for long periods of time, and
vice versa. A range of factors, including soil chemistry, grain size, and aggregation, influence the
water retention capacity and percolation of the soil. These properties of soil, as well as its pH,
mineral content, topography, and other elements, affect the types of plants that can flourish in a
given habitat. Stenohaline creatures can only survive a narrow range of salinity, but euryhaline
species can withstand a wide range of salt. Many freshwater organisms cannot survive in sea
water for lengthy periods of time due to osmotic issues caused by excessive salt levels, and vice
versa.

Light: The importance of light stems from the fact that all autotrophs rely on it as a source of
energy for photosynthesis, which involves the release of oxygen. Because they are obscured by
towering, canopied trees, small shrubs and plants growing in forests have adapted to
photosynthesis at very low light intensities. The majority of plants rely on sunshine to survive.

Many animals use diurnal and seasonal light intensity variations as cues to time their feeding,
reproductive, and migratory activity. Because the sun is the source of both, the availability of
light on land is directly tied to that of warmth. The environment is constantly gloomy in deep
oceans (> 500m). Solar radiation's spectrum purity is also critical for life.

For marine plants living at different depths of the ocean, different components of the visible
spectrum are available. UV light is harmful to many organisms. As a result, distinct species of
algae, such as green, brown, and red algae, can be found at the upper, middle, and deep layers of
the sea, respectively.

12: Give an example for:

(a) An endothermic animal
(b) An ectothermic animal
(c) An organism of benthic zone
Ans:
(a) Endothermic Animal: Birds such as crows, sparrows, pigeons, cranes, etc. and mammals
such as bears, cows, rats, rabbits, etc. are endothermic animals.
(b) Ectothermic Animals: Fishes such as sharks, amphibians such as frogs, and reptiles such as
tortoises, snakes, and lizards are ectothermic animals.
(c) Organism of Benthic Zone: Decomposing bacteria is an example of an organism found in
the benthic zone of a water body .

13: Define Population and Community.

Ans :
 Population: A population can be thought of as a group of individuals belonging to the
same species that exist in the same geographical area at the same time and function as a
unit. For example, all human beings living at a particular place at a particular time
constitute the population of humans.
 Community: A group of individuals belonging to a particular species, living in a
particular geographical area. Such individuals can be similar or dissimilar, but cannot
reproduce with the members of other species.

14: Define the following terms and give one example for each:
(a) Commensalism
(b) Parasitism
(c) Camouflage
(d) Mutualism
(e) Interspecific competition
Ans:
(a) Commensalism: Commensalism is an interaction between two species in which one species
gets benefited while the other remains unaffected. An orchid growing on the branches of a
mango tree and barnacles attached to the body of whales are examples of commensalisms.
(b) Parasitism: It is an interaction between two species in which one species (usually smaller)
gets positively affected, while the other species (usually larger) is negatively affected. An
example of this is liver fluke. Liver fluke is a parasite that lives inside the liver of the host body
and derives nutrition from it. Hence, the parasite benefits as it derives nutrition from the host,
while the host is negatively affected as the parasite reduces the host fitness, making its body
weak.
(c) Camouflage: is a strategy adapted by prey species to escape their predators. Organisms are
cryptically coloured so that they can easily mingle in their surroundings and escape their
predators. Many species of frogs and insects camouflage in their surroundings and escape their
predators.
(d) Mutualism: It is an interaction between two species in which both species involved are
benefited. For example, lichens show a mutual symbiotic relationship between fungi and blue
green algae, where both are equally benefited from each other.
(e) Interspecific competition: It is an interaction between individuals of different species where
both species get negatively affected. For example, the competition between flamingoes and
resident fishes in South American lakes for common food resources i.e, zooplankton.

15: With the help of a suitable diagram describe the logistic population growth curve.
Ans: Yeast cells grown under laboratory conditions commonly exhibit the logistic population
growth curve. There are five phases: the lag phase, the positive acceleration phase, exponential
phase, negative acceleration phase, and stationary phase.
 Lag Phase: Initially, the population of the yeast cell is very small. This is because of the
limited resources present in the habitat.
 Positive Acceleration Phase: In this phase, yeast cells adapt to the new environment and
start to multiply. However, at the beginning of this phase, the growth of the cell is very
limited.
 Exponential Phase: During this phase, the population of the yeast cell increases
suddenly due to rapid growth. Due to sufficient food resources, a constant environment,
and the absence of interspecific competition, the population grows exponentially. As a
result, the curve rises steeply upwards.
 Negative Acceleration Phase: During this phase, environmental resistance increases and
the population growth rate decreases. This occurs because of an increased completion
among the yeast cells for food and shelter.
 Stationary Phase: During this phase, the population becomes constant. A population's
number of cells equals its number of cells that die. Additionally, the species is said to
have reached the carrying capacity of its habitat.
(Image will be uploaded soon)

16: Select the statement which explains best parasitism.

(a) One organism is benefited.
(b) Both the organisms are benefited.
(c) One organism is benefited, the other is not affected.
(d) One organism is benefited, the other is affected.
Ans : (d) One organism is benefited, other is affected.

Parasitism is an interaction between two species, in which one species (parasite) benefits from
the other. The other species (host) is harmed. For example, ticks and lice (parasites) can be found
on the body. This means there is an interaction between parasites and the human body, from
which ticks and parasites receive benefit (as they are Feeding on human blood). On the other
hand, these parasites reduce host fitness and cause harm to the human body.

17: List any three important characteristics of a population and explain.

Ans: A population is a collection of individuals of the same species living in a specific
geographical area at a specific time and acting as a single unit. The population of people, for
example, is made up of all human beings living in a specific location at a specific moment.

A population's three most significant qualities are:

(a) Birth Rate (Natality): This is the ratio of live births to total births in a given year.
It is calculated as the number of people added to the population divided by the number of people
in the population.
(b) Death Rate (Mortality): This is the ratio of deaths per 100,000 people in a certain location.
It's measured in terms of the number of people who have died as a result of the disease.
(c) Age Distribution: This is the proportion of people of various ages in a given population
This is the percentage of people in a population who are different ages. At any given time, a
population is made up of people of varying ages. Age pyramids are a frequent representation of
the age distribution pattern.
18. What are the various public health measures you would suggest as a safeguard against
infectious diseases?
Ans: Public health measures are preventive measures that are taken to check the spread of
various infectious diseases. These measures should be taken to reduce contact with infectious
agents. Some of these methods are:
(1) Personal and Public Hygiene Should be Maintained: One of the most important methods
of preventing infectious diseases is the maintenance of personal and public hygiene. Personal
hygiene involves maintaining a clean body, consumption of healthy and nutritious food,
drinking clean water, etc. Whereas public hygiene involves proper disposal of waste material,
excreta, periodic cleaning, and disinfection of water reservoirs.
(2) Isolation of Infected Persons: To prevent the spread of air-borne diseases such as
pneumonia, chickenpox, tuberculosis, etc., it is essential to keep the infected person in isolation
to reduce the chances of spreading these diseases.
(3) Vaccination: The protection of the body from communicable diseases by administering some
agent that mimics the microbe inside the body is known as vaccination. It provides both active
and passive immunization to the body. Various vaccines are available for the treatment of many
diseases such as tetanus, polio, measles, mumps, etc.
(4) Vector Eradication: Many diseases such as malaria, filariasis, dengue, and chikungunya
spread through vectors. By providing a clean environment and preventing the breeding of
mosquitoes these diseases can be prevented easily. By not allowing water to stagnate around
residential areas, the breeding of mosquitoes can be prevented. To keep our environment healthy,
regular cleaning of coolers should be done, also the use of mosquito nets, and insecticides such
as malathion in drains, ponds, etc. should be considered. Fish such as Gambusia are introduced
in ponds to control the breeding of mosquito larvae in stagnant water.

19. In which way has the study of biology helped us to control infectious diseases?
Ans: In the field of biology, various advancements once a person starts taking alcohol or drugs
have helped us in gaining a better understanding to fight against various infectious diseases.
Biology has helped us in studying the life cycle of various parasites, pathogens, and vectors
along with their modes of transmission and controlling measures. Vaccination programs against
several infectious diseases such as smallpox, chickenpox, tuberculosis, etc. have helped nearly
eradicate these diseases. In the preparation of newer or safer drugs and vaccines, biotechnology
has helped a lot. In treating infectious diseases the antibiotics have also played a very important
role.

20. How does the transmission of each of the following diseases take place?
(a) Amoebiasis
(b) Malaria
(c) Ascariasis
(d) Pneumonia
Ans:

Causative
Disease Mode of Transmission
Organism

It is a vector-borne disease and it spreads by the means of

(a) Entamoeba
contaminated food and water. The housefly is the vector
Amoebiasis histolytica
involved in the transmission of this disease.

It is a vector-borne disease that spreads by the biting of the

(b) Malaria Plasmodium spp.
female Anopheles mosquito.

(c) Ascaris It spreads via contaminated food and water through faecal-
Ascariasis lumbricoides oral transmission.

(d) Streptococcus It spreads through the sputum of an infected person via

Pneumonia pneumoniae droplet infection.

21. What measure would you take to prevent water-borne diseases?

Ans: Water-borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis B, etc. spread by drinking
contaminated water. By ensuring proper disposal of sewage, excreta, and periodic cleaning
habits we can prevent ourselves from water-borne diseases. Along with these, measures such as
disinfecting community water reservoirs, boiling and filtering drinking water, etc. should also be
observed.
22. Discuss with your teacher what ‘a suitable gene’ means, in the context of DNA vaccines.
Ans: In the context of DNA vaccines, a ‘suitable gene’ refers to a specific DNA segment that
can be injected into the cells of the host body to produce specific proteins. The specific proteins
kill the specific disease-causing organism in the body of the host and it also provides immunity
to the host body.

23. Name the primary and secondary lymphoid organs.

Ans: The names of primary and secondary lymphoid organs are as follows:
(a) Primary lymphoid organs - The bone marrow and the thymus.
(b) Secondary lymphoid organs - The spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of the small
intestine, and appendix.

24. The following are some well-known abbreviations, which have been used in this
chapter. Expand each one to its full form:
(a) MALT
(b) CMI
(c) AIDS
(d) NACO
(e) HIV
Ans: The abbreviations with their full forms are as follows:
(a) MALT – Mucosa – Associated Lymphoid Tissue
(b) CMI – Cell-Mediated Immunity
(c) AIDS – Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(d) NACO – National AIDS control organization
(e) HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus
25. Differentiate the following and give examples of each:
(a) Innate and acquired immunity
Ans:

Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity

It is a non-pathogen-specific type of
It is a pathogen-specific type of defence mechanism.
defence mechanism.

It is inherited from parents and protects It does not remain present in the individual from birth
the individual from birth. but is acquired after birth.

This type of immunity provides barriers It operates by providing primary and secondary
against the entry of foreign infectious responses, which are mediated by B-lymphocytes and
agents. T-lymphocytes.

It does not have a specific memory. It is characterized by immunological memory.

(b) Active and passive immunity

Ans:

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

It is a type of acquired immunity in which the It is a type of acquired immunity in which

body produces its antibodies against disease- readymade antibodies are transferred from one
causing antigens. individual to another.

It has a long-lasting effect. It does not have a long-lasting effect.

It is slow and takes time in producing

It is fast and provides immediate relief.
antibodies and giving the response.

Microbes are injected inside the body through The transfer of antibodies that are present in
the process of vaccination. This is an example the mother’s milk, to the infant is an example
of active immunity. of passive immunity.

26. Draw a well-labelled diagram of an antibody molecule.

Ans: A well-labelled diagram of an antibody molecule is drawn below.

In diagram
(a) Antigen binding site
(b) Light chain
(c) Disulphide bridges
(d) Constant region
(e) Heavy chain
(f) Variable region of light chain
(g) Constant region of light chain
(h) Disulphide bonds

27. What are the various routes by which transmission of the human immunodeficiency
virus takes place?
Ans: AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV). The various modes of transmission of this virus are:
a. Making unprotected sexual contact with an infected person.
b. Transfusion of an infected person’s blood to a healthy person.
c. Sharing of infected needles and syringes.
d. Through the placenta from an infected mother to a child.

28. What is the mechanism by which the AIDS virus causes deficiency of the immune
system of the infected person?
Ans: AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is caused by the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) through sexual or blood-blood contact. After entering the human body, HIV attacks
and enters the macrophages. The RNA of the virus replicates with the help of enzyme reverse
transcriptase and gives rise to viral DNA, inside the macrophages. After this, the viral DNA is
incorporated into the host DNA and directs the synthesis of virus particles. Simultaneously, HIV
enters into the helper T-lymphocytes. There it replicates and produces viral progeny. Now, these
newly formed progeny viruses get released into the blood, attacking other healthy helper T
lymphocytes in the body. As a result, the number of T-lymphocytes in the body of an infected
person decreases progressively and hence decreases the immunity of a person.

29. How is a cancerous cell different from a normal cell?

Ans: The differences are given below in the table.

Normal Cell Cancerous Cell

The cancerous cells lack the property of

The normal cells show the property of contact
contact inhibition. Therefore they continue to
inhibition. Therefore, when these cells come
divide, thereby forming a mass of cells or
into contact with other cells, they stop dividing.
tumours.

After attaining a specific growth level, the

normal cells undergo the process of They do not undergo differentiation.
differentiation.

These cells do not remain confined at a

At a particular location, the normal cells remain particular location. They move into
confined. neighbouring tissues and disturbs their
function.

30. Explain what is meant by metastasis.

Ans: Metastasis Property is exhibited by malignant tumours. and it is the pathological process of
spreading cancerous cells to the different parts of the body. These cells divide uncontrollably,
forming a mass of cells called tumours. From the tumour, some cells get sloughed off and enter
into the bloodstream. Through the bloodstream, these cells reach different parts of the body, and
therefore, by dividing actively at their position they begin the formation of new tumours

31. List the harmful effects caused by alcohol/drug abuse.

Ans: Alcohol and drugs have several adverse effects on the individual, his family, and society.
The list of harmful effects is given below:
(A) Effects of alcohol:
(a) Effects on the Individual: Alcohol harms the body of an individual. The consumption of
excess alcohol by an individual causes damage to the liver and the nervous system. This results
in the appearance of other symptoms such as depression, fatigue, aggression, loss of weight, and
appetite in the individual. Sometimes, extreme levels of alcohol consumption may also lead to
heart failure, resulting in coma and death. Also, pregnant women should avoid alcohol as it may
inhibit the normal growth of the baby.
(b) Effects on the Family:
Consumption of excess alcohol by any family member is having devastating effects on the
family. It may lead to several domestic problems such as quarrels, frustrations, insecurity, etc.
(c) Effects on Society:
(i) Rash behavior
(ii) Malicious mischief and violence
(iii) Deteriorating social network
(iv) Loss of interest in social and other activities
(B) Effects of Drugs: An individual who is addicted to using drugs can create several problems
not only for himself but also for his family too.
a. Effects on the Individual: Drugs harm the central nervous system of an individual
which results in the malfunctioning of several other organs of the body such as the kidney, liver,
etc. In these individuals, the spread of HIV is most common because they share common
needles while injecting drugs into their bodies. On both males and females drugs have long-term
side effects which include increased aggressiveness, mood swings, and depression.
b. Effects on the Family and Society: A person addicted to drugs creates problems for his
family and society too. That person becomes frustrated, irritated, and anti-social.

31. Do you think that friends can influence one to take alcohol/drugs? If yes, how may one
protect himself/herself from such an influence?
Ans: Yes, I think that friends can highly influence a person to take drugs or alcohol. Following
steps should be taken by a person for protecting himself/herself against drug abuse:
(a) Increase your willpower to stay away from alcohol and drugs. For curiosity and fun, one
should not experiment with alcohol.
(b) Avoid the company of drug-taking friends.
(c) Seek help from parents and peers.
(d) Take proper knowledge and counseling about drug abuse and devote your energy to other
extracurricular activities.
(e) If symptoms of depression and frustration become apparent, seek immediate professional and
medical help from psychologists and psychiatrists.

32. Why is it that it is difficult to get rid of this habit once a person starts taking alcohol or
drugs? Discuss it with your teacher.
Ans: Drug and alcohol consumption has an inherent addictive nature related to euphoria and a
short-lived feeling of well-being. Repeated intake of medicine increases the tolerance level of the
body’s receptors, resulting in more consumption of medicine.

33. In your view what motivates youngsters to take to alcohol or drugs and how can this be
avoided?
Ans: Many factors are liable for motivating youngsters towards alcohol or drugs. The initial
causes of motivation are curiosity, the need for adventure and excitement, experimentation.
Some youngsters start consuming drugs and alcohol to beat negative emotions (such as stress,
pressure, depression, frustration) and to excel in various fields. Several mediums like television,
the internet, newspaper, movies, etc. are also responsible for promoting the idea of using alcohol
for fun to the younger generation. Among these factors, reasons such as unstable and
unsupportive family structures and peer pressure can also lead an individual to depend on drugs
and alcohol. Preventive measures that work against addiction to alcohol and drugs too are given
below:
(a) Parents should motivate and try to increase the willpower of their children.
(b) Parents should educate their children regarding the ill effects of alcohol. They should provide
them with proper knowledge and counselling regarding the consequences of addiction to
alcohol.
(c) It’s the responsibility of the parent to discourage a toddler from experimenting with alcohol.
Youngsters should be kept far away from the company of friends who consume drugs.
(d) Children should be encouraged to devote their energy to other extra-curricular and
recreational activities.
(e) Proper professional and medical help should be provided to the child if sudden symptoms and
depression and frustration are observed.
34. Mention the advantages of selecting pea plants for experiments by Mendel.
Ans: The pea plant (Pisum sativum) was chosen by Mendel for the following reasons:
1. The pea is an annual plant with a brief growing season. As a result, the findings can be
achieved in a short amount of time.
2. Pea has seven distinct features with easily distinguishable traits such as tall and short
stature, round and yellow seeds, and so on.
3. Self-pollination and cross-pollination are both viable options for pea propagation. Mendel
was able to create pure lines as well as carry out various crosses between plants with
contrasting features as a result of this.
4. Each generation of the pea plant produces a great number of seeds. As a result, it can
provide a vast volume of data that can be statistically more reliably analyzed, for
example.

35. Differentiate between the following:

(a) Dominance and Recessive
Ans:

Dominance Recessive

1. A trait that counteracts the effects of 1. A trait that is suppressed as a result of the effect
another trait, such as tallness suppressing of another attribute. Dwarfness, for example, is
dwarfism. suppressed by height.

2. A trait that will manifest itself even if 2. A trait that only manifests when the dominant
the recessive trait is present. trait is absent.

3. A trait that manifests in both 3. A trait that can only be expressed in homozygous
homozygous and heterozygous individuals.
individuals.

(b) Homozygous and Heterozygous

Ans:

Homozygous Heterozygous
1. For a trait, a genotype is made up of alleles that are 1. For a trait, a genotype with
similar. TT (for tall) or tt are examples of abbreviations different alleles. e.g. Tt.
(for short).

2. The person could be dominant or recessive. Individuals 2. The person is usually dominant or
with the TT genotype, for example, will be tall plants, but partially dominant, but never
those with the tt genotypes will all be short plants. recessive.

3. Individuals will only create one type of gamete. T or t 3. The person will create two
for example different types of gametes. Both T
and t gametes, for example.

(c) Monohybrid and Dihybrid

Ans:

Monohybrid Dihybrid

1. A monohybrid is a person created by 1. A dihybrid is a person created by crossing parents

crossing parents that have different who have different features for two characters, such
features for only one character, such as as seed color and seed shape. RrYy (dihybrid for
height. Tt (monohybrid for plant height) seed color and shape), for example.
is an example.

2. A monohybrid cross is a cross between 2. A dihybrid cross occurs when two parents are
two parents that are homozygous for homozygous for opposing features in two different
opposing character characteristics. For characters, such as seed shape and seed color. A
example, a cross between tall TT and cross between RRYY (round and yellow seeds) and
short (S) tt. rryy, for example (wrinkled and green seeds).

3. Monohybrid cross is used to 3. Dihybrid cross is used to investigate the

investigate the inheritance of a single inheritance of two characters.
character.
36. A diploid organism is heterozygous for 4 loci, how many types of gametes can be
produced?
Ans: Gene loci are locations on the chromosome where genes are found. As a result, loci and
genes might be considered interchangeable. If a diploid organism is heterozygous for four loci, it
will have four distinct traits: Aa,Bb,Cc��,��,�� and Dd��, and two gametes will be
produced during meiosis, where n� is the number of loci. As a result, 16 different types of
gametes will emerge.

37. Explain the Law of Dominance using a monohybrid cross.

Ans: Characters are governed by discrete units that appear in pairs, known as factors, according
to Mendel's Law of Dominance. One component dominates over the other in a pair of distinct
factors. As a result, when two parents (P)(�) with opposing qualities are crossed, the progeny
(F1) will only express one of the features. The dominant trait is the one that is expressed in the
progeny and is known as the dominant trait, whereas the recessive trait is the one that is known
as the recessive trait. When the (F1)(�1) generation is selfed, the recessive characteristic
emerges in the next generation (F2)(�2). This suggests that the recessive feature did not vanish,
but that the dominant allele reduced its expression. Using a monohybrid cross, it can be stated as
follows. A monohybrid cross is a cross between two parents who are homozygous for opposing
character characteristics.
For example, a cross between tall TT�� and short(s) tt��.

38. Define and design a test – cross?

Ans: A test cross is a cross between a plant with an unknown genotype and the recessive parent.
To determine the genotype of an unknown plant, a test cross is utilized (i.e whether the plant is
homozygous or heterozygous). If the test cross's progeny has a 1:1 Dominant: Recessive ratio,
the unknown plant is heterozygous. If the progeny are all dominant, however, then the unknown
plant is homozygous.
39. Using a Punnett square, work out the distribution of phenotypic features in the first
filial generation after a cross between a homozygous female and a heterozygous male for a
single locus.
Ans: When heterozygous male guinea pigs (Ww)(��) with black coats are crossed with
homozygous female guinea pigs (ww)(��) with white coats, we can see that the male generates
two types of gametes W� and w�, while the female produces only one form of gamete w�.
We can see that the genotypic and phenotypic ratios in the (F1)(�1) generations are the same,
i.e., 1:11:1, using the Punnett square.

40. When a cross is made between tall plants with yellow seeds TtYy and tall plant with
green seed TtYy, what proportions of phenotype in the offspring could be expected to be
(a) Tall and green. (b) Dwarf and green.
Ans: When tall plants with yellow seeds (TtYy) are crossed with tall plants with green seeds
(TtYy), The phenotypic proportion in the progeny should be three tall and green, one dwarf and
green.

TY Ty tY ty

TY TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy

Ty TTYy TTyy TtYy Ttyy

tY TtYY TtYy ttyy ttYy

ty TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy

Tall and greèn ratio is: 3838

Dwarf and green ratio is:1818

41. Two heterozygous parents are crossed. If the two loci are linked what would be the
distribution of phenotypic features in F1 generation for a dihybrid cross?
Ans: When two genes are inherited together, they are referred to as linked genes, and linkage is
the term used to describe this process. There will be no segregation of alleles if two genes are
connected, and the alleles will be inherited together as a single gene. If two genes are connected,
the phenotype of the F1 generation will solely contain parental features and no recombinants.
There may be few recombinants in the case of inadequate linkage, but the proportion of parental
phenotypes will be higher.

42. Briefly mention the contribution of T.H. Morgan in genetics.

Ans: T.H. Morgan made significant contributions to genetics through his research on the fruit fly
Drosophila melanogaster. The following are some of his key contributions to the science of
genetics:
1. He confirmed the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance empirically. According to this
view, genes are located on chromosomes, which are inherited by daughter cells.
2. He established the presence of interconnected genes. Genes that are linked are those that
are found on the same chromosome. According to the hypothesis of linkage, genes on the
same chromosome are inherited together and are less likely to recombine.
3. He proved that the distance between genes on a chromosome influences the rate of
recombination.
The closer two genes are connected, the more likely they will be passed down in the same
family. The further apart two genes are on a chromosome, the more probable recombinants will
develop.
4. During meiosis, he exhibited chromosomal crossing over.
5. In the fruit fly, he demonstrated X-linked inheritance. Drosophila melanogaster is a type
of Drosophila.

43. What is pedigree analysis? Suggest how such an analysis can be useful.
Ans: Pedigree Study is a type of genetic analysis in which the inheritance of a specific gene is
traced through a person's lineage. It is accomplished by the use of a pedigree chart, which is a
scientific chart of ancestors produced using precise symbols to identify male, female, carrier,
disease, and so on. The following are some of the benefits of pedigree analysis:
1. Determine whether the gene is homozygous or heterozygous or homozygous or
heterozygous for heterozygous or homozygous or heterozygous or homozygous or
heterozygous for homozy
2. Examination of the gene's inheritance over successive generations of the same family.
3. Determine whether a particular genetic condition is caused by a dominant or recessive
gene.
4. To look into the origins of the sickness in the family and try to figure out what caused it.
5. To determine whether or not this gene will be passed down via future generations, as well
as the likelihood of this happening.
6. To provide genetic counseling to families who are at high risk for various genetic
disorders such as hemophilia, sickle cell anemia, and so on.

44. Explain the following terms with examples:

a. Codominance
Ans: Codominance occurs when both opposing alleles of a gene pair are equally expressed. For
example, in the human blood group, both A� and B� are equal prominent, and when both are
present, the AB�� blood group appears instead of either A� or B�
b. Incomplete dominance
Ans: Incomplete dominance occurs when a dominant allele does not entirely cover the effects of
a recessive allele, resulting in a blending of both alleles in the organism's
physical appearance. It's also termed as half dominance or semi-dominance. Take, for example,
the flower color of a snapdragon plant. The red flower color (R) has an imperfect dominance
over the white flower color (r). When both alleles (R) are present in the same plant, (R) is unable
to completely repress (r), resulting in a pink flower phenotype.

45. What is point mutation? Give one example.

Ans: Point mutation happens when a mutation arises in a single base pair of DNA. For example,
in sickle cell anemia, glutamic acid is replaced by valine in the sixth position of the beta globin
chain of hemoglobin, resulting in sickle-shaped RBCs rather than biconcave RBCs.

46. Who had proposed the chromosomal theory of inheritance?

Ans: The chromosomal hypothesis of inheritance was presented by Sutton and Boveri in 1902.
This states that chromosomes serve as carriers for gene inheritance.

47. Mention any two autosomal genetic disorders with their symptoms.
Ans:
a.Sickle Cell Anemia - When glutamic acid is replaced by valine in the sixth position of the beta
globin chain of hemoglobin due to a point mutation, the biconcave shape of hemoglobin
transforms into a sickle shape. This causes a reduction in blood oxygen delivery, as well as
weakness and fatigue.
b.Phenylketonuria - Phenylketonuria is a condition in which a person lacks an enzyme that
transforms amino acids and phenylalanine to tyrosine. The phenylalanine then builds up and is
converted to phenyl pyruvic acid and other derivatives. Mental retardation is a symptom of this
disease. They are eliminated in the urine due to inadequate renal absorption.