Clinical Psychology

SOCIALLY SOULED

RESOURCE MATERIAL

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

WEEK 1

1
 Clinical Psychology

Note from Founders, Socially Souled:

Akul Grover and Radhika Goyal

We share this with you in the hope that some of them will resonate and can act as a guiding
echo as you navigate the chambers of your own mind in hope of self-discovery. Psychology
has always been our field of interest and curiosity. With little more than our own personal
enthusiasm, we began by talking to anyone who would listen about the luminescent qualities
of a great psychology platform. It was an audacious goal, but we believed the world needed
Socially Souled and we are glad you are here with us today. We hope you will become as
passionate and as enthusiastic about our mission as we are. Let’s together help change the
way people think of psychology and spread knowledge and smiles.

2
 Clinical Psychology

RESOURCE PERSON: Isaac Thomas

Clinical psychologist, Content Coordinator, Research Associate, and Trainer

Isaac Thomas, a graduate of Clinical Psychology with honours from the Sampurna Montfort
College, is currently a research associate and trainer in the Socially Souled LLP. With great
interest in Writing and Psychology, Isaac Thomas began his career as an intern in Sampoorna
Manosthiti as a content developer and has experience as a lecturer at St. Aloysius College,
Mangalore. Currently, Isaac is associated with St. Aloysius College, working as a
psychologist and with Sampoorna Manosthiti as a part-time content coordinator. A diligent
and young mind with an enthusiastic spirit has joined Socially Souled LLP in teaching
‘Clinical Psychology and Neuropsychology Certificate Course’ and ‘Clinical Psychology
Training based Internship’ covering the Clinical Psychology concepts in depth with training
the students with crucial skills needed for a Clinical Psychologist.

RESOURCE PERSON: Anantika Tehlani

RCI Licensed Clinical Psychologist, Psychotherapist, Assistant Professor

Anantika Tehlani is a Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) licensed Clinical Psychologist

and has cleared the University Grants Commission of India NET for Assistant Professor in
Psychology in the year 2018. She has also been trained especially in the area of Queer
Affirmative Therapy and Trauma Informed Psychological Interventions. Anantika Tehlani
started her career by interning at the Indian Institute of Cerebral Palsy in 2017 and Institute of
Psychiatry in October 2018 and Caring Minds (Kolkata) in June 2018. Anantika was a
Clinical Trainee at IHBAS, Delhi in 2021 and worked part-time as an Educator in Power
within Psychology in May 2022 and as a Full-time Consultant Clinical Psychologist at
Psymate Healthcare in September 2022. Currently, she has been associated with Socially
Souled LLP as a Clinical Psychologist along with being an Assistant Professor at SGT
University and a Clinical Psychologist at the Friendly Couch. With her experience and
knowledge reflected in her teaching skills, Anantika Tehlani is one of the experts handling
‘The clinical Psychology and Neuropsychology Certificate Course at Socially Souled LLP.

3
 Clinical Psychology

SCHEDULE

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY TRAINING INTERNSHIP

WEEK 1

SESSION TOPIC

Session 1 Introduction to Clinical Psychology

History and theories of Clinical

Psychology Present status of Clinical

Psychology

Session 2 Roles and responsibilities of Clinical

Psychologist Workplace of Clinical Psychologist

Accreditation bodies

Session 3 Models of Psychopathology

Diagnosis, treatment and

rehabilitation Government Act

4
 Clinical Psychology

INDEX

SR. NO TOPICS PAGE NO.

WEEK 1

1. Introduction

● Definition of Clinical Psychology 7

2. History of Clinical Psychology

● Historical timeline 8

3. Theoretical Background

● Psychoanalytic theories
● Behavioural theories
● Cognitive theories 9
● Humanistic theories

4. Current status of Clinical Psychology

● The Scientist-Practitioner model

10
● Clinical Scientist model
● Combined Professional- Scientific training programs
● Prescription privileges
● Technological innovations

5
 Clinical Psychology

5. Field and Profession

● Roles and responsibilities of a clinical psychologist

● Skills needed for a clinical psychologist
● Places of work 11
● Related fields

6. American Psychological Association 14

7. The British Psychological Association 14

8. Models of Psychopathology
● Psychodynamic perspective
● Behavioural perspective
● Cognitive perspective
15
● Humanistic - existential perspective
● Socio-cultural perspective

9. Diagnosis, Treatment and Rehabilitation 22

10. Government Act 23

● Rehabilitation Council of India Act

11. 24
References

6
 Clinical Psychology

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

❖ DEFINITION:
According to the Division of Clinical Psychology (Division 21) of the American
Psychological Association, the term clinical psychology has been defined as;
The field of Clinical psychology integrates science, theory, and practice to understand,
predict and alleviate maladjustment, disability and discomfort as well as to promote human
adaptation, adjustment and personal development. Clinical psychology focuses on the
intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social and behavioural aspects of human
functioning across the life span, in varying cultures and at all socioeconomic levels.
(American Psychological Association, 2009a)

Various other psychologists and researchers of different periods have made attempts to define
the field of clinical psychology mainly to make clear the roles and responsibilities of clinical
psychologists and in ways to distinguish this field from related fields.
● Lightner Witmer first coined the term,’ Clinical Psychology’ in 1907 and defined it
as,” the study of individuals through observational or experimental methods to
promote change in individuals”.
● Korchin in 1986, defined clinical psychology as “most distinctly defined by the
clinical attitude, that is, a concern with understanding and helping individuals in
psychological distress…..”
● Saccuzzo and Kaplan in 1994 defined clinical psychology as “ an applied branch of
psychology devoted to helping adjust, solve problems, changes, improve and achieve
their highest potential.”

❖ THE EMERGENCE OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:

The emergence of the field of clinical psychology can be attributed to the initiation of the
Greek Philosophers like Hippocrates, Aristotle and many more, who examined beyond the
bodily symptoms and worked towards assessing human nature of thought and personality.

7
 Clinical Psychology

HISTORICAL TIMELINE:

● 1882- Francis Galton, an Englishman, established an anthropometric laboratory and

Cattell coined the term ‘mental tests’.
● 1896- Witmer opened the first ever Psychological Clinic and started a journal, ‘The
Psychological Clinic’, giving rise to the scientific aspect of the field in examining and
treating individuals.
● 1904- Binet and Theodore Simon submitted a proposal to the minister of public
instruction in Paris, regarding the education of children with cognitive difficulties.
● 1904- the concept of General intelligence g was given by Charles Spearman.
● 1905- Word-association method was developed by Carl Jung.
● 1908- Binet- Simon scale was developed.
● 1910- Kent- Rosanoff Free association test was published.
● 1913- Emil Kraepeline gave a new diagnostic classification of two types of mental
disorders namely, curable and incurable by the causal factors.
● 1917- The focus of Clinical psychology changed towards the US military services
from children.
● 1917- The Medical Department of the Army appointed a committee of five members,
headed by Robert Yerkes, from the American Psychological Association to classify
men according to their mental ability.
● 1917- Army Alpha test was created.
● 1917- Psychoneurotic Inventory, the first ever diagnostic test for abnormal behaviour
was developed by Woodworth.
● 1921- Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist published a book, Pyschodiagnostik
describing the use of inkblot in diagnosing.
● 1927- Thurstone contributed to the Factor analysis in explaining the intelligence
theory.
● 1928- Gesell’s developmental scale scales were published.
● 1930- Nonverbal intelligence scale by Pintner and Paterson.
● 1939- David Wechsler published the Wechsler- Bellevue test of intelligence.
● 1939- L.K. Frank coined the term ‘projective technique’.

8
 Clinical Psychology

● With the success of creating mental tests for intelligence, After world war II, the
focus was changed to assessing personality.
● 1943- The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory was developed.
● 1940- 1950- rapid development in testing technologies.
● 1955- Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale was developed.
● In Late 1950, the term ‘radical behaviourism’ came into force.
● 1952- American Psychological Association, published the first edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM- I).

Since the publishing of DSM-I, the development of the field has been rapid with various
perspectives into force now and then.

❖ THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
The ways to study and understand the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders were given
forth by many researchers under different theories. The basic theories include;
1. Psychoanalytic theory- The basic psychoanalytic theory founded by Sigmund Freud
in the 1800s focuses on describing mental abnormality through the existence and
dominance of unconscious desires and thoughts along with early childhood
experience. Freud described the concept of Libido, more as sexual energy in this
theory. The psychodynamic theory rather emphasises more on the concepts of
psychoanalytic giving importance to various other concepts like Ego psychology,
Interpersonal relationships and many more.
2. Behavioural theory- Behavioural theory, emerged in the 1900s through the work of
Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner focuses more on measurable characteristics
rather than unconsciousness in explaining abnormal behaviours. This theory
emphasises the importance of analysing human behaviour with not much focus on
experience or treatment through talk therapy. Learning behaviour is much associated
with mental representation through concepts like conditioning and reinforcements.
3. Cognitive theory- The Third basic theory to explain human abnormal behaviour,
which focuses on the thought process and individual perspective as hindrances in
normal behaviour is the cognitive theory. Founded by Aron Beck in the 1950s
describes thoughts influencing human behaviour. The work of cognitive therapists

9
 Clinical Psychology

along with behavioural therapists gave rise to a much more effective therapy known
as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy in treating human abnormality.
4. Humanistic theory- A newer theory to this field, the humanistic theory focuses on
the present rather than the past and emphasis on the importance of the self-concept in
explaining the abnormal behaviour. It works to make humans distinct with the
concept of free will and the human thoughts and perspective to the way of attaining
self-fulfilment. (Maslows hierarchy of needs )

❖ CURRENT STATUS OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:

● The Scientist-Practitioner model- The Scientist-Practitioner model has been in use
for the past 50 years, which works by the concept where the professional as a scientist
studies behaviours and new concepts in a significant scientific way and applies the
results and facts found in the role as a practitioner to treat people that results in an
effective outcome.
● Clinical Scientist model- The Clinical Scientist model is the recent advancement of
the Scholar-Practitioner model, where the practice of clinical psychology is centred on
the scientific epistemology in a way to advance the knowledge reflecting in a better
treatment approach to the patients and public health.
● Combined Professional- Scientific training programs- The Combined
Professional- Scientific training programme refers to the model which works by the
combination of Clinical, Counselling and School psychology in treating or resolving
an issue or client.
● Prescription privileges- Iowa, Idaho, Illinois, New Mexico, and Louisiana are 5
countries that have prescribing privileges for Psychologists currently, however
prescribing psychologists have seemed to work effectively in handling
psychopharmacology for the past 20 years in the US.
● Technological innovations - Technological innovations have paved the way for the
routine use of screening anxiety, depression and other symptoms of many disorders
through online tests, which prove to be more effective than no measure at all. In case
of geographic concerns, online therapy sessions have helped more people in need than
before.

10
 Clinical Psychology

FIELD AND PROFESSION

❖ ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS:

The roles and responsibilities of a clinical psychologist range from;
● Conducting assessments- The counsellor needs to be updated with all kinds of
Psychometric assessments needed for the diagnosis and able to use appropriate tests
for each individual depending upon their complaints. It is needed for the counsellor to
follow all the instructions given in the manual of a test and make sure that the client is
well informed about the procedure and timings to complete the test. The counsellor
should also be clear about the norms and scoring of tests to interpret the results
correctly.
● Diagnosing- The process of diagnosis begins with collecting demographic details and
the history of presenting illness, proceeding with a proper examination of the mental
status of the client during the session. The crucial role of a counsellor lies in assessing
the presenting complaint and diagnosing a particular disorder or illness with the help
of tools like DSM or ICD.
● Constructing a suitable treatment plan- Once the counsellor has diagnosed the
client, the next role involves creating a suitable therapy as per the problem of the
client considering the factors like the time the client can dedicate for therapy sessions,
availability of the client both mentally and physically, the personality of the
individual, financial status and the social support the client has.
● Administering various therapies- The client has to be presented with various
therapy options and explained about each of them before committing themselves. It is
very important to talk about the financial commitment before beginning the treatment.
Special skills in useful therapies can help the counsellor provide better treatment.
● Keeping up with the follow-ups- The role of a psychologist does not end at the end
of the therapy session but it is very crucial to maintain follow-up sessions with the
client to ensure the benefits of the treatment for a prolonged period.

11
 Clinical Psychology

❖ SKILLS NEEDED FOR CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS:

Some of the major skills needed for a clinical psychologist include;

1. Active listening- Active listening involves being patient until the counsellee finishes
and being reflective both verbally (repeating what the client said to make sure that
you) and in a non-verbal way (nodding the head).
2. Empathy- Empathy can be described as ‘putting oneself in the shoes of others, to
better understand what the client has been going through.
3. Patience- Patience is a major skill that has to be developed. Where the counsellor
invests mind and time consciously to the sayings of the client.
4. Setting a boundary- The counsellor needs to make sure to stay connected with the
client in a professional way to avoid any chance of development of transference.
5. Ethical conduction- Ethical conduction involves conducting the therapy by the
ethical protocol issued by the American Psychological Association which involves
maintaining confidentiality, providing privacy and informed consent of the client.
6. Emotional stability- The counsellor must stay emotionally stable and start the
session with a clean state of mind to avoid any unnecessary clash of personnel and
professional issues.
7. Communication- Proper communication helps avoid problems like setting scheduled
sessions and a better understanding of the client's needs and problems so that a
suitable therapy could be designed.
8. Research- The counsellor needs to be aware of any recent findings and studies in the
field of Psychology to gain better knowledge and be updated in the field of work to
excel.
9. Time management- The counsellor needs to make clear the session duration to the
client before starting to avoid prolonged sessions and also needs to make sure that the
counsellor doesn't take up too many clients for a day.
10. Assessment and evaluation- One of the much-needed skills for diagnosis, is the
knowledge about psychometric tests and the skill to conduct the tests in the right way
(making sure the client is calm and well-informed before the start, offering some
water and making them comfortable) to get an accurate response from the client.

12
 Clinical Psychology

❖ PLACES OF WORK:

❖ RELATED FIELDS:
The roles and responsibilities of a clinical psychologist often appear similar to many other
related fields with each of its distinct roles. Clinical Psychologists are licensed by the
Rehabilitation Council of India to legally diagnose and treat people with clinical mental
disturbances.
● Psychiatrists are doctors who have specialised in Psychiatry, diagnosing and treating
people who are mentally ill through psychopharmacology.
● Clinical Social workers focus on upbringing the life of people who are mentally ill
and helping them through rehabilitation and working towards creating a better life and
social care after treatment to lead a normal life.
● Counsellors are graduates in Counselling psychology who specialise in various types
of therapies to help people cope better with everyday problems.
● Health and rehabilitation psychologists are associated with hospital settings in
creating better mental health while living life and focusing on the betterment of life
after therapy through rehabilitation.

13
 Clinical Psychology

❖ AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION:

The American Psychological Association is a large scientific body of Psychologists in the

United States of America.
● Founded in July 1892 at Clark University
● a Current number of divisions: 54
● Current President: Frank. C Worrell
● Members: Scientists, Clinicians, Educators and Psychology students
● Functions include: helping establish and promote Psychology as a scene, Providing
official titles, Publishing the Official Style manual
● Famous Presidents of APA: William James, James McKeen Cattell, Hugo
Munsterberg, John Dewey, Robert Sternberg

❖ BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY:

The British Psychological Society is the body which represents the Psychologists in the
United Kingdom.
● Founded on October 24 1901 at University College London
● Current President: Katherine Carpenter
● Grades of Members: Students, Graduate member of the BPS, Associate Fellow of
the BPS, Fellow of the BPS and Honorary Fellow of the BPS
● Mission: Raise standards of training and practice in Psychology, Raise public
awareness of Psychology and Increase the influence of Psychology practice in
society.
❖ ACCREDITATION BODIES:
The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists (ICAP) founded in the year 1968, is the
national body which aims to raise the Knowledge of Psychology and raise the standards of
Clinical Psychologists. It included members in six different grades depending upon their
educational qualifications and experience in the field. This body not only included clinical
psychologists but also other related mental health professionals. ICAP also conducts
voluntary programmes to raise awareness about mental health in society.

14
 Clinical Psychology

MODELS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Any deviation from the socially accepted normal behaviour can be termed abnormal
behaviour. Psychopathology is the branch that deals with the study of abnormal behaviours or
any maladaptation of mental behaviours. The abnormal behaviours can be explained from
different perspectives. Much of the importance was given to the biological viewpoints in
explaining the causal factors of many disorders and then the shift was gradually towards the
behavioural and cognitive aspects. Later with the emergence of the biopsychosocial model,
any abnormal behaviour is defined based on biological, social and psychological components
with different models.

❖ BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:
The biological model explains the abnormal behaviours based on interaction or independent
biological factors like;
● Imbalances of neurotransmitters:
The communication in the brain occurs by the interaction of neurons or nerve cells,
and the point of connection of two neurons is called synapse where the
neurotransmitters are produced during intraneural transmission. Neurotransmitters are
chemical substances released in the brain during any communication. Many
neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, etc., are secreted in the
brain. Complications like excessive production or ineffective receptors in the
receiving neuron or the deactivation of the neurotransmitter once released are a few
reasons that can be accounted for as the cause of abnormal behaviours.
● Hormonal imbalances:
The glands of the endocrine system produce and directly release chemical substances
into the bloodstream called hormones. The nervous system is found to be linked with
the endocrine gland (neuroendocrine system). The pituitary system in the
hypothalamus is called the master gland of the body producing a variety of hormones
that control the body. Any imbalances in the production of these hormones are the
cause of abnormal behaviours.
● Genetic vulnerabilities:
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes where 22 pairs account for the somatic
properties and the last pair is called the sex chromosome as it influences the sex of the
individuals. Each pair of chromosomes is composed of one from each parent

15
 Clinical Psychology

chromosome, enabling equal inheritance of the parental characteristics. The

dominance of a particular trait is influenced by the presence or absence of dominant
and recessive genes.
● Temperament:
The temperament is the reactivity and the regulation of the self. The temperament of a
child is much influenced by the parents and the surroundings and the basic
dimensions include fearfulness, irritability and frustration, positive affect, activity
level and attentional persistence and effortful control. The child's temperament shapes
the adult personality.
● Brain damage and plasticity:
Any damage to the structure of the brain has also been seen to contribute to abnormal
behaviour, giving a better scope for developmental psychology to study mental
disorders.

❖ PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:
Because of the inability to explain all types of abnormal behaviour, there was a shift to the
psychological viewpoint emphasising the unconscious thoughts and individual differences.
● Basic fundamentals of Psychoanalytic theory:
Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalytic school, gave much importance to the
unconscious thoughts and desires to explain human behaviours. Freud pointed out that
any disturbances or fixations in any of these stages gave rise to abnormal behaviours.
● Structure of personality:
The conscious part of the human mind was described as a structure of the tip of the
iceberg and the huge submerged part as the unconscious part. Human personality
structure was given by the presence of three components;
● Id- The Id is the first component to develop in infancy and works on the ‘pleasure
principle’. The Id contains all the unconscious thoughts and desires and works
towards satisfying the self through dreams, and mental images called ‘primary process
thinking’. It consists of two opposing types: the life instinct (constructive, libido) and
the death instinct (destructive).
● Ego- The second component of personality appears as the development of life occurs
giving rise to the Ego. The Ego basically works to satisfy the demands of the Id and
the expectation of society. The Ego works on the ‘Reality principle’ with adaptive
measures

16
 Clinical Psychology

● called ‘secondary process thinking’. The ego is also called the executive branch of the
personality.
● Superego- Gradually the Superego develops with the social rules and moral values of
the self in considering what is right and wrong, basically the consciousness.
Any dispute between the three structures of the human personality as described by Freud
gives rise to intrapsychic conflicts being a reason for abnormal behaviour.
● Anxiety and defence mechanism:
Anxiety can be defined as the fear or state of apprehension and the human mind find
ways to protect the ego through irrationals ways using mechanisms like;

DEFENSE MEANING EXAMPLE

MECHANISM

Displacement Redirection of an unpleasant A wife displacing her

negative feeling mostly hostility anger towards her
towards another member or object husband which was
rather than the source of that aroused by the boss.
emotion.

Denial Refusal to accept the reality or Not accepting the fact

facts. Most commonly used. their crush doesn’t like
them back.

Projection The way of describing the Blaming that the other

emotion experienced by the self as person isn't ready to sort
coming from others. things out when you
actually aren’t ready.

Reaction formation Defending the self from

experiencing any negative
reaction by forming an extremely
positive reaction.

17
 Clinical Psychology

Rationalisation Giving out rational explanations Trashing the company

for any unfavourable situation or when getting rejected
action. from an interview.

Regression involves pushing intrusive or Not thinking about the

disturbing thoughts to the argument with the boss in
unconscious from the the office.
consciousness.

Sublimation is a rational defence mechanism painting when feeling

where the negative energy is angry or anxious about an
redirected to any skills or any issue
productive activity.

Repression Repression is the mechanism of throwing temper tantrums

returning to an early when having a fight with
developmental stage to handle any your partner.
unfavourable present situation or
issue.

● Psychosexual stages:
Freud explained 5 psychosexual stages in the development of humans with a specific
erogenous zone for each stage;
● Oral - the oral stage lasts for the first two years of life, where the erogenous zone is
the mouth and the child satisfies with the mouth activity like suckling the mother’s
nipple for food.
● Anal- the next anal stage lasts from 2 to 3 years, where the erogenous zone is the anal
and this stage is significant with toilet training. The child expresses the attitude by
retention or elimination of bowel movements.

18
 Clinical Psychology

● Phallic- the third stage is the phallic stage where the child attains pleasure by
manipulation of genitals lasting between 3 to 5 or 6 years of age. The concept of the
oedipal complex and Electra complex are described.
- The sexual attraction of a male child towards the mother and hatred
towards the father explains the oedipal complex with the fear of the
penis being cut (castration anxiety).
- The sexual attraction of a female child towards the father and hatred
towards the mother explains the Electra complex with the female being
envious of the male penis (penis envy).
● Latency- the fourth stage of Freud’s psychosexual stages which lasts between 6 to 12
or the adolescent stage, where the sexual desires are replaced by a focus towards
academics or skills or hobbies and the partnership with the same gender is stronger in
this stage.
● Genital - the last stage is the genital stage which marks adult sexual intercourse and
the erogenous zone is the genitals.

The newer psychodynamic perspective includes concepts of;

● ego psychology, object-relations theory, interpersonal perspective and attachment
theory.

❖ BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVE:
With the failure to scientifically prove the psychodynamic theory, the behaviourists explained
the abnormal behaviours through the behaviour perspective focusing on the overt measurable
characteristics and traits that unmeasurable unconscious thoughts and desires.
● Classical conditioning- the concept of behavioural learning was explained by Ivan
Pavlov in his experiment with a salivating dog. The process of pairing a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a biological response as the
conditioned response is called classical conditioning. Ivan Pavlov noticed the
salivating response (biological response) of a hungry dog at the arrival of food.
Pavlov then, paired a (neutral stimulus) sound of a bell ringing every time when
presenting food (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog and when the pairing was
consistent, Pavlov then found the salivating of the dog was elicited just by the sound
of the bell (conditioned stimulus) making salivating a

19
 Clinical Psychology

● conditioned response. The concept of generalisation and discrimination was also

explained.
● Instrumental conditioning- the concept of instrumental conditioning (or operant
conditioning) given by B.F. Skinner, based on Thorndike’s law of effect in 1898,
explains learning of behaviour through reinforcement (to increase a behaviour) and
punishment (to decrease a behaviour). Both reinforcement and punishment can be
positive and negative depending upon the need for behaviour. Skinner’s box was used
to explain the concept of learning through reward. Skinner created a box with a
hungry rat inside with the sight of food outside. The gate of that box could be opened
by pulling a lever, the rat after multiple attempts pulls the string to get a rewarding
food and develops the behaviour of lever pulling to get the food through constant
reinforcement.
● Social learning theory- the concept of Social learning theory was given by Albert
Bandura in the 1960s to explain the process of learning through observation of the
surroundings. The early learnings of a child can be explained by the observation and
efforts to replicate the behaviours of parents. Bandura conducted an experiment to
explain the expression of aggression through observational learning called ’The Bobo
doll experiment’, where children of age 3 to 6 were put in two different groups and
one group was shown a video where a bobo doll was handled with care and played
and another group was shown a video of a bunch of people handling the bobo doll
aggressively. Once the bobo doll was given to the two different groups after the video,
Bandura found that the group of children who saw the aggressive video replicated
aggression proving observational learning.

❖ COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE:
Cognitive psychology studies human information-processing abilities from thinking and
memory to higher-order functions like decision-making and problem-solving abilities. The
cognitive perspective proposes the influence of thought processes and perspectives of
individuals as the cause of abnormal behaviours.
Cognitive therapy focuses on altering the negative thought of an individual into more positive
ones, Aaron Beck, the founder of cognitive therapy explains that people with depression have
three thought patterns surrounding the self, world and the future giving rise to the model of
the

20
 Clinical Psychology

negative cognitive triad. And these negative assumptions are called cognitive distortions. The
dispute of cognition giving rise to behaviour or the behaviour giving rise to cognition, lead to
the emergence of cognitive-behaviour therapy.

❖ HUMANISTIC AND EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE:

The Humanistic perspective views humans as generally good. And focuses on emphasising
the self and individual morals and values. It explains complicated concepts like love, care,
self-esteem, self-fulfilment, etc. Carl Rogers’s concept of Self is much used in the
psychotherapeutic process which can be summarised as;
● Each individual lives in their world with I, Me and Myself as the centre.
● Any threat to the self is defended in an instinct with various learned mechanisms.
● The Self is particular about the actualisation and maintenance of the moral values in
their behaviours and thoughts
Psychopathology can be reasoned because of any hindrance or block of self-growth.
The Existential perspective highlights the uniqueness of each individual and is much similar
to the humanistic perspective. It shows living as much as ‘Confrontation’ and the role of
human values and learning to understand the deepest human problems. The themes of the
existential perspective include Existence and essence, Meaning and Value Existential anxiety
and the encounter with nothingness. Here the abnormality can be explained based on the
inability to constructively deal with external problems and issues.

21
 Clinical Psychology

❖ SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE:
The Socio-Cultural perspective explains the abnormal behaviour of an individual about their
social and cultural concepts. Social Factors like gender, socio-economic status and
interpersonal relations contribute to both the physical and mental health of an individual.
● Gender-appropriate behaviours are behaviours which are set to be appropriate to
express by each society. For instance, crying and being emotional are attributed as
‘female appropriate’ and a male is looked down upon when found to be crying or
throwing tantrums. In the same way, women are often expected to stay slim and fit
which may induce eating disorders in many. The cultural expectation of women to
stay silent and submissive may put many in underpaid jobs or domestic violence.
● The downfall of Socioeconomic status may also contribute to mental disorders. The
inability to cope with a loss of financial status due to natural calamities or say any
cause can put an individual in depression and take a toll on their self-esteem.
● Having a supportive neighbourhood has proven to cope with bitter situations of loss
more than living alone. The feeling of loneliness has been shown to have detrimental
effects on the physical and mental health of an individual.

❖ DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT AND REHABILITATION:

● Diagnosis is the process of accessing the signs and symptoms and categorising
exactly which disease or disorder an individual is experiencing. Classification is the
process of categorising disorders of the same or different pattern, course or symptoms.
Diagnosis is aided by tools like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM) which was published by the American Psychological Association
and the International Classification of Disease (ICD) by the World Health
Organisation. The current edition of DSM- V and ICD-11 are being used.
● Treatment- Once an individual has been diagnosed with a particular mental
condition, the process of treatment begins with choosing the appropriate treatment and
planning the treatment process. Treatment for mental disorders includes prescribing
medicines (Psychopharmacotherapy) along with administering Psychotherapies like
Cognitive- behavioural therapy or Rational Emotive behavioural therapy and many
more. Any

22
 Clinical Psychology

● The treatment process can be aided with good social support, hence, educating the
caregivers about the patient’s diagnosis and care is very important (psychoeducation).
● Rehabilitation is an intervention suggested for decreasing any level of disability and
enhancing the functioning of an individual to carry out minimal day-to-day functions.
Rehabilitation is encouraged among the group suffering or suffering from long-term
chronic conditions or injury. It helps individuals to cope with both mental and
physical illness.
❖ THE REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA ACT, 1992
The rehabilitation council of India was established in 1986. In 1992 the rehabilitation
council of India act was passed and made into a statutory body in June 1993. This act
provides the constitution for monitoring the training of rehabilitation professionals
and maintenance of registration.

23
 Clinical Psychology

REFERENCES

● https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/classification/other-classifications/9241544
228_eng.pdf
● https://www.apa.org/ethics/code
● https://cdn.website-editor.net/30f11123991548a0af708722d458e476/files/uploaded/DSM
%2520V.pdf
● https://kupdf.net/queue/ahuja-a-short-textbook-of-psychiatry-7th-edition_59f1900fe2b6f5
872a4f9890_pdf?queue_id=-1&x=1670924144&z=MTIyLjE3Ni4yMDcuMTg1
● https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1977/1/199234.pdf
● http://www.rehabcouncil.nic.in/
● https://www.fnu.edu/top-10-skills-every-psychologist-needs/
● https://artsandscience.usask.ca/psychology/programs/clinical-sub-pages/core-competencie
s.php
● https://www.greatcollegedeals.net/lists/5-clinical-psychology-theories/#:~:text=Psychodyn
amic,Biological
● https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp458
● https://www.psychology-lexicon.com/cms/glossary/36-glossary-c/7662-combined-professi
onal-scientific-training-program.html
● https://www.papsy.org/news/598479/Co-Sponsors-Needed-for-Prescription-Privileges-for-
Psychologists.htm#:~:text=Currently%2C%20five%20states%20have%20prescription,for
%20more%20than%2020%20years.
● https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16244509/
● https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-american-psychological-association-2795602
● https://iacp.in/

24
 Clinical Psychology

Extra notes –

Cognitive needs[edit]
Main article: Need for cognition
After esteem needs cognitive needs come next in the hierarchy of needs. People have cognitive needs
such as creativity, foresight, curiosity, and meaning. Individuals who enjoy activities that require
deliberation and brainstorming have a greater need for cognition. Individuals who are unmotivated to
participate in the activity, on the other hand, have a low demand for cognitive abilities. [22] It has been said
that Maslow's hierarchy of needs can be extended after esteem needs into two more categories:
cognitive needs and aesthetic needs. Cognitive needs crave meaning, information, comprehension and
curiosity – this creates a will to learn and attain knowledge. [2]  From an educational viewpoint, Maslow
wanted humans to have intrinsic motivation to become educated people.

Aesthetic needs[edit]
After reaching one's cognitive needs it would progress to aesthetic needs, to beautify one's life. This
would consist of having the ability to appreciate the beauty within the world around one's self, on a day-
to-day basis.[2] According to Maslow's theories, to progress toward Self-Actualization, humans require
beautiful imagery or novel and aesthetically pleasing experiences. Humans must immerse themselves in
nature's splendor while paying close attention to and observing their surroundings to extract the world's
beauty. This higher level of need to connect with nature results in a sense of intimacy with nature and all
that is endearing.[2] After reaching one's cognitive needs it would progress to aesthetic needs, to beautify
oneself. This would consist of improving one's physical appearance to ensure its beauty to balance the
rest of the body.[2]

Transcendence needs[edit]
Main articles: Transcendence (philosophy), Transcendence (religion), and Self-transcendence
Maslow later subdivided the triangle's top to include self-transcendence, also known as spiritual needs.
Spiritual needs differ from other types of needs in that they can be met on multiple levels. When this
need is met, it produces feelings of integrity and raises things to a higher plane of existence. [23] In his
later years, Maslow explored a further dimension of motivation, while criticizing his original vision of self-
actualization.[24][25][26][27] By these later ideas, one finds the fullest realization in giving oneself to something
beyond oneself—for example, in altruism or spirituality. He equated this with the desire to reach the
infinite.[28] "Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human
consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to
human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos."[29]

25