2001 Elementary Differential Geometry Pressley

Springer Undergraduate Mathematics Series
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M.A.]. Chaplain University ofDundee
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Andrew Pressley
Elementary
Differential
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i Springer
Andrew Pressley
Department ofMathematics, King's College, The Strand, London WC2R 2LS,UK
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Preface
The Differential Geometry in the title of this book is the study of the geometry
of curves and surfaces in three-dimensional space using calculus techniques .
This topie contains some of the most beautiful results in Mathematies, and
yet most of them can be understood without extensive background knowledge.
Thus, for virtually all of this book, the only pre-requisites are a good working
knowledge of Calculus (induding partial differentiation), Vectors and Linear
Algebra (induding matriees and determinants) .
Many of the results about curves and surfaces that we shall discuss are pro-
totypes of more general results that apply in higher-dimensional situations. For
example, the Gauss-Bonnet theorem, treated in Chapter 11, is the prototype of
a large number of results that relate 'local' and 'global' properties of geometrie
objects. The study of such relationships has formed one of the major themes
of 20th century Mathematies.
We want to emphasise , however, that the methods used in this book are
not necessarily those whieh generalise to higher-dimensional situations. (For
readers in the know, there is, for example, no mention of 'connections' in the
remainder of this book.) Rather, we have tried at all times to use the simplest
approach that will yield the desired results . Not only does this keep the pre-
requisites to an absolute minimum, it also enables us to avoid some of the
conceptual difficulties often encountered in the study of Differential Geometry
in higher dimensions. We hope that this approach will make this beautiful
subject accessible to a wider audience.
It is a cliche, but true nevertheless, that Mathematies can be learned only
by doing it, and not just by reading about it. Accordingly, the book contains
V
VI Elementary Differential Geometry
over 200 exercises. Readers should attempt as many of these as their stamina
permits. Full solutions to all the exercises are given at the end of the book, but
these should be consulted only after the reader has obtained his or her own
solution, or in case of desperation. We have tried to minimise the number of
instances of the latter by induding hints to many of the less routine exercises.
Contents
Preface v
1. Curves in the Plane and in Space ......... 1
1.1 What is a Curve? 1
1.2 Arc-Length " . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Reparametrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Level Curves vs. Parametrized Curves 16
2. How Much Does a Curve Curve? ............. 23
2.1 Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Plane Curves 28
2.3 Space Curves 36
3. Global Properties of Curves 47
3.1 Simple Closed Curves 47
3.2 The Isoperimetrie Inequality 51
3.3 The Four Vertex Theorem 55
4. Surfaces in Three Dimensions 59
4.1 What is a Surface? 59
4.2 Smooth Surfaces 66
4.3 Tangents, Normals and Orientability 74
4.4 Examples of Surfaces 78
4.5 Quadric Surfaces 84
4.6 Triply Orthogonal Systems .................. 90
4.7 Applications of the Inverse Function Theorem 93
VII
VIII Elementary Differential Geometry
5. The First Fundamental Form 91

5.1 Lengths of Curves on Surfaces 97
5.2 Isometries of Surfaces 101
5.3 Conformal Mappings of Surfaces 106
5.4 Surface Area 112
5.5 Equiareal Maps and a Theorem of Archimedes 116
6. Curvature of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123
6.1 The Second Fundamental Form 123
6.2 The Curvature of Curves on a Surface 127
6.3 The Normal and Principal Curvatures 130
6.4 Geometrie Interpretation of Principal Curvatures 141
1. Gaussian Curvature and the Gauss Map 141
7.1 The Gaussian and Mean Curvatures 147
7.2 The Pseudosphere 151
7.3 Flat Surfaces 155
7.4 Surfaces of Constant Mean Curvature 161
7.5 Gaussian Curvature of Compact Surfaces 164
7.6 The Gauss map .................... 165
8. Geodesies 111
8.1 Definition and Basie Properties 171
8.2 Geodesie Equations 175
8.3 Geodesics on Surfaces of Revolution 181
8.4 Geodesies as Shortest Paths 190
8.5 Geodesie Coordinates 197
9. Minimal Surfaees 201
9.1 Plateau's Problem 201
9.2 Examples of Minimal Surfaces 207
9.3 Gauss map of a Minimal Surface ~ ......... 217
9.4 Minimal Surfaces and Holomorphic Functions 219
10. Gauss's Theorema Egregium 229
10.1 Gauss's Remarkable Theorem 229
10.2 Isometries of Surfaces 238
10.3 The Codazzi-Mainardi Equations 240
10.4 Compact Surfaces of Constant Gaussian Curvature .,. 244
11. The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem 247
11.1 Gauss-Bonnet for Simple Closed Curves 247
11.2 Gauss-Bonnet for Curvilinear Polygons 252
11.3 Gauss-Bonnet for Compact Surfaces 258
Contents IX
11.4 Singularities of Vector Fields 269

11.5 Critical Points 275
Solutions 281
Chapter 1 ............................................. 272
Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 275
Chapter 3 ............................................. 279
Chapter 4 .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 286
Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 289
Chapter 7 .............................. 294
Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 299
Chapter 9 ............................................. 307
Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 311
Chapter 11 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 314
Index 329
1
Curves in the Plane and in Space
In this chapter we discuss two mathematical formulations of the intuitive not ion
of a curve. The precise relation between them turns out to be quite subtle, so
we shall begin by giving some examples of curves of each type and practical
ways of passing between them.
1.1. What is a Curve?

If asked to give an example of a curve, you might give a straight line, say
y - 2x = 1 (even though this is not 'curved' I), or a circle, say x 2 + y2 = 1, or
perhaps a parabola, say y - x 2 = O.
\ J/
y - 2x =1 y - x2 =0
All of these curves are described by means of their cartesian equation
f(x,y) = c,
where f is a function of x and y and c is a constant. From this point of view,
1
2 Elementary Differential Geometry
a curve is a set of points, namely

c= ((x ,y) E R 2 I f(x,y) = c]. (1)
2
These examples are all curves in the plane R , but we can also consider curves
in R 3 - for example, the z-axis in R 3 is the straight line given by
{(x ,y,z) E R 3 I y = z = O},
and more generally a curve in R 3 might be defined by a pair of equations
h (x, y, z) = Cl, h(x, y, z) = C2·
Curves of this kind are called level curves , the idea being that the curve in Eq.
(1), for example, is the set of points (x,y) in the plane at which the quantity
f (x , y) reaches the 'level' c.
But there is another way to think about curves which turns out to be more
useful in many situations. For this, a curve is viewed as the path traced out by
a moving point. Thus, if 'Y(t) is the position vector of the point at time t, the
curve is described by a function 'Y of a scalar parameter t with vector values
(in R 2 for aplane curve , in R 3 for a curve in space). We use this idea to give
our first formal definition of a curve in Rn (we shall be interested only in the
cases n = 2 or 3, but it is convenient to treat both cases simultaneously):
Definition 1.1
A parametrised curve in Rn is a map 'Y : (a ,ß) -+ Rn , for some a .B with
-00 ~ 0. <ß~ 00.
The symbol (0., ß) denotes the open interval

(a,ß) = {t E RIo. < t < ß}.
A parametrised curve whose image is contained in a level curve C is called
a parametrisation of (part of) C. The following examples illustrate how to pass
from level curves to parametrised curves and back again in practice.
Example 1.1
Let us find a parametrisation 'Y( t) of the parabola y = x 2 • If 'Y( t) = (')'1 (t), ')'2 (t)) ,
the components ')'1 and ')'2 of'Y must satisfy
(2)
for all values of t in the interval (0., ß) where y is defined (yet to be decided),
and ideally every point on the parabola should be equal to (')'1(t),')'2(t)) for
some value of t E (0., ß). Of course, there is an obvious solution to Eq. (2): take
1. Curves in the Plane and in Space 3
11(t) = t,'2(t) = t 2. To get every point on the parabola we must allow t to

take every real number value (since the x-coordinate of "Y(t) is just t, and the
z-coordinate of a point on the parabola can be any real number), so we must
take (Ci ,ß) to be (-00,00). Thus, the desired parametrisation is
"Y : (-00,00) -+ R 2, "Y(t) = (t, t 2 ) .
But this is not the only parametrisation of the parabola. Another choice is
"Y(t) = (t 3,t6) (with (Ci,ß) = (-00,00)). Yet another is (2t,4t 2), and ofcourse
there are (infinitely many) others. So the parametrisation of a given level curve
is not unique.
Example 1.2
Now we try the circle x 2 +y2 = 1. It is tempting to take x = t as in the previous
example, so that y = Jf=t2 (we could have taken y = -Jf=t2). So we get
the parametrisation
"Y(t) = (t, Jl=t2).
But this is only a parametrisation of the upper half of the circle, because
v'f='t2 is always ~ O. Similarly, if we had taken y = -v'f='t2, we would only
have covered the lower half of the circle.
If we want a parametrisation of the whole circle, we must try again. We
need functions 11 (t) and 12(t) such that
11(t)2 + 12(t)2 =1 (3)
for all t E (Ci, ß), and such that every point on the circle is equal to (,1 (t), 12 (t))
for some t E (Ci , ß). There is an obvious solution to Eq. (3): ')'1 (t) = cos t
and 12(t) = sin t (since cos2 t + sin 2 t = 1 for all values of t). We can take
(Ci, ß) = (-00,00), although this is overkill: any open interval (Ci , ß) whose
length is greater than 271" will suffice.
The next example shows how to pass from parametrised curves to level
curves .
Example 1.3
Take the parametrised curve (called an astroicI)

"Y( t) = (cos" t, sin 3 t) .
Since cos2 t + sin 2 t = 1 for all t, the coordinates x = cos3 t, Y = sin 3 t of the
point "Y( t) satisfy
This level curve coincides with the image of the map -y.
In this book, we shall be studying curves (and later, surfaces) using meth-
ods of calculus. To differentiate a vector-valued function such as -y(t) (as in
Definition 1.1), we differentiate componentwise: if
then
d-y (d-Y1 d-Y2 d'Yn)
dt = & '&' ..., dt '
~-y
dt2 = (~'Y1 ~'Y2 ~'Yn)
dt2' dt2 , . . . , dt 2 ' etc .
To save space, we often denote d-y/dt by -y(t), ~-y/dt2 by i'(t), etc .

We say that -y is smooth if each of the components 'Y1, 'Y2, ... , 'Yn of -y is
smooth , i.e. if all the derivatives d'Yddt, ~'Yd dt 2, d3'Yddt 3, . .. exist, for i =
1,2, . . . ,n . From now on, all parametrised curves studied in this book will 'be
assumed to be smooth.
Definition 1.2
If -y(t) is a parametrised curve, its first derivative d-y/dt is called the tangent
vector of -y at the point -y(t).
To see the reason for this terminology, note that the vector
-y(t + 1St) - -y(t)
1St
is parallel to the chord joining the two points -y(t) and -y(t + 1St) of the image C
of -y:
We expect that, as 1St tends to zero, the chord becomes parallel to the tan-
gent to C at -y(t). Hence, the tangent should be parallel to
Um -y(t + 1St) - -y(t) = d-y .
6t-tO 1St dt
The following result is intuitively clear:
Proposition 1.1
11the tangent vector 01 a parametrised curve is constant, the image 01 the curve
is (part of) a straight line .
Proof t.I
Ir -y(t) = a for all t, where a is a constant vector, we have, integrating compo-
nentwise ,
'Y(t) !
= ~~ dt = ! adt = ta + b,
where b is another constant vector. Ir a i- 0, this is the parametrie equation
of the straight line parallel to a and passing through the point with position
vector b :
o
Ir a = 0, the image of'Y is a single point (namely, the point with position vector
~. 0
EXERCISES
1.1 Is 'Y(t) = (t 2 , t 4 ) a parametrisation of the parabola y = x 2 ?

1.2 Find parametrisations of the following level curves:
(i) y2 - x 2 = I;
(ii) z; f
+ = 1.
1.3 Find the cartesian equations of the following parametrised curves:
(i) 'Y(t) = (cos'' t,sin 2 t) j
(ii) 'Y(t) = (e", t 2 ) .
1.4 Calculate the tangent vectors of the curves in Exercise 1.3.
1.5 Sketch the astroid in Example 1.3. Calculate its tangent vector at
each point. At which points is the tangent vector zero?
1.6 If P is any point on the circle C in the xy-plane of radius a > and °
centre (0, a), let the straight line through the origin and P intersect
the line y = 2a at Q, and let the line through P parallel to the x-axis
intersect the line through Q parallel to the y-axis at R. As P moves
around C, R traces out a curve called the witch 0/ Agnesi. For this
curve, find
(i) a parametrisation;
(ii) its cartesian equation.
Q
: F ' - - - - - - -.. R
o
1.7 A cycloid is the plane curve traced out by a point on the circum-
ference of a circle as it rolls without slipping along a straight line.
Show that, if the straight line is the x-axis and the circle has radius
a > 0, the cycloid can be parametrised as
'Y(t) = a(t - sin t, 1 - cos t).
1.8 Generalise the previous exercise by finding parametrisations of an

epicycloid (resp. hypocycloid) , the curve traced out by a point on
the circumference of a circle as it rolls without slipping around the
outside (resp. inside) of a fixed circle.
1.9 Show that 'Y( t) = (cos2 t - ~ ,sin t cos t, sin t) is a parametrisation of
i
the curve of intersection of the circular cylinder of radius and axis
the z-axis with the sphere ofradius 1 and centre (-i,O,O). (This is
called Viviani's Curve).
1.10 For the logarithmic spiral -y(t) = (etcost,etsint), show that the
angle between -y(t) and the tangent vector at -y(t) is independent of
t. (There is a picture of the logarithmic spiral in Example 1.4.)
1.2. Arc-Length
If v = (VI, . . . , vn ) is a vector in Rn, its length is
11 v 11 = JVf + ... + V~.

If u is another vector in Rn, 11 u - v 11 is the length of the straight line segment
joining the points in Rn with position vectors u and v.
To find a formula for the length of any parametrised curve -y, note that,
if ot is very small, the part of the image C of -y between -y(t) and -y(t + öt) is
nearly a straight line, so its length is approximately
11 -y(t + öt) - -y(t) 11 .
Again, since öt is smalI, (-y(t + öt) - -y(t))/öt is nearly equal to -y(t), so the
length is approximately
11 -y(t) 11 ot. (4)
If we want to calculate the length of (a not necessarily small) part of C, we can
divide it up into segments, each of which corresponds to a small increment öt
in t, calculate the length of each segment using (4), and add up the results.
Letting öt tend to zero should then give the exact length.
This motivates the following definition:
Definition 1.3
The arc-Iength of a curve -y starting at the point -y(to) is the function s(t) given
by
s(t) = r 1/ -y(u) 1/ du.

i:
Thus, s(to) = 0 and s(t) is positive or negative according to whether t
is larger or smaller than to. If we choose a different starting point "Y(io), the
resulting arc-length s differs from s by the constant .h~o 1/ -y(u) 1/ du.
Example LI
For a logarithmic spiral
we have
-y = (e'{cos t - sin t), et(sin t + cos t)),
. . 1/ -y 1/2 = e2t(cos t - sin t)2 + e2t(sin t + cos t)2 = 2e 2t .
Hence, the arc-length of"Y starting at "Y(O) = (1,0) (for example) is
s= l '12e
t
2u
du = V2(e t - 1).
If s is the arc-Iength of a curve "Y starting at "Y(to), we have

s
dd = dd
t
t
l
1/ -y(u) 11 du = 1/ -y(t) 1/.
t to
(5)
Thinking of "Y(t) as the position of a moving point at time t, dsjdt is the speed
of the point (rate of change of distance along the curve). For this reason, we
make
Definition 1.4
If 'Y : (0 , ß) -+ Rn is a parametrised curve, its speed at the point 'Y(t) is 11 -y(t) 11 ,
and 'Y is said to be a unit-speed curve if -y( t) is a unit vector for all t E (0, ß).
We shall see many examples of formulas and results relating to curves that
take on a much simpler form when the curve is unit-speed. The reason for this
simplification is given in the next proposition. Although this admittedly looks
uninteresting at first sight, it will be extremely useful for what follows.
Proposition 1.2
Let n(t) be a unit vector that is a smooth function of a parameter t . Then, the
dot product
n(t) .n(t) =0
for all t, i.e. n(t) is zero or perpendicular to n(t) for all t.
In particular, if 'Y is a unit-speed curve, then;y is zero or perpendicular to
-y.
Proof 1.2
We use the 'product formula' for differentiating dot products of vector-valued

functions a(t) and b(t):
d da db
dt (a.b) = dt ·b + a. dt .
Using this to differentiate both sides of the equation n .n = 1 with respect to t
gives
n.n + n .n = 0,
so 2n.n = O.
The last part follows by taking n = -y. o
EXERCISES
1.11 Calculate the arc-length of the catenary 'Y(t) = (t, cosh t) starting at
the point (0,1).
1.12 Show that the following curves are unit-speed:
(i) -y(t) = (i(1 + t)3/2, H1 - t)3/2, 72) j
(ii) -y(t) = (~cost,l-sint,-~cost) .
1.13 Calculate the arc-length along the cycloid in Exercise 1.7 correspond-
ing to one complete revolution of the circle.
1.3. Reparametrisation
We saw in Examples 1.1 and 1.2 that a given level curve can have many
parametrisations, and it is important to understand the relation between them.
Definition 1.5
A parametrised curve i : (ö, /1) -+ Rn is a reparametrisation of a parametrised
curve 'Y : (o, ß) -+ Rn if there is a smooth bijective map 4; : (ö , /1) -+ (o, ß)
(the reparametrisation map) such that the inverse map 4;-1 : (o, ß) -+ (ö, /1) is
also smooth and
i(i) = 'Y(4;(i)) for all i E (ö,/1).
Note that, since 4; has a smooth inverse, 'Y is a reparametrisation of i:

i(4;-1(t)) = 'Y(4;(4;-1(t))) = 'Y(t) for all t E (a,ß) .
Two curves that are reparametrisations of each other have the same image,
so they should have the same geometrie properties.
Example 1.5
In Example 1.2, we gave the parametrisation 'Y(t) = (cost,sint) for the circle
x 2 + y2 = 1. Another parametrisation is
i(t) = (sint,cost)
(since sin 2 t + cos2 t = 1). To see that i is a reparametrisation of 'Y, we have to
find a reparametrisation map 4; such that
(cos4;(t),sin4;(t)) = (sint,cost) .
One solution is 4;(t) = rr/2 - t.
As we remarked in the previous section, the analysis of a curve is simplified

when it is known to be unit-speed, It is therefore important to know exactly
which curves have unit-speed reparametrisations.
Definition 1.6
A point 'Y(t) of a parametrised curve "1 is called a regular point if -y(t) 01 0;
otherwise 'Y(t) is a singular point of "1. A curve is regular if all of its points are
regular.
Before we show the relation between regularity and unit-speed reparametri-

sation, we note two simple properties of regular curves. Although these results
are not particularly appealing, they will be very important for what is to follow.
Proposition 1.3
Any reparametrisation of a regular curve is regular.
Proof 1.3
Suppose that "1 and i' are related as in Definition 1.5, let t = 4J(i) , and let
'l/J = 4J-1 so that i = 'l/J(t) . Differentiating both sides ofthe equation 4J('l/J(t)) = t
with respect to t and using the chain rule gives
= 1.
d~ d'l/J
dt dt
This shows that d4J/di is never zero. Since i'(i) = 'Y(4J(i)), another application
of the chain rule gives
di' d'Y d4J
di = dt dl '
which shows that di'/ di is never zero if d'Y/ dt is never zero. o
Proposition 1.4
1f 'Y( t) is a regular curve, its arc-Iength s (see Definition 1.3), starting at any
point of "1, is a smooth function of t.
Proof 1·4
We have already seen that (whether or not "1 is regular) s is a differentiable

function of t and
~; = 11 -y(t) 11·
To simplify the notation, assume from now on that 'Y is aplane curve, say
'Y(t) = (u(t), v(t)),
where u and v are smooth functions of t. Define I : R 2 -+ R by

I(u,v) = vu2 + v2 ,
so that
ds
dt = 1( U,v.
") (6 )
The crucial point is that I is smooth on R 2\{(0,0)}, which means that all the
partial derivatives of I of all orders exist and are continuous functions except
at the origin (0,0). For example,
BI u BI v
-= ,- ,
Bu Ju 2 + v2 Bv Ju 2 + v2
are well defined and continuous except where u = v = 0, and similarly for
higher derivatives. Since 'Y is regular, u and v are never both zero, so the chain
rule and Eq. (6) shows that def d: is smooth. For example,
~s BI.. BI ..
dt2 = Buu + Bvv,
and similarly for the higher derivatives of s. 0
The main result we want is
Proposition 1.5
A parametrised curve has a unit-speed reparametrisation il and only if it is
regular.
Proof 1.5
Suppose first that a parametrised curve 'Y : (o, ß) -+ Rn has a unit-speed
reparametrisation ;y, with reparametrisation map <p. Letting t = <p(i), we have
;y(i) = 'Y(t) ,
d;y d'Y dt
di = dt di'
11 d? 11 = 11 d'Y 111 l.
dt dt dt
d:
Since j is unit-speed, 11 d;y/di 11= 1, so clearly d'Y/dt cannot be zero.
°
Conversely, suppose that the tangent vector d'Y/dt is never zero. By Eq.
(5), dsl d: > for all t, where s is the arc-length of'Y starting at any point of
the curve, and by Proposition 1.4 s is a smooth function of t. It follows from
the inverse function theorem of multivariable calculus that s : (o, ß) -+ R is
injective, that its image is an open interval (ö, ß), and that the inverse map
S-1 : (ö, ß) ~ (o , ß) is smooth. (Readers unfamiliar with the inverse function
theorem should accept these statements for now; the theorem will be discussed
informally in Section 1.4 and formally in Chapter 4.) We take ifJ = S-1 and let
.y be the corresponding reparametrisation of 'Y, so that
.y(s) = 'Y(t) .
Then,
d.y ds d'Y
dsdt=dt'
11 d.y 11 ds = 11 d'Y 11 = ds (by Eq. (5)),
ds dt dt dt
d-
:. 11 d~ 11 = 1. o
The proof of Proposition 1.5 shows that the arc-length is essentially the
only unit-speed parameter on a regular curve:
Corollary 1.1
Let 'Y be a regular curve and let.y be a unit-speed reparametrisation of 'Y:
.y(u(t)) = 'Y(t) for all t,
where u is a smooth function of t. Then, if s is the arc-Iength of'Y (starting at
any point), we have
u = ±s+c, (7)
where c is a constant. Conversely, if u is given by Eq. (7) for some ualue of c
and with either sign, then.y is a unit-speed reparametrisation of 'Y.
Proof 1.1
The calculation in the first part of the proof of Proposition 1.5 shows that u
gives a unit-speed reparametrisation of'Y if and only if
du = ± 11 d'Y 11 = ± ds (by Eq. (5)).

dt dt dt
Hence, u = ±s + c for some constant c. o
Although every regular curve has a unit-speed reparametrisation, this may
be very complicated, or even impossible to write down 'explicitly', as the fol-
lowing examples show.
Example 1.6
For the logarithmic spiral
'Y(t) = (etcost,etsint),
we found in Example 1.4 that
11 l' 11
2
= 2e 2t .
This is never zero, so 'Y is regular. The arc-Iength of'Ystarting at (1,0) was found
to be s = V2( et -1). Hence, t = In ( .i2 1),
+ so a unit-speed reparametrisation
of'Y is given by the rather unwieldy formula
;Y(s) = ( (.; + 1) cos (ln ( . ; + 1)),(.; + 1) sin (ln ( . ; + 1))).

Example 1.7
The twisted cubic is the space curve given by
'Y(t) = (t,t 2,t3 ) , -00 < t < 00 .
We have
1'(t) = (1, 2t,3t2 ) ,
.. 11 1'(t) 11 = VI + 4t 2 + 9t 4 •
This is never zero, so 'Y is regular. The arc-length starting at 'Y(O) = 0 is
s= lt V1+4u 2+9u4du .
This integral cannot be evaluated in terms of familiar functions like logarithms

and exponentials, trigonometrie functions, etc . (It is an example of something
called an elliptic integral.)
Our final example shows that a given level curve can have both regular and
non-regulär parametrisations.
Example 1.8
For the parametrisation
-y(t) = (t, t 2 )
of the parabola y = x 2 , .y(t) = (1,2t) is obviously never zero, so -y is regular.
But
.y(t) = (t 3,t6 )
is also a parametrisation of the same parabola. This time, ~ = (3t 2 , 6t 5 ) , and
this is zero when t = 0, so.y is not regular.
EXERCISES
1.14 Which of the following curves are regular?

(i) -y(t) = (cos'' t, sin2 t) for -00 < t < 00;
(ii) the same curve as in (i), but with 0 < t< 'Ir /2;
(iii) -y(t) = (t, cosh t) for -00 < t < 00.
Find unit-speed reparametrisations of the regular curve(s).
1.15 The cissoid 01 Diocles (see above) is the curve whose equation in
terms of polar coordinates (r,O) is
r = sinOtanO, -'lr/2 < 0< 'Ir/2.
Write down a parametrisation of the cissoid using 0 as a parameter
and show that
-y(t) = (t b),
2
, -1< t < 1,
is a reparametrisation of it .
1.16 Let -y be a curve in !Rn and let i be a reparametrisation of -y with
reparametrisation map 4J (so that i(i) = -y(4J(i))). Let i o be a fixed
value oft and let to = 4J(io ). Let sand s be the arc-lengths of -y and
i starting at the point -y(to) = i(io). Prove that s = s if d4J/di > 0
for all i, and s = -s if d4J/di < 0 for all i.
1.4. Level Curves vs. Parametrised Curves

We shall now try to clarify the precise relation between the two types of curve
we have considered in previous sections .
Level curves in the generality we have defined them are not always the
kind of objects we would want to call curves . For example, the level 'curve'
x 2 + y2 = 0 is a single point. The correct conditions to impose on a function
f(x,y) in order that f(x,y) = c, where c is a constant, will be an acceptable
level curve in the plane are contained in the following theorem, which shows
that such level curves can be parametrised. Note that we might as well assume
that c = 0 (since we can replace f by f - c).
Theorem 1.1
Let f (x, y) be a smooth function 01 two variables (which means that all the par-
tial derivatives 01 I, 01 all orders, exist and are coniinuous functions). Assume
that , at every point 01 the level curve
c = ((x,y) E R 2 I f(x ,y) = O},
8f / 8x and 8 f / 8y are not both zero. 1/ P is a point 01 C, with coordinates
(xo,Yo), say, there is a regular parametrised curve -y(t), defined on an open
interval containing 0, such that -y passes through P when t = 0 and -y(t) is
contained in C [or all t .
The proof of this theorem makes use of the inverse function theorem (one
version of which has already been used in the proof of Proposition 1.5). For the
moment, we shall only try to convince the reader of the truth of this theorem.
The proof will be given in a later exercise (Exercise 4.31) after the inverse
function theorem has been formally introduced and used in our discussion of
surfaces .
To understand the significance of the conditions on f in Theorem 1.1, sup-
pose that (xo+L1x, yo+L1y) is a point of C near P, so that f(xo+L1x, yo+L1y) =
o. By the two-variable form of Taylor's theorem,
8f 8f
f(xo + L1x, Yo + L1y) = f(xo, Yo) + L1x 8x + L1y 8y'
neglecting products of the small quantities L1x and L1y (the partial derivatives
are evaluated at (xo, Yo» . Hence,
8f 8f
L1x- + L1y- = O. (8)
8x 8y
Since L1x and L1y are small, the vector (L1x, L1y) is nearly tangent to e at P,
so Eq. (8) says that the vector n = (~, *)
is perpendicular to e at P.
y
x
The hypothesis in Theorem 1.1 teIls us that the vector n is non-zero at every
point of e. Suppose, for example, that U
# 0 at P. Then, n is not parallel to
the x-axis at P, so the tangent to e at P is not parallel to the y-axis.
I
Y
,,
I
c
,,
I
,
I
I
I
,,
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
~ -- - -- ----~---
x
Xo
This implies that vertical lines x = constant near x = Xo all intersect e in a

unique point (x, y) near P . In other words, the equation

f(x ,y) = 0 (9)
has a unique solution y near Yo for every x near xo. Note that this may fail to
be the case if the tangent to C at P is parallel to the y-axis:
y
x
Xo
In this example, lines x = constant just to the left of x = Xo do not meet C

near P , while those just to the right of x = Xo meet C in more than one point
near P .
The italicised statement about f in the last paragraph means that there is
a function g(x), defined for x near xo, such that y = g(x) is the unique solution
of Eq , (9) near u« . We can now define a parametrisation 'Y of the part of C near
P by
'Y(t) = (t,g(t)) .
If we accept that 9 is smooth (which follows from the inverse function theorem),
then 'Y is certainly regular since
'Y = (1,9)
is obviously never zero. This 'proves' Theorem 1.1.
It is actually possible to prove slightly more than we have stated in Theorem
1.1. Suppose that f(x,y) satisfies the conditions in the theorem, and assume
in addition that the level curve C given by f(x, y) = 0 is connected. For readers
unfamiliar with point set topology, this means roughly that Cis in 'one piece' .
For example, the circle x 2 + y2 = 1 is connected, but the hyperbola x 2 - y2 = 1
is not :
With these assumptions on I, there is a regular parametrised curve 'Y whose

image is the whole of C. Moreover, if C does not 'elose up' (like a straight line
or a parabola), 'Y can be taken to be injective; if C does elose up (like a cirele
or an ellipse), then 'Y maps some elosed interval [o, ßl onto C, 'Y(a) = 'Y(ß) and
'Y is injective on the open interval (o, ß).
A similar argument can be used to pass from parametrised curves to level

curves:
Theorem 1.2
Let'Y be a regular parametrised plane curve, and let 'Y(to) = (xo, Yo) be a point
in the image of 'Y. Then, there is a smooth real-valued function f(x, y), defined
for x and y in open intervals containing Xo and Yo, respectively, and satisfying
the conditions in Theorem 1.1, such that 'Y(t) is contained in the level curve
f(x,y) = 0 for alt values oft in some open interval containing to.
The proof of Theorem 1.2 is similar to that of Theorem 1.1. Let

'Y(t) = (u(t) ,v(t)) ,
where u and v are smooth functions. Since 'Y is regular, at least one of ü(to)
and v(to) is non-zero, say ü(to). This means that the graph of u as a function
of t is not parallel to the t-axis at to:
~ ------------------
10
As in the proof of Theorem 1.1, this implies that any line parallel to the t-axis
close to u = Xo intersects the graph of u at a unique point u(t) with t close to
to. This gives a function h(x), defined for x in an open interval containing xo,
such that t = h(x) is the unique solution of u(t) = x if x is near Xo and t is
near to. The inverse function theorem teIls us that his smooth. The function
f(x,y) =y - v(h(x))
has the properties we want .
It is not in general possible to find a single function f (x, y) satisfying the
conditions in Theorem 1.1 such that the image of 'Y is contained in the level
curve f(x, y) = 0, for 'Y may have self-intersections like the litnacon
'Y(t) = «1 + 2 cos t) cos t , (1 + 2 cos t) sin t).
It follows from the inverse function theorem that no single function f satisfying
the conditions in Theorem 1.1 can be found that describes a curve near such a
self-intersection point.
EXERCISES
1.17 State a generalisation of Theorem 1.1 for level curves in R 3 given by

I(x, y, z) = g(x, y, z) = O. (To guess the analogue of the condition
on I in Theorem 1.1, argue that (~, U'~) is perpendicular to the
surface I(x, y, z) = 0, and then think about the condition that two
planes intersect in a line. See Exercise 4.16 for a rigorous statement.)
1.18 Generalise Theorem 1.2 for curves in R 3 (or even Rn). (This is easy.)
1.19 Sketch the level curve C given by I(x, y) = 0 when I(x, y) = Y -lxi.
Note that I does not satisfy the conditions in Theorem 1.1 because
{)I / {)x does not exist at the point (0,0) on the curve. Show never-
theless that there is a smooth parametrised curve 'Y whose image is
the whole of C. (Make use of the smooth function B(t) defined after
the proof ofTheorem 8.2.) Is there a regularparametrised curve with
this property?
For the remainder 01 this book, we shall speak simply 01 'curues',

unless there is serious danger 01 confusion as to which type
(level or parametrised) is intended .
2
How Much Does a Curve Curve ?
In this chapter, we associate to any curve in R 3 two scalar functions , caIled its
curvature and torsion. The curvature measures the extent to which a curve is
not contained in a straight line (so that straight lines have zero curvature) , and
the torsion measures the extent to which a curve is not contained in aplane
(so that plane curves have zero torsion). It turns out that the curvature and
torsion together determine the shape of a curve.
2.1. Curvature
We want to find a measure of how 'curved' a curve is. Since this 'curvature'
should depend only on the 'shape' of the curve:
(i) the curvature should be unchanged when the curve is reparametrised.
Further, the measure of curvature should agree with our intuition in simple
special cases, for example:
(ii) the curvature of a straight line should be zero, and large circles should have
smaIler curvature than small circles.
Bearing (ii) in mind , we get a clue as to what the definition of curvature
should be from Proposition 1.1: this teIls us that, if'Y is a plane curve with
;y = 0 everywhere, the curve 'Y is part of a straight line, and hence should
have zero curvature. So we might be tempted to define the curvature of 'Y to
be 11 ;y 11 (we take the norm because we want the curvature to be a scalar, not
23
a vector) . Unfortunately, however, this depends (in a fairly complicated way)

on the parametrisation of 'Y. So let us remove this freedom to reparametrise
by insisting that 'Y is unit-speed, so that 11 "I 11 = 1 everywhere. (Actually, this
does not quite rule out the possibility of reparametrising - see Corollary 1.1.)
So we make
Definition 2.1
If 'Y is a unit-speed curve with parameter s, its curvature I\;(s) at the point 'res)
is defined to be 11 i( s) 11 .
The first part of condition (ii) will certainly be satisfied. As to the second
part, consider the circle centred at (xo, Yo) and of radius R . This has a unit-
speed parametrisation
'Y( s) = (xo + R cos ~, Yo + R sin ~) .

We have
"I(s) = ( - sin~, cos~) ,
11 "I(s) 11 = J(- sin ~) 2 + (cos~) 2 = 1,

showing that 'Y is indeed unit-speed, and hence
. ()s = (1
-IicosIi' -IismIis) '
r r
sI.
'Y
11 i( s) 11 = (- ~ cos ~ + (- ~ sin ~ =~ I
so the curvature of the circle is inversely proportional to its radius.

As to condition (i), recall from Corollary 1.1 that, if 'Y(s) is a unit-speed
curve, the only unit-speed reparametrisations of'Y are of the form 'Y(u), where
u = ±s+c,
and c is a constant. Then, by the chain rule,
d'Y _ d'Y du _ ± d'Y
ds - du ds - du'
~'Y _ .!!.- (d'Y) du _ ±.!!.- (± d'Y) _ ~'Y
ds 2 - du ds ds - du du - du 2 •
This shows that the curvature of the curve computed using the unit-speed
parameter s is the same as that computed using the unit-speed parameter u.
2. How Much Does a Curve Curve ? 25
But what if we are given a curve 'Y(t) that is not unit-speed? Ir 'Y is regular
(see Definition 1.6), then by Proposition 1.5 'Y has a unit-speed reparametrisa-
tion ;y. We define the curvature of'Y to be that of the unit-speed curve ;y. But
since it is not always possible to find the unit-speed reparametrisation explicitly
(see Example 1.7), we really need a formula for the curvature in terms of'Y and
t only.
Proposition 2.1
Let 'Y(t) be a regular curve in R 3 • Then, its curvature is
lI.yx'Yli (1)
K, = 11 l' 11 3 '
where the x indicates the vector (or cross) product and the dot denotes dJdt .
Of course, since a curve in R 2 can be viewed as a curve in R 3 whose last

coordinate is zero, Eq. (1) can also be used to calculate the curvature of plane
curves.
Proof 2.1
Let ;y (with parameter s) be a unit-speed reparametrisation of 'Y, and let us

denote dJ ds by a dash. Then, by the chain rule,
_,ds .
'Y dt = 'Y,
so
K, = 11'Y
-11 11
=
11 d (
ds
l' )
dsJdt
11
=
11 (dS)dt) 11 = 11 .y~:(dsJdt)3
1t dsJdt - 'Y~
11 ·
(2)
Now,
ds ) 2 = 11'
'Y 11 = 'Y.'Y,
2 • •
( dt
and differentiating with respect to t gives
ds~s ...
dt dt2 = 'Y.'Y.
Using this and Eq. (2), we get
K, = 11 .y (*)2 - 'Y~* 11 = 11 .y('Y .'Y) - 'Y('Y ..y) 11

(dsJdt)4 11 l' 11 4
Using the vector triple product identity
a x (b x c) = (a.c)b - (a.b)c
(where a , b , c E R 3 ) , we get
"I x er x "I) = ;Y('Y.'Y) - 'Y('Y.;Y) .
FUrther , "I and ;y x "I are perpendicular vectors, so
11 "I x (;y x "I) 11 = 11 "I 1111 ;Y x "I 11·
Hence ,
11 ;Yh·'Y) - 'Y('Y.;Y) 11
=
11 "I x (;y x "I) 11
11 "I 11 4
11 "I 11
4
II'YIIII;YX'YII
11 "I 11
4
11 ;Y X "I 11
= 11 "I 11 3 .
o
If 'Y is a non-regular curve , its curvature is not defined in general. Note,

however , that the formula (1) shows that the curvature is defined at all regular
points of the curve (where v is non-zero).
Example 2.1
A circular helix with axis the z-axis is a curve of the form
'Y((J) = (c cos s, asin(J , bB) , -00 < (J < 00 ,
where a and bare constants.
If (x , y , z) is a point on (the image of) the helix, so that

x = a cos (J , y = a sin (J , z = bO,
2. How Much Does a Curve Curve? 27
for some value of (), then x 2+y2 = a 2, showing that the helix lies on the cylinder
with axis the z-axis and radius [c]; the positive number lai is called the radius
of the helix. As () increases by 211", the point (a cos (), a sin (), blJ) rotates once
round the z-axis and moves up the z-axis by 211"b; the positive number 211"Ibl is
called the pitch of the helix (we take absolute values since we did not assurne
that a or bis positive).
Let us compute the curvature of the helix using the formula in Proposition
2.1. Denoting d/d(} by a dot, we have
i'«(}) = (-asin(} ,acos(},b),
.'. 11 i'((}) 11 = J a2 + v .
This shows that i'«(}) is never zero, so 'Y is regular (unless a = b = 0, in which
case the image of the helix is a single point). Hence, the formula in Proposition
2.1 applies , and we have
;y = (-a cos (), -a sin (), 0),
;y x i' = (-absin(), ab cos(), _ a 2),
'" = 11 (-absin(},abcos(} , -a2) 11 = (a 2b2 +a4)l/2 = lai . (3)
11 (-asin(},acos(},b) 11 3 (a 2+b2)3/2 a 2+b2
Thus, the curvature of the helix is constant.
Let us examine some limiting cases to see if this result agrees with what we
already know. First, suppose that b = 0 (but a -=I 0). Then, the helix is simply a
circle in the xv-plane of radius [c], so by the calculation following Definition 1.1
its curvature is I/lai . On the other hand, the formula (3) gives the curvature
as
lai [c] [e] 1
a 2 + 02 = a 2 = lal2 = ~.
Next, suppose that a = 0 (but b -=I 0). Then, the image of the helix is just the
z-axis, a straight line, so the curvature is zero. And (3) gives zero when a = 0
too .
EXERCISES
2.1 Compute the curvature of the following curves :

(i) 'Y(t) = Ü(l + t)3/2, t(l- t)3/2, ~);
(ii) 'Y(t) = (~cost, 1- sint, -~ cost) ;
(iii) 'Y(t) = (t, cosh t)j
(iv) 'Y(t) = (cos" t,sin 3 t) .
For the astroid in (iv), show that the curvature tends to 00 as we

approach one of the points (±1 ,0), (0, ±1) . Compare with the sketch
found in Exercise 1.5.
2.2 Show that, if the curvature K.(t) of a regular curve 'Y(t) is > 0 every-
where , then K.(t) is a smooth function of t. Give an example to show
that this may not be the case without the assumption that K. > O.
2.2. Plane Curves

For plane curves, it is possible to refine the definition of curvature slightly and
give it an appealing geometrie interpretation.
Suppose that 'Y(s) is a unit-speed curve in R 2 • Denoting d/ds by a dot, let
t=-y
be the tangent vector of 'Y; note that t is a unit vector . There are two unit
vectors perpendieular to t ; we make a choiee by defining Os, the signed unit
normal 0/'Y, to be the unit vector obtained by rotating t anti-clockwise by 11" /2.
By Proposition 1.2, i = ;y is perpendieular to t, and hence parallel to Os ' Thus,

there is a number «, such that
The scalar K. s is called the signed curvature of 'Y (it can be positive, negative or
zero) . Note that, since 11 Os 11 = 1, we have
(4)
so the curvature of'Y is the absolute value of its signed curvature. The following
diagrams show how the sign of the signed curvature is determined (in each case,
the arrow on the curve indieates the direction of increasing s) .
The signed curvature has a simple geometrie interpretation:
Proposition 2.2
Let 'Y( s) be a unit-speed plane curve, and let cp( s) be the angle through which
a fixed unit vector must be rotated anti-clockwise to bring it into coincidence
with the unit tangent vector t 0/ 'Y . Then ,
dcp
1'i. s = ds '
Note that, even though the angle ip is only determined up to adding an

integer multiple of 271", the derivative dcp/ds is weB defined.
Thus, the signed curvature is the rate at which the tangent vector of the
curve rotates. As the above diagrams show, the signed curvature is positive or
negative according as t rotates anti-clockwise or clockwise as one moves along
the curve in the direction of increasing s.
Proo/2.2
Let a be the fixed unit vector and let b be the unit vector obtained by rotating
a anti-clockwise by 71"/2. Then,
t = a cos sp + b sin cp,
. dcp
t = (-asincp + b cos e) ds'
. . dsp
t.a =- sm cp ds'
1'i.s(os.a) =- sin e ~~ (since i = 1'i.sos) ' (5)

But the angle between Os and a is sp + 71"/2, since t must be rotated anti-
clockwise by 71"/2 to bring it into coincidence with Os (see the diagram below).
Henee,
n s.a = eos (cp + %) = - sin cp.

Inserting this into Eq . (5) gives t he required result. o
"Y
The next result shows that a unit-speed plane eurve is essent ially determined
onee we know its signed eurvature at eaeh point of the eurve. The meaning of
'essenti ally' here is 'up to a rigid motion of R 2 , . Reeall that a rigid motion of
R 2 is a map M : R 2 -t R 2 of the form
M =TaoRo,
where Ro is an anti-cloekwise rotation by an angle 0 about the origin,
Ro(x , y) = (x eos 0 - y sin 0, x sin 0 + Y eos 0),
and Ta is the translation by the veetor a,
Ta(v) = v + a,
for any veetors (x, y) and v E R 2 .
Theorem 2.1
Let k : (o , ß) -t R be any smooth fu,nction. Then, there is a unit-speed curve
'Y : (o , ß) -t R 2 whose signed curvature is k .
Further, i/ i : (a , ß) -t R 2 is any other unit-speed curve whose signed
curvature is k , there is a rigid motion M 0/ R 2 such that
i(s) = M('Y(s)) for all s E (a,ß).
Proof 2.1
For the first part, fix So E (o, ß) and define, for any s E (a, ß) ,
tp(s) = l s
k(u)du , (cf. Proposition 2.2),
(1: 1:
So
'Y(s) = costp(t)dt, sintp(t)dt) .

Then, the tangent vector of'Y is
'Y(S) = (cos tp(S), sin tp(s» ,
which is a unit vector making an angle tp(s) with the x-axis. Thus, 'Y is unit-
speed and, by Proposition 2.2, its signed curvature is
s
dtp
-d
s
= -dds l so k(u)du = k(s).
For the second part, let cjJ(s) be the angle between the z-axis and the unit
tangent vector ~ of i'. Thus,
~(s) = (cos cjJ(s) , sin cjJ(s» ,
.. i'(s) = (1: coscjJ(t)dt, 1:
sincjJ(t)dt) +i'(so). (6)
By Proposition 2.2,
dcjJ
ds = k(s) ,
.. cjJ(s) = 1 s
So
k(u)du + cjJ(so).
Inserting this into Eq . (6), and writing a for the constant vector i'(so) and 0
for the constant scalar cjJ(so), we get
i'(s) = Ta (1: cos(tp(t) + O)dt, 1: sin(tp(t) + O)dt)
=Ta (cosolS costp(t)dt - sinolS sintp(t)dt ,

So so
sinO
i:
r coscp(t)dt + cosO r sincp(t)dt)
(1: 1:
iso
=TaRn coscp(t)dt, sintp(t)dt)

=TaRn('Y(s». 0
Example 2.2
Any regular plane curve whose curvature is a positive constant is part of a

circle. To see this, let K be the (constant) curvature of the curve 'Y, and let Ks
be its signed curvature. Then, by Eq . (4),
Apriori, we could have K s = K at some points of the curve and K s = -K at

others, but in fact this cannot happen since K s is a continuous function of 8 (cf.
Exercise 2.4) , so the Intermediate Value Theorem teIls us that , if K s takes both
the value K and the value -K, it must take aIl values between. Thus, either
K s = K at all points of the curve, or K s = - K at all points of the curve. In
particular, K s is constant.
The idea now is to show that, whatever the value of K s , we can find a
parametrised circle whose signed curvature is K s ' The theorem then teIls us
that any curve whose signed curvature is K s can be obtained by applying a rigid
motion to this circle. Since rotations and translations obviously take circles to
circles , it foIlows that any curve whose signed curvature is constant is (part of)
a circle .
A unit-speed parametrisation of the circle with cent re the origin and radius
R is
'Y( 8) = (R cos ~, Rsin ~) .

Its tangent vector
t = i'( 8) = ( - sin ~, cos ~)

is the unit vector making an angle tt /2 + 8/ R with the positive x-ax is:
L..--"--+-----------7 x
Hence, the signed curvature of'Y is
:8 (i +~) = ~.
Thus, if Ks > 0, the circle of radius 1/ K s has signed curvature K s .
Ir "'s < 0, it is easy to check that the curve

"i(8) = (R cos ~, - Rsin ~)
(which is just another parametrisation of the circle with centre the origin and
radius R) has signed curvature -1/ R. Thus , if R = -1/ "'s we again get a circle
with signed curvature "'s'
Example 2.3
Theorem 2.1 shows that we can find a plane curve with any given smooth
function as its signed curvature. But simple curvatures can lead to complicated
curves . For example, let the signed curvature be "'s(8) = 8. Following the proof
of Theorem 2.1, and taking 80 = 0, we get
= Jt'
2
udu = 2'
8
1,0(8)
(1 c;) 1 C;)
o
S s
-Y(8) = cos dt, sin dt).
These integrals cannot be evaluated in terms of 'elementary' functions.

(They arise in the theory of diffraction of light, where they are called Fres-
nel's integrals, and the curve -y is called Cornu's Spiral, although it was first
considered by Euler.) The picture of -y above is obtained by computing the
integrals numerically.
_ _----"_ _-+-_ _ "'--_~ x
_ _--;;;_--+-----'"":::....--~x
It is natural to ask whether Theorem 2.1 remains true if we replace 'signed

curvature' by 'curvature' . The first part holds if (and only if) we assurne that
k ~ 0, for then "( can be chosen to have signed curvature k and so will have
curvature k as well , The second part of Theorem 2.1, however, no longer holds.
For, we can take a (smooth) curve y that coincides with the z -axis for -1 ~
x ~ 1 (say), and is otherwise above the x-axis . (The reader who wishes to write
down such a curve explicitly will find the solution of Exercise 1.19 helpful.) We
now reflect the part of the curve with x ~ 0 in the x-axis . The new curve has
the same curvature as "( (see Exercise 2.12), but obviously cannot be obtained
by applying a rigid motion to "(. See Exercise 2.13 for aversion of Theorem 2.1
that is valid for curvature instead of signed curvature.
EXERCISES
2.3 Show that, if"( is a unit-speed plane curve ,
2.4 Show that the signed curvature of any regular plane curve "((t) is a
smooth function of t. (Compare with Exercise 2.2.)
2.5 Let "((t) = (ek t cos t , ek t sin t), where -00 < t < 00 and k is a non-
zero constant (a logarithmic spiral - see Example 1.4). Show that
there is a unique unit-speed parameter 8 on "( such that s > 0 für all
t and s -+ 0 as t -+ 1=00 if ±k > 0, and express s as a function of t .
Show that the signed curvature of"( is l/ks. Conversely, describe
every curve whose signed curvature, as a function of arc-length s, is
l/ks for some non-zero constant k.
2.6 A unit-speed plane curve "( has the property that its tangent vector
t(s) makes a fixed angle () with "((8) for all s. Show that
(i) if () = 0, then 'Y is part of a straight line (write 'Y = rt and

deduce that "'s = 0);
(ii) if (J = rr/2, then 'Y is a circle (write 'Y = rns)j
(iii) if 0 < (J < rr/2, then 'Y is a logarithmic spiral (show that "'s =
-1/ s cot (J).
2.7 Let 'Y(t) be a regular plane curve and let Xbe a constant. The parallel
curve 'Y A of 'Y is defined by
'YA(t) = 'Y(t) + >.ns(t).
Show that, if 1>''''s(t)1 < 1 for all values of t, then 'Y A is a regular
curve and that its signed curvature is "'s/(l - >''''$)'
2.8 Let 'Y be a unit-speed plane curve with nowhere zero curvature.
Define the centre 0/ curvature e(s) of 'Y at the point 'Y( 8) to be
1
e(8) = 'Y(8) + -(-) n s (8).
"'s S
Prove that the circle with centre e(8) and radius 11/"'s(8)1 is tangent
to 'Y at 'Y(8) and has the same curvature as 'Y at that point. This
circle is called the osculating circle to 'Y at the point 'Y(8). (Draw a
picture.)
2.9 With the notation in Exercise 2.8, we regard e(8) as the parametrisa-
tion of a new curve , called the evolute of 'Y (if 'Y is any regular plane
curve, its evolute is defined to be that of a unit-speed reparametrisa-
tion of 'Y) . Assume that k s (8) f; 0 for all values of 8 (a dot denoting
d/d8) , say k s > 0 for all 8 (this can be achieved by replacing 8 by
-8 if necessary) . Show that the arc-length of e is Uo - ±, 1t.s\S}
where
Uo is a constant, and calculate the signed curvature of e.
Show that the evolute of the cycloid
'Y(t) = a(t - sin t, 1 - cos t), 0< t < 2rr,
where a > 0 is a constant, is
e(t) = a(t + sin t, -1 + cos t)
(see Exercise 1.7) and that, after a suitable reparametrisation, e can
be obtained from 'Y by a translation of the plane.
2.10 Astring of length l is attached to the point 8 = 0 of a unit-speed
plane curve 'Y(8) . Show that when the string is wound onto the curve
while being kept taught, its endpoint traces out the curve
'(8) = 'Y(8) + (l- 8)-'((8),
where 0 < 8 < land a dot denotes d] ds. The curve , is called the
involute of 'Y (if 'Y is any regular plane curve, we define its involute
°
to be that of a unit-speed reparametrisation of 'Y). Suppose that the
signed curvature "'8 of'Y is never zero, say "'8(S) > for all s. Show
that the signed curvature of t is 1/(i - s).
2.11 Let 'Y be a regular plane curve. Show that
(i) the involute of the evolute of'Y is a parallel curve of 'Y;
(ii) the evolute of the involute of'Y is 'Y.
(These statements might be compared to the fact that the integral
of the derivative of a smooth function 1 is equal to 1 plus a constant,
while the derivative of the integral of 1 is I.)
2.12 Show that applying a refiection in a straight line to a plane curve
changes the sign of its signed curvature.
2.13 Show that, if two plane curves 'Y(t) and .y(t) have the same non-
zero curvature for all values of t, then .y can be obtained from 'Y by
applying a rigid motion or a refiection in a straight line followed by
a rigid motion.
2.3. Space Curves

Our main interest in this book will be in curves (and surfaces) in R 3 , i.e.
space curves. While aplane curve is essentially determined by its curvature
(see Theorem 2.1), this is no longer true for space curves. For example, a
circle of radius one in the xy-plane and a circular helix with a = b = 1/2
(see Example 2.1) both have curvature one everywhere, but it is obviously
impossible to change one curve into the other by any combination of rotations
and translations. We shall define another type of curvature for space curves ,
called the torsion, and we shall prove that the curvature and torsion of a curve
together determine the curve up to a rigid motion (Theorem 2.3).
Let 'Y(s) be a unit-speed curve in R 3 , and let t = 'Y be its unit tangent
vector. /1 the curvature ",(s) is non-zero, we define the principal normal of'Y at
the point 'Y(s) to be the vector
1 .
n(s) = ",(s) t(s) . (7)
Since 11 t 11 = n ; n is a unit vector. Further, by Proposition 1.2, t.t = 0, so t

and n are actually perpendicular unit vectors . It follows that
b=txn (8)
is a unit vector perpendicular to both t and n. The vector b(s) is called the
binormal vector of'Y at the point 'Y(s) . Thus, {t, n , b} is an orthonormal basis
of R 3 , and is right-handed, i.e,

b = t x n , n = b x t, t = n x b.
Since b(s) is a unit vector for all s, b is perpendicular to b. Now we use the
'product rule' for differentiating the vector product of vector-valued functions
u and v of a parameter s:
d du dv
-d (u x v)
s
= -ds xv +u x -d .
s
Applying this to b = t x n gives
b= i x n +t x n = t x n, (9)
since by the definition (7) of n ,
i xn = xn x n = O.
Equation (9) shows that b is perpendicular to t. Being perpendicular to both

t and b, b must be parallel to n, so
b = -rn, (10)
for some scalar r , which is called the torsion of 'Y (the minus sign is purely a
matter of convention). Note that the torsion is only defined if the curvature is
non-zero.
Of course, we define the torsion of an arbitrary regular curve 'Y to be the
torsion of a unit-speed reparametrisation of 'Y. As in the case of the curvature,
to see that this makes sense, we have to show that if we make a change in the
unit-speed parameter of'Y of the form
u = ±s + c,
where c is a constant, then r is unchanged. But this change of parameter has
the following effect on the vectors introduced above:
t f--+ ±t, i f--+ t, n f--+ n, b f--+ ±b, b f--+ b.
It follows from Eq. (8) that r f--+ r, as required.
Just as we did for the curvature in Proposition 2.1, it is possible to give a

formula for the torsion of aspace curve 'Y in terms of'Y alone, without requiring
a unit-speed reparametrisation:
Proposition 2.3
Let 'Y(t) be a regular curve in R 3 with nowhere vanishing curvature. Then,
denoting djdt by a dot, its torsion is given by
(i' x i)·;Y
r = 11 i' x i 1/2 ' (11)
Note that this formula shows that r(t) is defined at all points 'Y(t) of the
curve at which its curvature K(t) is non-zero, since by Proposition 2.1 this is
the condition for the denominator on the right-hand side to be non-zero.
Proof 2.3
We could 'derive' Eq. (11) by imitating the proof of Proposition 2.1. But it
is easier and clearer to proceed as follows, even though this method has the
disadvantage that one must know the formula for r in Eq . (11) in advance.
We first treat the case in which 'Y is unit-speed. Using Eqs . (7) and (10),
r = -n.b = - n .(t x n)' = -n.(i x n + t x n) = -n.(t x n).
Now, n = 1i = 1':;', so
I< I< I
r = - ;,'Y.
1.. (.'Y x d
dt (1..)) ;,'Y
= --'Y.
1.. ( 'Y. x
K
(1... k, .•) )
-'Y - -'Y
K 2 K
1 ... ( . .')
= 2'Y·
K
'Y x 'Y ,
since i.(i' x i) = 0 and i .(i' x ;y) = -;Y.(i' xi). This agrees with Eq. (11), for,
since y is unit-speed, i' and i are perpendicular, so
1/ i' xiI/ = 1/ i' 1/11 i 11 = 11 i 11 = K.

In the general case, let s be arc-length along 'Y and denote djds by a dash.
Then,
. ds I
'Y = dt'Y ,
.. (dS)2" ~s A)
'Y= dt 'Y + dt2"T'
3s
... _ (dS)3 111 3ds ~s" d I
'Y - dt 'Y + dt dt2 'Y + dt3 'Y •
Hence,
. .. (ds)3 I Al'
'Yx'Y= dt 'Y x"T'
"'('Y' x 'Y") = (ds)6

'Y.
111
dt 'Y .( 'Y1 x 'Y") ,
and so
Example 2.4
We compute the torsion of the circular helix
'Y(O) = (acosO,asinO,bO)
studied in Example 2.1. We have
-y(0) = (-asinO,acosO,b),
;.y(O) = (-acosO, - a sin O,O),
;Y(O) = (a sin 0, -a cos 0, 0).
Hence,
-y x;.y = (absinO, -abcosO, a2),
11 -y x ;.y 11 = a
2 2(a2 + b2),
(-y x ;.y) .;Y = a2b,
and so the torsion
Note that the torsion of the circular helix in Example 2.4 becomes zero
when b = 0, in which case the helix is just a cirele in the xy-plane. This gives
us a elue as to the geometrical interpretation of torsion, contained in
Proposition 2.4
Let '1 be a regular curve in R 3 with nowhere vanishing curvature (so that the
torsion T 0/ '1 is defined). Then, the image 0/ '1 is contained in a plane i/ and
only i/ T is zero at every point 0/ the curve.
Proo/2·4
We ean assume that '1 is unit-speed (for this ean be aehieved by reparametrising
'1, and reparametrising ehanges neither the torsion nor the faet that '1 is, or is
not, eontained in aplane). We denote the parameter of'Y by sand d/ds by a
dot as usual.
Suppose first that the image of'Y is eontained in the plane r .a = d, where
ais a eonstant veetor and dis a eonstant sealar (r is the position veetor of an
arbitrary point of R 3 ) . We ean assurne that a is a unit veetor. Differentiating
'Y .a = d with respeet to s, we get
t.a = 0, (12)
La =0 (sinee a = 0),
.. I\:n.a = 0 (sinee t = xn),
.. n.a =0 (sinee I\: =I' 0). (13)
Equations (12) and (13) show that t and n are perpendicular to a. It follows
that b = t x n is parallel to a. Sinee a and b are both unit veetors, and b(s)
is a smooth (henee eontinuous) funetion of s, we must have b(s) = a for all s
or b(s) = -a for all s. In either ease, b is a eonstant veetor. But then b = 0,
so T = O.
Conversely, suppose that T = 0 everywhere. By Eq . (10), b = 0 , so b is a
constant veetor. The first part of the proof suggests that '1 should be contained
in aplane r.b = constant. We therefore consider
~ ('Y.b) = ')t.b = t .b = 0,
so 'Y.b is a constant (sealar), say d. This means that '1 is indeed contained in
the plane r .b = d. 0
There is a gap in our ealeulations whieh we would like to fill. Namely, we

know that, for a unit-speed curve, we have
i= xn and b= -Tn
(these were our definitions of n and T, respeetively), but we have not computed
0. This is not difficult. Since {t, n, b} is a right-handed orthonormal basis of
R3,
t x n = b, n xb = t, b xt =n.
Hence,
Ii = b X t +b X i = -rn X t + xb X n = -~t + rb .
Putting all this together, we get
Theorem 2.2
Let'Y be a unit-speed curve in R 3 with nowhere vanishing curvature. Then,
i = ~n
Ii= -~t +rb (14)

b = -rn.
Equations (14) are called the Frenet-Serrei equations (or sometimes the
Serret-Frenet equations). Notice that the matrix
0 ~ 0)
(o -~ 0
-r
r
0
which expresses i, Ii and b in terms of t, n and b is skew-symmetric, i.e, it is
equal to the negative of its transpose. This helps when trying to remember the
equations. (The 'reason' for this skew-symmetry can be seen in Exercise 2.22.)
Here is a simple application of Frenet-Serret:
Proposition 2.5
Let 'Y be a unit-speed curve in R 3 with constant curvature and zero torsion.
Then, 'Y is (part oi) a circle.
Proof 2.5
This result is actually an immediate consequence of Example 2.2 and Propo-
sition 2.4, but the following proof is instructive and gives more information,
namely the centre and radius of the circle and the plane in which it lies.
By the proof of Proposition 2.4, the binormal b is a constant vector and 'Y
is contained in aplane perpendicular to b. Now consider
d (
ds 'Y + ~n
1) = + 1. =t ~n 0,
where we have used the fact that the curvature ~ is constant and the Frenet-
Serret equation
Ii = -~t + rb = -~t (since r = 0).
Hence, 'Y + ~n is a constant vector, say a , and we have

1
'Y+ -n
I>,
= a, (15)
11 'Y - a 11 = II-~n 11 = ~ .
I>, I>,
This shows that 'Y lies on the sphere of centre a and radius 1/1>,. Since the
intersection of aplane and a sphere is a circle, this completes the proof. (Note
that the plane actually intersects the sphere in a great circle: this is because
n is parallel to the plane, so by Eq. (15) the centre a of the sphere lies in the
plane .) 0
We conclude this chapter with the analogue ofTheorem 2.1 for space curves .
Recall that a rigid motion of R 3 is a rotation about the origin followed by a
translation.
Theorem 2.3
Let 'Y(s) and ;Y(s) be two unit-speed curves in R 3 with the same curvature
I>,(s) > 0 and the same torsion 7(S) for all s. Then, there is a rigid motion M
of R 3 such that
;Y(s) = M('Y(s)) for all s.
Further. if k and t are smooth functions with k > 0 everywhere, there is a
unii-speed curve in R 3 whose curvature is k and whose torsion is t .
Proof 2.3
Let t, n and b be the tangent vector, principal normal and binormal of 'Y,
and let t, ii and b be those of;Y. Let So be a fixed value of the parameter
s. Since {t(so), n(so), b(so)} and {t(so), ii(so), b(so)} are both right-handed
orthonormal bases of R 3 , there is a rotation about the origin of R 3 that takes
t(so), n(so) and b(so) to t(so), ii(so) and b(so), respectively. Further, there is
a translation that takes -y(so) to ;Y(so) (and this has no effect on t, n and b) .
By applying the rotation followed by the translation, we can therefore assume
that
-y(so) = ;Y(so), t(so) = t(so), n(so) = ii(so), b(so) = b(so). (16)
The trick now is to consider the expression
= t.t + ii.n + b.b.
A(s)
In view of Eqs. (16), we have A(so) = 3. On the other hand, since t and t are
unit vectors, t.t ~ 1, with equality holding if and only if t = t ; and similarly
for fi .n and b .b. It follows that A(s) ~ 3, with equality holding if and only
if t = t, n = n and b = b. Thus, if we can prove that A is constant, it will
.y
follow in particular that t = t, i.e. that = 1', and hence that 1'(s) - 'Y(s) is a
constant. But by Eqs. (16) again, this constant vector must be zero, so l' = 1'.
For the first part of the theorem, we are therefore reduced to proving that
A is constant. But, using the Frenet-Serret equations,
Ä= t.t + ft.n + b.b + Li + n.n + b.b

= xfi.t + (-Kt + rb) .n + (-rn).b + t.Kn + n.( -Kt + Tb) + b .(-rn),
and this vanishes since the terms cancel in pairs.
For the second part of the theorem, we observe first that it follows from the
theory of ordinary differential equations that the equations
T=kN, (17)
N = -kT+tB, (18)
B=-tN (19)
have a unique solution T(s), N(s), B(s) such that T(so), N(so), B(so) are the
standard orthonormal vectors i = (1,0,0), j = (0,1,0), k = (0,0,1), respec-
tively. Since the matrix
( ~ko ~ ~)
-t 0
expressing T,N and 13 in terms of T , N and B is skew-symmetric, it follows
that the vectors T, N and B are orthonormal for all values of s (see Exercise
2.22).
Now define
'Y(s) = r T(u)du .
i:
Then, l' = T, so since T is a unit vector, l' is unit-speed. Next, T = kN by Eq.
(17), so since N is a unit vector, k is the curvature of l' and N is its principal
normal. Next, since Bis a unit vector perpendicular to T and N, B = >.T x N
where >. is a smooth function of s that is equal to ±1 for all s. Since k = i x j,
we have >'(so) = 1, so it follows that >.(s) = 1 for all s. Hence, B is the binormal
of'Y and by Eq . (19), t is its torsion. 0
EXERCISES
2.14 Compute K, -r, t, n and b for each of the following curves, and verify
that the Frenet-Serret equations are satisfied:
(r) -y(t) = (~(1 + t)3/2, ~(1- t)3/2, ~)j
(ii) -y(t) = (tcost,l-sint,-~cost).
2.15 Show that the curve
2
-y(t)
1+ t t + 1, -1-t)
= ( "T> t-
is planar.
2.16 Show that the curve in Exercise 2.14(ii) is a circle , and find its centre,
radius and the plane in which it lies.
2.17 Describe all curves in R 3 which have constant curvature K > 0 and
constant torsion r . (Observe that it is enough to find one curve with
curvature K and torsion r.)
2.18 Show that the torsion of a regular curve -y(t) is a smooth function
of t whenever it is defined.
2.19 Let -y(t) be a unit-speed curve in R 3 , and assume that its curvature
K(t) is non-zero for all t . Define a new curve 6 by
6(t) = d-y(t) .
dt
Show that 6 is regular and that, if s is an arc-length parameter for
6, then
ds
dt = K.
Prove that the curvature of 6 is
( 1 + K2
r
2
)!
'
and find a formula for the torsion of 6 in terms of K, r and their

derivatives with respect to t.
2.20 A regular curve -y in R 3 with curvature > 0 is called a general
heli» if its tangent vector makes a fixed angle () with a fixed unit
vector a. Show that the torsion rand curvature K of -y are related
by r = ±Kcot(). (Assume that -y is unit-speed and show that a =
t cos () + b sin ().)
Show conversely that, if the torsion and curvature of a regular curve
are related by r = >"K where >.. is a constant, then the curve is
a general helix. (Thus, Examples 2.1 and 2.4 show that a circular
helix is a general helix.)
2.21 Let -y(t) be a unit-speed curve with lI:(t) > 0 and r(t) ::f. 0 for all t.
Show that, if -y lies on the surface of a sphere, then
T d ( k ) (20)
~ = ds TII: 2 •
(If -y lies on the sphere of centre a and radius r, then (-y-a).(-y-a) =

r 2 j now differentiate repeatedly.) Conversely, show that if Eq. (20)
holds, then
p2 + (pai = r 2
for some (positive) constant r , where p = I/li: and a = I/T, and
deduce that -y lies on a sphere of radius r . (Consider -y + pn + pob.)
Verify that Eq. (20) holds for Viviani's curve (Exercise 1.9).
2.22 Let (aij) be a skew-symmetric 3 x 3 matrix (i.e. aij = -aji for
all i,j). Let VI, V2 and v3 be smooth functions of a parameter s
satisfying the differential equations
3
Vi = 2::aijVj,
j=l
for i = 1,2 and 3, and suppose that for some parameter value So
the vectors VI(so), V2(SO) and V3(So) are orthonormal. Show that
the vectors VI(S),V2(S) and V3(S) are orthonormal for all values of
s. (Find a system of first order differential equations satisfied by the
dot products v.. V j, and use the fact that such a system has a unique
solution with given initial conditions.)
For the remainder 01 this book,

all parametrised curves will be assumed to be regular.
3
Global Properties of Curves
All the properties of eurves that we have diseussed so far are 'loeal': they
depend only on the behaviour of a eurve near a given point, and not on the
'global' shape of the eurve. In this ehapter, we diseuss some global results about
eurves. The most famous, and perhaps the oldest, of these is the 'isoperimetric
inequality', whieh relates the length of eertain 'dosed' eurves to the area they
contain.
3.1. Simple Closed Curves

Our first task is to deseribe the kind of eurves that we shall be eonsidering in
this ehapter, namely 'simple closed eurves' . Intuitively, these are eurves that
'join up ', but do not otherwise self-interseet. A precise definition is as follows:
Definition 3.1
Let a ERbe a positive eonstant. A simple closed curve in R 2 with period a is
a (regular) eurve 'Y : R ~ R 2 such that
'Y(t) = 'Y(t') if and only if t' - t = ka for some integer k,
Thus, the point 'Y(t) returns to its starting point when t inereases by a, but
not before that.
47
simple closed curve non-simple closed curves
It is a standard, but highly non-trivial, result of the topology of R 2 , called

the Jordan Gurve Theorem, that any simple closed curve in the plane has an
'interior' and an 'exterior': more precisely, the set of points of R 2 that are not
on the curve 'Y is the disjoint union of two subsets of R 2 , denoted by int('Y)
and ext('Y), with the following properties:
(i) int('Y) is bounded, i.e. it is contained inside a circle of sufficiently large
radius;
(ii) ext('Y) is unbounded;
(iii) both of the regions int('Y) and ext('Y) are connected, i.e. they have the
property that any two points in the same region can be joined by a curve
contained entirely in the region (but any curve joining a point of int('Y) to
a point of ext('Y) must cross the curve 'Y) .
Example 3.1
The parametrised circle
'Y(t) = (cos (2;t) ,sin (2;t) )

is a simple closed curve with period a. The interior and exterior of 'Y are, of
course, given by {(x,y) E R 2 1x2 +y2 < I} and {(x,y) E R 2 1x2 +y2 > I},
respectively.
Not all examples of simple closed curves have such an obvious interior and
exterior, however. Is the point P in the interior or the exterior of the simple
closed curve shown at the top of the next page?
Since every point in the image of a simple closed curve 'Y of period a is
traced out as the parameter t of'Y varies through any interval of length a, e.g.
o::; t ::; a, it is reasonable to define the length 0/'Y to be
l('Y) = 1 a
11 -y(t) 11 dt, (1)
where a dot denotes the derivative with respect to the parameter of the curve 'Y.
Since y is regular, it has a unit-speed reparametrisation .y with the arc-length
s=1 t
11 -y(u) 11 du
r
of'Yas its parameter (so that .y(s) = 'Y(t)). Note that
1= =1a
t a
s(t + a)= 0 + 11 -y(u) 11 du 0 11 -y(u) IIdu+ a 11 -y(u) 11 du = l('Y) + s(t),
r
since, putting v u - a and using 'Y(u - a) = 'Y(u), we get
a 11 -y(u) 11 du = 1t
0 11 -y(v) 11 dv = s(t) .
Hence,
.y(s(t)) = .y(s(t')) {:::::} 'Y(t) = 'Y(t') {:::::} t' - t = ka {:::::} s(t') - s(t) = kl('Y),
where k is an integer. This shows that .y is a simple closed curve with period
l('Y). Note that, since j' is unit-speed, this is also the length of.y. In short, we
can always assume that a simple closed curve is unit-speed and that its period
is equal to its length.
We shall usually assume that our simple closed curves 'Y are positively-
oriented. This means that the signed unit normal n, of 'Y (see Section 2.2)
points into int('Y) at every point of 'Y. This can always be achieved by replacing
the parameter t of'Y by -t, if necessary.
positively-oriented not positively-oriented
In the above diagrams, the arrow indicates the direction of increasing parame-
ter. Is the simple closed curve shown at the top of the previous page positively-
oriented?
In the next section, we shall be interested in the area contained by a simple
closed curve "(, i.e.
A(int("()) = j' r
J int("()
dxdy. (2)
This can be computed by using Green 's Theorem, which says that, for all
smooth functions f(x , y) and g(x , y) (i.e, functions with continuous partial
derivatives of all orders),
j 'r
J int("()
(~g
uX
- ~f) dxdy =
uy
1 "(
f(x,y)dx + g(x ,y)dy,
if"( is a positively-oriented simple closed curve.
Proposition 3.1
If "((t) = (x(t),y(t» is a positively-oriented simple closed curve in R 2 with
period a, then
A(int("(» =~ l a
(xy- y:i;)dt. (3)
Proof 3.1
Taking f = -~y, 9 = ~x in Green's theorem, we get
A(int("()) =~
2 J"(
r xdy - ydx ,
which gives Eq. (3) immediately. o

Note that, although the formula in Eq. (3) involves the parameter t of
"(, it is clear from the definition (2) of A(int("()) that it is unchanged if"( is
reparametrised.
EXERCISES
3.1 Show that the length lh) and the area A(int("()) are unchanged by
applying a rigid motion to "( (see Section 2.2).
3.2 Show that the ellipse
"(t) = (acost,bsint),
where a and b are positive constants, is a simple closed curve and
compute the area of its interior.
3.3 Show that the limacon
"(t)= «1 + 2cost) cost, (1 + 2cost)sint)
is a (regular) curve such that "(t + 211") = "(t) for all values of t, but
that "( is not a simple closed curve.
3.4 Show that, if "(t) is a simple closed curve of period a, and t, n, and K s
are its unit tangent vector, signed unit normal and signed curvature,
respectively, then
t(t + a) = t(t), = ns(t), Ks(t + a) = Ks(t).
ns(t + a)
(Differentiate the equation "(t + a) = "(t) .)
3.2. The Isoperimetrie Inequality

The most important global result about plane curves is
Theorem 3.1 (The Isoperimetrie Inequality)

Let"( be a simple closed curve, let l("() be its length and let A(inth)) be the
area of its interior. Then,
A(int("()) s 4~ lh)2,
with equality holding if and only if"( is a circle.
Of course, it is obvious that equality holds when "( is a circle, since in that
case l("() = 211"R and A(int("()) = 1I"R2 , where R is the radius ofthe circle.
To prove this theorem, we need a result from analysis called Wirtinger's

Inequality:
Proposition 3.2
Let F : [0,11"]-+ R be a smooth function such that F(O) = F(1I") = O. Then,
1" (c::;) ~ 1"

2 dt F(t)2dt,
with equality holding if and only if F(t) = A sin t for all t E [0,11"], where A is
a constant .
Assuming this result for the moment, we show how to deduce the isoperi-
metrie inequality from it.
Proof 3.1
We start by making some assumptions about "( that will simplify the proof.
First, we can if we wish assurne that "(is parametrised by arc-length s. However,
because of the 11" that appears in Theorem 3.1, it turns out to be more convenient
to assurne that the period of "( is 11". H we change the parameter of"( from s to
t = 1I"s/l('Y), (4)
the resulting curve is still simple closed, and has period 11" because when
s increases by l("() , t increases by 11". We shall therefore assurne that "1 is
parametrised using the parameter tin Eq. (4) from now on.
For the second simplification, we note that both l("() and A('Y) are un-
changed if "1 is subjected to a translation "((t) 1-7 'Y(t) + b, where b is any
constant vector (see Exercise 3.1). Taking b = -"1(0), we might as well assurne
that "1(0) = 0 to begin with, i.e. we assurne that "1 begins and ends at the
origin.
To prove Theorem 3.1, we shall calculate l('Y) and A(int("()) by using polar
coordinates
x = rcoslJ, y = rsinlJ.
Using the chain rule, it is easy to show that
i;2 + il = f2 + r 8
2 2, xiJ - yi; = r 28,
with d/dt denoted by a dot . Then, using Eq . (4),

since (dxjds)2 + (dyjds)2 = 1. Further, by Eq. (3), we have
A(int('Y)) = ~ 11< (xiJ - yx)dt = ~ 11< r 2iJdt . (6)
To prove Theorem 3.1, we have to show that
l~~2 _ A(int('Y)) ~ 0,
with equality holding if and only if'Y is a circle. By Eq. (5),
Hence, using Eq. (6),

1
o
1< (r2 + r2iJ2)dt = l('Y)2 .
1f
l~~2 _ A(int('Y)) = ~ 11< (r 2 + r 2lP)dt - ~ 11< r 2iJdt = ~I,

where
I = 11< (r2 + r 21P - 2r2iJ)dt. (7)
Thus, to prove Theorem 3.1, we have to show that I ~ 0, and that I = 0 if

and only if 'Y is a circle.
By simple algebra,
I = 11< r 2(iJ - 1)2dt + 11< (r2 - r 2)dt. (8)

°°
The first integral on the right-hand side of Eq. (8) is obviously ~ 0, and the
second integral is ~ by Wirtinger's inequality (we are taking F = r : note
that r(O) = r(1r) = since 'Y(O) = 'Y(1r) = 0) . Hence, I ~ 0. Further, since
both integrals on the right-hand side of Eq . (8) are ~ 0, their sum I is zero if
and only if both of these integrals are zero. But the first integral is zero only if
Ö= 1 for all t, and the second is zero only if r = A sin t for some constant A (by
Wirtinger again) . So (J = t+a, where o is a constant, and hence r = A sin«(J-a) .
It is easy to see that this is the polar equation of a circle of diameter A, thus
comp1eting the proof of Theorem 3.1 (see the diagram above). 0
We now prove Wirtinger's inequality.

Let G(t) = F(t)/sint. Then, denoting d/dt by a dot as usual,
1" P2dt = 1" (G sin t + G cos t)2dt
= 1" G 2 2
sin t dt +- 21" GG sin t cos t dt + 1" 2 2
G cos t dt.
Integrating by parts:
21" GG sin t cos t dt = G2 sin t cos tl~ - 1" G 2(cos2t - sin t)dt
2
= 1" G 2(sin2 t - cos2 t)dt.
Hence ,
1" P2dt = 1" 6 2 2

sin tdt + 1" G
2(sin2
t - cos t)dt +
2
1" 2 2
G cos tdt
1" 1" 6
= 1"(G2+62)sin2tdt= F 2dt+ 2 2
sin t dt ,
and so
1" -1" = 1" 6

P2dt P
2dt 2 2
sin tdt.
°
The integral on the right-hand side is obviously ~ 0, and it is zero if and on1y
if 6 = for al1 t , i.e, if and on1y if G(t) is equal to a constant, say A , for all t.
Then, P(t) = Asint, as required. 0
EXERCISES
3.5 By app1ying the isoperimetric inequality to the ellipse

x2 y2
a2 + b2 =1
(where a and bare positive constants), prove that
Jor J a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t dt 2: 271".;;;];,

27r
with equality holding if and only if a = b (see Exercise 3.2).
3.3. The Four Vertex Theorem

We conclude this chapter with a famous result about conyex curves in the
plane. A simple closed curve y is called convex if its interior int('Y) is convex, in
the usual sense that the straight line segment joining any two points of int('Y)
is contained entirely in int(-y).
convex not convex
Definition 3.2
Avertex of a curve 'Y(t) in R 2 is a point where its signed curvature "'s has a
stationary point, i.e, where d"'s/dt = O.
It is easy to see that this definition is independent of the parametrisation

of'Y (see Exercise 3.7).
Example 3.2
The ellipse 'Y(t) = (acost,bsint), where a and b are positive constants, is
a convex simple closed curve with period 271" (see Exercises 3.2 and 3.6). Its
signed curvature is easily found to be
ab
"'s(t) = (a2 sin2 t + b2 cos? t)3/2 •
Then,
dx; 3ab(b2 - a 2 ) sin t cos t
dt - (a2 sin2 t + b2 cos" t)5/2
vanishes at exactly four points of the ellipse, namely the points with t =
0, 1r /2, 1r and 31r /2 , which are the ends of the two axes of the ellipse.
The foIlowing theorem says that this is the smaIlest number of vertices a
convex simple closed curve can have.
Theorem 3.2 (Four Vertex Theorem)

Every convex simple closed curve in R 2 has at least four vertices.
It is actually the case that this theorem remains true without the assump-
tion of convexity, but the proof is then more difficult than the one we are ab out
to give,
Proof 3.2
We might as weIl assurne that the curve 'Y(t) is unit-speed, so that its period
is the length l of 'Y. We consider the integral
1 1
k,s(t)-y(t)dt,
where a dot denotes d]dt. (RecaIl from Exercise 2.4 that "'s is a smooth function
of t .) Integrating by parts, and using the equation ns = -"'st (see Exercise 2.3),
we get
Jro k,s'Y dt = _ ~r "'s'Y dt = _ Jr "'stdt = r nsdt = ns(l) - ns(O) = O.

l 1 1
(9)
o Jo .
Now, "'s attains all of its values on the closed interval [0, lj, so "'s must
attain its maximum and minimum values at some points P and Q of 'Y, say.
We can assurne that P i' Q, since otherwise "'s would be constant, 'Y would be
a circle (by Example 2.2), and every point of'Y would be a vertex. Let a be
a unit vector parallel to the vector PQ, and let b be the vector obtained by
rotating a anti-clockwise by 1r /2. Taking the dot product of the integral in Eq.
(9) with the constant vector b gives
11
k,s('Y.b) dt = 0. (10)
P Q
a
Suppose that P and Q are the only vertices of 'Y . Since 'Y is convex, the
straight line joining P and Q divides 'Y into two segments, and since there are
no other vertices , we must have k s > 0 on one segment and k s < 0 on the
other. But then the integrand on the left-hand side of Eq. (10) is either always
> 0 or always < 0 (except at P and Q where it vanishes), so the integral is
definitely > 0 or < 0, a contradiction.
Hence, there must be at least one more vertex, say R. If there are no other
vertices, the points P, Q and R divide 'Y into three segments, on each of which
k s is either always > 0 or always < O. But then k; must have the same sign on
two adjacent segments. Hence, there is a straight line that divides 'Y into two
segments, on one of which k s is always positive , and on the other k s is always
< O. The argument in the preceding paragraph shows that this is impossible .
So there must be a fourth vertex . 0
EXERCISES
3.6 Show that the ellipse in Exercise 3.2 is convex. (You may need to use
the inequality 2XIX2 $ xi + x~.)
3.7 Show that the definition of a vertex of aplane curve is independent
of its parametrisation.
3.8 Show that the limacon in Exercise 3.3 has only two vertices .
4-
Surfaces in Three Dimensions
In this chapter, we introduce several different ways to formulate mathematically

the notion of a surface . Although the simplest of these, that of a surface patch,
is all that is needed for most of the book, it does not describe adequately most
of the objects that we would want to call surfaces. For example, a sphere is not
a surface patch, but it can be described by gluing two surface patches together
suitably. The idea behind this gluing procedure is simple enough, but making
it precise turns out to be a little complicated. We have tried to minimise the
trauma by collecting the most demanding proofs in a section at the end of the
chapter; this section is not used anywhere else in the book and can safely be
omitted if desired . In fact , surfaces (as opposed to surface patches) will be used
in a serious way on only a few occasions in this book.
4.1. What is a Surface?

A surface is a subset of R 3 that looks like a piece of R 2 in the vicinity of any
given point, just as the surface of the Earth, although actually nearly spherical,
appears to be a Hat plane to an observer on the surface who sees only to the
horizon. To make the phrases 'looks like' and 'in the vicinity' precise, we must
first introduce some preliminary material. We describe this for Rn for any
n ~ 1, although we shall need it only for n = 1,2 or 3.
First, a subset U of Rn is called open if, whenever a is a point in U, there
is a positive number f such that every point u E Rn within a distance e of a is
59
also in U:
a E U and 11 U - a 1/ < e ===? U E U.
For example, the whole of Rn is an open set, as is

Vr(a) = {u E Rn 11/ U - a 1/< r},
the open ball with centre a and radius r > O. (If n = 1, an open ball is called
an open interval; if n = 2 it is called an open disc .) However,
Vr(a)={UERn II/u-al/~r}
is not open, because however small the positive number e is, there is a point
within a distance f of the point (al + r, a2, . .. , an) E vn
(say) that is not in
Vr(a) (e.g. the point (al + r + ~,a2, "" an)) '
Next , if X and Y are sub sets of R m and Rn , respectively, a map f : X -+ Y
is said to be continuous at a point a E X if points in X near aare mapped by
f onto points in Y near f(a) . More precisely, f is coniinuous at a if, given any
number e > 0, there is a number 8 > 0 such that
U E X and 1/ U - a 1/ < 8 ===? 1/ f(u) - f(a) 1/ < e.
Then f is said to be coniinuous if it is continuous at every point of X. Com-
posites of continuous maps are continuous.
In view of the definition of an open set, this is equivalent to the following:
f is continuous if and only if, for any open set V of Rn, there is an open set U
of R m such that f maps U n X into V n Y.
If f : X -+ Y is continuous and bijective, and ifits inverse map Y -+ Xr: :
is also continuous, then f is called a homeomorphism and X and Y are said to
be homeomorphic.
We are now in a position to make our first attempt at defining the notion
of a surface in R 3 .
Definition 4.1
A subset S of R 3 is a surface if, for every point PES, there is an open set U in
R 2 and an open set W in R 3 containing P such that S n W is homeomorphic
to U.
Thus, a surface comes equipped with a collection of homeomorphisms a :

U -+ S n W, which we call surface patches or parametrisations. The collection
of all these surface patches is called the atlas of S . Every point of S lies in
the image of at least one surface patch in the atlas of S. The reason for this
terminology will become clear from the following examples.
Example 4.1
Every plane in R 3 is a surface with an atlas containing a single surface patch.
In fact , let a be a point on the plane, and let p and q be two unit vectors that
are parallel to the plane and perpendicular to each other. Then, any vector
parallel to the plane is a linear combination of p and q , say up + vq for some
scalars u and v . If r is the position vector of any point of the plane, r - a is
parallel to the plane, so
r - a = up+vq,
r = a+up+vq,
for some scalars u and v. Thus, the desired surface patch is
O'(u, v) = a+up+vq,
and its inverse map is
0'-1(r) = ((r - a) .p, (r - a).q).
These formulas make it clear that 0' and 0'-1 are continuous, and hence that 0'
is a homeomorphism. (We shall not verify this in detail.)
The next example shows why we have to consider surfaces , and not just
surface patches.
Example 4.2
The unit sphere
S2={(x,y,Z)ER3 \ x 2+y2+ z2=1}
is a surface. The most obvious parametrisation is probably that given by lati-
tude () and longitude <p:
0'((), <p) = (cos () cos ip , cos () sin ip, sin ()) .
x
Without some restriction on ((), <p), a is not injective (and so is not a homeo-
morphism) . To cover the whole sphere, it is clearly sufficient to take
1f 1f
--2 -< () -< -2' 0 <_ In'r: <_ 21f.
However, the set of points ((), <p) satisfying these inequalities is not an open
subset of R 2 , and so cannot be used as the domain of a surface patch. The
largest open set consistent with the above inequalities is
U = {((), <p) I - ~ < () < ~, 0 < sp < 21f } ,

but now the image of a : U -t R 3 is not the whole of the sphere, but rather
the complement of the great semi-circle C consisting of the points of the sphere
of the form (x, 0, z) with x 2': O. Hence, a : U -t R 3 covers only a 'patch' of the
sphere. Again, we shall not verify in detail that a is a homeomorphism from U
to the intersection of the sphere with the open set
W = {(x ,y, z) E R 3 I x< 0 or y t O} .
To show that the sphere is a surface , we must therefore pro duce at least one
more surface patch covering the part of the sphere omitted by a , For example,
let i1 be the patch obtained by first rotating n by 1f about the z-axis and then
by 1f/2 about the z-axis. Explicitly, i1 : U -t R 3 is given by
i1((), <p) = (- cos () cos ip, - sin (}, - cos (} sin <p)
(the open set U is the same as for e) . The image of i1 is the complement of the
great semi-circle C consisting of the points of the sphere of the form (x, y, 0)
with x ~ 0 (see the diagram at the top of the next page).
It is clear that C and Cdo not intersect, so the union of the images of a and
i1 is the whole sphere. Note that most points of the sphere are in the images of
both surface patches.
It is intuitively obvious, although not quite trivial to prove, that the sphere
cannot be covered by a single surface patch (see Exercise 4.5).
Our last example (for the moment) is a subset of R 3 that is nearly, but not
quite, a surface.
Example 4.3
We consider the double cone
To see that this is not a surface, suppose that u : U -+ S n W is a surface

patch containing the vertex (0,0,0) of the cone, and let a E U correspond to
the vertex . We can assume that U is an open ball with centre a, since any
°
open set U containing a must contain such an open ball. The open set W must
obviously contain a point p in the lower half 8_ of 8 where z < and a point
q in the upper half 8+ where z > 0; let b and c be the corresponding points
in U . It is clear that there is a curve 11' in U passing through band c, but not
passing through a, This is mapped by o into the curve 'Y = a 0 11' lying entirely
in 8, passing through p and q, and not passing through the vertex. (It is true
that 'Y will in general only be continuous, and not smooth, but this does not
affect the argument.) This is clearly impossible . (The reader versed in point set
topology will be able to make this heuristic argument rigorous.)
..... ----
,,
,,
/ '11'(
' c , ,
:
,,
• a
,I
,, , I
I
,,
.._-_ ... ...
If we remove the vertex, however, we do get a surface 8_ u8+ . It has an atlas

consisting of the two surface patches t1± : U ~ R 3 , where U = R 2\{(0,0)},
given by the inverse of projection onto the xy plane :
t1±(u,v) = (u,v,±Vu2 +v 2 ) .
As the example of the sphere shows, a point a of a surface 8 will generally He

in the image of more than one surface patch. Suppose then that a : U ~ 8 n W
-$,
tT
+V
Ü
and ir : (; ~ 8nW are two patches such that a E 8nWnW. Since a and ir are
homeomorphisms, t1- 1(8 n W n W) and ir-I (8 n W n W) are open sets V ~ U
and V ~ Ü, respectively. The composite homeomorphism tT- 1 0 Ö" : V ~ V is

called the transition map from a to Ö" . If we denote this map by tP, we have
ü(u,ii) = 0'(tP( u, ii))
for all (u, ii) E V.
EXERCISES
4.1 Show that an open disc in the xy-plane is a surface.

4.2 Show that the circular cylinder
S = {(x, y, z) E R 3 I x 2 + y2 = 1}
can be covered by a single surface patch, and so is a surface . (Take U
to be an annulus.)
4.3 Define surface patches tT± : U ~ R 3 for the unit sphere by solving
the equation x 2 + y2 + z2 = 1 for x in terms of y and z :
= (±J1 - u 2 - v2 , u , v) ,
tT±(u, v)
defined on the open set U = {(u, v) E R 2 I u 2 + v 2 < 1}. Define tT~
and tT± similarly (with the same U) by solving for y and z, respec-
tively. Show that these six patches give the sphere the structure of a
surface.
4.4 The hyperboloid 0/ one sheet is

S={(x,y,z)ER3 1 x 2+y2_ z2=1} .
Show that, for every B, the straight line
(x - z) eos B = (1 - y) sin B, (x + z) sin B = (1 + y) eos B
is eontained in S, and that every point of the hyperboloid lies on one
of these lines. Deduee that S ean be eovered by a single surfaee pateh,
and henee is a surfaee. (Compare the ease of the eylinder in Exercise
4.2.)
Find a seeond family of straight lines on S, and show that no two
lines of the same family interseet, while every line of the first family
interseets every line of the seeond family with one exeeption. One
says that the surfaee S is doubly ruled.
4.5 Show that the unit sphere eannot be eovered by a single surfaee pateh.
(This requires some point set topology.)
4.2. Smooth Surfaces

In Differential Geometry we use ealculus to analyse surfaees (and other geomet-
rie objeets). We must be able to make sense of the statement that a funetion
on a surfaee is differentiable, for example. For this, we have to eonsider surfaees
with some extra strueture.
First, if U is an open subset of R m, we say that a map f : U ~ Rn is
smooth if eaeh of the n eomponents of f, whieh are funetions U ~ R, have
continuous partial derivatives of all orders. The partial derivatives of f are then
4, Surfaces in Three Dimensions 67
computed componentwise. For example, if m = 2 and n = 3, and

f(u,v) = (ft(u,v),h(u,v),h(u,v)),
then
of _ (oft 012 013) of _ (oft 012 013)
ouou 'ou 'ou' ov- ov'ov 'ov'
and similarly for higher derivatives. We often use the following abbreviations:
of of
ou = fu, ov = fv,
~f ~f ~f ~f
= fu u , ouov = fu v , ovou = fvu , ov2 = fv v ,
ou2
and so on. Note that f u v = f vu , because all the partial derivatives of the
com-
ponents of f are continuous.
It now makes sense to say that the surface patches lT : U -+ R 3 in the atlas
of a surface S are smooth. But we shall require one furt her condition.
Definition 4.2
A surface patch a : U -+ R 3 is called regular if it is smooth and the vectors o u
and o v are linearly independent at all points (u, v) EU . Equivalently, lT should
be smooth and the vector product lTu X lTv should be non-zero at every point
ofU.
We can finally define the class of surfaces to be studied in this book.
Definition 4.3
A smooth surface is a surface lT whose atlas consists of regular surface patches.
Ezample 4.4
The plane in Example 4.1 is a smooth surface. For
lT(u, v) = a + up + vq
is clearly smooth and U u = P and a; = q are linearly independent because p
and q were chosen to be perpendicular unit vectors .
Example 4.5
For the unit sphere 8 2 in Example 4.2, it is again clear that o and iT are smooth.
As for regularity, we compute
170 = (-sin9coscp,-sin9sincp,cos9), lTI{) = (-cos9sincp,cos9coscp,O),
which gives
Ue x u", = (- cos2 0 cos lp, - cos" 0 sin lp, - sin 0 cos 0)
and hence Ilue x u'" 11= [cos ö] . But if (O ,lp) E U, then -1r/2 < 0< 1r/2 so
cos 0 ::j:. O. Similarly, one checks that iT is regular.
In Exercise 4.3 we gave another family of surface patches covering the unit
sphere 8 2 , and it is easy to check that they are regular (see Exercise 4.7) .
Together with Example 4.5, this gives two atlases for 8 2 consisting of regular
surface patches, and an obvious question is: which atlas should we use to study
the sphere? The answer is that we can use either, or both. For the eight patches
in Exercise 4.3 and Example 4.5 together form a third atlas. In most situations
(although not in all - see Definition 4.5), one might as weB use the maximal
atlas for a given surface S consisting of all the regular surface patches U : U -t
S n W , with U and W being open subsets of R 2 and R 3 , respectively. Such
surface patches are called allowable surface patches for S. The maximal atlas
is independent of any arbitrary choices.
Although not at first sight very interesting, the next two results are very
important for what is to foBow.
Proposition 4.1
The transition maps 0/ a smooth surface are smooth .
The proof of this will be given in Section 4.7. The next result is a kind of
converse.
Proposition 4.2
Let U and Ü be open subseis 0/ R 2 and let U : U -t R 3 be a regular surjace
patch . Let P : Ü -t U be a bijective smooth map with smo~th inverse map
p-l : U -t Ü. Then, iT = U 0 P : Ü -t U is a regular surface patch.
Proo/4 .2
The patch iT is smooth because any composite of smooth maps is smooth. As
for regularity, let (u, v) = p{u, ii). By the chain rule,
_ 8u 8v _ 8u 8v
o« = 8u uu + 8u u v, Ujj = 8iiuu + 8iiuv,
so
_ _ (8U8V 8U8V)
Uü x Ujj = 8u 8ii - 8ii 8u U u x U v' (I)
The scalar on the right-hand side of this equation is the determinant of the
jacobian matrix
8 11.
J(!!) =( ~~
811.
8:U )
8v
8ü 8:U
of!!). We recall from calculus that, if lJ! and .p are two maps between open sets
in R 2 ,
(In fact, this is equivalent to the chain rule that expresses the first partial
derivatives of .p 0 lJ! in terms of those of .p and lJ!.) Taking lJ! = !!) and .p =
!!)-1, we see that J(!!)-l) = J(!!)-l. In particular, J(!!) is invertible, so its
determinant is non-zero and Eq. (1) shows that q is regular. 0
If regular surface patches a and q are related as in this proposition, we say

that q is a reparametrisation of a , and that !!) is a reparametrisation map. Note
that l1 is then a reparametrisation of q, since o = q 0 !!)-1 .
Note also that, if a : U ~ Sn Wand q : Ü ~ Sn Ware two allowable
surface patches of a smooth surface S, and if V ~ U and V ~ Ü are the open
subsets such that l1(V) = q(V) = Sn W n W, then !!) = l1- 1 ° q : V ~ V is
bijective, smooth and has a smooth inverse by Proposition 4.1. Thus, q is a
reparametrisation 0/ l1 where they are both defined.
These observations give rise to a very important principle that we shall use
throughout the book. The principle is that we can define a property 0/ any
smooth surface provided we can define it [or any regular surface patch in such
a way that it is unchanged when the patch is reparametrised.
As an illustration of this principle, let us define what is meant by a smooth
map f : SI ~ S2 , where SI and S2 are smooth surfaces. By our general
principle, we can assurne that SI and S2 are covered by single surface patches
3 3
l11 : U1 ~ R and l12 : U2 ~ R provided we verify that the definition we
give is unaffected by a reparametrisation of l11 and l12 . Since l11 and l12 are
bijective , any map f : SI ~ S2 gives rise to the map l1 2 1 ° / ° l11 : U1 ~ U2 ,
and we say that f is smooth if this map is smooth (we already know what
it means for a map between open subsets of R 2 to be smooth). Now suppose
that q1 : Ü1 ~ R 3 and q2 : Ü2 ~ R 3 are reparametrisations of l11 and l12,
with reparametrisation maps !!)1 : Ü1 ~ U1 and !!)2 : Ü2 ~ U2 , respectively. We
have to show that the corresponding map q2 1 0/ ° q1 : Ü1 ~ Ü2 is smooth if
l1 2 ° / ° l11 : U1 ~ U2 is smooth. But this is true, since
1
--1
l1 2 °/ - - -1 0l120l12
0l11=l12 ( -1) ° / 0l110l11
( -1)-
0111
- -1 ) (-1 / ) (-1
= l12 ° l12 ° l1 2 ° ° l11 ° l1 1 ° l11
( - )
1
= !!)2 ° (l12 ° / ° (11) ° !!)1,
1
and 4'1 and 4'2 1 are smooth maps (between open subsets of R 2 ) . The reader
should check that composites of smooth maps between surfaces are smooth.
We shall be especially interested in smooth maps / : SI -t S2 which are
bijective and whose inverse map /-1 : S2 -t SI is smooth. Such maps are
called diJfeomorph isms, and SI and S2 are said to be diJfeomorphic if there is
a diffeomorphism between them. The following observation will be useful.
Proposition 4.3
Let / : SI -t S2 be a diJfeomorphism. I] 0'1 is an allowable surface patch on

SI ,then / 0 0'1 is an allowable surjace patch on S2 .
Proof LS
We can assurne that SI and S2 are covered by single allowable patches 0'1 : U1 -t
R 3 and 0'2 : U2 -t R 3 , respectively. Since / is a diffeomorphism, /(0'1 (u,v» =
1
0'2 (F(u, v», where F : U1 -t U2 is bijective, smooth and F- is smooth. The
result now follows from Proposition 4.2. 0
Example 4.6
We consider the map which wraps the plane onto the circular cylinder of radius
1 and axis the z-axis, which we parametrise by 0'2 : U -t R 3 , where
0'2(U,V) = (cosu,sinu,v), U °
= {(u ,v) E R 2 I < u < 271"} .
If we wrap the whole plane onto the cylinder, we shall not get a bijective map ,
since the plane will wrap around infinitely many times . So we consider the
infinite strip in the yz-plane of width 271" parametrised by 0'1 : U -t R 3 , where
O'l(U ,V) = (O,u,v) .
We wrap the strip around the cylinder by wrapping the line z = v parallel to
the y-axis around the 'waist' of the cylinder at height v above the xy-plane.
Since the width of the strip is equal to the circumference of the cylinder, a
point in the strip with y-coordinate u will go to a point on the cylinder with
polar angle u. Putting this together, we see that the wrapping map takes the
point (O,u,v) ofthe strip to the point (cosu,sinu,v) ofthe cylinder, i.e. in the
notation above,
f(O,u,v) = (cosu,sinu,v).
From this, it is clear that the expression for f in terms of parameters is simply
F(u ,v) = (u ,v) ,
since
We conclude this section with a general construction of smooth surfaces. In

fact, it can be shown that every smooth surface arises in this way.
As we have seen in the above examples, surfaces are often given to us as
level surfaces ((x ,y,z) E R 3 I f(x,y ,z) = c], where f is a smooth function
°
and c is a constant (of course, we can always assume that c = by replacing f
by f -c) . For example, the unit sphere 8 2 is the level surface x 2 +y2+ Z2 = 1. In
these examples, we constructed atlases by fairly ad hoc methods. The following
result gives conditions under which a level surface is a smooth surface. In fact,
it deals with a slightly more general situation in which different regions of a
surface may be defined by different functions.
Theorem 4.1
Let S be a subset 0/ R 3 with the /ollowing property: [or each point PES, there
is an open subsei W 0/ R 3 containing P and a smooth /unction / : W ~ R
such that
(i) snw ={(x,y,z)EW I f(x ,y,z)=O};
(ii) the partial derivatives fx , fy and fz do not all vanish at P .
Then, S is a smooth surface.
We postpone the proofto Section 4.7.
Example 4.7
For the unit sphere 8 2 , we can take W = R 3 and use the single function
f(x, y, z) = x 2 + y2 + z2 - 1. Then, (Jx, fy, fz) = (2x, 2y, 2z) so 11 (Jx , fy , fz) 11
= 2 at all points of 8 2 • In particular, (f." f ,I> f z) is non-zero everywhere on 8 2 •

Hence, the theorem teIls us that 8 2 is a smooth surface.
Example 4.8
For the double cone of Example 4.3, f(x ,y,z) = x 2 + y2 - z2 . Hence,
(f." fy , fz) = (2x, 2y, -2z) , and this vanishes only at the vertex (0,0,0) . Hence,
removing the vertex gives a smooth surface , as we have already seen.
For the rest of this book, by a surjace we shall mean

a smooth surface, and by a surjace patch we shall mean
a regular smooth surface patch (or equivalently an allowable surface patch).
Unless we indicate otherwise, we shall also assume that all surfaces we
consider are connected, which means that any two points of S can be joined by
a curve lying entirely in S. This is not a serious restriction, for it is not difficult
to prove that any surface is a disjoint union of connected surfaces , and so can
be studied by studying each of its connected parts separately. All the surfaces
we have encountered so far are connected except the double cone of Example
4.3, which breaks into the union of two disjoint half cones S± when the vertex
is removed , as it must be to have a surface.
EXERCISES
4.6 Show that, if f(x , y) is a smooth function, its graph

{( x, y, z ) E R 3 I z = f(x , y)}
is a smooth surface with atlas consisting of the single regular surface
patch
O'(u, v) = (u,v,f(u,v)) .
4.7 Verify that the six surface patches for the unit sphere in Exercise 4.3
are regular. Calculate the transition maps between them and verify
that these maps are smooth.
4.8 Show that
O'(r,O) = (rcoshO,rsinhO,r 2 )
is a parametrisation of the part z > 0 of the hyperbolic paraboloid
z = x 2 - y2. (A picture of the hyperbolic paraboloid can be found in
Proposition 4.6.) Use Exercise 4.6 to find another parametrisation iT
of the same part, and verify that iT is a reparametrisation of 0'. Find
two analogous parametrisations for the part z < 0 of the hyperbolic

paraboloid.
4.9 Show that the level surface
x 2 y2 z2
a + b2
2" c = 1,
+ 2"
where a, b and c are non-zero constants, is a smooth surface (called
an ellipsoid). (A picture of an ellipsoid can be found in Proposition
4.6.)
4.10 A torus is obtained by rotating a circle C in aplane JI around a
straight line {, in JI that does not intersect C. Take JI to be the
xz-plane, E to be the z-axis, a > 0 the distance of the centre of C
from {" and b < a the radius of C. Show that the torus is a smooth
surface
(i) by showing that it has an atlas consisting of surface patches
(1(0 , cp) = «a + b cos 0) coscp, (a + bcosO) sincp,bsinO) ,
with (0, cp) in suitable open subsets of R 2 ;
(ii) by showing that it is the level surface given by
(x 2 + y2 + z2 + a 2 _ b2)2 = 4a2(x2 + y2).
4.11 Ir S is a smooth surface, define the notion of a smooth fun ction

S ~ R . Show that, if S is a smooth surface, each component of the
inclusion map S ~ R 3 is a smooth function S ~ R .
4.12 Show that translations and invertible linear transformations of R 3
take smooth surfaces to smooth surfaces.
4.3. Tangents, Normals and Orientability

A natural way to study a surface S is via the (smooth) curves y that lie in S.
If 'Y : (o, ß) -t R 3 is contained in the image of a surface patch o : U -t R 3 in
the atlas of S , there is a map (o, ß) -t U, say t 1-7 (u(t), v(t)), such that
'Y(t) = D'(u(t) , v(t)). (2)
The functions u and v are necessarily smooth (see Exercise 4.30). Conversely,
it is obvious that if t 1-7 (u(t), v(t)) is smooth, then Eq. (2) defines a curve lying
in S . In general, if'Y is a curve in S and some point 'Y(to) of'Y lies in a surface
patch D' of S, then Eq. (2) will hold for all t in some open interval containing
to. Thus, we may restriet ourselves to curves of the form (2).
Definition 4.4
The tangent space at a point P of a surface S is the set of tangent vectors at
P of all curves in S passing through P.
Proposition 4.4
Let D' : U -t R 3 be a patch 0/ a surjace S containing a point P 0/ S, and let
(u,v) be coordinates in U . The tangent space to S at P is the vector subspace
3
0/ R spanned by the vectors D'u and D'v (the derivatives are eoaluated at the
point (uo,vo) E U such thatD'(uo,vo) = P).
Proo/4·4
Let 'Y be a smooth curve in S, say
'Y(t) = u(u(t),v(t)) .
Denoting djdt by a dot, we have, by the chain rule,
'Y = uuu + D'vv.
Thus, 'Y is a linear combination of D' u and u u -
Conversely, any vector in the vector subspace of R 3 spanned by D'u and a;
e
is of the form eD'u + "luv for some scalars and "I. Define
'Y(t) = D'(uo + et, vo + TJt).
Then, 'Y is a smooth curve in S and at t = 0, i.e. at the point P in S, we have
'Y = (D'u + TJD'v ·
This shows that every vector in the span of D' u and D'v is the tangent vector at
P of some curve in S. 0
Since tT u and tT v are linearly independent, the tangent space is two-

dimensional, and will be called the tangent plane from now on. Note that Def-
inition 4.4 shows that the tangent plane is independent of the choice of patch
containing P , even though this is not immmediately obvious from Proposition
4.4 (see Exercise 4.15).
Since the tangent plane at P E 8 passes through the origin of R 3 , it is
completely determined by giving a unit vector perpendicular to it , called a
unit normal to 8 at P. There are, of course, two such vectors, but Proposition
4.4 shows that choosing a surface patch tT : U -t R 3 containing P leads to a
definite choice, namely
N tT = tTu X tT v (3)
11 tT u x a; 11
(with the derivatives evaluated at the point of U corresponding to P), for this
is c1early a unit vector perpendicular to every linear combination of tT u and tT v .
This is called the standard unit normal of the surface patch a at P. Unlike the
tangent plane, however, N tT is not quite independent of the choice of patch a
containing P. In fact , if tT : Ü -t R 3 is another surface patch in the atlas of 8
containing P , we showed in the proof of Proposition 4.2 that
e« x tTiJ = det(J(!Jj))tT u x tT v ,
where J(!Jj) is the jacobian matrix of the transition map !Jj from a to tT. So the
standard unit normal of tT is
N tT- -- tT ü X tTiJ _ ± tT u X tTv _ ±N

- - - - tT,
11 tTü X tTiJ 11 11 tT u X tT v 11
where the sign is that of the determinant of J(!Jj). This leads to the following
definition.
Definition 4.5
An orientable surface is a surface with an atlas having the property that, if
is the transition map between any two surface patches in the atlas, then
!Jj
det(J(!Jj)) > 0 where f is defined.
The preceding discussion gives
Proposition 4.5
An orientable sur/ace 8 has a canonical choice 0/ unit normal at each point,
obtained by taking the standard unit normal 0/ each surface patch in the atlas
0/8. 0
In fact, the converse is also true: if a surface S has a unit normal N defined
at each point PES and depending smoothly on P, then S is orientable. To see
this, start with the maximal atlas of Sand retain a patch O'(u, v) if 0'" x a; is a
positive multiple of N at all points in the image of 0', otherwise discard it . The
patches that remain form an atlas satisfying the condition in Proposition 4.5.
We leave the details of this to the interested reader (the argument is similar to
that used in the next example).
Most of the surfaces we shall discuss are orientable (see Exercise 4.16). Here
is one that is not.
Example 4.9
The M öbius band is the surface obtained by rotating a straight line segment L
around its midpoint P at the same time as P moves around a circle C, in such
a way that as P moves once around C, L makes a half-turn about P . If we take
C to be the circle x 2 + y2 = 1 in the xy-plane, and L to be a segment of length
1 that is initially parallel to the z-axis with its midpoint P at (1,0,0), then
after P has rotated by an angle fJ around the z-axis, L should have rotated by
fJ /2 around P in the plane containing P and the z-axis. The point of L initially
at (1,0, t) is then at the point
0'( t, fJ) = ( (1 - t sin ~) cos e, (1 - t sin ~) sin o, t cos ~) .

We take the domain of definition of 0' to be
U = {(t,fJ) E R2 I -1/2< t < 1/2, 0< e< 271"}.
We can define a second patch jj by the same formula as 0' but with domain of
definition Ü = {(t ,fJ) E R 2 I -1/2< t < 1/2, -71" < fJ < 7I"}. It can be checked
that these two patches form an atlas for the Möbius band consisting of regular
surface patches, making the Möbius band into a smooth surface S .
We compute the standard unit normal NO' at points on the median circle
(where t = 0). At such points, we have
O't = (-sin~coso,-sin~sino,cos~), 0'8 = (-sinO,cosO,O) ,

so
O't X 0'8 n
= ( -COS17COSi . n 0 . 0) .
O,-Slll17COSi,-Sllli
This is a unit vector, so it is equal to NO'.

If the Möbius band were orientable, there would be a weIl defined unit
normal N defined at every point of Sand varying smoothly over S. At a point
0'(0,0) on the median circle, we would have
N = '\(O)NO',
where ,\ : (0, 21T) ~ R is smooth and '\(0) = ±1 for all O. It follows that either
,\(0) = + 1 for all 0 E (0, 21T), or '\(0) = -1 for all 0 E (0, 21T). Replacing N by
- N if necessary, we can assurne that ,\ =
1. At the point 0'(0,0) =
0'(0, 21T),
we must have (since N is smooth)
N = limNO'
8.t.O
= (-1 ,0,0)
and also
N = 8t2".
lim NO' = (1,0,0).
This contradiction shows that the Möbius band is not orientable.
EXERCISES
4.13 Find the equation of the tangent plane of the following surface
patches at the indicated points:
(i) O'(u,v) = (u,v ,u2 -v2 ) , (1,1,0);
(ii) O'(r,O) = (rcoshO,rsinhO,r 2 ) , (1,0,1).
4.14 A helicoid is a surface swept out by an aeroplane propeller, when
both the aeroplane and its propeller move at constant speed. (A
picture of the helicoid can be found in Example 9.3.) If the aeroplane
is ftying along the z-axis, show that the helicoid can be parametrised
as
O'(u, v) = (v cosu, v sin u , '\u),
where ,\ is a constant. Show that the cotangent of the angle that
the standard unit normal of (1 at a point P makes with the z-axis is
proportional to the distance of P from the axis .
4.15 If 0'( U , v) is a surfaee pateh, show that the set of linear eombinations
of O'u and 0'1) is unehanged when 0' is reparametrised.
4.16 Consider the surfaee S defined by I(x, y, z) = 0, where I is a smooth
funetion such that Ix, I y and I, do not all vanish at any point of S.
Show that the veetor
is perpendicular to the tangent plane at every point of S, and deduee

that S is orientable. (Compare Exercise 1.17.)
4.17 Let S be a surfaee and let F : S ~ R be a smooth funetion (see
Exercise 4.11) . Show that, at eaeh point PES, there is a unique
veetor V s F in the tangent plane at P such that
(V sF) .-y(O) = ~ It=o F('Y(t))

for all curves y in S with 'Y(O) = P. Deduee that V sF = 0 if F has
a loeal maximum or a loeal minimum at P.
Show that, if S is the surfaee in Exercise 4.16, then VsF is the
perpendicular projeetion of VF onto the tangent plane to S, and
deduee that, if F has a loeal maximum or a loeal minimum at P,
then V F = ).. V I for some sealar )... (This is ealled Lagrange 's Method
01 Undetermined Multipliers.)
4.4. Examples of Surfaces

We now deseribe some of the simplest classes of surfaees. Others will be intro-
dueed later in the book.
Example 4.10
A (generalised) cylinder is the surface S obtained by translating a curve. If the
curve is 'Y : (0:, ß) ~ R 3 and a is a unit veetor in the direetion of translation,
the point obtained by translating the point 'Y{u) of 'Y by the veetor va parallel
to a is
O'{u, v) = 'Y{u) + va.
Then, 0' : U ~ R 3 , where U = {(u, v) E R 2 I 0: < u < ß}, and clearly 0' is
smooth. Since
O'{u, v) = O'{u /, v') {:::} 'Y{u) - 'Y{u /) = {v' - v)a,
for a to be a surface patch (and hence injective), no straight line parallel to

a should meet y in more than one point. Finally, Uu = 'Y, U v = a (with a dot
denoting d/du) , so a is regular if and only if the tangent vector of'Y is never
parallel to a .
The parametrisation is simplest when 'Y lies in aplane perpendicular to a.

In fact, this can always be achieved by replacing 'Y by its projection onto such
a plane (see Exercise 4.22). The regularity condition is then clearly satisfied
provided 'Y is never zero, i.e. provided 'Y is regular. We might as weIl take the
plane to be the xy-plane and a = (0,0,1) to be parallel to the z-axis. Then,
'Y(u) = (J(u),g(u),O) for some smooth functions f and g, and the parametri-
sation becomes
u(u,v) = (J(u),g(u),v).
As an example, starting with a circle, we get an ordinary (circular) cylinder.
Taking the circle to have centre the origin, radius 1 and to He in the xy-plane,
it can be parametrised by
'Y(u) = (cosu , sin u, 0),
defined for 0 < u < 211" and -11" < u < u , say. This gives an atlas for the
cylinder consisting of two patches, both given by
u(u, v) = (cosu, sin u, v),
and defined on the open sets
{(u,v)ER2 1 0<u<211"}, {(U,V)ER21 -1I"<u<1I"} .
Example 4.11
A (generalised) cone is the union of the straight lines passing through a fixed
point and the points of a curve. If p is the fixed point and 'Y : (o, ß) -+ R 3 is
the curve, the most general point on the straight line passing through p and a
point -y( u) of the curve is
O'(u, v) = (1 - v)p + v-y(u) .
Then, 0' is clearly smooth. Now,
O'(u, v) = O'(u' ,v') <===> v-y(u) - v'-y(u') + (v' - v)p = 0,
which says that the points p, -y(u) and -y(u') are collinear. So, for 0' to be a
surface patch, no straight line passing through p should pass through more
than one point of -y (in particular, -y should not pass through p) . Finally, we
have O'u = v-y, 0'1) = -y-p (with d/du denoted by a dot), so 0' is regular provided
v # 0, i.e, the vertex of the cone is omitted (cf. Exercise 4.3), and none of the
straight lines forming the cone is tangent to -y.
The parametrisation is simplest when -y lies in a plane. If this plane contains

p, the cone is simply part of that plane. Otherwise, we can take p to be the
origin and the plane to be z = 1. Then, -y(u) = (f(u),g(u) , 1) for somesmooth
functions / and g, and the parametrisation takes the form
O'(u, v) = v(f(u), g(u), 1).
Examples 4.10 and 4.11 are both special cases of the next class of surfaces.
Example 4.12
A ruled surjace is a surface that is a union of straight lines, called the rulings of
the surface. Suppose that Cis a curve in R 3 that meets each of these lines. Any
4, Surfaces in Three Dimensions 81
point P of the surface lies on one of the given straight lines which intersects C
at Q, say. If 'Y is a parametrisation of C with 'Y( u) = Q, and if 6(u) is a non-zero
vector in the direction of the line passing through 'Y( u), P has position vector
of the form
D'(u, v) = 'Y(u) + v6(u),
for some scalar v.
We have, with d] du denoted by a dot,

D'u='Y+v6, D'v=6.
Thus, D' is regular if 'Y + v6 and eS are linearly independent. This will be true, for
example, if 'Y and 6 are linearly independent and v is sufficiently smalI. Thus,
to get a surface, the curve C must never be tangent to the rulings .
Example 4.13
A surface 0/ revolution is the surface obtained by rotating aplane curve, called
the profile curve, around a straight line in the plane . The circles obtained by
rotating a fixed point on the profile curve around the axis of rotation are called
the parallels of the surface, and the curves on the surface obtained by rotating
the profile curve through a fixed angle are called its meridians. (This agrees
with the use of these terms in geography, if we think of the earth as the surface
obtained by rotating a great circle passing through the poles about 'the polar
axis and we take u and v to be latitude and longitude, respectively.)
Let us take the axis of rotation to be the z-axis and the plane to be the
xz-plane. Any point P of the surface is obtained by rotating some point Q of
the profile curve through an angle v (say) around the z-axis. If
'Y(u) = (f(u) ,O,g(u))
is a parametrisation of the profile curve containing Q, P has position vector of
the form
0'( u, v) = (f( u) cos v, f( u) sin v, g(u)).
To check regularity, we compute (with a dot denoting djdu):

O'u = (j cosv, j sin v , g) , a; = (- f sin v, f cosv, 0),
•. O'u X O'v = (fgcosv, - fgsinv ,fj),
:. 11 O'u X O'v 11 = f2(p + g2).

2
Thus, O'u x a; will be non-vanishing if f(u) is never zero, i.e. if'Y does not
intersect the z-axis, and if j and gare never zero simultaneously, i.e. if 'Y is
regular. In this case, we might as weIl assurne that f(u) > 0, so that f(u) is
the distance of 0'( u, v) from the axis of rotation. Then, 0' is injective provided
that 'Y does not self-intersect and the angle of rotation v is restricted to He in
an open interval oflength ~ 21l". Under these conditions , surface patches of the
form 0' give the surface of revolution the structure of a smooth surface .
EXERCISES
4.18 The surface obtained by rotating the curve x = cosh z in the xz-
plane around the z-axis is called a catenoid. Describe an atlas for
this surface. (A picture of the catenoid can be found in Section 9.2.)
4.19 Show that
0'( u, v) = (sech u cos v, sech u sin v, tanh u)
is a regular surface patch for the unit sphere (it is called Merca-
tor's projection) . Show that meridians and parallels on the sphere
correspond under 0' to perpendicular straight lines in the plane.
4.20 A loxodrome is a curve on the unit sphere that intersects the meridi-
ans at a fixed angle, say o. Show that, in the Mercator surface patch
0' (see Exercise 4.19), a unit-speed loxodrome satisfies
it = cos o cosh u, iJ = ±sinacoshu

(a dot denoting differentiation with respect to the parameter of the
loxodrome) . Deduce that loxodromes correspond under 0' to straight
lines in the uv-plane.
4.21 A right conoid is a ruled surface whose rulings are parallel to a given
plane II and pass through a given straight line J:. perpendicular to
II. If II is the xy-plane and J:. is the z-axis, show that
D'(u, v) = (vcosO(u),vsinO(u),u)
is a regular surface patch for the conoid, where O( u) is the angle that
the ruling through (0,0, u) makes with the z-axis (O( u) is assumed
to be a smooth function of u) . Taking O(u) = u gives a helicoid
(Exercise 4.14).
c
4.22 Show that, if u(u, v) is the (generalised) cylinder in Example 4.10:

(i) the curve .y(u) = 'Y(u) - ('Y(u) .a)a is contained in a plane per-
pendieular to a;
(ii) u(u, v) = .y(u) + va, where v = v + 'Y(u).a;
(iii) ä'(u, v) = .y(u) + va is a reparametrisation of u(u, v).
4.5. Quadric Surfaces

The simplest surfaces , namely planes, have cartesian equations that are linear
in x, y and z. From this point of view, the next simplest surfaces should be
those whose cartesian equations are given by quadratie expressions in x , y and
z. This leads to the following definition.
Definition 4.6
A quadric is the subset of R 3 defined by an equation of the form
(rA) .r + b .r + c = 0,
where r = (x, y, z), A is a constant symmetrie 3 x 3 matrix, b E R 3 is a constant
vector, and cis a constant scalar.
To see this more explicitly, let
A = (:: :: ::) , b = (bl,~,b3)'

aa a6 a3
Then, the equation of the quadrie is
alx 2 + a2y2 + a3z2 + 2a4xy + 2a6YZ + 2aaxz + b1x + b2y + b3z + c = O. (4)
A quadrie is not necessarily a surface. For example, the quadrie with equa-
tion x 2 + y2 + z2 = 0 is a single point, and that with equation x 2 + y2 = 0
is a straight line. A more interesting example is the quadric xy = 0, which is
the union of two intersecting planes, whieh is also not a surface. (Intuitively, it
has a 'corner' along the line of intersection of the planes .) The following theo-
rem shows that it is sufficient to consider quadries whose equations take on a
particularly simple form.
Proposition 4.6
By applying a rigid motion of R 3 , every non-empty quadric (.4) in which the co-
efficients are not all zero can be transformed into one whose cartesian equation
is one 01 the lollowing:

2 2 2
(i) ellipsoid: } +~+~ = 1
+~- =1
2 2 2
(ii) hyperboloid 01 one sheet: } ~
(iii) hyperboloid 01 two sheets : ~ - } - ~

2 2 2
=1
+ ~ =z
2 2
(iv) elliptic paraboloid: }
(v) hyperbolic paraboloid: } -

2
?- = z
2
(vi) quadric cone: rx

2
+ qr
2
u: _
2
z
~
=0
(vii) elliptic cylinder: ~

2
+ ?- = 1
2
(viii) hyperbolic cylinder: ~ -

2
?- = 1
2
(ix) parabolic cylinder: ? 2

= y
(x) plane: x = °
(xi) two parallel planes: x 2 = p2
(xii) two intersecting planes :
2
~
2
?- = °
(xiii) straight line : ?2
+~ =
2
° °
+ tr + = .
2
. Ie pomt:
( xiv) smg . :1:
p" y2 z2
~
In each case, p, q and r are non-zero constants.
Proof 4.6
The proof depends on the following fact . If A is a real symmetrie matrix, there
is a matrix P with pt P = I and det(P) = 1 such that pt AP is a diagonal
matrix A' (pt denotes the transpose of P). The diagonal entries of A' are the
eigenvalues of A, and the rows of P are the corresponding eigenvectors .
With A as in Definition 4.6, we define r' = (x', y', z'), b' = (b!, b2, b~) , where
(x' y' z') = (x y z)P, (b~ b~ b~) = (bl b2 b3)P.
Writing the equation of the quadrie as
(xy z)A(xy z)t + (b! b2 b3)(x Y z)t + c = °
and noting that
(x y z) = (x' y' z')pt, (b! b2 b3 ) = (b~ b~ b~)pt ,
we get
+ (b~ b~ b;)(x' y' z')t + c = 0,
(x' y' z')A' (x' y' z,)t
(r' A') .r'+b'.r' + c = 0,
a~ X,2 + a~y,2 + a;z,2 +b~ x' + b~y' + b;z' + c = 0,
where a~ , a2 and a~ are the diagonal entries of A' , i.e. the eigenvalues of A. Since
any 3 x 3 matrix P with pt P = I and det(P) = 1 represents a rotation of R 3 ,
this new quadric is obtained from the given one by a rigid motion. Hence, we
might as weIl consider the quadric in (4), but assume that a4 = as = a6 = 0,

i.e,
(5)
Suppose now that, in Eq . (5), al =1= O. If we define x' = x + bl/2al, corre-
sponding to a translation of R 3 , the equation becomes
2
al X1 + a2Y2 + a3z 2 + b2Y + b = ,
3Z +' CO
where C' is a constant. In other words, if al =1= 0, we can assume that b1 = 0,
and similarly for a2 and a3, of course.
If al, a2 and a3 in Eq . (5) are all non-zero, we may therefore reduce to the
form
alx 2 + a2y 2 + a3z2 + c = O.
If C =1= 0, we get cases (i), (ii) and (iii), depending on the signs of al , a2, a3 and
c, and if C = 0 we get cases (vi) and (xiv).
If exactly one of al , a2 and a3 is zero, say a3 = 0, we are reduced to the
form
(6)
If b3 =1= 0, we may define z' = Z + c/b3 • Thus, by a translation (and by dividing
by b3 ) , we are reduced to the case
alx 2 + a2y2 + z = O.
This gives cases (iv) and (v).
If bs = 0 in Eq. (6), we have
alx 2 + a2y2 + c = O.
If c = 0 we get cases (xii) and (xiii). If c =1= 0, dividing through by it leads to
cases (vii) and (viii).
= =
Suppose now that a2 a3 0, but al =1= O. Then we have
alx2 + b2y + b3z + c = O. (7)
If b2 and b3 are not both zero, by rotating the yz-plane so that the y-axis
becomes parallel to the vector (b2, b3), we can arrive at the situation b2 =1=
0, b3 = 0, and then by a translation along the y-axis we can arrange that c = O.
This leads to the equation
alx2 +y = 0,
which gives case (ix). If b2 = b3 = 0 in Eq. (7), then c = 0 gives case (x) and
c =1= 0 gives case (xi).
Finally, if al = a 2 = a3 = 0, (5) is the equation of a plane, so after applying

a rigid motion we are in case (x) again. 0
Example 4.14
Consider the quadric
x2 + 2y 2 + 6x - 4y + 3z = 7.
Setting x' = x + 3, y' = y - 1 (a translation), we get
X
,2
+ 2y,2 + 3z = 18.
Setting z' =Z - 6 (another translation) gives
X
,2
+ 2y,2 + 3z ' = o.
Finally, setting z" = x', y" = _y', Z" = - z' (a rotation by 7r about the z-axis)
gives
1 112 2 112
-x + -y = z ,
11
3 3
which is an elliptic paraboloid. It can be parametrised by setting z" = u, v" =
V, Z" = ~U2 + jv • This corresponds to x = u - 3, y = 1- v, z = 6 - ~U2 - jv 2 ,
2
and shows that the given quadric is a smooth surface with an atlas consisting
of the single surface patch
~(u , v) = (u - 3" 6 - ~U2

1 - v3 - ~V2)
3 .
EXERCISES
4.23 Write down parametrisations of each of the quadrics in parts (i)-(xi)

of Proposition 4.6 (in case (vi) one must remove the origin).
4.24 Which quadric surfaces are
(a) generalised cylinders;
(b) generalised cones;
(c) ruled surfaces;
(d) surfaces of revolution?
4.25 By setting
x y x y
u= - - -, v = - + -,
P q P q
find a surface patch covering the hyperbolic paraboloid
x2 y2
-
p2- -=z
q2 .
Deduce that the hyperbolic paraboloid is doubly ruled.

4.26 Show that, if a quadric contains three points on a straight line, it
contains the whole line. (Parametrise the line by ')'(t) = a + bt, and
note that substituting into Eq. (4) gives a quadratic equation for t .)
Deduce that, if LI, L 2 and La are non-intersecting straight lines in
R 3 , there is a quadric containing all three lines. (Take three points
on each line and show that there is a quadric passing through all
nine points.)
4.27 Use Exercise 4.26 to show that any doubly ruled surface is (part of)
a quadric surface . (A surface is doubly ruled if it is the union of each
of two families of straight lines such that no two lines of the same
family intersect, but every line of the first family intersects every line
of the second family, with at most a finite number of exceptions.)
Which quadric surfaces are doubly ruled ?
4.6. Triply Orthogonal Systems

We conclude this section by showing how quadric surfaces furnish some beau-
tiful examples of triply orthogonal systems. By such a system, we mean three
families of surfaces, each depending on a single parameter, with the property
that, if P is a point that is on one surface of each family, the tangent planes
of these surfaces at P are mutually perpendicular. The simplest example, of
course , consists of the planes parallel to one of the three coordinate planes.
Other examples, almost as obvious, are given in Exercise 4.28. But a more
interesting example can be constructed in which the three families consist of
ellipsoids, hyperboloids of one sheet and hyperboloids of two sheets, respec-
tively.
To see this, let p, q and r be constants, and assurne that 0 < p2 < q2 < r 2.
For (x, y, z) E Ra, t # p2,q2 or r 2, let
x2 y2 z2
Ft(x,y,z) = - 2 - - + -2--t + -2--t·
p -t q - r-
Fix a point (a, b, c) E R 3 with a, band c all non-zero. The following properties
are clear :
(i) Ft(a, b, c) is a continuous function of t in each of the open intervals
(_00,p2), (p2,q2), (q2,r 2) and (r 2, (0);
(ii) Ft(a,b,c) -t 0 as t -t ±oo;
(iii) Ft(a, b,c) -t 00 as t approaches p2,q2 or r 2 from the left, and Ft(a, b, c) -t
-00 as t approaches p2, q2 or r 2 from the right.
It follows from these properties and the Intermediate Value Theorem that
there is at least one value of t in each open interval (-OO,p2), (p2, q2) and
(q2, r 2) such that Ft(a , b, c) = 1. On the other hand , the equation Ft(a, b, c) = 1
is equivalent to the cubic equation Gt(a, b,c) = 0, where
Gt(a,b,c) = a2(q2 - t)(r 2 - t) + b2(p2 - t)(r 2 - t) + C2(p2 - t)(q2 - t)
_ (p2 _ t)(q2 _ t)(r2 _ t) , (8)
and so has at most three real roots. It follows that there are unique numbers
u E (-OO,p2), V E (p2,q2) and w E (q2 ,r2) (depending on (a,b,c), of course)
such that
F,,(a,b,c) = 1, Fv(a,b ,c) = 1, Fw(a,b,c) = 1. (9)
The three quadrics F,,(x,y,z) = 1, Fv(x ,y,z) = 1 and Fw(x ,y,z) =: 1 are
ellipsoids, hyperboloids of one sheet and hyperboloids of two sheets, respec-
tively, and we have shown that there is one of each passing through each point
(a, b, c) E R 3 that does not He on any of the coordinate planes . We show that
they form a triply orthogonal system .
Indeed, the vector
(p2 x_ t' q2 ~ t' r ~ t)

2
is perpendicular to the tangent plane ofthe surface F t (x , y, z) = 1 at (x, y, z)

(see Exercise 4.16). Thus, to show that the first two surfaces in (9) are perpen-
dicular at (a, b, c), for example, we have to show that
~ ~ 2
""'-::---"""":-::--"7"
(p2 _ u)(P2 - v)
+ (q2 - U)(q2 - v)
+ (r 2 - u)(r 2 - v)
= o.
But the left-hand side of this equation is
Fu(a,b,c) - Fv(a, b, c) = 1-1 = o.
u-v u-v
We can also construct a simultaneous parametrisation of the three families.
Note that the cubic Gt(a, b, c) is equal to (t-u)(t-v)(t-w), since it is divisible
by this product and the coefficients of t 3 agree. Putting t = p2, q2 and r 2 and
solving the resulting equations for a2 , b2 and c2 , we find that
(p2 _ u)(P2 - V)(P2 - w)
a= ± (r2 _ p2)(q2 _ p2)
(q2 _ u)(q2 - V)(q2 - w)

b=± (10)
(p2 _ q2)(r2 _ q2)
(r 2 - u)(r 2 - v)(r 2 - w)
c=± (p2 _r 2)(q2 _ r 2)
Define u(u ,v,w) = (x ,y,z), where x,y and z are the right-hand sides of the
three equations in (10), respectively, with any combination of signs. For fixed
u (resp. fixed v, fixed w), this gives eight surface patches for the correspond-
ing ellipsoid Fu(x,y ,z) = 1 (resp . hyperboloid of one sheet Fv(x,y,z) = 1,
hyperboloid of two sheets Fw(x, y, z) = 1).
EXERCISES
4.28 Show that the following are triply orthogonal systems:

(i) the spheres with centre the origin, the planes containing the
z-axis, and the circular cones with axis the z-axis ;
(ii) the planes parallel to the xy-plane, the planes containing the
z-axis and the circular cylinders with axis the z-axis.
4.29 By considering the quadric surface Ft(x, y, z) = 0, where

x2 y2
Ft(x,y,z) = -2-- + -2-- -
2z + t ,
q-t
P -t
construct a triply orthogonal system consisting of two families of
elliptic paraboloids and one family of hyperbolic paraboloids (see
above). Find a parametrisation of these surfaces analogous to (10).
4.7. Applications of the Inverse Function

Theorem
In this section we give the proofs of Proposition 4.1 and Theorem 4.1.
Suppose first that f : U -t Rn is a smooth map, where U is an open subset
of R'" . If we write (Ül, ' " ,ün ) = f(ul" " ,um), the jacobian matrix of fis
(
J(f) =
~
fu
8~1
~
fu
8ua
~) 8ü a
8~"' .
~ ~ 8ü D
8Ul 8ua 8u",
This has already been used in the case m = n = 2 in Section 4.2, but now we
shall need it in other cases too.
The main tool that we use is
Theorem 4.2 (Inverse Function Theorem)

Let f : U -t Rn be a smooth map defined on an open subsei U 01 Rn (n ~ 1).
Assume that, at some point Xo E U, the jacobian matrix J(f) is invertible.
Then, there is an open subset V 01 Rn and a smooth map 9 : V -t Rn such

that
(i) Yo = I(xo) E v,
(ii) g(yO) = Xoi
(iii) g(V) ~ U i
(iv) g(V) is an open subset 0/ Rn i
(v) I(g(y» = y [or alt y E V .
In particular, 9 : V -t g(V) and I : g(V) -t V are inverse bijections.
Thus, the inverse function theorem says that, if J(f) is invertible at some
point, then I is bijective near that point and its inverse map is smooth. A proof
of this theorem can be found in books on multi variable calculus.
We use the inverse function theorem to give the proof of Proposition 4.1.
We want to show that, if a : U -t R 3 and iT : Ü -t R 3 are two regular patches
in the atlas of a surface S, the transition map from a to iT is smooth where it
is defined .
Suppose that a point P lies in both patches, say u(uo, vo) = iT( uo, ii o) = P.
Write
u(u,v) = (f(u,v) ,g(u,v),h(u,v)).
Since a u and a v are linearly independent, the jacobian matrix
lu Iv)
(hgu hgv
u v
of a has rank 2 everywhere. Hence, at least one of its three 2 x 2 submatrices

is invertible at each point. Suppose that the submatrix
(gulu gvIv)
is invertible at P . (The proof is similar in the other two cases.) By the inverse
function theorem applied to the map F : U -t R 2 given by
F(u,v) = (f(u,v),g(u,v»,
2
there is an open subset V of R containing F(uo, vo) and an open subset W of
U containing (uo,vo) such that F : W -t V is bijective with a smooth inverse
F-I : V -t W. Since u : W -t u(W) is bijective, the projection 7f : u(W) -t V
given by 7f(x,y,z) = (x,y) is also bijective, since 7f = F 0 u- I on u(W) . It
follows that W = iT-I(u(W» is an open subset of Ü and that
u- I 0 iT = F- I 0 F
on W, where P = nou. Since F-1 and P are smooth on W, so is the transition

map 0"-1 0 u. Since 0"-1 0 u is smooth on an open set containing any point
(uo, vo) where it is defined, it is smooth. 0
We now give the proof of Theorem 4.1. Let P, Wand f be as in the
statement of the theorem, and suppose that P = (xo, Yo, zo) and that f z f 0 at
P . (The proof is similar in the other two cases.) Consider the map F : W -+ R 3
defined by
F(x,y,z) = (x ,y,/(x,y,z)) .
The jacobian matrix of F is
(~ fx
~ ~) ,
fy fz
and is clearly invertible at P since I, f 0. By the inverse function theorem,
there is an open subset V of R 3 containing F(xo, Yo , zo) = (xo, Yo, 0) and a
smooth map G : V -+ W such that W = G(V) is open and F : W -+ V and
G : V -+ W are inverse bijections.
Since V is open, there are open subsets U1 of R 2 containing (xo,Yo) and
U2 of R containing 0 such that V contains the open set U1 x U2 of all points
(x,y,w) with (x,y) E U1 and w E U2 . Hence, we might as well assurne that
V = U1 X U2 . The fact that Fand G are inverse bijections means that
G(x, y, w) = (x, y, g(x , y, w))
for some smooth map 9 : U1 x U2 -+ R, and
f(x, y, g(x, y , w)) = w
for all (x,y) E U1 , W E U2 •
Define 0" : U1 -+ R 3 by
O"(x,y) = (x,y,g(x,y,O)).
Then 0" is a homeomorphism from U1 to Sn W (whose inverse is the restriction
to Sn W of the projection n(x, y, z) = (x, y)) . It is obvious that 0" is smooth,
and it is regular because
O"x X O"y = (-gx, -gy, 1)
is nowhere zero. So 0" is a regular surface patch on S containing the given point
P . Since P was an arbitrary point of S, we have constructed an atlas for S
making it into a (smooth) surface . 0
EXERCISES
4.30 Show that, if -y : (o, ß) -t R 3 is a curve whose image is contained in a

surface patch a : U -t R 3 , then -y(t) = q(u(t) ,v(t)) for some smooth
map (a,ß) -t U, t I-t (u(t),v(t)). (Imitate the proof of Proposition
4.1.)
4.31 Prove Theorem 1.1 and its generalization to level curves in R 3 (Ex-
ercise 1.17) .
5
The First Fundamental Form
Perhaps the first thing that a geometrically inclined bug living on a surface
might wish to do is to measure the distance between two points of the surface.
Of course, this will usually be different from the distance between these points
as measured by an inhabitant of the ambient three dimensional space, since
the straight line segment which furnishes the shortest path between the points
in R 3 will generally not be contained in the surface. The object which allows
one to compute lengths on a surface , and also angles and areas , is the first
fundamental form of the surface .
5.1. Lengths of Curves on Surfaces

If'Y(t) = O'(u(t),v(t)) is a curve in a surface patch 0' , its ar c-length starting at
a point 'Y(to) is given by
i;r II-y(u) 11 du.

t
s=
By the chain rule, -y = O'uu + O'vv, so

11 -y 11 2 = (O'uU + O'vv).(O'uu + O'vv)
= (O'u'O'u)u 2 + (O'u .O'v)uv + (O'v .O'u)vu + (O'v.O'v)v 2
=(O'u 'O'u)u 2 + 2(O'u 'O'\I)uv + (O'\I 'O'v)v 2
= Eu 2 + 2Fuv + Gv2 ,
97
where
So
s = r
i:
(Eü 2 + 2FüiJ + GiJ2)1/2dt. (1)
If we bring the dt inside the square root and write (~~) 2 (dt)2 = du 2, etc . (!),
we see that s is the integral of the square root of the expression
Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2. (2)
This is called the first fundamental form of a. Since
s !
= Vdi2, (!)
Eq. (1) is sometimes written as

ds 2 = Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2.
We shall not attempt to justify these apparently dubious manipulations. We
simply regard the expression in (2) as a way of keeping track of the functions
E, Fand G from which the length of any curve in the surface patch can be
computed using Eq. (1).
If now 'Y is a curve on an arbitrary surface S, its length can be computed
by breaking 'Y into segments, each of which lies in a surface patch, and using
Eq. (1) to compute the length of each segment. The first fundamental form will
change when the surface patch is changed, in the manner described in Exercise
5.4.
Example 5.1
For the plane
tT(u, v) = a + up + vq
(see Example 4.1) with p and q being perpendicular unit vectors, we have
tTu = p, a; = q, so E = 11 tTu 11 = 11 P 11 = 1, F = tTu·tT v = p .q = 0,
2 2
G = 11 a; 11 2 = 11 q 11 2 = 1, and the first fundamental form is simply

du 2+dv2.
Example 5.2
For the sphere in latitude longitude coordinates
tT( 0, tp) = (cos 0 cos tp, cos 0 sin ip, sin 0)
(see Example 4.2), we have

(I(J = (- sinB cos e, - sin sin e , cosB), (I",
ö = (- cos s sin o.cos e cos c.O) ,
2
.'. E = 11 (I(J 11 = 1, F = (I(J.(I", = 0, G = 11 (I", 11 2 = cos2 B,
and so the first fundamental form is
Example 5.3
We consider a (generalised) cylinder
(I(u,v) ="Y(u)+va
defined in Example 4.10. As we saw in that example we can assurne that "Y is
unit-speed, that a is a unit vector , and that "Y is contained in aplane perpen-
dicular to a, Then, denoting d]du by a dot,
(lu = "Y, a; = a,
so E = 11 (lu 11 2 = 11 "Y 11 2 = 1, F = (lu.(lv = "Y.a = 0, G = 11 a; 11
2
= 11 a 11 2 = 1,
and the first fundamental form of (I is
du2 + dv2 .
Note that this is the same as the first fundamental form of the plane (see
Example 5.1). The geometrical reason for this coincidence will be revealed in
the next section .
Example 5.4
We consider a (generalised) cone
(I(u,v) = (l -v)p+v"Y(u)
(see Example 4.11). Before computing its first fundamental form, we make some
simplifications to (I.
First, translating the surface by p (which does not change its first funda-
mental form by Exercise 5.3), we get the surface patch (11 = (1- P = v("Y - p),
so if we replace "Y by "Y1 = "Y - P we get (11 = V"Y1 ' This means that we might as
weH assurne that p = 0 to begin with. Next, we saw in Example 4.11 that for
(I to be a regular surface patch, "Y must not pass through the origin, so we can
define a new curve-j by .y(u) = "Y(u)1 11 "Y(u) 11 . Setting ü = u, ii = u] 11 "Y(u) 11,
we get a reparametrisation Ö'(ü, ii) = ii.y(ü) of (I with 11 .y 11 = 1. We can there-
fore assurne to begin with that (I(u, v) = v"Y(u) with 11 "Y( u) 11 = 1 for all values
of u (geometrically, this means that we can replace "Y by the intersection of the
cone with the unit sphere) . Finally, reparametrising again, we can assume that
'Y is unit-speed, for we saw in Example 4.11 that for a to be regular, 'Y must be
regular.
With these assumptions, and with a dot denoting d] du, we have
a., = vi', a; = 'Y,
so E = 11 vi' 11 2 = v 2 11 i' 11 2 = v 2 , F = vi'.'Y = 0 (since 11 'Y 11 = 1), G = 11 'Y 11 2 = 1,
and the first fundamental form is
v 2du2 + dv 2 •
Note that, as for the generalised cylinder in Example 5.3, there is no trace of
the curve 'Y in the first fundamental form.
EXERCISES
5.1 Calculate the first fundamental forms of the following surfaces :

(i) u(u,v) = (sinhusinhv,sinhucoshv,sinhu) j
(ii) u(u, v) = (u - v, u + v, u 2 + v2 ) j
(iii) u(u,v) = (cosh u.sinh u.v);
(iv) u(u,v) = (u,v,u 2 +v 2 ) .
What kind of surfaces are these?
5.2 Sketch the curve on the cone
u(u,v) = (ucosv,usinv,u)
given by u = e At , v = t, where >. is a constant. Find the length of the
part of the curve with 0 ~ t ~ 7L
5.3 Show that applying a rigid motion to a surface does not change its
first fundamental form.
5.4 Let a surface u(ü , ii) be a reparametrisation of a surface u(u, v) , and
let
Edü 2 + 2Fdüdii + Gdii 2 and Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2
be their first fundamental forms. Let
J = (i~8ii i~)
8v
be the jacobian matrix of the reparametrisation map (ü, ii) 1---+ (u , v),
and let r
be the transpose of J. Prove that
( F~ ~) = Jt (EF
G
F) J.
G
5.2. Isometries of Surfaces

We observed in Example 5.3 that a plane and a (generalised) cylinder, when
suitably parametrised, have the same first fundamental form. The geometrie
reason for this is not hard to see. A plane piece of paper can be 'wrapped' on
a cylinder in the obvious way without crumpling the paper (we take the case
of a circular cylinder for simplicity):
If we draw a curve on the plane, then after wrapping it becomes a curve on the
cylinder . Because there is no crumpling, the lengths of these two curves will be
the same. Since the lengths are computed as the integral of the (square root of
the) first fundamental form, it is plausible that the first fundamental forms of
the two surfaces should be the same. Experiment suggests , on the other hand,
that it is impossible to wrap a plane sheet of paper around a sphere without
crumpling. Thus, we expect that a plane and a sphere do not have the same
first fundamental form (whatever the choiee of parametrisation).
The following definition makes precise what it means to wrap one surface
onto another without crumpling.
Definition 5.1
If S1 and S2 are surfaces, a diffeomorphism f : S1 ~ S2 is called an isometry
if it takes curves in S1 to curves of the same length in S2 . If an isometry
f : S1 ~ S2 exists, we say that S1 and S2 are isometrie.
Theorem 5.1
A dijJeomorphism f : S1 ~ S2 is an isometry if and only if, for any surfaee
patch 0'1 of SI, the patches 0'1 and f 0 0'1 of SI and S2, respectively, have the
same first fundamental form .
Proof 5.1
Since the length of any curve can be computed as the sum of the lengths of
curves each lying in a single surface patch, we can assume that SI and S2
are covered by single surface patches. Moreover, since f is a diffeomorphism,
Proposition 4.3 shows that we can assume that these patches are of the form
0'1 : U -t R 3 (for Sd and f 0 0'1 = tT2 (for S2). We have to show that f is an
isometry if and only if 0'1 and 0'2 have the same first fundamental form.
Suppose first that 0'1 and 0'2 have the same first fundamental form. If
t H (u(t),v(t)) is any curve in U, and 'Y1(t) = O'l(U(t),v(t)) and 'Y2(t) =
0'2 (u(t) , v(t)) are the corresponding curves in SI and S2, then f takes 'Y1 to 'Y2'
since
It is clear that 'Y1 and 'Y2 have the same length, since both lengths are found by
integrating the expression (Eü 2+ 2Füv+GiP)1/2 , where Edu 2+ 2Fdudv +Gdv 2
is the (common) first fundamental form of 0'1 and 0'2.
Conversely, suppose that f is an isometry. If t H (u(t), v(t)) is any curve
in U, defined for t E (a,ß), say, the curves 'Y1(t) = 0'1 (u(t),v(t)) and 'Y2(t) =
0'2(U(t),v(t)) have the same length. Hence,
t ~
(EI ü 2 + 2F1üv + GIV2)1/2dt =
t~
(E2ü2 + 2F2üv + G2V2)1/2dt,
for all to, h E (o, ß), where EI, F1 and GI are the coefficients of the first
fundamental form of 0'1, and E 2, F2 and G2 those of 0'2. This implies that the
two integrands are the same, and hence that
(3)
Fix to E (o, ß), and let Uo = u(to), Vo = v(to). We now apply Eq. (3) for the
following three choices of the curve t H (u(t), v(t)) in U:
(i) u = Uo + t - to, v = Vo: this gives EI = E 2;
(ii) u = uo, v = Vo + t - to: this gives GI = G 2;
(iii) u = Uo + t - to, v = Vo + t - to: this gives
EI + 2F1 + GI = E2 + 2F2 + G2,
and hence (in view of (i) and (ii)) F1 = F2 • o
Example 5.5
Let SI be the infinite strip in the xy-plane given by 0 < x < 211", and let S2
be the circular cylinder x 2 + y2 = 1 with the ruling given by x = 1, y = 0
removed. Then, SI is covered by the single patch 0'1 (u, v) = (u, v, 0), and S2 by
the patch 0'2 (u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v), with 0 < u < 211" in both cases. The map
f : SI -t S2 that takes 0'1 (u, v) to 0'2 (u, v) is an isometry since, by Example
5.3, 0'1 and 0'2 have the same first fundamental form.
A similar argument shows that a suitable subset of a circular cone is isomet-

rie to part of a plane (see Exercise 5.5), and this even extends to generalised
cylinders and cones (see Exercise 5.7). It turns out that there is another dass of
surfaces that are isometrie to the plane, called tangent developables. (In older
works, a 'development' of one surface on another was the term used for an
isometry.) A tangent developable is the union of the tangent lines to a curve in
R 3 - the tangent line at a point 'Y(u) to a curve 'Y is the straight line passing
through 'Y(u) and parallel to the tangent vector -y( u) .
.y(u)
We might as well assurne that 'Y is unit-speed . The most general point on the
tangent line at 'Y(u) is
O'(u, v) = 'Y(u) + v-y(u) ,
for some scalar v. Now
O'u X O'v = (-y + v.y) x -y = v.y x -y.
For 0' to be regular, it is thus necessary that .y is never zero, or in other words,
the curvature K = 11 .y 11 is > 0 at all points of 'Y. Now, -y = t, the unit tangent
vector of 'Y, and .y = i = xn, where n is the principal normal to 'Y, so
O'u X O'v = Kvn x t = -Kvb,
where b is the binormal of 'Y. Thus, 0' will be regular if K > 0 everywhere and
v f. O. The latter condition means that, for regularity, we must exclude the
°
curve 'Y itself from the surface. Typically, the regions v > and v < of the
tangent developable form two sheets which meet along a sharp edge formed by
°
the curve 'Y where v = 0, as the following illustration of the tangent developable
of a circular helix indicates:
Our interest in tangent developables sterns from the following result.
Proposition 5.1
Any tangent developable is isometrie to (part oJ) a plane.
Proof 5.1
We use the above notation, assuming that 'Y is unit-speed and that x > 0. Now,
E = 11 U u 11 2 = (1' + v;Y) .('Y + v;y)
= 1'.1' + 2v'Y.;Y + v2;y.;Y = 1 + v2 ", 2 ,
F = UU'U v = (1' + v;Y).'Y = 1'.1' + v'Y.;y = 1,
G = 11 a; 11 2 = 1'.1' = 1,
since 1'.1' = 1, 'Y.;y = 0, ;y.;y = ",2 . So the first fundamental form of the tangent
developable is
(4)
We are going to show that (part of) the plane can be parametrised so that it
has the same first fundamental form. This will prove the proposition.
By Theorem 2.1, there is a plane unit-speed curve i' whose curvature is ",
(we can even assurne that its signed curvature is x). By the above calculations,
the first fundamental form of the tangent developable of i' is also given by (4).
But since l' is aplane curve, its tangent lines obviously fill out part of the plane
in which l' lies. 0
There is a converse to Proposition 5.1: any sufficiently small piece of a sur-

face isometrie to (part of) aplane is (part of) aplane, a (generalised) cylinder,
a (generalised) cone, or a tangent developable. The proof of this will be given
in Section 7.3.
EXERCISES
5.5 The circular cone

O'(u,v) = (ucosv,usinv,u) , u > 0, 0< v< 2rr,
can be 'uwrapped', hence is isometrie to (part of) the xy-plane (say).
Write down this isometry explicitly, and describe exactly whieh part
of the plane 0' is isometrie to . Verify that the map really is an isometry.
5.6 Is the map from the circular half-eone x 2 + y2 = z2, Z > 0, to the
xy-plane given by (x, y, z) I---t (x, y, 0) an isometry?
5.7 Show that every (generalised) cylinder and every (generalised) eone
is isometrie to (part of) the plane. (See Examples 5.3 and 5.4 and
Exercise 5.5.)
t=O t = 0.6
t = 0.2 t = 0.8
t = 0.4 t=l
5.8 Consider the surface patches

O'(u,v) = (coshucosv,coshusinv,u), 0< v< 21T,
Ö'(u,v) = (ucosv,usinv,v), 0< v < 21T,
representing the catenoid (Exercise 4.18) with one meridian removed
and the part of the helicoid (Example 4.14) between the planes z = 0
and z = 21T. Show that the map from the catenoid to the helicoid
that takes O'(u,v) to Ö'(sinhu,v) is an isometry. Which curves on the
helicoid correspond under this isometry to the paralleis and meridians
of the catenoid ?
In fact , there is an isometrie deformation of the catenoid into the
helicoid. For 0 ~ t ~ 1T /2, define a surface
O't(u, v) = costO'(u,v + t) + sin tÖ'(sinh u,v + t - 1T/2),
so that O'°(u,v) = O'(u,v) and O'1T/2(U,V) = Ö'(sinhu,v). Show that,
for all values of t, the map 0'( u, v) t-t O't (u, v) is an isometry. The
surfaces O't are shown above for several values of t .
5.3. Conformal Mappings of Surfaces

Now that we understand how to measure lengths of curves on surfaces, it is
natural to ask about angles. Suppose that two curves 'Y and ;Y on a surface
S intersect at a point P that lies in a surface patch 0' of S. Then, 'Y(t) =
O'(u(t),v(t)) and ;Y(t) = O'(ü(t),ii(t)) for some smooth functions u,v,ü and
ii, and for some parameter values to and to, we have O'(u(to), v(to)) = P =
O'(ü(to),ii(to)) .
CT
The angle () of intersection of 'Y and ;Y at P is defined to be the angle between

the tangent vectors ..y and -)- (evaluated at t = to and t = to, respectively).
Using the dot product formula for the angle between vectors, we see that () is
given by
cos () = .y.'Y .
1I.y 1111 'Y 11
By the chain rule,
. . .
'Y = truü + trvv, 'Y = truü + trvv,
so
.y..y = (truü + trvv).(trufl + trv~)
= (tru.tru)üfl + (tru.trv)(ü~ + flv) + (trv .trv)v~
= Eüfl + F(ü~ + flv) + o».
Replacing j by 'Y (resp. 'Y by 'Y) gives similar expressions for 1I.y 112= .y..y (resp.
.y
11 11 2 ) , which finally give the formula
Eüfl + F(ü~ + flv) + Gv~

cos () = 2 2 ' (5)
(Eü + 2Füv + GV2)1/2(Efl + 2Ffl~ + G~ )1/2
2
Example 5.6
The parameter curves on a surface patch tr(u, v) can be parametrised by
'Y(t) = tr(a, t), 'Y(t) = tr(t, b),
respectively, where a is the constant value of u and b the constant value of v in
the two cases. Thus,
u(t) = a, v(t) = t, ü(t) = t, v(t) = b,
ü = 0, v = 1, fl = 1, ~ = O.
These parameter curves intersect at the point tr(a, b) of the surface . By Eq. (5),
their angle of intersection () is given by
F
cos(} = VEG '
In particular, the parameter curves are orthogonal if and only if F = O.
Corresponding to the Definition 5.1 of an isometry, we make
Definition 5.2
If S1 and S2 are surfaces , a diffeomorphism f : S1 -+ S2 is said to be conformal
if, whenever f takes two intersecting curves 1'1 and 'Y1 on S1 to curves 'Y2 and 'Y2
on S2, the angle of intersection of 'Yl and '1'1 is equal to the angle of intersection
of 'Y2 and '1'2 '
In short, f is conformal i/ it preserves angles.

As a special case, if a : U ~ R 3 is a surface , then a may be viewed as a
map from part of the plane (namely U), parametrised by (u, v) in the usual
way, and the image S of a, and we say that a is a conformal parametrisation
or a conformal surface patch of S if this map between surfaces is conformal.
Theorem 5.2
A difjeomorphism / : SI ~ S2 is conformal i/ and only i/, [or any surface patch
Ul on SI , the first fundamental [orms 0/ Ul and foul are proportional.
Proo/5.2
As in the proof of Theorem 5.1, we can assurne that SI and S2 are covered by
the single surface patches Ul : U ~ R 3 and U2 = foul, respectively. Suppose
that their first fundamental forms
E 1du2 + 2F1dudv + G 1dv2 and E 2du2 + 2F2dudv + G 2dv2
are proportional, say
E 2du2 + 2F2dudv + G 2dv2 = )"(E1du2 + 2F1dudv + G 1dv2)
for some smooth function )..(u, v), where (u,v) are coordinates on U . Note that
).. > 0 everywhere, since (for example) EI and E 2 are both > O. If 'Y(t) =
Ul(U(t) ,v(t)) and i'(t) = Ul(u(t),ii(t)) are curves in SI, then / takes 'Y and '1'
to the curves U2(U(t),v(t)) and U2(U(t),ii(t)) in S2, respectively. Using Bq. (5),
the angle () of intersection of the latter curves on S2 is given by
COS () = - - - - - - - -E2UfL + F2(U~ + fLv) + G2V~

---'----i;:--------;;:---
2
(E 2u2 + 2F2uv + G 2V 2)1/2(E2fL + 2F2fL~ + G2~2)1/2
)..E1ufL + )"Fl(U~ + fLv) + )"GIV~
= ()..E1u + 2)..F1UV + )"G1v2)1/2()..E1fL2 + 2)"FlfL~ + )"G 1~2)l/2
2
E 1ufL + Fl(U~ + fLv) + GI v~
= (E1u + 2F1uv + G 1V2)1/2(E1fL2 + 2FlfL~ + Gl~2)l/2'
2
since the X's cancel. But, using Bq. (5) again, we see that the right-hand side
is the eosine of the angle of intersection of the curves 'Y and '1' on SI. Hence, f
is conformal.
For the converse, we must show that if

EI v/ti + F l (üiJ + {i/v) + GIviJ
2 2)1/2
(E lü + 2Flüv + G lV2)1/2(Elii + 2FliiiJ + G l iJ
2
(6)
E 2üii + F2(ÜiJ + iiv) + G2viJ
2 2)l/2
= (E 2ü + 2F2üv + G 2v2)l/2(E2ii + 2F2iiiJ + G2t
2
for all pairs of intersecting curves
-y(t) = 0"1(u(t), v(t)) and i'(t) = 0"1(ü(t), ii(t))
in SI , then the first fundamental forms of 0"1 and 0"2 are proportional. Fix
(a, b) E U and consider the curves
-y(t) =O"l(a+t,b) , i'(t) =O"l(a+tcosl/>,b+tsinl/»,

where I/> is a constant, for which
ü = 1, v= 0, ii = cosl/>, t = sin e.
Substituting in Eq. (6) gives
EI cos I/> + F l sin I/>
J EI (EI cos2 I/> + 2Fl sin I/>cos I/> + GI sin2 1/»
(7)
E 2 COS I/> + F2 sin I/>
=-r====================
J
E 2(E2 cos2 I/> + 2F2 sin I/>cos I/> + G2 sin 2 1/»
Squaring both sides of Eq. (7) and writing
(EI cos I/> + F l sin 1/» 2 = EI (EI cos2 I/> + 2Fl sin I/> cos I/> + GI sin2 1/»
- (EI GI - Fr) sin 2 1/>,
we get
(EI GI - FnE2(E 2 cos2 I/> + 2F2 sin I/> cos I/> + G2 sin 2 1/»
(16)
= (E 2G2 - Fi)EdEl cos2 I/> + 2Fl sinl/>cosl/> + GI sin 2 1/»,
or, setting A = (E 2G2 - Fi)EI/(ElG l - FnE2,
(E 2 - AEl) cos? I/> + 2(F2 - AFl ) sin I/> cos I/> + (G2 - AG l ) sin 2 I/> = O.
Taking I/> = 0 and then I/> = 1r /2 gives E 2 = AEl, G2 = AG l , and then
substituting in the last equation gives F2 = AFl . 0
Example 5.7
We consider the unit sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 1. If P = (u, v, 0) is any point in the
xy-plane, draw the straight line through P and the north pole N = (0,0,1).
This line intersects the sphere at a point Q, say. Every point Q of the sphere
arises as such a point of intersection, with the sole exception of the north pole
itself.
The vector NQ is parallel to the vector NP , so there is a scalar, say p, such

that the position vector q of Q is related to those of N and P by
q - n = p(p - n),
and hence
q = (0,0,1) + p((u, v, 0) - (0,0,1» = (pu, pv , 1 - p) .
Since Q lies on the sphere,

p2U2 + p2v2 + (1 _ p)2 =1
which gives p = 2/(u 2 + v 2 + 1) (the other root p = 0 corresponds to the other
intersection point N between the line and the sphere). Hence,
q =
2u 2v
2
u +v -
2
( u 2 + v 2 + i ' u 2 + v 2 + I.' u 2 + v 2 + 1
1) .
If we denote the right-hand side by 0'1 (u, v), then 0'1 is a parametrisation of
the whole sphere minus the north pole. Parametrising the plane z = 0 by
0'2(U,V) = (u ,v,O), the map that takes Q to P takes 0'1(U,V) to 0'2(U,V).
This map is called stereographie projection. We are going to prove that it is
conformal.
According to Theorem 5.5, we have to show that the first fundamental forms
of 0'1 and 0'2 are proportional. The first fundamental form of 0'2 is du 2 + dv 2 •
As to 0"1 , we get
2(V2 - u 2 + 1) -4uv 4U)
(
(O"du= (u2+v2+1)2'(u2+v2+1)2 '(u2+v2+1)2 '
-4uv 2(u 2-v2+1) 4v )
(O"dv = (u2 +v2 + 1)2' (u2 +v2 + 1)2' (u2 +v2 + 1)2 .
(
This gives
4(v 2 - u 2 + 1)2 + 16u2v2 + 16u2
EI = (O"du ·(O"du = U +v2 + 1)4
(2
which simplifies to EI = 4J(u 2+v2+1)2 . Similarly, F 1 = 0, GI = EI' Thus, the

first fundamental form of 0"2 is A times that of 0"1, where A = Hu 2 + v 2 + 1)2.
EXERCISES
5.9 Show that every isometry is a conformal map . Give an example of a

conformal map that is not an isometry.
5.10 Show that the curve on the cone in Exercise 5.2 intersects all the
rulings of the cone at the same angle.
5.11 Show that Mercator's parametrisation of the sphere
O"(u, v) = (sech u cosv, sech u sin v, tanh u)
is conformal.
5.12 Let fex) be a smooth function and let
O"(u, v) = (ucosv,usinv,f(u))
be the surface obtained by rotating the curve z = fex) in the xz-
plane around the z-axis. Find all functions f for which 0" is confor-
mal.
5.13 Let 0" be the ruled surface
O"(u, v) = 'Y(u) + v6(u),
where y is a unit-speed curve in R 3 and 6(u) is a unit vector for all
u. Prove that 0" is conformal if and only if 6(u) is independent of u
and y lies in aplane perpendicular to 6. What kind of surface is 0"
in this case?
5.14 Show that the surface patch
u(u, v) = (j(u, v), g(u, v), 0),
where fand gare smooth functions on the uv-plane, is conformal if

and only if either
I« = gv and fv = -gu ,
or
i« = -gv and f v = gu·
The first pair of equations are called the Cauchy-Riemann equa-
tions; they are the condition for the map from the complex plane to
itself given by u + iv t-t f(u,v) + ig(u,v) to be holomorphic. The
second pair of equations says that this map is anti-holomorphic, i.e,
that its complex-conjugate is holomorphic. We shall say more about
holomorphic functions in relation to surfaces in Section 9.4.
5.4. Surface Area

Suppose that (1 : U -t R 3 is a surface patch on a surface S. The image of
(1 is covered by the two families of parameter curves obtained by setting u =
constant and v = constant, respectively. Fix (uo, vo) E U, and let Llu and Llv
be very small. Since the change in (1( u, v) corresponding to a small change Llu
in u is approximately (1uLlu and that corresponding to a small change Llv in v is
approximately (1 vLlv, the part of the surface contained by the parameter curves
in the surface corresponding to u = uo, u = Uo + Llu, v = Vo and v = Vo + Llv
is almost a parallelogram in the plane with sides given by the vectors (1 uLlu
and (1vLlv (the derivatives being evaluated at (uo,vo)):
Recalling that the area of a parallelogram in the plane with sides a and b is
11 a x b 11, we see that the area of the parallelogram on the surface is approxi-
mately
11 O'u Llu x O'v Llv 11 = 11 O'u X a; 11 LluLlv.
This suggests the following definition .
Definition 5.3
The area Au(R) of the part O'(R) of surface patch 0' : U -+ R 3 corresponding
to a region R s:;; U is
Au(R) = fL 11 O'u X a; 11 dudv.
Of course, this integral may be infinite - think of the area of a whole plane,
for example. However, the integral will be finite if, say, R is contained in a
reetangle that is entirely contained, along with its boundary, in U.
The quantity 11 0'u X 0' v 11 that appears in the definition of area is easily
computed in terms of the first fundamental form Edu 2 + 2Pdudv + Gdv 2 of 0':
Proposition 5.2
11 O'u x O'v 11 = (EG - P 2)1/2 .
Proof 5.2
We use a result from vector algebra: if a, b, c and d are vectors in R 3 , then
(a x b).(c x d) = (a .c)(b.d) - (a .d)(b.c).
Applying this to 11 O'u X O'v 11 2 = (O'u X O'v).(O'u x O'v) , we get
11 a; X a; 11
2
= (O'u .O'u)(O'v'O'v) - (O'u .O'v? = EG - p 2. o
Note that, for a regular surface, EG - p 2 > 0 everywhere, since for a regular
surface 0'u X 0' v is never zero.
Thus, our definition of area is
Au(R) = fL (EG - p2)1/2dudv . (8)
We sometimes denote (EG - P2)1/2dudv by dAu . But we have still to check

that this definition is sensible, i.e. that it is unchanged if 0' is reparametrised.
This is certainly not obvious, since E , Fand G change under reparametrisation

(see Exercise 5.4).
Proposition 5.3
The area 0/ a surjace patch is unchanged by reparametrisation.
Prooi s.S
Let (I : U -t R 3 be a surface patch and let iT : (; -t R 3 be a reparametrisation
of (I , with reparametrisation map ~ : (; -t U. Thus, if ~(ü, ii) = ('1.1. , v), we have
iT(ü, ii) = (1('1.1., v).
Let R ~ (; be a region, and let R = ~(R) ~ U. We have to prove that
/111 a ; x a; 11 dudv = / k 11 iT ü x iTfJ 11 düdii .
We showed in the proof of Proposition 4.2 that

iT ü x iTfJ = det(J(~)) (lu X (Iv,
where J(~) is the jacobian matrix of~. Hence,
/k 11 iT ü x iTfJ 11 düdii =/ kIdet(J(~))11I (lu x a; 11 düdii.
By the change of variables formula for double integrals, the right -hand side of
this equation is exactly
/1 11 (luX (I v 11 dudv . o
This proposition implies that we can calculate the area of any surface S by
breaking S up into pieces, each of which are contained in a single surfac e patch,
calculating the area of each piece using Eq. (8), and adding up the results (cf.
Section 11.3, where an analogous procedure is carried out).
EXERCISES
5.15 Determine the area of the part of the paraboloid z = x 2 + y2 with

z ~ 1 and compare with the area of the hemisphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 1,
s
z O.
5.16 A surface is obtained by rotating about the z-axis a unit-speed curve

'Y in the xz-plane that does not intersect the z-axis. Using the stan-
dard parametrisation of this surface, calculate its first fundamental
form, and deduce that its area is
21T f p(u) du,
where p(u) is the distance of 'Y( u) from the z-axis . Hence find the
area of
(i) the unit sphere;
(ii) the torus in Exercise 4.10.
5.17 Let 'Y(s) be a unit-speed curve in R 3 with principal normal n and
binormal b. The tube of radius a > 0 around 'Y is the surface
parametrised by
CT(S, 8) = 'Y(s) + a(n(s) cos 8 + b(s) sin 8).
Give a geometrical description of this surface . Prove that CT is regular
if the curvature K. of'Y is less than a- l everywhere. Assuming that
this condition holds, prove that the area of the part of the surface
given by So < S < SI, 0 < 8 < 21T, where So and SI are constants, is
21Ta(sl - So).
The tube around a circular helix

5.5. Equiareal Maps and a Theorem of

Archimedes
We are going to use the formula (8) for the area of a surface to prove a theorem
due to Archimedes which, legend has it, was inscribed onto his tombstone by the
Roman general Marcellus who led the siege of Syracuse in which Arehirnedes
perished. Naturally, since calculus was not available to hirn, Archimedes 's proof
of his theorem was quite different from ours . From his theorem, we shall deduce
a beautiful formula for the area of any triangle on a sphere whose sides are ares
of great cirdes.
In modern language, the Theorem of Arehirnedes asserts that a certain map
between surfaces is equiareal, in the following sense:
Definition 5.4
Let $1 and $2 be two surfaces. A diffeomorphism f : $1 ~ $2 is said to be
equiareal if it takes any region in $1 to a region of the same area in $2.
We have the following analogue of Theorem 5.1.
Theorem 5.3
A diffeomorphism f : $1 ~ $2 is equiareal if and only if, for any surface patch
0'( u,
v) on $1, the first fundamental forms
E 1du 2 + 2F1dudv + G 1dv2 and ~du2 + 2F2dudv + G 2dv 2
of the patches 0' on $1 and f 00' on $2 satisfy
E 1G1 - Fr = E 2G2 - Fr (9)
The proof is very similar to that of Theorem 5.1 and we leave it as Exercise
5.22.
For Archimedes's theorem, we consider the unit sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 1 and
the cylinder x 2 + y2 = 1. The sphere is contained inside the cylinder, and the
two surfaces touch along the cirde x 2 + y2 = 1 in the xy-plane. For each point
P on the sphere other than the poles (0,0, ±1), there is a unique straight line
parallel to the xy-plane and passing through the point P and the z-axis. This
line intersects the cylinder in two points, one of which, say Q, is dosest to P .
Let f be the map from the sphere (minus the two poles) to the cylinder that
takes P to Q.
To find a formula for t, let (x, y, z) be the cartesian coordinates of P, and

(X, Y, Z) those of Q. Since the line PQ is parallel to the xy-plane, we have Z = z
and (X, Y) = >.(x, y) for some scalar >.. Since (X, Y, Z) is on the cylinder,
1 = X 2 + y 2 = >.2(X2 + y2),
>. = ±(x2 + y2)-1/2 .
Taking the + sign gives the point Q, so we get
f(x, y, z) = ((x 2 +Xy2)l/2 ' (x 2 +yy2)1/2' z) .

We shall show in the proof of the next theorem that f is a diffeomorphism.
Theorem 5.4 (Archimedes's Theorem)

The map f is equiareal.
Proo] 5.4
We take the atlas for the surface SI consisting of the sphere minus the north
and south poles with two patches, both given by the formula
tTl (0, cp) = (cos0 cos cp, cos 0sin ip, sin 0),
and defined on the open sets
{-1r/2 < 0< 1r/2, 0< ip < 21r} and {-1r/2 < 0< 1r/2, -1r < cp < 1r} .
The image of 0'1 (0, ep) under the map f is the point
0'2 (0, ep) = (cos sp, sin sp, sin 0) (10)
of the cylinder. It is easy to check that this gives an atlas for the surface 8 2 ,
consisting of the part of the cylinder between the planes z = 1 and z = -1,
with two patches, both given by Eq. (10) and defined on the same two open
sets as 0'1 . We have to show that Eq. (9) holds.
We computed the coefficients EI, F1 and GI of the first fundamental form
of 0'1 in Example 5.3:
For 0'2, we get

(0'2)0 = (0, 0, cosO), (0'2)'P = (-sinep,cosep, 0),
E 2 = cos20, F2 = 0, G2 = 1.
It is now clear that Eq. (9) holds.
Note that, since f corresponds simply to the identity map (0, ep) I-t (0, ep) in
terms of the parametrisations 0'1 and 0'2 of the sphere and cylinder, respectively,
it follows that f is a diffeomorphism. 0
Example 5.8
We use Archimedes's theorem to compute the area of a 'lune', i.e. the area
enclosed between two great circles:
We can assurne that the great circles intersect at the poles, since this can be
achieved by applying a rotation of the sphere, and this does not change areas
(see Exercise 5.3). If 0 is the angle between them, the image of the lune under
the map f is a curved reetangle on the cylinder of width 0 and height 2:
If we now apply the isometry which unwraps the eylinder on the plane,
this eurved reetangle on the eylinder will map to a genuine reetangle on the
plane, with width (J and height 2. By Arehirnedes' theorem, the lune has the
same area as the eurved reetangle on the eylinder, and sinee every isometry
is an equiareal map (see Exercise 5.18), this has the same area as the genuine
reetangle in the plane, namely 2(J. Note that this gives the area of the whole
sphere to be 47T.
Theorem 5.5
Let ABC be a triangle on a sphere 0/ unit radius whose sides are ares 0/ great
circles. Then, the area 0/ the triangle is
LA + LB + LC - 7T,
where LA is the angle 0/ the triangle at A, ete.
Proo/5.5
The three great circles, of whieh the sides of the triangle are ares, divide the
sphere into 8 triangles, as shown in the following diagram (in which A' is the
antipodal point of A, etc.) . Denoting the area of triangle ABC by A(ABC),
ete., we have, by Example 5.8,
A(ABC) + A(A'BC) = 2LA,
A(ABC) + A(AB'C) = 2LB,
A(ABC) + A(ABC') = 2LC.
/~C'
/ \
/ \
C
--------- ~
/
/
- - - - \ A'
...- ...
" B' I
... "
,," I
,
,
I
I
/
Adding these equations, we get

2A(ABC) + {A(ABC) + A(A'BC)+A(AB' C) + A(ABC')}
(11)
= 2LA + 2LB + 2LC.
Now, the triangles ABC, AB'C, AB'C' and ABC' together make a hemisphere,
so
A(ABC) + A(AB'C) + A(AB'C') + A(ABC') = 211". (12)
Finally, since the map which takes each point of the sphere to its antipodal
point is clearly an isometry, and hence equiareal (Exercise 5.18), we have
A(A'BC) = A(AB'C').
Inserting this into Eq. (12), we see that the term in { } on the right-hand side
of Eq, (11) is equal to 211". Rearranging now gives the result. 0
In Chapter 11, we shall obtain a far-reaching generalization of this result

in which the sphere is replaced by an arbitrary surface, and great circles by
arbitrary curves on the surface.
EXERCISES
5.18 Show that every isometry is an equiareal map . Give an example of

an equiareal map that is not an isometry.
5.19 Show that a map between surfaees that is both eonformal and
equiareal is an isometry.
5.20 A sailor cireumnavigates Australia by a route eonsisting of a triangle
whose sides are ares of great circles. Prove that at least one interior
angle of the triangle is ~ ~ + 11~9 radians. (Take the Earth to be a
sphere of radius 6500km and assume that the area of Australia is
7.5 million square km.)
5.21 The unit sphere in R 3 is eovered by triangles whose sides are ares of
great circles, and such that the interseetion of any two triangles is
either empty or a eommon edge or vertex of eaeh triangle. Suppose
that there are F triangles, E edges (a eommon edge of two triangles
being eounted only onee) and V vertices (a eommon vertex of several
triangles being eounted only anee) . Show that 3F = 2E. Deduee
from Theorem 5.5 that 2V - F = 4. Henee show that V - E + F = 2.
(This result will be generalised in Chapter 11.)
5.22 Prove Theorem 5.3.
6
Curvature of Surfaces
In this chapter, we introduce several ways to measure how 'curved' a surface is,
All of these rest ultimately on the second fundamental form of a surface patch.
It turns out (see Theorem 10.4) that a surface patch is determined up to a rigid
motion of R 3 by its first and second fundamental forms, just as a unit-speed
plane curve is determined up to a rigid motion by its signed curvature.
6.1. The Second Fundamental Form

To see how we might define the curvature of a surface, we start by finding a
new interpretation of the curvature of aplane curve. Suppose then that "1 is a
unit-speed curve in R 2. As the parameter t of'Y changes to t + Llt, the curve
moves away from its tangent line at 'Y(t) by a distance ('Y(t + Llt) - 'Y(t)).n,
where n is the principal normal to "1 at 'Y(t). By Taylor's theorem,
'Y(t + Llt) = 'Y(t) + -y(t)Llt + i;y(t)(Llt)2 + remainder,
where (remainder)/(Llt)2 tends to zero as Llt tends to zero. Now, n is perpen-

dicular to the unit tangent vector t = -y, and ;y = i = xn, where I\; is the
curvature of "1. Hence, ;Y.n = I\; and the deviation of'Y from its tangent line is
(-y(t)Llt + i;y(t)(Llt)2 + .. ·).n = il\;(Llt)2 + remainder. (1)
123
,.(1)
Now let a be a surface patch in R 3 with standard unit normal N. As the

parameters (u, v) of lT change to (u + L1u, v + L1v), the surface moves away from
its tangent plane at lT( U, v) by a distance
(lT(u + L1u, v + L1v) - lT(u, v)).N.
IT(U + Au, v + Av)

---
By the two variable form of Taylor's theorem, lT(U + L1u, v + L1v) - lT(U, v) is
equal to
lT uL1u + lT vL1v + ~ (lT uu(L1u)2

+ 2lTuvL1uL1v + lT vv(L1v)2) + remainder,
where (remainder)/((L1u)2 + (L1V)2) tends to zero as (L1U)2 + (L1V)2 tends to
zero. Now lT u and lT v are tangent to the surface, hence perpendicular to N , so
the deviation of lT from its tangent plane is
~ (L(L1U)2 + 2ML1uL1v + N(L1v)2) + remainder, (2)

where
L = lTuu .N, M = lTut/ .N, N = lTt/t/ .N. (3)
Comparing Eq. (2) with Eq. (1), we see that the expression
L(L1u)2 + 2M L1uL1v + N(L1V)2
6. Curvature of Surfaces 125
is the analogue for the surface of the curvature term K(L:\t)2 in the case of a
curve. One calls the expression
Ldu 2 + 2M dudv + N dv2 (4)
the second fundamental form of (T. As in the case of the first fundamental form ,
we regard the expression (4) simply as a convenient way of keeping track of
the three functions L , M and N. We shall soon see that a knowledge of these
functions (together with that of the first fundamental form) will enable us to
compute the curvature of any curve on the surface (T,
Example 6.1
Consider the plane
(T(u, v) = a + up + vq
(see Example 4.1) . Since (Tu = P and (Tv = q are constant vectors , we have
(Tuu = (Tuv = (Tvv = O. Hence, the second fundamental form of a plane is zero.
Example 6.2
Consider a patch (T on a surface of revolution:
(T(u, v) = (f(u) cos v , j(u) sin v, g(u)) .
Recall from Example 4,12 that we can assurne that j(u) > for all values of u °
and that the profile curve u I---t (f(u) ,O,g(u)) is unit-speed, i.e, j2 + iJ2 = 1 (a
dot denoting djdu). Then:
(Tu =(jcosv,jsinv,g), (Tv = (-jsinv,jcosv,O),
E=II(Tu
2 2
11 = P + iJ = 1, F=(Tu .(Tv=O, G=II(TvIl
2=j2,
(Tu X (Tv = (- j iJ cos v , - j iJ sin v, j j),
.. 11 (Tu X (Tv 11 = j (since P + iJ2 = 1),

N = 11
(Tu X (Tv ( ' " j')
(Tu X a;
11 = -gcosv,-gsmv, ,
tTuu = (j cos v, j sin v, jj),

tT uv = (-jsinv ,jcosv,O),
tT vv = (-jcosv,-jsinv,O),
L = tTuu .N = jjj - jiJ, M = tTuv .N = 0, N = tTvv.N = jiJ,
so the second fundamental form is
If the surface is the unit sphere, we can take J(u) = cosu, g(u) = sinu,
with -1f /2 < u < 1f /2, giving
L=l, M=O, N=cos 2u.

(Note that the conditions J > 0 and j2 +ii = 1 are satisfied.) Replacing u
and v by the more usual (} and tp, we get the second fundamental form of the
unit sphere:
d(}2 + cos2 (} dtp2 .
If the surface is a circular cylinder of unit radius, we can take J(u) = 1,
g(u) = u (again, the conditions J > 0 and j2 + ii = 1 are satisfied) . This gives
L=M=O, N= 1,
so the second fundamental form of the cylinder is dv 2 •
EXERCISES
6.1 Compute the second fundamental form of the elliptic paraboloid

O'(u,v) = (u, v, u 2 + v 2 ) .
6.2 The second fundamental form of a surface patch 0' is zero everywhere.
Prove that 0' is part of aplane. (By computing expressions such as
(O'u.N)u, prove that Nu and N v are perpendicular to O'u and O'v, and
deduce that the unit normal N of 0' is a constant vector.) This is the
analogue for surfaces of the theorem that a curve with zero curvature
everywhere is part of a straight line.
6.3 Let a surface patch u( ü, ii) be a reparametrisation of a surface patch
0'( u, v) with reparametrisation map (u, v) = c:l>( ü, ii)..Prove that
( ~ i!) = (L M)
M N
±Jt J
MN'
where J is the jacobian matrix of c:l> and we take the plus sign if
det(J) > 0 and the minus sign if det(J) < O.
6.4 Show that the second fundamental form of a surface patch is un-
changed by applying a rigid motion to the patch.
6.2. The Curvature of Curves on a Surface

Another natural way to investigate how much a surface curves is to look at
the curvature of various curves on the surface . lf 'Y(t) = O'(u(t) , v(t)) is a unit-
speed curve in a surface patch 0', then -y is a unit vector and is, by definition, a
tangent vector to 0'. Hence, -y is perpendicular to the standard unit normal N
of 0', so -y, N and N x -y are mutually perpendicular unit vectors . Again since
'Y is unit-speed, ;y is perpendicular to i', and hence is a linear combination of
N and N x-y:
(5)
Nx-y
'Y
The scalars "'n and "'0 are called the normal curvature and the geodesie curva-
ture of 'Y , respectively. Since N and N x i' are perpendicular unit vectors, Eq.
(5) implies that
"'n = ;Y.N , "'0 = ;Y.(N x -y)
and
2
1I;y 11 = "'; + "'~.
Hence, the curvature '" = 1I;y 11 of'Y is given by
(6)
Moreover, if n is the principal normal of '1, so that ;Y = xn, we have

Kn = Kn.N = KCOS1/; , (7)
where 1/; is the angle between n and N. Then, from Eq . (6),
Kg = ±K sin 1/;. (8)
It is clear from their definition that K n and K g either stay the same or both
change sign when (T is reparametrised (since this is the case for N) .
If '1 is regular, but not necessarily unit-speed, we define the geodesie and
normal curvatures of'Y to be those of a unit-speed reparametrisation of '1. When
a unit-speed parameter t is changed to another such parameter ±t + c, where
c is a constant, it is clear that K n H K n and K g H ±Kg , so K n is weIl defined
for any regular curve, while K g is weIl defined up to sign. Equations (7) and (8)
continue to hold in this more general situation.
An important special case is that where y is anormal section of the surface,
i.e, '1 is the intersection of the surface with aplane II that is perpendicular to
the tangent plane of the surface at every point of '1.
Since '1 lies in II, the principal normal n is parallel to II, and since II is
perpendicular to the tangent plane, N is also parallel to II. Since n and N are
both perpendicular to .y, and since .y is parallel to II, n and N must be parallel
=
to each other, i.e. 1/; 0 or 1l'. From Eqs. (7) and (8), we deduce that
Kn = ±K, Kg =0
for anormal section.
We shall now study the normal curvature K n in more detail. The study of
K g will be taken up in Chapter 8.
EXERCISES
6.5 Compute the normal eurvature of the circle 'Y( t) = (eos t , sin t, 1) on
the elliptie paraboloid O'(u, v) = (u,v, u2 + v2 ) (see Exercise 6.1).
6.6 Show that if a eurve on a surfaee has zero normal and geodesie
eurvature everywhere, it is part of a straight line.
6.7 Show that the normal eurvature of any eurve on a sphere of radius
r is ±l/r.
6.8 Compute the geodesie eurvature of any circle on a sphere (not nee-
essarily a great circle).
6.9 Consider the surfaee of revolution
O'(u,v) = (J(u) eosv, J(u) sin v, g(u)),
where u H (J(u),O,g(u)) is a unit-speed eurve in R 3 . Compute the
geodesie eurvature of
(i) a meridian v = eonstant;
(ii) a parallel u = eonstant.
°
6.10 A unit-speed eurve 'Y with eurvature '" > and principal normal n
forms the interseetion of two surfaees Si and S2 with unit normals
Ni and N 2. Show that, if "'1 and "'2 are the normal eurvatures of 'Y
when viewed as a eurve in Si and S2, respeetively, then
"'lN2 - "'2Nl = ",(Ni X N 2) x n,
Deduee that, if 0: is the angle between the two surfaees,
2
",2 sin 0: = "'~ + "'~ - 2"'1"'2 eos 0: .
6.11 Let 'Y be a unit-speed eurve on a surfaee pateh 0' with eurvature
'" > 0. Let 1/; be the angle between ;y and N , and let B = t x N (in
the usual notation) . Show that
N = neos1/; + bsin 1/;, B = b cos e - nsin 1/;.
Deduee that
i = "'nN - "'gB, N= -"'nt + 7 gB , B = "'gt - 7 gN ,
where 7g = 7 +.,p. (7g is ealled the geodesie torsion of 'Y; cf. Exercise
8.4.)
6.12 A eurve 'Y on a surface S is ealled asymptotic if its normal eurvature
is everywhere zero. Show that any straight line on a surfaee is an
asymptotic eurve. Show also that a eurve 'Y with positive eurvature
is asymptotic if and only if its binormal b is parallel to the unit

normal of S at all points of 'Y.
6.13 Prove that the asymptotic curves on the surface
O'(u, v) = (ucosv,usinv,lnu)
are given by
lnu = ±(v+c),
where c is an arbitrary constant.
6.14 Show that an asymptotic curve with positive curvature has torsion
equal to its geodesie torsion (see Exercise 6.11). (Show that B is
parallel to D.)
6.3. The Normal and Principal Curvatures

The most important single fact about the normal curvature "'n of a curve 'Y on
a surface 0' is contained in
Proposition 6.1
1f 'Y(t) = O'(u(t),v(t)) is a unit-speed curve on a surface patch 0', its normal
curuature is given by
«« = Lü 2 + 2Müv + Nv 2 ,
where Ldu 2 + 2Mdudv + N dv 2 is the second fundamental form of 0' .
This result means that two unit-speed curves passing through a point P
on a surface and with the same tangent vector at P have the same normal
curvature at P, since both "'n
and the tangent vector l' = O'uü + O'vv depend
only on u, v, ü and v (and not on any higher derivatives of u and v).
Proof 6.1
We have , with N denoting the standard unit normal of 0',
"'n = N.;y = N . :t (1') = N. :t (O'u ü + O'vv)

= N.(O'uü + O'vii + (O'uuü + O'uvv)ü + (O'uvü + O'vvv)v)
=Lü 2 + 2Müv + Nv 2 ,
using the definition (3) of L, M and N, and the fact that N is perpendicular
to tT u and tT v ' 0
This proposition implies the following classical result, which takes longer to
state than to prove.
Proposition 6.2 (Meusnier's Theorem)

Let P be a point on a surface Sand let v be a unit tangent vector to S at P .
Let IIo be the plane containing the line through P parallel to v and making an
angle (J with the tangent plane to S at P . Suppose that II(J' intersects S in a
curve with curvature KO' Then, Ko sin (J is independent 0/ (J.
Praoi B.z
Assurne that 'Yo is a unit-speed parametrisation of the curve of intersection of
IIo and S . Then, at P, ~o = ±v, so 1'0 is perpendicular to v and is parallel to
IIo. Thus, in the notation of Section 6.1, 1/J = 7r/2 - (J and so Eq. (7) gives
KO sin (J = Kn .
But Kn depends only on P and v, and not on (). o

To analyse "'n further , it is useful to use matrix notation. If

Edu 2 + 2Pdudv + Gdv 2 and Ldu 2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv 2
are the first and seeond fundamental forms of a surfaee a, we introduee the
following symmetrie 2 x 2 matrices:
Let
t} = 6t1 u + T/lt1v, t2 = 6t1 u + TJ2t1v
be two tangent veetors at some point of a. Then,
t}.t2 = (6t1 u + TJlt1 v) .(6t1u + TJ2t1v)
= E6~2 + P(6TJ2 + 6TJd + GTJITJ2
= (6 TJd (; ~) (~:) .
Thus, writing
we get
(9)
On the other hand, the tangent veetor l' = Ut1 u + Vt1 v, and if T = (~),
then by using Proposition 6.1 we see by a similar matrix ealeulation that
"'n = T t :FIIT. (10)
The justifieation for the next two definitions will appear in Proposition 6.3
and Corollary 6.1.
Definition 6.1
The principal curvatures of a surfaee pateh are the roots of the equation
(11)
i.e.
L - ",E M - ",P I= O.
IM-",P N-",G
(12)
Sinee (12) is a quadratic equation for «, there are two roots. Apriori, these
may be eomplex numbers. However, we shall prove in the next proposition that
the principal curvatures are always real. To motivate this result, note that if FI
happens to be the identity matrix (as it is for the standard parametrisation of
the plane, for example), Eq. (11) would become the equation for the eigenvalues
of FII. But a standard result from linear algebra states that the eigenvalues
of any real symmetrie matrix, such as FII, are real numbers. In general, FI is
not the identity matrix, but it is always invertible (see the remark following
Proposition 5.2), so Eq. (11) is equivalent to
det(FI(Fi 1 Fit - 11:)) = 0,
1
det(FI)det(Fi Fu - 11:) = 0,
1
.. det(Fi Fu - 11:) = 0,
and hence the principal eurvatures are the eigenvalues 0/ Fi 1 Fu. However,
Fi 1 Fu is not usually symmetrie, so the above result from linear algebra does
not immediately imply the reality of the principal curvatures in the general
case.
If 11: is one of the principal curvatures, Eq. (11) says that Fu - II:FI is not
invertible, so, assuming that 11: is real, there is a non-zero 2 x 1 column matrix
T with real number entries such that
(13)
Definition 6.2
If T = (~) satisfies Eq. (13), the corresponding tangent vector t = ~O'u + 110'v
to the surface 0'(U, v) is called a principal veetor corresponding to the principal
curvature 11:.
Proposition 6.3
Let 11:1 and 11:2 be the prineipal eurvatures at a point P 0/ a surjace pateh 0'.
Then ,
(i) 11:1 and 11:2 are real numbers;
(ii) i/lI:l = 11:2 = 11:, say, then Fu = II:FI and (henee) every tangent veetor to
0' at P is a principal veetor;
(iii) i/ 11:1 ::I 11:2, then any two (non-zero) principal veetors t 1 and t2 eorre-
sponding to 11:1 and 11:2, respeetively, are perpendieular.
In case (ii), P is called an umbilic.
Proo/6.9
For (i), let t 1 and t 2 be any two perpendieular unit tangent vectors to the
surface at P (not yet known to be principal vectors). Define ~i, r/i and Ti, for
i= 1,2 as in the discussion preceding Definition 6.1, and let
A=(6 6) . 'Tli 'Tl2
By multiplying out the matriees, it is easy to check that
At FI A = (T~ FITI T~ FIT2 )

T 2FITI T 2FIT2
= (tl.t l t l.t2) (by Eq. (9))
t 2·tl t 2·t2
= (~ ~),
since t l and t2 are perpendicular unit vectors. Let
gIl = AtFIlA.
Then, gIl is still (real and) symmetrie because
g}I = AtFh(At)t = AtFIlA = gIl.
By the theorem from linear algebra referred to above, there is an orthogonal
matrix B (so that Bt B = I), say, such that
= (Al0 A2 '
t
B gIlB
0)
for some real numbers Al and A2. Let C = AB. Then,
CtFIC = Bt(AtFIA)B = BtB = (~ ~), (14)
because B is orthogonal, and
CtFIlC = Bt(AtFIlA)B = Bt9IlB = (~ ~2)' (15)
Now C is invertible (being the product of two invertible matrices) , so

det(FIl - K,FI) =0 if and only if det(Ct(FIl - K,FI)C) = 0,
:. det(FIl - K,FI) = 0 if and only if det (( A~ ~2) - (~ ~)) = O.

K,
Hence, the principal curvatures are the roots of
Al - 0 I= 0,
I
K,
o A2 - K,
For (ii), suppose that the principal curvatures are equal, to n, say. Then
>'1 = >'2 = '" and Eqs. (14) and (15) give
CtFIC = 1, CtFIIC = ",1,
.. Ct(FII - ",FI)C = 0,
FII - ",FI = 0,
because C and ct are invertible. Obviously then, if T is any 2 x 1 column
matrix,
It follows that every tangent vector to o at P is a principal vector .

Finally, for (iii) let
ti = ~i(fu + Tli(fll, Ti = (~:) ,

for i = 1,2. Then, by Eq. (9),
and by Eq. (13),

(16)
Hence,
(17)
But since Ti FIIT2 is a 1 x 1 matrix, it is equal to its transpose:
TfFIIT2 = (TfFIIT2 )t = TiJ1 IT1 = TiFIIT1 ,
where the last equality uses the fact that FII is symmetrie. Hence, Eq. (17)
gives
"'1(tl. t2) = "'2(t 1.t2),
so if "'1 :F "'2, then t 1.t2 = 0, i.e. tl and t2 are perpendieular. o
Example 6.3
It is intuitively clear that a sphere curves the same amount in every direction,
and at every point of the sphere. Thus, we expect that the principal curvatures
of a sphere are equal to each other at every point, and are constant over the
sphere. To confirm this by calculation, we use the latitude longitude parametri-
sation as usual. We found in Example 5.2 that
E = 1, F = 0, G = cos2 (J,
and in Exarnple 6.2 that

L = 1, M = 0, N = cos'' ().
So the principal curvatures are the roots of
1
1 ~ K cos2 () _0K cos2 () I = 0,
i.e, K = 1 (repeated root), as we expected. Any tangent vector is a principal
vector.
Example 6.4
We consider the circular cylinder of radius one and axis the z-axis, parametrised
in the usual way:
u(u, v) = (cosv, sin v, u) .
We found in Example 5.3 that
E = 1, F = 0, G = 1,
and in Exarnple 6.2 that
L = 0, M = 0, N = 1.
So the principal curvatures are the roots of
0-
o
K 0
1- K
1=0,
1
•• K(K -1) = 0,
•• K = 0 or 1.
,- --------- h
----------
;------------- ...
To find the principal vectors t l and t2 , recall that ti = ~iCTu + TliCTv, where
Ti = (~:) satisfies
i.e.
For ~l (= 1), we get
6 =0.
So Tl is a multiple of (~), and hence tl is a multiple of OCT u + 1CTv = CT v =

(- sin v, cos v, 0). Similarly, for ~2 (= 0), one finds that T2 is a multiple of (~),
and hence t2 is a multiple of CT u = (0,0,1).
As we mentioned above, one reason for introducing the principal curvatures

and principal vectors is contained in the following result, which shows that, if
we know the principal curvatures and principal vectors of a surface, it is easy
to calculate the normal curvature of any curve on the surface:
Corollary 6.1 (Euler's Theorem)

Let 'Y be a curve on a surface patch CT, and let ~l and ~2 be the principal
curvatures 0/ CT, with non-zero principal vectors t l and t 2 . Then, the normal
curvature of'Y is
where 0 is the angle between 'Y and t l .
Proof 6.1
We can assume that 'Y is unit-speed. Let t be the tangent vector of 'Y, and let
t = ~CT u + TJCT v, T = (~). Suppose first that ~l = ~2 = «, say. By Proposition
6.3(ii) , the normal curvature of'Y is
~n = TtFIIT = ~TtFIT = ~t.t =~.
This agrees with the formula in the statement of the corollary, since
~l cos2 0 + ~2 sin 2 (J = ~(cOS2 0 + sin 2 0) = «.
Assume now that 11:1 :{; 11:2, so that t 1 and t2 are perpendicular by Proposi-
tion 6.3(iii). We might as weIl assume that tl and t2 are unit vectors. Let
ti = ~itTu + 1JitTv , Ti = ( 1/i~i )

'
for i = 1,2. Now
so
cosO(6tTu + 1/1tT v ) + sinO(6tTu + 1/2tT v ) = ~tTu + 1/tTv ,
.'. ~lcosO+6sinO=~, 1/1COSO+1/2SinO=1/,
(~) =COSO(~:) +sinO(~:).

T = cosOT1 + sinOT2.
"""----'--'-------1-'--7 t .
Hence, by Eq. (10), the normal curvature of'Y is

II: n = Tt:FIIT
= (cosOTf + sinOTi):FII(COsOT1 + sinOT2)
= cos20Tf:FIIT1 + cosO sinO(Tf:FIIT2 + Ti:FIITd + sin 2 OTi:FIIT2. (18)
By Definition 6.2 and Eq. (9),
Tf:FIITj = lI:iTf:FIT j = {Oll:i if i = j , (19)

otherwise.
Substituting this into Eq. (18) gives the result. o
Corollary 6.2
The principal curvatures at a point 0/ a surjace are the maximum and min imum
oalues 0/ the normal curvature 0/ all curves on the surjace that pass through
the point. Moreover, the principal vectors are the tangent ueciors 0/ the curves
giving these maximum and minimum oolues.
Prooj B.B
If the principal eurvatures 11:1 and 11:2 are different, we might as weIl suppose
that 11:1 > 11:2. Let II:n be the normal eurvature of a eurve 'Y on the surfaee.
Then, sinee
II: = 11:1 eos (J + 11:2 sin (J = 11:1 - (11:1 - 11:2) sin (J,
2 2 2
n
it is clear that II:n ~ 11:1 with equality if and only if (J = 0 or 11', i.e, if and only
if the tangent veetor t of'Y is parallel to the principal veetor t 1. Similarly, one
shows that II: n ~ 11:2 with equality if and only if t is parallel to t2 .
If 11:1 = 11:2, the normal eurvature of every eurve is equal to 11:1 by Euler's
Theorem and every tangent veetor to the surface is a principal veetor by Propo-
sition 6.3(ii). 0
We eonclude this seetion with the following eomputation which will be very
useful on several oeeasions later in the book.
Proposition 6.4
Let N be the standard unit normal 0/ a surface patch 0'( u, v). Then,
(20)
where
a
( b d
c) = -F -1
1 F//.
The matrix Fi 1 F// is ealled the Weingarten matrix of the surfaee pateh 0',
and is denoted by W .
Prooj B.L
Sinee N is a unit veetor, we know that Nu and N 1J are perpendicular to N,
henee are in the tangent plane to 0', and henee are linear eombinations of 0' u
and 0'1J' So seal ars a, b, c and d satisfying Eq . (20) exist.
To ealeulate them, note that N.O'u = 0 implies, on differentiating with
respeet to u, that
Nu'O'u+N .O'uu = 0,
Nu .O'u = -L.
Similarly,
Taking the dot product of each of the equations in (20) with tT u and a; thus
gives
- L = aE + bF, - M = cE + dF,
-M=aF+bG, -N=cF+dG.
These four scalar equations are equivalent to the single matrix equation
-(~ ~)=(; ~)(~ ~)

.. -fI/ = f] (~ ~)
(~ ~) = - f i 1f I/ . o
EXERCISES
6.15 Calculate the principal curvatures of the helicoid and the catenoid,
defined in Exercises 4.14 and 4.18, respectively.
6.16 Let 'Y(t) = tT(u(t),v(t)) be a regular, but not necessarily unit-speed,
curve on a surface a , and denote djdt by a dot . Prove that the
normal curvature of 'Y is
Lü 2 + 2Mü'Ü + N'Ü 2
/'i,n = Eü2 + 2Fü'Ü + G'Ü2 .
6.17 By using the results of Exercises 5.4 and 6.3, show that the principal
curvatures of a surface either stay the same or both change sign when
the surface is reparametrised, according to whether the unit normal
stays the same or changes sign. Show also that the principal vectors
are unchanged by reparametrisation.
6.18 A curve C on a surface S is called a line 0/ curvature if the tangent
vector of C is a principal vector of S at all points of C. Ir 'Y is a
parametrisation of the part of a curve C lying in a surface patch a
of S, and if N is the standard unit normal of a, show that C is a line
of curvature if and only if
N = -A.y,
for some scalar A, and that in this case the corresponding principal
curvature is A. (This is called Rodrigues' Formula.)
Show that the meridians and paralieis of a surface of revolution are
lines of curvature.
6.19 Show that a curve on a surface is a line of curvature if and only if

its geodesie torsion vanishes everywhere (see Exercise 6.11).
6.20 Two surfaces SI and S2 intersect in a curve C that is a line of cur-
vature of SI . Show that C is a line of curvature of S2 if and only if
the angle between the tangent planes of SI and S2 is constant along
C.
6.21 Let o : W -t R 3 be a smooth function defined on an open subset
W of R 3 such that, for each fixed value of u (resp. v, w), u(u, v, w)
is a (regular) surface patch. Assume also that
(21)
This means that the three families of surfaces formed by fixing the
values of u, v or w is a triply orthogonal system (see Section 4.6).
(i) Show that UU'U v w = tTv.U u w = UW 'U u v = O. (Differentiate the
Eqs. (21).)
(ii) Show that, for each of the surfaces in the triply orthogonal
system, the matrices FI and FII are diagonal. (Note that the
standard unit normal of the surface obtained by fixing u is
parallel to u u , etc .)
(iii) Deduce that the intersection of any surface from one family
of the triply orthogonal system with any surface from another
family is a line of curvature on both surfaces. (This is called
Dupin's Theorem.)
6.22 The third fundamental form of a surface patch u(u, v) is
11 Nu 11
2
du 2 + 2Nu .Nvdudv+ 11 Nv 11
2
dv 2 ,
where N (u , v) is the standard unit normal at u(u, v). Let Fu I be
the symmetrie 2 x 2 matrix associated to the third fundamental form
in the same way as FI and FII are associated to the first and second
fundamental forms (see Section 6.3). Show that FUI = FuFiI Fu -
(Use Proposition 6.4.)
6.4. Geometrie Interpretation of Prineipal

Curvatures
The relative values of the principal curvatures at a point P of a surface patch
tell us much ab out the shape of the surface near P. To see this, note first that,
by applying a rigid motion of R 3 and a reparametrisation of u (whieh does not
change the shape of the surface), we can assurne that
(i) P is the origin and 0'(0,0) = P;

(ii) the tangent plane to 0' at P is the xy-planej
(iii) the vectors parallel to the x and y-axes are principal vectors at P, corre-
sponding to principal curvatures "-I and "-2, say.
The unit principal vectors can be expressed in terms of O'u and a; by
(1,0) = 60'u + "llO'v , (0,1) = 60'u + 1J20'v,
say. Then, if
Tl = (~:), T2 = (~:) ,
the point (x, y, 0) in the tangent plane at P is equal to
X(~lO'u + 1J10'v) + y(60'u + 1}20'v) = (x6 + y6)O'u + (X1}l + Y1J2)O'v = SO'u + tO'v,
say. Thus, neglecting higher order terms,
1
O'(S, t) = 0'(0,0) + sa.; + ta; + 2(s 2 O'uu + 2stO'uv + t 2 O'vv)
1 2
=(x, y, 0) + 2(s O'uu + 2stO'uv + t 2 O'vv),
all derivatives being evaluated at the origin. Thus, neglecting higher order
terms, the coordinates of O'(s, t) are (x, y, z), where
z = O'(s, t).N
1 2 + 2Mst + Nt 2)
= 2(Ls
=~(s t)(~ ~)(:) .
Now,
( St)
6 + Y6) = x
= (xX1}l + y1}2
(6) + Y (6)
1}1 1J2
= xT1 + yT2,
so
1
Z = 2(xT t
1 + yT2) :F//(xT1 + yT2)
= ~(x2Tf:F//T1 + xy(Tf:F//T2 + T4:F//T1) + y2T4:F//T2)

= 21 ("-IX
2 + "-2Y 2),
using Eq. (19). We conclude that, near a point Po/ a surface at which the prin-
cipal curvatures are "-I and "-2, the surjace coincides with the quadric surface
1
z = 2("-lX2 + ,,-2y2) (22)
if we neglect terms of order greater than two.

We distinguish four cases:
(i) 11:1 and 11:2 are both > 0 or both < O. Then , (22) is the equation of an elliptic
paraboloid (see Proposition 4.5) and one says that P is an elliptic point of the
surface.
(ii) 11:1 and 11:2 are oj opposite sign (both non -zero). Then, (22) is the equation of
a hyperbolic paraboloid and one says that P is a hyperbolic point of the surface.
(iii) One 0/11:1 and 11:2 is zero, the other is non-zero. Then, (22) is the equation
of a parabolic cylinder and one says that P is a parabolic point of the surface.
(iv) Both principal curvatures are zero at P. Then, (22) is the equation of a
plane, and one says that P is a planar point of the surface. In this case, one
cannot determine the shape of the surface near P without examining derivatives
of order higher than the second (in the non-planar case, these terms are small
compared to 1I:1X2 + 1I:2 y2 when x and y are small). For example, the surfaces
below (the one on the right is called the monkey saddle) both have the origin
as a planar point, but they have quite different shapes .
Note that this classification is independent of the surface patch (I, since
reparametrising either 1eaves the principal curvatures unchanged or changes
the sign of both of them .
Example 6.5
On the unit sphere, 11:1 = 11:2 = ±1 (the sign depending on the parametrisation)
so al1 points are elliptic (and umbilics). On a circu1ar cylinder, 11:1 = ±1, 11:2 = 0,
so every point is parabolic (and there are no umbilics) . On aplane, 11:1 = 11:2 = 0
so all points are planar (!) (and umbilics).
Example 6.6
For the torus
(1(8, <p) = «a + b cos 8) cos ip, (a + b cos 8) sin <p, b sin 8)
(see Exercise 4.10), we find that the first and second fundamental forms are
b2d82 + (a + bcos8)2d<p2 and bd(}2 + (a + bcos8) cos8d<p2,
respectively, so the principal curvatures are
1 cos 8
11:1 = b' 11:2 = a + bcos8°
Since 11:1 > 0 (everywhere), the point (1(8, <p) of the torus is elliptic, parabolic or
°
hyperbolic according as 11:2 is > 0, = or < 0, respectively; from the formula for
11:2, these are the regions of the torus given by -1r /2 < 8 < 1r/2, 8 = ±1r/2 and
1r/2 < 8 < 31r/2, respectively. Pictures of the elliptic and hyperbolic regions
can be found in the solution to Exercise 7.18 (where they are labelled S+ and
S- , respectively) i the parabolic region consists of two circles of radius a centred
on the z-axis,
We conclude this chapter with the analogue for surfaces of Example 2.2,
which teIls us that aplane curve with constant curvature is part of a circle.
Proposition 6.5
Let S be a (connected) surfoce 0/ which every point is an utnbilic. Then, S is
either part 0/ a plane or part 0/ a sphere.
Proo/6.5
Let (1 : U ~ R 3 be a surface patch in the atlas of S with U a (connected) open
subset of R 2 • Let 11: be the commmon value of the principal curvatures of (1.
By Proposition 6.3(ii),
so the Weingarten matrix
W = Fi 1 Ftt = (~ ~).
By Proposition 6.4,
(23)
Hence,
so
Since o is regular, Uu and a; are linearly independent, so the last equation

implies that K,u = K,v = 0. Thus, K, is constant.
There are now two cases to consider. If K, = 0, Eq. (23) shows that N is
constant. Then,
(Nzr); = N.uu = 0, (N,e), = N .u v = 0,
so Nzr is a constant, say c. Then u(U) is part of the plane r.N = c.
If K, i' 0, Eq. (23) shows that
N = -K,(T + a,
where a is a constant vector. Hence,
1 11
11 a - -a 11 = 11 --N 11 = 2 '
2 2
K, K, K,
so u(U) is part of the sphere with centre K,-la and radius K,-l .
We have now proved the proposition when S is covered by a single surface
patch. For an arbitrary surface S, the preceding argument shows that each
patch in the atlas of S is contained in a plane or a sphere. But clearly two
overlapping patches must then be part of the same plane or the same sphere .
It follows that the whole of S is contained in a plane or a sphere . 0
EXERCISES
6.23 Show that every point on the surface of revolution

u(u, v) = (f(u) cosv, f(u) sin v, g(u))
is parabolic if and only if u is part of a circular cylinder or a circular
cone.
6.24 Show that, if p , q and r are distinct positive numbers, there are
exactly four umbilics on the ellipsoid
x 2 y2 Z2
..-2+"2+"2=l.
p q r
(Use Proposition 6.3(ii) .)
7
Gaussian Curvature and the Gauss Map
We shall now introduce two new measures of the curvature of a surface, called
its gaussian and mean curvatures. Although these together contain the same
information as the two principal curvatures, they turn out to have greater geo-
metrical significance. The gaussian curvature, in particular, has the remarkable
property, established in Chapter 10, that it is unchanged when the surface is
bent without stretching, a property that is not shared by the principal cur-
vatures. In the present chapter, we discuss some more elementary properties
of the gaussian and mean curvatures, and what a knowledge of them implies
about the geometry of the surface.
7.1. The Gaussian and Mean Curvatures

We start by defining two new measures of the curvature of a surface .
Definition 7.1
Let 11:1 and 11:2 be the principal curvatures of a surface patch. Then, the gaussian
curvature of the surface patch is
and its mean curvature is

1
H = 2(11:1 + 11:2)'
147
Note Some authors omit the 1/2 in the definition of H, even though this eon-
fliets with the usual meaning of 'mean'.
Note from Exercise 6.17 that the gaussian eurvature stays the same when
a surfaee pateh is reparametrised, while the mean eurvature either stays the
same or ehanges sign. It follows that the gaussian curvature is well defined for
any surface S .
It is easy to get explicit formulas for H and K :
Proposition 7.1
Let 0'(u , v) be a surface patch with first and second fundamental forms
Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2 and Ldu 2 + 2Mdudv + N dv 2 ,
respectively. Then,
2
{i}
I
K = LN-M
EG-F2;
(ii) H = L~(JN!'t.}rE;
(iii) the principal curvatures are H ± J H2 - K .
Proof 7.1
By Definition 6.1, the principal eurvatures are the roots of
I= 0,
I
L - ",E M - ",F
M - ",F N - ",G
.. (L - ",E)(N - ",G) - (M - ",F)2 = 0,
(EG - F 2 ) ", 2 - (LG - 2MF + NE)",+LN - M 2 = O.
Now, reeall that in a quadratic equation a",2 + b« + C = 0, the sum of the roots
is -b/a and the product of the roots is cja. So,
LN-M 2
K = "'1"'2 = product of roots = EG _ F2 '
1 1 1 LG - 2M F + NE
H = '2("'1 + "'2) = '2 (sum of roots) = '2 EG _ F2 .
By the definition of H and K, "'1 and "'2 are the roots of
",2 _ 2H", + K = 0,
i.e. H ± ";H2 - K . o
Example 7.1
For the unit sphere, we found in Example 6.3 that "'1 = "'2 = 1, so K = H = 1.
For a circular cylinder of radius one, we found in Example 6.4 that "'1 = 1,
"'2 = 0, so H = ~, K = O.
Example 7.2
In Example 6.2 we considered the surface of revolution
O'(u, v ) = (f(u) cosv , I(u) sinv,g(u)),
where we can assume that °
I > and j2 + iJ2 = 1 everywhere (a dot denoting
d/du). We found that
E = 1,
= 0, F G = 12 ,
L = jg - JiJ, M = 0, N = liJ.
By Proposition 7.1(i), the gaussian curvature is
LN - M 2 (jg - JiJ)liJ
K = EG _ F2 = j2 (1)
We can simplify this formula by noting that j2 + iJ2 = 1 implies (by differenti-
ating with respect to u) that
jJ + iJg = 0,
(jg - JiJ)iJ = - PJ - JiJ2 = - J(p + iJ2) = - J,
K= -~; = -~.
Example 7.3
For a ruled surface, take a patch
O'(u, v) = ")'(u) + v6(u) ,
(see Example 4.12). Denoting d/du by a dot, we have
O'u = "y + v6, a; = 6,
O'uv = 6, O'vv = o.
Hence, if N = (O'u x O'v)/ 11 O'u x a; 11 is the standard unit normal of 0', then
M = O'uv .N = 6.N and N = 0. So
LN - M2 -(6.N)2
K = EG _ j2 = EG _ F2 :s 0,
i.e. the gaussian curvature 01 a ruled surface is negative or zero, a result that is
proved by a different method in Exercise 7.8. We shall return to this example
in Section 7.3.
EXERCISES
7.1 Calculate the gaussian and mean curvatures of the surface

O'(u, v) = (u+v,1i-v,uv)
at the point (2,0,1) .
7.2 Calculate the gaussian curvature of the helicoid and catenoid (see
Exercises 4.14 and 4.18).
7.3 Calculate the gaussian curvature of the surface z = f(x, y), where f
is a smooth function.
7.4 In the notation of Example 7.3, show that
(i) if 6 is the principal normal n of'Y or its binormal b, then K = 0
if and only if'Y is plan ar (use Proposition 2.4);
(ii) if'Y is a curve on a surface Sand 6 is the unit normal of S, then
K = 0 if and only if 'Y is a line of curvature of S (use Exercise
6.18.)
7.5 Let 0' be the parametrisation of the torus in Exercise 4.10, and let
K be its gaussian curvature. Show that
(The 'explanation' of this result will appear in Section 11.3.)

7.6 Show that the gaussian and mean curvatures are unchanged by ap-
plying a rigid motion, and that the dilation (x, y, z) t-t a(x, y, z),
where a is a non-zero constant, multiplies them by a- 2 and a- 1 ,
respectively.
7.7 Show that the gaussian and mean curvatures of a surface patch
3
0' : U ~ R are smooth functions on U . Show that the principal
curvatures are smooth functions on any open subset of U on which
0' has no umbilics. (Use Proposition 7.1.)
7.8 Show that K ~ 0 at every point of an asymptotic curve on a sur-

face (use Corollary 6.2). Hence give another proof that the gaussian
curvature of a ruled surface is ~ 0 everywhere (use Exercise 6.12).
7.9 Show that, if FIII is the third fundamental form of a surface patch
0' (see Exercise 6.22), then
FIII - 2HFII + KFI = 0,

where K and H are the gaussian and mean curvatures of 0'. (Use
the fact that any 2 x 2 matrix A = (: ~) satisfies the equation
A2 - (a + d)A + (ad - bc)I = 0.)
7.10 Use Exercise 7.9 to show that, if 'Y(t) is a curve in a surface patch
a , then along 'Y,
N.N + 2HN.-y + K-Y.-Y = O.
(Note that, if'Y(t) = u(u(t),v(t)), T = (~), then N.N = TtFIIIT,
etc.) Deduce that the torsion r of an asymptotic curve on a surface
is related to the gaussian curvature K of the surface by r 2 = - K .
(Use Exercise 6.12.)
7.2. The Pseudosphere

We have seen in the examples in Section 7.1 some surfaces of zero and constant
positive curvature. For an example of a surface with constant negative gaussian
curvature, however, we have to construct a new surface. To this end, we examine
again the surface of revolution
u(u, v) = (I(u) cosv , I(u) sin v, g(u)).
We found in Example 7.2 that its gaussian curvature is
(2)
i
Suppose first that K = 0 everywhere. Then, Eq. (2) gives = 0, so I(u) =
au + b for some contants a and b. Since j2 + il = 1, we get iJ = ±J1 - a2 (so
we must have lai ~ 1) and hence g(u) = ±V1- a2u + c, where c is another
constant. By applying a translation along the z-axis we can assurne that c = 0,
and by applying a rotation about the x-axis (say) we can assurne that the sign
is +. This gives the ruled surface
u(u, v) = (b cos v , bsin v, 0) + u(a cosv, asin v, ~).
Ha = 0 this is a circular cylinder; if [c] = 1 it is the xy-plane; and if 0 < lai < 1
it is part of a cone (to see this, put ü = au + b).
Now suppose that K = 1 everywhere. (Any surface with constant positive
gaussian curvature can be reduced to this case by applying a dilation of R 3 -
see Exercise 7.6.) Then, Eq. (2) becomes
i + 1 = 0,
which has the general solution
I(u) = acos(u + b),
where a and bare constants. We can assume that b = 0 by performing a

reparametrisation ü = u + b,V = v. Then, up to a change of sign and adding a
constant,
g(u) !
= VI - a2 sin 2 u du.
This integral cannot be evaluated in terms of 'elementary' functions unless
a = 0 or ±1. The case a = 0 does not give a surface, so we consider the case
a = 1 (the case a = -1 can be reduced to this by rotating the surface by 7r
around the z-axis) . Then, f (u) = cos u, g(u) = sin u, and we have the unit
sphere.
Suppose finally that K = -1. The general solution of Eq . (2) is then
f(u) = ce" + se:»,
where a and bare arbitrary constants. For most values of a and b we cannot
express 9 in terms of elementary functions, so we consider only the case a = 1
and b = O. Then, f(u) = e" and we can take
g(u) !
= VI - e 2u du. (3)
Note that we must have u ~ 0 for the integral in Eq . (3) to make sense, since
otherwise 1 - e2u would be negative.
The integral in (3) can be evaluated by putting v = e" . Then,
! Vl -e 2u
du = !7 dv
= !(~-v) b
~
=yI-v·+ ! ~dv .
vvl- v 2
Put w = V-I in the last integral. This gives
! VI - e2u du =~_ ! -/w dw

2 -1
= ~ -COSh-IW
= ~ -cosh- l (~)
= VI - e2u - cosh-l(e- u ) .
We have omitted the arbitrary constant, but we can take it to be zero by
suitably translating the surface in the direction of the z-axis. So
f(u) = e", g(u) = VI - e2u - cosh-l(e- U ) .
Putting x = f(u), z = g(u), we see that the profile curve in the xz-plane has
equation
z =~- cosh- 1 (;.) . (4)
Rotating this curve around the z-axis thus gives a surface called the pseudo-
sphere, which has gaussian curvature -1 everywhere. Note that, since u ~ 0,
x = e" is restricted to the range 0 < x ~ 1.
The curve defined by Eq. (4) is called the tractrix, and it has an interesting
geometrical property. Consider the tangent line at a point P of its graph, and
suppose that it intersects the z-axis at the point Q. Let us compute the distance
PQ.
z
(1,0)
x
Suppose that P is the point (xo, zo). Either by a direct calculation or by

inspeeting the ealculation of the integral (3), one finds that

v'1- x 2
=---
dz
dx x
Henee, the tangent line at P has equation
z - Zo =~
Xo
(x - xo).
This meets the z-axis at the point (0, zd , where
Zl - Zo =~
- 0 (0 -
Xo
xo) =- R 1 - x~ .
Henee, the distanee PQ is given by

(PQ)2 = x~ + (Zl - zO)2 = x~ + 1 - x~ = 1,
i.e, the distanee PQ is constant and equal to one ,
This means that the traetrix has the following deseription. Let a donkey pull
a box of stones by a rope of length one. Suppose that the donkey is initially
at (0,0), the box is initially at (1,0), and let the donkey walk slowly along the
negative z-axis. Then, the box of stones moves along the traetrix.
The study of geometry on a pseudosphere is a subjeet in its own right ealled
non-euclidean geometry. Many of the results of plane euelidean geometry have
analogues for the pseudosphere, but there are several differenees. For example,
the sum of the interior angles of a triangle on the pseudosphere with 'straight'
sides is always less than 7L (We shall explain the meaning of 'straight' here
in Chapter 8 - see especially Example 8.8.) This should be compared with
Theorem 5.5 which shows that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle on
the unit sphere whose sides are ares of great circles is always greater than 7r.
EXERCISES
7.11 For the pseudosphere:

(i) ealculate the length of a parallel;
(ii) ealculate its total area;
(iii) ealculate the principal eurvatures;
(iv) show that all points are hyperbolie.
7.12 Show that
(i) setting w = e- u gives a reparametrisation ud v, w) of the pseu-
dosphere with first fundamental form
dv 2 +dw2
w2
(calIed the upper half-plane modeQ;

(ii) setting
2
+ w -12
U = vv2+(w+1)2 , V
-2v
= ~---;----::"'=
v 2+(w+1)2
defines a reparametrisation t12(U, V) of the pseudosphere with
first fundamental form
dU 2 +dV 2
(1 - U2 - V2)2 .
This is called the disc model, because the region w > 0 of the
vw-plane corresponds to the disc U 2 + V2 < 1 in the UV -plane,
Which regions in the half-plane model and the disc model correspond
to the region u < 0, -11' < V < 11' where the parametrisation a of the
pseudosphere given in this section is defined?
7.13 Let S be a surface of revolution with axis the z-axis, and let its
profile curve be a unit-speed curve 'Y(u) in the xz-plane. Suppose
that 'Y intersects the z-axis at right angles when u = ±11'/2, but does
not intersect the z-axis when -11'/2 < u < 11'/2. Prove that, if the
gaussian curvature K of S is constant, that constant is equal to one
and S is the unit sphere.
7.3. Flat Surfaces

In Section 7.2, we gave some examples of surfaces of constant gaussian curvature
K , hut this certainly falls well short of a complete classification of such surfaces.
It is possible, however, to give a fairly complete description of flat surjaces , i.e.
surfaces for which K = 0 everywhere. To do so, we shall make use of a special
parametrisation, valid for any surface, described in the following proposition.
Proposition 7.2
Let P be a point 0/ a sur/ace S, and suppose that P is not an umbilic . Then ,
there is a surjace patch t1(u, v) 0/ S containing P whose first and second /un-
damental [orms are
Edu 2 + Gdv 2 and Ldu 2 + N dv 2,
respectively, [or some smooth /unctions E,G ,L and N.
We recall from Seetion 6.3 that a point P of a surface S is an umbilic if the

two principal curvatures of S at P are equal. From Section 6.3, we see that for
the patch a in the statement of the proposition, tru and a; are principal vectors
with corresponding principal curvatures L/E and N/G. We call o a principal
patch.
We assurne Proposition 7.2 for the moment, and use it to give the proof of
Proposition 7.3
Let P be a point 0/ a fiat susface S, and assume that P is not an umbilic. Then,
there is a patch 0/ S conta ining P that is a ruled surface.
Proo/7.3
We take a patch o : U -+ R 3 containing P as in Proposition 7.2, say P =
tr(uo , vo) . By Proposition 7.1(ii) , the gaussian curvature K = LN/ EG. Since
the gaussian curvature is zero everywhere, either L = 0 or N = 0 at each point
of U, and since P is not an umbilic Land N are not both zero, Suppose that
L(uo , vo) f O. Then, L(u, v) f 0 for (u, v) in some open subset of U containing
(uo, vo) . Hence, by shrinking U if necessary, we can assurne that L f 0 at every
point of U. Then, N = 0 everywhere, and the second fundamental form of o is
uu».
We shall prove that the parameter curves u = constant are straight lines.
Such a curve can be parametrised by v H tr(UO, v) , where Uo is the constant
value of u. A unit tangent vector to this curve is t = trv /G1 / 2 , so by Proposition
1.1 what we have to prove is that t v = O.
By Proposition 6.4, the derivatives of the unit normal are
(5)
Hence, tv .tru = -EL-1tv.N u. Now, t .N; = 0 and N uv = 0 by Eq. (5), so
tv.N u = -t.N uv = O. Hence, tv .tru = O. Next, tv.t = 0 since t is a unit vector
by construction, so tv.tr v = O. Finally, tv .N = -t.Nv = 0 by Eq. (5) again .
Since the vectors tru , trv and N form a basis of R 3 , we have proved that t v = O.
o
Our task, then, is to describe the structure of Hat ruled surfaces . We

parametrise the ruled surface as in Example 7.3:
O'(u,v) = -y(u) + v6(u).
We found there that a u = i' + v6, o v = 6, the dot denoting d] du, and that the
gaussian curvature of tr is zero if and only if
6.(tru x O'v) = o.
Since
tT u X a; = iy x 6 + v6 x 6,
and 6.(6 x 6) = 0,
K =0 if and only if 6.(iy x 6) = O. (6)
Thus, K = 0 if and only if iy, 6 and 6 are everywhere linearly dependent.
To proceed further, let us assume , as we may, that 6(u) is a unit vector for
all values of u. Then, 6.6 = O. Suppose first that 6(u) = 0 for all values of u.
Then, 6 is a constant vector and tT is a generalised cylinder.
Suppose now that 6 is never zero. Then, 6 and 6 are linearly independent
as they are non-zero and perpendicular, so if iy, 6 and 6 are linearly dependent,
then
iy(u) = f(u)6(u) + g(u)6(u)
for some smooth functions f and g. Assume first that f = iJ everywhere. Then,
iy = (g6)' and so 'Y = g6 + a , where a is a constant vector ; hence,
tT(u, v) = a + (v + g(u))6(u).
Putting ii. = u, ii = v + g(u), we see that this is a reparametrisation of a
generalised cone.
Suppose finally that 6 and f - iJ are both nowhere zero. If we define
_ v + g(u)
-y(u) = 'Y(u) - g(u)6(u), v = f(u) _ iJ(u) ,
a short calculation gives
tT(u, v) = -y(u) + ii~(u),
so a is a reparametrisation of part of the tangent developable of-Y.
Of course, it could be that none of the conditions on 6, fand 9 considered

above are satisfied. In fact, we have only shown that the parts of the surface
corresponding to certain open subsets of U are parts of generalised cylinders,

generalised cones or tangent developables. It is not true that the whole surface
must be one of these three types , since flat surfaces of different types can be
joined together to make a smooth surface, as shown in the diagram above . In
general, a flat surface is a patchwork consisting of pieces of generalised cylinders,
generalised cones and tangent developables, joined together along segments of
straight lines.
The remainder of this section is devoted to the proof of Proposition 7.2
and can safely be omitted by readers uncomfortable with the use of the inverse
function theorem. In fact, we can prove a more general result with no additional
effort:
Proposition 7.4
Let U : (; ---t R 3 be a surface patch, and suppose that for all (u, ii) E (; we are
given tangent vectors
el (u, v) = a(u, v)u ü + b(u,V)Uii ' e2(u, v) = c(u, v)u ü + d(u,V)Uii'
whose components a, b, c, d are smooth functions of (u,v) . Assume that , at
some point (uo, vo) E ti, the vectors ei (uo, vo) and e2(uo, vo) are linearly in-
dependent. Then, there is an open subset V of (; containing (uo, vo) and a
reparametrisation O'(u, v) of u(u ,ii), for (u,v) E V, such that O'u and O'v are
parallel to el and e2, respectively .
Proposition 7.2 is a special case of Proposition 7.4. In fact, let U be any

surface patch of S containing P, and let P = u(uo ,vo). Since the principal
curvatures Kl and K2 of U are distinct at P, and are continuous functions by
Exercise 7.7, they remain distinct for (u,v) in some open set (; containing
(uo, vo) on which U is defined. With the notation of Section 6.3, let (;:) be
non-zero eigenvectors of P II - KiP I for i = 1,2, where PI and P II are the
matrices associated to the first and second fundamental forms of U. Then,
ei = 6uü + T/I Uii, e2 = 6uü + T/2 Uii
are principal vectors corresponding to Kl and K2, and they are perpendicular
by Proposition 6.3(iii). We can assurne that el and e2 are unit vectors (by
using ed 11 ei 11 and e2/ 11 e2 11 instead) . Let O'(u, v) be a reparametrisation of
U as in Proposition 7.4. Then, O'u .O'v = 0 because el and e2 are perpendicular,
so the first fundamental form of 0' is of the form Edu 2 + Gdv 2 • Also, 0' u and
O'v are principal vectors corresponding to Kl and K2 , so we have
(FII - KIFI) (~) = (FII - K2 F I ) (~) = (~),

where Tl and Tl I are the matrices associated to the first and second fun-
damental forms of (1 . Since Tl = (~ ~), these equations imply that
Tl I = ( "'IE
0 0) .
"'2G' so the second fundamental form of (1 IS Ldu 2 + N dv 2 ,
where L = "'IE and N = "'2G.
We are thus left with the proof of Proposition 7.4. To begin, we observe
that, if
e = AÖ"ü + BÖ"ij,
where A and Bare any given smooth functions of (ü , ii) E Ü, we can find a
curve y in Ö" with 'Y = e and with any given point Q = Ö"(a, ß) as starting point
'1(0) . For, finding such a curve 'Y(t) = Ö"(ü(t),ii(t)) is equivalent to solving the
pair of ordinary differential equations
iL = A(ü,ii), t = B(ü,ii)
with initial conditions ü(O) = a, ii(O) = ß. It is proved in the theory of ordinary
differential equations that this problem has a unique solution ü(t), ii(t) defined
on some open interval containing t = O. Moreover, ü and ii are smooth functions
of the three variables t, a and ß.
Applying this observation to e = el, we can find a curve '11 (8d in Ö" with
'11(0) = Ö"(üo,iio) and d'Yl/d81 = er. Now applying the same observation to
e = e2, we can find , for each value of 81 elose to 0, a curve 82 ~ >'(81,82) in
Ö" with 8>'/882 = e2 and >'(81,0) = '11 (8d · Define (ü,ii) as functions of (81,82)
by
(7)
Differentiating with respect to 81 and 82 gives
_ 8ü _8ii, _ 8ü _8ii,
(1ü-8 +(1ij-8 ="81' (1Ü-8 +(1ij-8 ="82 '
81 81 82 82
We have
d d'Y1 {).
>'slls=O=-d>'(81,0)=-d =e1, >'S2=-{) =e2·
(8)
2 81 81 82
Equating coefficients of Ü ü and Üfj, we see from the last two sets of equations
that, at the point ü(uo, vo), where 81 = 82 = 0, the jacobian matrix
(:s~
1tE..
8s1
:s~ =
1tE..
8S2
) (a c) b d .
(9)
Since e1 and e2 are linearly independent at (uo, vo), this matrix is invertible.
By the inverse function theorem 4.2, Eq. (7) can be solved for (81,82) as smooth
functions of (u,v) when (u,v) is in some open set IV of Ü containing (uo,vo).
Thus, >. is an allowable surface patch; by Eq. (8), it has the property that
>'SI = e1 when 82 = 0, and >'S2 = e2 everywhere.
We now repeat the procedure, this time starting with a curve 'Y2(t2) with
d'Y2/dt2 = e2 and 'Y2(0) = ü(uo, vo), and then taking a curve t1 ~ p(t l , t2)
with {)p/{)t1 = e1 and p(O,t2) = 'Y2(t2)' This gives an allowable patch p(t1,t2)
such that
p(t 1,t2) =ü(u,v)
for (u,v) in some open sub set Z of Ü containing (uo,vo). This patch has the
property that ptl = e1 everywhere and pt2 = e2 when t1 = O.
The parametrisation we want is 0'(U , v) , where 0'(u, v) is the intersection of
the curve 82 ~ >'(U,82) with the curve t1 ~ p(t1,V). Thus, we consider the
equations
From Eq . (9),
{)u {)v = b
-=a,
{)u {)u '
and similarly
{)u
{)v = c, {)v = d.
{)v
Hence, the jacobian matrix
(i! i;)=(: ~) .
As usual, the fact that this matrix is invertible means that (u, v) can be ex-
pressed as smooth functions of (u, v), for (u, v) in some open sub set V of IVn Z
containing (uo, vo), and we get a reparametrisation O'(u, v) of ü(u, v). Finally,
the equation 0'(u, v) = 1'(t1, v) implies that
{)t1 {)t1
O'u = {)u ptl = {)u e1,
and similarly
8s 2
a; = 7!);e 2 '
so Uu and Uv are parallel to el and e2 everywhere.
EXERCISES
7.14 Let P be a hyperbolic point of a surface S (see Section 6.4). Show

that there is a patch of S containing P whose parameter curves are
asymptotic curves (see Exercise 6.12).
7.4. Surfaces of Constant Mean Curvature

We now consider surfaces whose mean curvature H is constant. As we shall see
in Chapter 9, such surfaces are encountered in reallife as the shapes taken up
by soap films.
We shall discuss the surfaces for which H is everywhere zero in detail in
Chapter 9. In this section, we are going to describe a construction which gives
a correspondence between surfaces of constant non-zero mean curvature and
surfaces of constant positive gaussian curvature.
Definition 7.2
Let a be a surface patch with standard unit normal N, and let A be a constant
scalar. The parallel surjace u A of a is
u A =u+.\N.
Roughly speaking, (JA is obtained by translating the surface (J a distance

A perpendicular to itself (but this is not a genuine translation since N will in
general vary over the surface).
Proposition 7.5
Let 11:1 and 11:2 be the principal curvatures 0/ a surface patch (J : U -t R 3 ,
and suppose that there is a constant C such that 111:11 and 111:2/ are both ~ C
everywhere. Let A be a constant with lAI< l/C, and let (JA be the corresponding
parallel surjace 0/ (J. Then,
(i) (JA is a (regular) surface patch;
(ii) the standard unit normal 0/ (J>' at (J>' (u , v) is the same as that 0/ (J at
(J(u , v) , [or all (u, v) EU;
(iii) the principal curvatures 0/ (J>' are 11:1/(1- AlI:l) and 11:2/(1- AII:2) , and the
corresponding principal vectors are the same as those 0/ (J [or the principal
curvatures 11:1 and 11:2, respectively;
(iv) the gaussian and mean curvatures 0/ (J>' are
K H-AK
1- 2AH + A2 K and 1 - 2AH + A2 K '
respectively.
Proo/7.5
By Proposition 6.4,
(J~ = (Ju + AN u = (1 + Aa) (Ju + Ab(Jv,
(10)
(J~ = a; + AN v = AC(Ju + (1 + Ad) (Jv,
where the Weingarten matrix
w=-(: ~) .
Hence,
(J~ x (J~ = (1 + A(a + d) + A2(ad - bc)) (Ju X (Jv.
Since 11:1 and 11:2 are the eigenvalues of W (see Section 6.3), and since the sum
and product of the eigenvalues of a matrix are equal to the SUfi of the diagonal
entries and the determinant of the matrix, respectively,
11:1 + 11:2 = -Ca + d), 11:111:2 = ad - bc.
Hence,
(11)
Since lAI< l/C and III:I! and 111:21 are ~ C, it follows that IAII:I! and IAII:21 are
< 1, so (1 - AlI:d(l - A1I:2) > 0, and Eq. (11) shows that (TA is regular and that
its standard unit normal is
A ..\
NA _ (Tu X (Tv _ (Tu X (Tv _ N
- 11 (T~ x (T~ 11 - 11 (Tu X (Tv 11 - .
The principal curvatures of (TA are the eigenvalues of the Weingarten matrix
WA of (TA . By Proposition 6.4, this is the negative of the matrix expressing N~
and N ~ in terms of (T~ and (T~. Equation (10) says that the matrix expressing
(T~ and (T~ in terms of (Tu and a; is 1- AW, and the fact that NA = N implies
that - W is the matrix expressing N ~ and N ~ in terms of (Tu and (Tv- Combining
these two observations we get
If T is an eigenvector of W with eigenvalue 11:, then T is also an eigenvector of

WA with eigenvalue 11:/(1 - AII:) . The assertions in part (iii) follows from this .
Part (iv) follows from part (iii) by straightforward algebra. 0
Corollary 7.1
I/ (T is a surjace patch with constant non -zero mean curvature H, then [or
>. =1/2H, (TA has constant gaussian curvature 4H 2 . Conversely, i/ (T has
constant positive gaussian cv.rvature K , then [or A = ±l/VK, (TA has constant
mean cv.rvature =FtVK.
Proof T.l
This follows from part (iv) of the proposition by straightforward algebra. 0
EXERCISES
7.15 The first fundamental form of a surface patch (T(u, v) is of the form
E(du + dv ) . Prove that (Tuu + (Tvv is perpendicular to (Tu and (Tv .
2 2
Deduce that the mean curvature H = 0 everywhere if and only if

the laplacian
(Tuu + (Tvv = O.
Show that the surface patch
3
(T(u, v) = ( U - 3U3 + uv 2 , V - 3v + u 2v, u 2 - v2
)
has H = 0 everywhere. (A picture of this surface can be found in

Section 9.3 .)
7.16 Compute the mean curvature of the surface with cartesian equation
z = /(x,y)
where / is a smooth function of x and y . Prove that H = 0 for the
surface
z = In (COS y) .
cosx
(A picture of this surface can also be found in Section 9.3.)
7.17 Let O'(u, v) be a surface patch with first and second fundamental
forms Edu 2 + Gdv 2 and Ldu 2 + N dv 2 , respectively (cf. Proposition
7.2). Define
E(u, v, w) = O'(u, v) + wN(u, v),
where N is the standard unit normal of 0' . Show that the three
families of surfaces obtained by fixing the values of u, v or w in E
form a triply orthogonal system (see Section 4.6 and Exercise 6.21).
The surfaces w = constant are parallel surfaces of 0'. Show that the
surfaces u = constant and v = constant are Rat ruled surfaces.
7.5. Gaussian Curvature of Compact Surfaces

We have seen in Section 6.4 how the relative signs of the principal curvatures
at a point P of a surface S determine the shape of S near P . In fact , since
the gaussian curvature K of S is the product of its principal curvatures, the
discussion there shows that
(i) if K > 0 at P , then P is an elliptic point;
(ii) if K < 0 at P, then P is a hyperbolic point;
(iii) if K = 0 at P, then Pis either a parabolic point or a planar point (and in
the last case we cannot say much about the shape of the surface near P).
In this section, we give a result which shows how the gaussian curvature
influences the overall shape of a surface. We shall give another result of a similar
nature in Section 10.4.
Proposition 7.6
I/ S is a compact surjace, there is a point P 0/S at which its gaussian curvature
K is > O.
We recall that a subset X of R 3 is called compact if it is closed (l.e. the set

of points in R 3 that are not in X is open) and bounded (i.e. X is contained
in some open ball). In the proof, we shall make use of the following fact about
compact sets: if 1 : R 3 -+ R is a continuous function, then there are points P
and Q in X such that I(Q) sI(R) s
I(P) for all points R in X, so that 1
attains its maximum value on X at P and its minimum at Q.
Prao17.6
Define 1 : R 3 -+ R by I(v) = 11 V 11 2 . Then, 1 is continuous so the fact that S

is compact implies that there is a point P in S where 1 attains its maximum
value. Let P have position vector P i then S is contained inside the closed ball
of radius 11 P 11 and centre the origin, and S intersects its boundary sphere at
P . The idea is that S is at least as curved as the sphere at P , so its gaussian
curvature should be at least that of the sphere at P , i.e, at least 1/ 11 P 11 2 •
To make this argument precise, let 'Y(t) be any unit-speed curve in S passing
through P when t = 0. Then, 1('Y(t)) has a local maximum at t = 0, so
d
d/('Y(t)) = 0,
d?
dt2/('Y(t))::::; °
at t = 0, i.e,
'Y(0) .-y(0) = 0, 'Y(O) .;Y(O) + 1 ::::; 0. (12)
The equation in (12) shows that P = 'Y(O) is perpendicular to every unit tangent
vector to S at P, and hence is perpendicular to the tangent plane of S at P .
Choose asurface patch (T in the atlas of S containing P , and let N be its
standard unit normal. By the preceding remark,
P
N = ±ITPlf' (13)
The inequality in (12) implies that the normal curvature "'n = ;Y(O).N of'Y at P
(computed in the patch (T) is ::::; -1/ 11 P 11 or ~ 1/ 11 pli, according to whether
the sign in Eq . (13) is + or -, respectively. By Corollary 6.2, the principal
°
curvatures of (T at P are either both ::::; -1/11 P 11 or both ~ 1/ 11 P 11. In each
case, K ~ 1/ 11 P 11 > at P .
2
0
7.6. The Gauss Map

Proposition 2.2 shows that, if 'Y(s) is a unit-speed plane curve, its signed cur-
vature "'8 = dcp/ds, where cp is the angle between its tangent vector 'Y and a
fixed direction, i.e, the (signed) curvature is the rate 0/ change 0/ direction 0/
the tangent vector 0/ 'Y per unit length. We are going to look for an analogue of
this for surfaces.
The 'direction' of the tangent plane to a surface patch a : U -t R 3 is
measured by its standard unit normal N , so we might expect that the curvature
of a is measured by the 'rate of change of N per unit area'. To make sense of
this, note that N is a point of the unit sphere
82 = {v E R 3 111 v 11 = I}.
The Gauss map is the map S -t 8 2 , where S is the image of (1 , which sends
the point u(u, v) of S to the point N (u, v) of 8 2 • We denote the Gauss map
by g. More generally, the Gauss map can be defined for any orientable surface
S (see Section 4.3), since such a surface has a weIl defined unit normal N at
every point.
-------~~-~------
'------ --Q---- ----'
If R ~ U is a region, the amount by which N varies over the part u(R) of

S is measured by the area of the part N(R) of the sphere. Thus, the rate of
change of N per unit area is approximately
area of N(R) AN(R)
= ,
area of u(R) Au(R)
in the notation of Section 5.4. The following theorem shows that, as the region
R shrinks to a point, this ratio becomes the absolute value of the gaussian
curvature of o at the point .
Theorem 7.1
Let (S : U -t R 3 be a surface, let (uo, vo) EU, and let 8 > 0 be such that the
closed disc
with centre (uo, vo) and radius 8 is contained in U (such a 8 exists because U
is open). Then,
lim AN(Rö ) = IKI,

ö-.o Aq(Rö )
where K is the gaussian curvature 0/ (S at (S( Uo, vo).
Proof Tit
By Definition 5.3,
AN(R )ö _ ffR 6 11 Nu x N v 11 dudv
~--'---;-
(14)
Aq(Rö ) - ffR6 11 (SU X (Sv 11 dudv .
By Proposition 6.4,
Nu x N, = (oa; X btTv ) x (CtS u x Mv)
= (ad - bc)(Su x (Sv
= det( _:F[1 :FIl)(Su x (Sv
det(:FIl )
= det(:FI) (Su X (Sv
=
ItI; ~II
~ (S u x (Sv (by the definition of :FI and :FII)
LN-M2
= EG _ p2 (Su X (Sv
= K(Su X (Sv (by Proposition 7.1(i». (15)
Sustituting in Eq . (14), we get
AN(R ) ö
_....:..-...;.._
ffR6 IKIII (Su x (Sv 11 dudv
Aq(Rö ) - ffR6 11 «; X (Sv 11 dudv .
Let e be any positive number. Since K (u, v) is a continuous function of
(u, v) (see Exercise 7.7), we can choose 8 > 0 so small that
IK(u, v) - K(uo, vo)1 < e
if (u,v) E Rs: Since, for any real numbers a,b , la - bl ~ lIal-lbll, it follows
that IIK(u,v)I-IK(uo,vo)11 < € if (u,v) E Rs, i.e,
IK(uo ,vo)l- € < IK(u ,v)/ < IK(uo,vo)1 + e
if (u, v) E R ö • Multiplying through by 11 (Tu x o; 11 and integrating over R ö, we
get
(IK(uo, vo)1 - €)//11 (Tu x (Tv 11 dudv -! /IK(U, v)11I (Tu x a; 11 dudv
< (IK(uo,vo)1 + €)//11 (Tu x a; IIdudv,

AN(Rö )
IK(uo,vo)l- € < Au(Rc5) < IK(uo,vo)1 + € (using Eq. (14))
This proves the theorem. o

Although this proposition only gives the absolute value of the gaussian
curvature K, the sign can be recovered from the Gauss map if we define the
signed area of N(R) to be ±AN(R), where the sign is + or - according to
whether Nu x N, points in the same or the opposite direction as N. By Eq .
(15), this sign is that of K, so K is the limit of the ratio
signed area of N(R)
area of (T(R)
as the region R shrinks to a point.
As the following examples show, Theorem 7.1 sometimes allows one to find
the gaussian curvature of a surface with no calculation.
Example 7.4
For a plane, the unit normal is constant. Thus, for any R, N(R) is a single
point, and thus has zero area. By the theorem, a plane has gaussian curvature
zero everywhere.
For a (generalised) cylinder, the unit normal is clearly always perpendicular
to the rulings of the cylinder, so the image of the Gauss map is contained in
the great circle on the unit sphere formed by intersecting the sphere with the
plane passing through the centre of the sphere and perpendicular to the rulings
of the cylinder. Any great circle obviously has zero area, so the cylinder has
zero gaussian curvature too.
Finally, for the unit sphere 8 2 itself, the unit normal at a point P is clearly
parallel to the radius vector from the centre of the sphere to P. In other words,
the Gauss map is the identity map or the antipodal map (depending on the
choice of parametrisation). Both of these maps are obviously equiareal, so the
(absolute value of the) gaussian curvature of 52 is one. In fact, this discussion
shows that, for any parametrisation a of 52, we have N = ±tT. The sign depends
of the choice of parametrisation, but in any case Nu x N, = tTu X a; so the
gaussian curvature is +1.
EXERCISES
7.18 Let a : U -+ R 3 be a patch on a surface S. Show that the image

under the Gauss map of the part tT(R) of S corresponding to a region
R ~ U has area
where K is the gaussian curvature of S. (Inspect the proof of The-

orem 7.1.)
7.19 Let S be the torus in Exercise 4.10. Sketch the parts S+ and S-
of S where the gaussian curvature K of S is positive and negative,
respectively. Show, without calculation, that
!fs+ K dA =- !fs- K dA = 41T.

(The meaning of these integrals should be clear: if S+, say, is con-
tained in a single surface patch tT of S, so that S+ = tT(R+), say,
then the left-hand side means ffR + K dAuj if S+ is not contained
in a single patch, it can be broken into pieces, each of which is con-
tained in a single patch, and then the integral over S+ is the sum of
the integrals over each piece of S+ . Further details can be found in
Section 11.3.)
Of course, it follows that ff s K dA = 0, a result that will be 'ex-
plained' in Section 11.3.
8
Geodesics
Geodesics are the curves in a surface that a bug living in the surface would
perceive to be straight. For example, the shortest path between two points
in a surface is always a geodesic. We shall actually begin by giving a quite
different definition of geodesics, since this definition is easier to work with. We
give various methods of finding the geodesics on surfaces, before finally making
contact with the idea of shortest paths towards the end of the chapter.
8.1. Definition and Basic Properties

Recall from Proposition 1.1 that a curve '1 is a straight line if it has zero
acceleration ;yeverywhere . A bug living in a surface and travelling along a curve
'1, however, would perceive only the component of;y parallel to the tangent
plane , so would argue that '1 is straight if this component of the acceleration
is everywhere zero. This suggests
Definition 8.1
A curve y on a surface S is called a geodesie if ;y(t) is zero or perpendicular to
the surface at the point 'Y(t), i.e. parallel to its unit normal , for all values of
the parameter t.
Note that the unit normal is weH defined up to sign for any surface S, so
this definition makes sense.
171
There is an interesting mechanical interpretation of geodesics: a particle

moving on the surface, and subject to no forces except a force acting per-
pendicular to the surface that keeps the particle on the surface, would move
along a geodesic. This is because Newton's second law of motion says that the
force on the particle is parallel to its acceleration 1', which would therefore be
perpendicular to the surface.
We begin our study of geodesics by noting that there is essentially no choice
in their parametrisation.
Proposition 8.1
Any geodesie has constant speed.
Proof 8.1
Let 'Y(t) be a geodesie on a surface S. Then, denoting djdt by a dot,
d 11'
dt 'Y 11
2
= dtd( 'Y.'Y
.. ) = 2'"
'Y.'Y.
Since 'Y is a geodesic, l' is perpendicular to the tangent plane and is therefore
perpendicular to the tangent vector 1'. So 1'.1' = 0 and the last equation shows
that 11 .y 11 is constant. 0
It is clear that a unit-speed reparametrisation of a geodesie 'Y is still a

geodesic, since Proposition 8.1 shows that the effect of the reparametrisation is
to multiply l' by a non-zero scalar. Thus, we can always restriet to unit-speed
geodesics if we wish .
We observe next that there is an equivalent definition of a geodesie expressed
in terms of the geodesie curvature K g (see Section 6.2). Of course, this is why
K g is called the geodesie curvature!
Proposition 8.2
A curve on a surface is a geodesie if and only if its geodesie curvature is zero
everywhere.
Proof 8.2
It is sufficient to consider a unit-speed curve 'Y contained in a patch a of the
surface. Let N be the standard unit normal of a, so that
Kg = ;Y.(N x 1'). (1)
8. Geodesics 173
If ;y is parallel to N , it is obviously perpendicular to N x -y, so by Eq. (1),

"'g = O.
Conversely, suppose that "'g = O. Then, ;y is perpendicular to N x -y. But
then, since -y, N and N x -y are perpendicular unit vectors in R 3 , and since ;y
is perpendicular to -y, it follows that ;y is parallel to N . 0
The next result gives the simplest examples of geodesics.
Proposition 8.3
Any (part 0/ a) straight line on a surface is a geodesic.
By this, we mean that every straight line can be parametrised so that it is

a geodesic. A similar remark applies to other geodesics we shall consider whose
parametrisation is not specified.
Proo/8.3
This is obvious, for a straight line may be parametrised by
'Y(t) = a + bt,
where a and bare constant vectors, and clearly ;y = o. o
Example 8.1
All straight lines in the plane are geodesics, as are the rulings of any ruled
surface, such as the generators of a (generalised) cylinder, or those of a (gen-
eralised) cone, or the straight lines on a hyperboloid of one sheet .
The next result is almost as simple:
Proposition 8.4
Any normal section 0/ a surjace is a geodesic.
Proof Bü
Recall from Section 6.2 that anormal section of a surface S is the intersection
C of S with aplane II, such that II is perpendicular to the surface at each
point of C. We showed in Section 6.2 that "'g = 0 for anormal section, so the
result follows from Proposition 8.2. 0
Example 8.2
All great circles on a sphere are geodesics.
For a great circle is the interseetion of the sphere with a plane II passing
through the centre 0 of the sphere, so if P is a point of the great circle, the
vector OP lies in II and is perpendicular to the tangent plane of the unit sphere
at P. Hence, II is perpendicular to the tangent plane at P.
Example 8.3
The intersection of a (generalised) cylinder with aplane II perpendicular to
the rulings of the cylinder is a geodesic. For it is clear that the unit normal N
is perpendicular to the rulings . It follows that N is parallel to II, and hence
that II is perpendicular to the tangent plane.
~-- ------ ----

8. Geodesics 175
EXERCISES
8.1 Describe four different geodesics on the hyperboloid of one sheet

x 2 + y2 _ Z2 = 1
passing through the point (1,0,0). (Use Propositions 8.3 and 8.4.)
8.2 Consider the tube of radius a > 0 around a unit-speed curve "1 in R 3
defined in Exercise 5.17:
O'(s , 0) = 'Y(s) + a(cos 0 n(s) + sin 0 b(s)) .
Show that the parameter curves on the tube obtained by fixing the
value of s are circular geodesics on S .
8.3 Let 'Y(t) be a geodesie on an ellipsoid S (see Proposition 4.6). Let
2R(t) be the length of the diameter of the ellipsoid parallel to 'Y(t),
and let S(t) be the distance from the centre of the ellipsoid to the
tangent plane of S at 'Y(t). Show that the curvature of'Yis S(t)jR(t)2,
and that the product R(t)S(t) is independent of t . (Take the ellipsoid
2 2 2
to be } + ~ + ~ = 1 and note that 'Y(t) = (J(t), g(t), h(t)) is a
geodesie if and only if (1, g, h) = >.(~ , ~ , ~) for some scalar >.(t).)
8.4 Show that the torsion of a geodesie with nowhere vanishing curvature
is equal to its geodesie torsion (see Exercise 6.11). (Use the fact that
the principal normal of the geodesie is parallel to the unit normal of
the surface.)
8.5 A geodesie "1 on a surface S lies in aplane and has nowhere vanishing
curvature. Show that "1 is a line of curvature of S. (If II is the plane,
show that the unit normal N of S is parallel to II and deduce that
N is parallel to 'Y; then use Exercise 6.18.)
8.2. Geodesie Equations

Unfortunately, Propositions 8.3 and 8.4 are not usually sufficient to determine
all the geodesics on a given surface. For that, we need the following result:
Theorem 8.1
A eurue "1 on a surface S is a geodesic i/ and only i/, [or any part 'Y(t) =
0'( u(t) ,v(t)) 0/"1 contained in a surfacepatch 0' 0/5, the /ollowing two equations
are satisfied:
~ (Eu + Fv) = ~(Euu2 + 2Fuuv + Guv 2),

(2)
~ (r« + Gv) = ~(Evu2 + 2Fvuv + G vv2),
where Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2 is the first fundamental form of (J.
The differential equations (2) are called the geodesie equations.
Proo] 8.1
Since {(J u, (Jv} is a basis of the tangent plane of (J, 'Y is a geodesie if and only
if;Y is perpendicular to (Ju and (Jv . Since 'Y = uo; + v(Jv, this is equivalent to
(~ (u(Ju + V(Jv)) .(Ju = 0 and (~ (ittJ u + V(Jv)) .a; = O. (3)
We show that these two equations are equivalent to the two geodesie equations.
The left-hand side of the first equation in (3) is equal to
d« U(Ju ' ) .a.;) - ('U(Ju + V(Jv

. + V(Jv . )dtJ u
dt .--;It
= ~ (Eu + Fv) - (u(Ju + v(Jv).{u(Juu + v(Juv)

= ~ (Eu + Fv) - (u 2«(Ju.(Juu) + uV«(Ju.(Juv + (Jv.(Juu) + v 2«(Jv.(Juv)) . (4)
Now,
so (Ju.(Juu = ~Eu' Similarly, (Jv.(Juv = ~Gu' Finally,
Substituting these values into (4) gives
(~ (u(Ju + V(Jv)) .(Ju = ~ (Eu + Fv) - ~(Euu2 + 2Fuuv + Guv 2).

This shows that the first equation in (3) is equivalent to the first geodesie
equation in (2). Similarly for the other equations. 0
The geodesie equations are non-linear differential equations, and are usually
difficult or impossible to solve explicitly. The following example is one case in
which this can be done. Another is given in Exercise 8.9.
8. Geodesics 177
Example 8.4
We determine the geodesics on the unit sphere 8 2 by solving the geodesie

equations. For the usual parametrisation by latitude 0 and longitude <P,
u( 0, <p) = (cos 0 cos <P, cos 0 sin <P, sin 0),
we found in Example 5.2 that the first fundamental form is
d02 + cos2 0 d<p2 .
We might as weIl restriet ourselves to unit-speed curves 'Y(t) = u(O(t),<p(t» , so
that
iP + ep2 cos2 0 = 1,
and if'Y is a geodesie the second equation in (2) gives
~ (epcos 20) = 0,
so that
ep cos2 0 = [},
where [} is a constant. If [} = 0, then ep = 0 so <p is constant and 'Y is part of a
meridian. We assume that [} =I 0 from now on.
The unit-speed condition gives
'2 [}2
o =l -~O'
cos
so along the geodesie we have
d<P ) 2 ep2 1
( dO = 82 = cos2 O([}-2 cos'' 0 - 1) ,
and hence
!
dO
±(<p - <Po) =
cos oJ[} 2 cos2 0 - 1
,
where <Po is a constant. The integral can be evaluated by making the substitu-
tion u = tan O. This gives
and hence
±( -
<p
)-
<Po - f V[} du
2 _ 1 - u2 -
. 1
- sin" ( U
J [}-2 - 1
)
'
tan 0 = ±J[}-2 - 1 sin(<p - <Po) .

This implies that the coordinates x = cos (J cos ip, y = cos (J sin ip and z = sin 0
of 'Y(t) satisfy the equation
z = ax + by,
where a = ":fVn 2 - l sin cpo, b = ±v'n 2 -lcoscpo. This shows that 'Y is
contained in the intersection of 8 2 with aplane passing through the centre of
the sphere.
Hence, in all cases, 'Y is part of a great circle.
The geodesics on a sphere can actually be determined much more simply

by using the following consequence of Theorem 8.1.
Corollary 8.1
Let P be a point of a surface S, and let t be a unit tangent vector to S at P.
Then, ihere exists a unique unit-speed geodesic 'Y on S which passes through P
and has tangent vector t there .
In short, there is a unique geodesic through any given point of a surface in

any given direction.
Proof 8.1
The geodesie equations are of the form
ü = f(u,v ,u,v), ii = g(u,v,u,iJ), (5)
where f and gare smooth functions of the four variables u, v, u and iJ. It
is proved in the theory of ordinary differential equations that , for any given
constants a, b, c, d, and any value to of t, there is a solution of Eq. (5) such that
u(to) = a, v(to) = b, u(to) = c, iJ(to) = d, (6)
and such that u(t) and v(t) are defined and smooth for all t satisfying It- tol <
e, where e is some positive number. Moreover, any two solutions of Eq . (5)
satisfying (6) agree for all values of t such that It - tol < €' , where €' is some
positive number ::; e.
We now apply these facts to the geodesie equations. Suppose that P lies in
a patch 0'(u, v) of S, say that P is the point 0'(a, b), and that t = CO'u + du v,
where a, b, c, d are scalars and the derivatives are evaluated at u = a, v = b. A
=
unit-speed curve 'Y(t) O'(u(t),v(t)) passes through P at t =
to if and only if
= =
u(to) a, v(to) b, and has tangent vector t there if and only if
CO'u + da; = t = -y(to) = u(to)O'u + iJ(to)O'v ,
= =
i.e. u(to) c, iJ(to) d. Thus, finding a (unit-speed) geodesie 'Y passing through
P at t = to and having tangent vector t there is equivalent to solving the
geodesie equations subject to the initial conditions (6). But we have said above
that this problem has a unique solution. 0
8. Geodesics 179
Example 8.5
We already know that all straight lines in a plane are geodesics . Since there is
a straight line in the plane through any given point of the plane in any given
direction parallel to the plane, it follows from Corollary 8.1 that there are no
other geodesics.
Example 8.6
Similarly, on a sphere, the great circles are the only geodesics , for there is
clearly a great circle passing through any given point of the sphere in any given
direction tangent to the sphere. (Ir p is the position vector of the point and
t the tangent direction, let II be the plane passing through the origin and
parallel to p and t (i.e, with normal p x t); then take the intersection of the
sphere with II .)
The following consequence of Theorem 8.1 can also be used in some cases
to find geodesics without solving the geodesie equations.
Corollary 8.2
An isometry between two surfaces takes the geodesics 0/ one eurjace to the
geodesics 0/ the other.
Proo/8.2
Let 8 1 and 82 be the two surfaces, let f : 81 -+ 82 be the isometry, and let 'Y
be a geodesie in 8 1 . Let 0'(u, v) be a patch in 8 1 and suppose that the part of
the geodesie lying in this patch is given by 'Y(t) = O'(u(t) , v(t)) . Then, u and v
satisfy the geodesie equations (2), with E, Fand G being the coefficients of the
first fundamental form of 0' . By Theorem 5.1, f 0 0' is a patch of 8 2 with the
same first fundamental form as 0' . Hence, by Theorem 8.1, t t-t f(O'(u(t) , v(t)))
is a geodesie on 8 2 , in other words , f 0 'Y is a geodesic . 0
Example 8.7
On the circular cylinder x 2 + y2 = 1, we know that the circles obtained by

intersecting the cylinder with planes parallel to the xy-plane are geodesics
(since they are normal sections). We also know that the straight lines on the
cylinder parallel to the z-axis are geodesics. However, these are certainly not
the only geodesics, for there is only one geodesie of each of the two types passing
through each point of the cylinder (whereas we know that there is a geodesie
passing through each point in any given tangent direction).
... ...
...
...
\
>
To find the missing geodesies, we recall that the cylinder is isometrie to the
plane (see Example 5.5). In fact, the isometry takes the point ('11. , V, 0) of the
xy-plane to the point (cosu, sin '11., v) ofthe cylinder. By Corollary 8.2, this map
takes geodesies on the plane (i.e. straight lines) to geodesies on the cylinder,
and vice versa. So to find all the geodesies on the cylinder, we have only to
find the images under the isometry of all the straight lines in the plane . Any
line not parallel to the y-axis has equation y = mx + c, where m and c are
constants. Parametrising this line by x = '11., Y = mu + c, we see that its image
is the curve
'Y(u) = (cosu,sinu,mu + c)
on the cylinder. Comparing with Example 2.1, we see that this is a circular helix
of radius one and pitch 2rrlml (adding c to the z-coordinate just translates the
helix vertieally) . Note that if m = 0 we get the circular geodesies that we
already know. Finally, any straight line in the xy-plane parallel to the y-axis is
mapped by the isometry to a straight line on the cylinder parallel to the z-axis,
giving the other family of geodesies that we already know.
EXERCISES
8.6 Show that, if P and Q are distinct points of a circular cylinder, there
are either two or infinitely many geodesies on the cylinder joining P
and Q. Whieh pairs P, Q have the former property?
8.7 Use Corollary 8.2 to find all the geodesies on a circular cone. (Use
Exercise 5.5.)
8.8 Use Corollary 8.2 to show that the geodesies on a generalised cylin-
der are exactly those constant-speed curves on the cylinder whose
8. Geodesics 181
tangent vector makes a constant angle with the rulings of the cylin-
der.
8.9 Find the geodesics on a circular cylinder by solving the geodesie
equations.
8.10 Let ")'(t) be a unit-speed curve on the helicoid
O'(u, v) = (ucosv,usinv,v) .
Show that
u2 + (1 + u 2)iJ2 = 1
(a dot denotes djdt) . Show also that, if")' is a geodesie on 0', then
. a
v = 1 +u2'
where a is a constant. Find the geodesics corresponding to a = 0
and a = 1.
8.11 Show that, if N is the standard unit normal of a surface patch 0'(u, v)
with first fundamental form Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2, then
- Fa; N Fa; - Go;
N xo
u
= EO'v
EG _ F2 '
...;
= -r=====::::::::;;;:-
x u v..; EG _ F2
(Use Proposition 5.2.) Deduce that, if u(u(t),v(t)) is a unit-speed
curve on a, its geodesie curvature
3 2
"'9 = (iiu - iJÜ)";EG - F2 + Au + Bu iJ + CiJ,iJ2 + DiJ ,
3
where A, B, C and D can be expressed in terms of E, F, G and their

derivatives. (Use the method of proof of Theorem 8.1 to calculate
dot products such as uu.u vv .) This gives another proof of Corollary
8.2.
8.12 Show directly that the parameter of any curve satisfying the geodesie
equations (2) is proportional to arc-length.
8.3. Geodesics on Surfaces of Revolution

It turns out that, although the geodesie equations for a surface of revolution
cannot usually be solved explicitly, they can be used to get a good qualitative
understanding of the geodesics on such a surface.
We parametrise the surface of revolution in the usual way
u(u, v) = (f(u) cosv,/(u) sinv,g(u)),
182 Elementary Different ial Geometry
where we assume that f > 0 and c*f

+ (*f
= 1 (see Examples 4.13 and
6.2 - note that in these examples we used a dot to denote d] du, but now a dot
is reserved for dldt , where t is the parameter along a geodesic). We found in
Example 6.2 that the first fundamental form of u is du 2 + f(u)2dv 2. Referring
to Eq. (2), we see that the geodesie equations are
Ü = f(u) ~~ iJ2, ~ (J(u)2iJ) = O. (7)

We might as weIl consider unit-speed geodesics, so that
iJ,2 + f(u)2iJ2 = 1. (8)
From this, we make the following easy deductions:
Proposition 8.5
On the surjoce 0/ revolution
u(u, v) = (J(u) cos v, f(u) sin v , g(u)) ,
(i) every meridian is a geodesic;
(ii) a parallel u = Uo (say) is a geodesic i/ and only i/ df Idu = 0 when u = uo,
i.e. Uo is a stationary point 0/ f .
geodesics
8. Geodesics 183
Proof 8.5
On a meridian, we have v = constant so the second equation in (7) is obviously
satisfied. Equation (8) gives ü = ±1, so ü is constant and the first equation in
(7) is also satisfied.
For (ii), note that if u = Uo is constant, then by Eq. (8), iJ = ±l/ f(uo)
is non-zero, so the first equation in (7) holds only if df / du = O. Conversely,
if df /du = 0 when u = uo, the first equation in (7) obviously holds , and the
second holds because iJ = ±l/ f(uo) and f(u) = f(uo) are constant. 0
Of course, this proposition only gives some of the geodesics on a surface of

revolution. The following result is very helpful in understanding the remaining
geodesics.
Proposition 8.6 (Clairaut's Theorem)

Let 'Y be a geodesic on a surface of revolution 5, let p be the distance of a
point of 5 from the axis of rotation, and let 'l/J be the angle between l' and the
meridians of 5 . Then, p sin 'l/J is constant along 'Y.
Conversely, if p sin 'l/J is constant along some curve 'Y in the surf ace, and if
no part of'Y is part of some parallel of 5, then'Y is a geodesic .
In the second paragraph of the proposition, by a 'part' of'Y we mean 'Y(J) ,

where J is an open interval. The hypothesis there cannot be relaxed, for on a
parallel 'I/; = 1r /2, so p sin 'I/; is certainly constant. But paralleis are not geodesics
in general, as Proposition 8.5(ii) shows.
Proof 8.6
Parametrising S as in Proposition 8.5, we have p = f(u). Note that uu/ 11 Uu 11

=Uu and u v/ 11 U v 11 = p-l u v are unit vectors tangent to the paralieis and the
meridians, respectively, and that they are perpendicular since F = O. Assuming
that "Y(t) = u(u(t) , v(t)) is unit-speed, we have
i' = cos'l/; Uu + p-l sin 'I/; U v
(this equation actually serves to define the sign of '1/;, which is left ambiguous
in the statement of Clairaut's Theorem). Hence,
u u x i' = P-1 sin 'I/; u u X Uv•
Since i' = iuru + iJuv, this gives

iJ u u x uv = P-1 sin 'I/; u u X U v,
pi; = sin '1/;.

Hence,
psin'l/; = p2 iJ .
But the second equation in (7) shows that this is a constant, say n, along the
geodesic.
For the converse, if p sin 'I/; is a constant n along a unit-speed curve "Y in S ,
the above argument shows that the second equation in (7) is satisfied, and we
must show that the first equation in (7) is satisfied too. Since
. sin'l/; n
v= -
P
= -,
p2
(9)
Eq. (8) gives
ü 2 -- 1 - ---
n2 (10)
p2'
Differentiating both sides with respect to t gives
. .. _ 2n 2 • _ 2n 2 dp .
2uu -
p3 P - p3 du u,
. ( U.. - p du
U
dp v '2) =.0
Ir the term in brackets does not vanish at some point of the curve, say at
"Y(to) = u(uo, vo), there will be a number t > 0 such that it does not vanish for
It - tol < e, But then ü = 0 for It - tol < e, so "Y coincides with the parallel
8. Geodesics 185
u = Uo when It - tol < e, contrary to our assumption. Hence, the term in

brackets must vanish everywhere on 'Y, i.e.
.. dp '2
u=p-v,
du
showing that the first equation in (7) is indeed satisfied . 0
Clairaut's Theorem has a simple mechanical interpretation. Recall that the

geodesics on a surface S are the curves traced on S by a particle subject to no
forces except a force normal to S that constrains i~ to move on S . When S is
a surface of revolution, the force at a point P of S lies in the plane containing
the axis of revolution and P, and so has no moment about the axis. It follows
that the angular momentum {} of the particle about the axis is constant. But,
if the particle moves along a unit-speed geodesic, the component of its velocity
along the parallel through P is sin t/J, so its angular momentum about the axis
is proportional to p sin t/J.
Example 8.8
We use Clairaut's Theorem to determine the geodesics on the pseudosphere
(Section 7.2):
o-(u ,v) = (e" cosu.e" sinv, Vl- e2u - cosh-1(e- u ) ) .
We found there that its first fundamental form is
du 2 + e2udv2 •
It is convenient to reparametrise by setting w = e- u . The reparametrised
surface is
Ö'(v,w) = (~ cosv, ~ sinv, Jl- ~2 - cosh"? w)
and its first fundamental form is

dv 2 + dw 2
w2
We must have w > 1 for Ö' to be weIl defined and smooth.
If 'Y(t) = Ö'(w(t),v(t)) is a unit-speed geodesic, the unit-speed condition
gives
(11)
and Clairaut's Theorem gives
1 . ./. 1 .
-SlD'II
w
= 2v
w
= u, rl
(12)
where fl is a constant, since p = l/w. Thus, iJ = flw 2. Ir fl = 0 we get a

meridian v = constant. Assuming now that fl :f. 0 and substituting in Eq. (11)
gives
Hence, along the geodesic,

dv = i!.. = ± flw ,
dw w VI - fl2 w2
(v - va) = =F ~ VI - fl2 w2,
22 1
(v-va) +w = fl2 ' (13)
where Va is a constant. So the geodesics are the images under iT of the parts
of the circles in the vw-plane given by Eq . (13) and lying in the region w > 1.
Note that these circles all have centre on the v-axis, and so intersect the v-axis
perpendicularly. The meridians correspond to straight lines perpendicular to
the v-axis.
w
Since w > 1, any geodesie other than a meridian has a maximum value of w ,
which it attains, and a maximum and minimum value of v, which it approaches
arbitrarily closely ·but does not attain (see the diagram below). This shows that
the pseudosphere is 'incomplete', i.e. a geodesie on the pseudosphere cannot be
continued indefinitely (in one direction if it is a meridian, in both directions
otherwise) .
8. Geodesics 187
Returning now to an arbitrary surface of revolution S, we describe how

Clairaut's Theorem allows us to describe the qualitative behaviour of the
geodesics on S.
Note first that, in general, there are two geodesics passing through any
given point P of S with a given angular momentum n, for iJ is determined by
Eq. (9) and ü up to sign by Eq. (10). In fact , one geodesie is obtained from
the other by reflecting in the plane through P containing the axis of rotation
(which changes n to -n) followed by changing the parameter t of the geodesie
to -t (which changes the angular momentum back to n again).
The discussion in the preceding paragraph shows that we may as weIlassurne
that n > 0, which we do from now on. Then, Eq. (10) shows that the geodesie
is conjined to the part 01S which is at a distance ~ n from the axis.
If all of S is a distance > n from the axis, the geodesie will cross every
parallel of S. For otherwise, u would be bounded above or below on S, say the
former . Let Uo be the least upper bound of u on the geodesic, and let n + 2€,
where € > 0, be the radius of the parallel u = uo. If u is sufficiently elose to uo,
the radius of the corresponding parallel will be ~ I] + e, and on the part of the
geodesie lying in th is region we shall have
lül ~ /1- (n~€r >0

by Eq. (10). But this elearly implies that the geodesie will cross u = uo, con-
tradicting our assumption.
Thus, the interesting case is that in which part of S is within a distance n
of the axis . The discussion of this case will be elearer if we consider a concrete
example whose geodesics nevertheless exhibit essentially all possible forms of
behaviour.
Example 8.9
We consider the hyperboloid of one sheet obtained by rotating the hyperbola
x2 - Z2 = 1, x > 0,
in the xz-plane around the z-axis . Since all of the surface is at a distance ~ 1
from the z-axis, we have seen above that, if 0 ~ n < 1, a geodesie with angular
momentum n crosses every parallel of the hyperboloid and so extends from
z = -00 to z = 00 .
0<.0<1
Suppose now that .0 > 1. Then the geodesie is confined to one of the two
regions
z<- --).0 2 - 1,
whieh are bounded by circles r- and T'>, respectively, of radius .0. Let P be a
point on I": , and consider the geodesie C that passes through P and is tangent
to I": there. Then, 1/J = rr/2 and p = .0 at P, so C has angular momentum .0.
Now C cannot be contained in F": , since I": is not a geodesie (by Proposition
8.5(ii», so C must head into the region below I": as it leaves P. Moreover, C
must be symmetrie about P, since reflection in the plane through P containing
the z-axis takes C to another geodesie that also passes through P and is tangent
to I": there, and so must coincide with C by the uniqueness part of Corollary
8.1. Since u ;j; 0 in the region below t': by Eq. (10), the geodesie crosses every
parallel below I": and z -t - 00 as t -t ±oo.
Suppose now that C is any geodesie with angular momentum .0 > 1 in the
region below T: , Then a suitable rotation around the z-axis will cause C to
intersect C, say at Q, and so to coincide with it (possibly after reflecting in
the plane through Q containing the z-axis and changing t to -t). We have
therefore described the behaviour of every geodesie with angular momentum
.0 > 1 that is confined to the region below Tr . Of course, the geodesies with
angular momentum .0 > 1 in the region above r+ are obtained by reflecting
those below I": in the xy-plane.
Suppose finally that .0 = 1. Let C be a geodesie with angular momentum
8. Geodesics 189
1 passing through a point P . If P is on the waist r of the hyperboloid (i.e.

the unit cirele in the xy-plane), which is a geodesie by Proposition 8.5(ii), then
p = 1 at P so 'IjJ = 1r /2 and C is tangent to T at P . It must therefore coincide
with r .
{}>1
Assume now that P is in the region below r. Then 0 < 'IjJ < 1r /2 at P, so
as it leaves P in one direction, C approaches r . It must in fact get arbitrarily
t
elose to r . For if it were to stay always below a parallel of radius 1 + e, say
(with f > 0), then we would have
!iL 1 1-(1:fr
?- V
everywhere along C by Eq. (10), which elearly implies that C must cross every
parallel, contradicting our assumption. So, if {} = 1 the geodesie spirals around
r
the hyperboloid approaching, and getting arbitrarily elose to, but never quite
reaching it .
EXERCISES
8.13 There is another way to see that all the meridians, and the paral-
lels corresponding to the stationary points of f, are geodesics on a
surface of revolution considered in this section. What is it ?
8.14 A surface of revolution has the property that every parallel is a
geodesic. What kind of surface is it?
8.15 Show that a geodesie on the pseudosphere with non-zero angular

momentum [l intersects itself if and only if [l < (1 + 11"2) -1 /2 . How
many self-intersections are there in that case? (The condit ion for a
self-intersection is that, for some value of w > 1, the two values of v
satisfying Eq . (13) should differ by an integer multiple of 211".)
8.16 Let f : ü( v, w) H ü( ii, w) be an isometry of the pseudosphere, where
the parametrisation ü is that in Example 8.8.
(i) Show that f takes meridians to meridians, and deduce that ü
does not depend on w. (Use the fact that meridians are the only
geodesics on the pseudosphere that can be extended indefinitely
in one direction.)
(ii) Deduce that f takes parallels to parallels. (Parallele are the
curves that are perpendicular to every meridian.)
(iii) Deduce from (ii) and Exercise 7.11 that w= w.
(iv) Show that f is a rotation about the axis of the pseudosphere
or a reflection in a plane containing the axis of rotation.
8.17 What do the geodesics on a pseudosphere correspond to in the disc
model (Exercise 7.12(ii))? (Use the solution to Exercise 7.12 and the
fact that the Möbius transformation z H ~+~ is a conformal map
from the (complex) plane to itself that takes lines and circles to lines
and circles.)
8.18 Describe the geodesics on
(i) a spheroid, obtained by rotating an ellipse around one of its
axes;
(ii) a torus (Exercise 4.10).
8.4. Geodesics as Shortest Paths

Everyone knows that the straight line segment joining two points P and Q
in aplane is the shortest path between P and Q. It is almost as weIl known
that great circles are the shortest paths on a sphere. And we have seen that
the straight lines are the geodesics in aplane, and the great circles are the
geodesics on a sphere.
To see the connection between geodesics and shortest paths on an arbitrary
surface S, we consider a unit-speed curve 'Y on S passing through two fixed
points p and q on the surface. If 'Y is a shortest path on the surface from p to
q, then the part of'Y contained in any surface patch (T of S must be the shortest
path between any two of its points. For if p' and q' are any two points of 'Y in
(T, and if there were a shorter path in (T from p' to q' than 'Y, we could replace
8. Geodesics 191
the part of'Y between p' and q' by this shorter path, thus giving a shorter path
from p to q in S.
We may therefore consider a path 'Y entirely contained in a surface patch (I.
To test whether y has smaller length than any other path in (I passing through
two fixed points p and q in (I, we embed 'Y in a smooth family of curves on (I
passing through p and q. By such a family, we mean a curve 'YT on (I, for each
l' in an open interval (-6, 6), such that
(i) there is an e > 0 such that 'YT(t) is defined for all t E (-€,€) and all
l' E (-6,6)j
(ii) for some a, b with -€ < a < b < e, we have
'YT(a)=p and 'YT(b)=q forall TE (-6,6)j
(iii) the map from the reetangle (-6,6) x (-€, e) into R 3 given by
(1', t) f-t 'YT(t)
is smooth;
(iv) 'Y0 = 'Y.
The length of the part of 'YT between p and q is
.c(T) = l
b
11 .yT 11 dt,
where a dot denotes d/dt.
Theorem 8.2
With the above notation, the unit-speed curve 'Y is a geodesie i/ and only i/
d
-.c(T) = 0 when r = 0
dT
for all families 0/ curves 'YT with ~ = 'Y .
Note Although we assumed that 'Y = ~ is unit-speed, we do not assurne that
'YT is unit-speed if l' t- o.
Proof 8.2
We use the formula for 'differentiating under the integral sign': if Itr. t) is
smooth,
d J f(7, t)dt
dr = J88rf dt .
Thus,
d
d7.c(7)
d
= d7 Ja
r 11 "( 11 dt
=.!!.- Jar (Eü 2 + 2Füv + GV2)1/2 dt

b
d7
= Jar 87
b
8 (g(7, t)1/2) dt
_ 1
- 2" Ja
I" 9 (-r, t )-1/2 8r
8g d
t, (14)
where
g( 7 , t) = Eü 2 + 2FüiJ + GiJ2
and a dot denotes djdt. Now,
8 F .. 8G ' 2 2E . 8ü 2F(8Ü.
-87
8g = -
8r
u 2 + 2 -UV
8E'
87
+ -V + U- +
87 8r 8r
,8iJ) + 2G,8iJ
-V + U-
87
V-
87
8u E 8V) . 2 2('" 8u '" 8V) . . (G 8u G8V) ·2
= (Eu 87 + v 8r u + .cu 8r +.cv 87 UV + u 87 + v 87 V
2u 2u 2v 2v
8 ( 8 8 ) 8
+ 2Eü 8r8t + 2F 8r8t iJ + ü 8r8t + 2GiJ 878t
= (EuU· 2 + 2FuUV
" + G uV' 2) 8u
8r + (E'
2
vU + 2"' " + G vV'2)8v
.cvUV 87
+ 2(Eü + FiJ)::;t + 2(Fü + GiJ) ::;t '

The contribution to the integral in Eq. (14) coming from the terms involving
the second partial derivatives is
l b
g-1/2 {(Eü + FiJ)::;t +(Fü + GiJ) ::;t} dt
= g-1/2 {(EÜ + FiJ) ~; + (Fü + GiJ) ~~} 1:::

-l (%t
b
{g -1/2(Eü + Fv)} ~; + %t {g-1/2(Fü + GiJ)} ~~) dt, (15)
8. Geodesics 193
using integration by parts. Now, since 'YT(a) and 'YT(b) are independent of T
(being equal to p and q, respectively) , we have

T
-o'Y
or = 0 when t = a or b.
Since
we see that
OU =ov = 0
or or when t = a or b.
Hence, the first term on the right -hand side of Eq. (15) is zero. Inserting the
remaining terms in Eq . (15) back into Eq. (14), we get
:/:,(r) = l b
(U~~ + V~~) dt , (16)
where
U(T, t) = ~g-1/2(EuU2 + 2Fuuv + G uv2) - :t {g-1/2(Eu + Fv)} ,

(17)
vr-, t) = ~g-1/2(EttU2 + 2Fttuv + Gtt v 2) - ~ {g-1/2(Fu + GV)} .
Now'Y° = '1 is unit-speed, so since 11 i'T 112= g(r, t) , we have g(T, t) = 1 for all
t when T = O. Comparing Eqs. (17) with the geodesie equations in (2), we see
that, if'Y is a geodesic, then U = V = 0 when -r = 0, and hence by Eq. (16),
d
dr.c(T) =0 when r = O.
For the converse, we have to show that, if
lb(U~~+V~~)dt=O whenr=O (18)
for alt families of curves 'YT , then U = V = 0 when r = 0 (since this will
prove that '1 satisfies the geodesie equations). Assurne, then, that condition
(18) holds, and suppose, for example, that U :f; 0 when r = O. We will show
that this leads to a contradiction.
Since U :f; 0 when t: = 0, there is some to E (a, b) such that U(O, to) :f; 0,
say U(O , to) > O. Since U is a continuous function, there exists Tl > 0 such that
U(O , t) > 0 if t E (to - Tl , to + Tl) '
Let 4> be a smooth function such that
4>(t) > 0 if t E (to - Tl, to + Tl) and 4>(t) = 0 if t ~ (to - Tl , to + Tl)' (19)
(The construction of such a function </J is outlined in Exercise 8.20.) Sup-

pose that "Y(t) = O'(u(t),v(t)) , and consider the family of curves "YT(t) =
O'(u(r, t) , v(r, t)) , where
u(r, t) = u(t) + r</J(t) , v(r, t) = v(t) .
Then, ou/or = </J and ov/or = °for an rand t, so Eq. (18) gives
o~ 1.' (U::' + V~~) 1,=. dt = f:'u(O, t)~(t) dt (20)
°
But U(O , t) and </J(t) are both > for an t E (to -1], to + 17), so the integral on
the right-hand side of Eq. (20) is > 0. This contradiction proves that we must
°
have U(O, t) = for an t E (a, b). One proves similarly that V(O, t) = for all °
tE (a, b). Together, these results prove that "Y satisfies the geodesie equations.
o
It is worth making several eomments on Theorem 8.2 to be clear about what
it says, and also what it does not say.
°
Firstly, if"Y is a shortest path on 0' from p to q, then .c(r) must have an
absolute minimum when r = 0. This implies that lT.c(r) = when r = 0, and
henee by Theorem 8.2 that "Y is a geodesic.
Secondly, if"Y is a geodesie on 0' passing through p and q, then .c(r) has
a stationary point (extremum) when -r = 0, but this need not be an absolute
minimum, or even a loeal minimum, so "Y need not be a shortest path from p
------....q - -
to q. For example, if p and q are two nearby points on a sphere, the short
great circle are joining p and q is the shortest path from p to q (this is not
quite obvious - see below), but the long great circle are joining p and q is also
a geodesie.
8. Geodesics 195
Thirdly, in general , a shortest path joining two points on a surface may not
exist . For example , consider the surface S consisting of the xy-plane with the
origin removed. This is a perfectly good surface , but there is no shortest path
on the surface from the point p = (-1,0) to the point q = (1,0) . Of course ,
the shortest path should be the straight line segment joining the two points,
but this does not lie entirely on the surface, since it passes through the origin
which is not part of the surface . For a 'reallife' analogy, imagine trying to walk
from p to q but finding that there is a deep hole in the ground at the origin.
The solution might be to walk in a straight line as long as possible , and then
skirt around the hole at the last minute, say taking something like the following
route:
• > ~ > •
p < > q
21:
This path consists of two straight line segments of length 1 - €, together with
a semicirele of radius e, so its total length is
2(1 - e) + 7f€ = 2 + (7f - 2)€.
Of course, this is greater than the straight line distanee 2, but it ean be made
as elose as we like to 2 by taking e sufficiently smalI. In the language of real
analysis, the greatest lower bound of the lengths of curves on the surface joining
p and q is 2, but there is no eurve from p to q in the surface whose length is
equal to this lower bound.
Finally, it can be proved that if a surfaee S is a closed sub set of R 3 (I.e. if
the set of points of R 3 that are not in S is an open subset of R 3 ) , and if there
is some path in S joining any two points of S, then there is always a shortest
path joining any two points of S . For example, a plane is a elosed subset of R 3 ,
so there is a shortest path joining any two points. This path must be a straight
line, for by the first remark above it is a geodesic, and we know that the only
geodesics on a plane are the straight lines. Similarly, a sphere is a elosed subset
of R 3 , and it follows that the short great cirele are joining two points on the
sphere is the shortest path joining them. But the surface S eonsidered above
is not a elosed subset of R 3 , for (0,0) is a point not in S, but any open ball
containing (0,0) must clearly contain points of S, so the set of points not in S
is not open.
Another property of surfaces that are closed subsets of R 3 (that we shall

also not prove) is that geodesics on such surfaces can be extended indefinitely,
i.e. they can be defined on the whole of R. This is clear for straight lines in the
plane, for example, and for great circles on the sphere (although in the latter
case the geodesics 'close up' after an increment in the unit-speed parameter
equal to the circumference of the sphere) . But, for the straight line 'Y(t) =
(t-I, 0) on the surface S defined above , which passes through p when t = 0, the
largest interval containing t = 0 on which it is defined as a curve in the surface
is (-00,1) . We encountered a less artificial example of this 'incompleteness'
in Example 8.8: the pseudosphere considered there fails to be a closed subset
of R 3 because the points of its boundary circle in the xv-plane are not in the
surface.
EXERCISES
8.19 The geodesics on a circular (half) cone were determined in Exercise

8.7. Interpreting 'line' as 'geodesic', which of the following (true)
statements in plane euclidean geometry are true for the cone ?
(i) There is a line passing through any two points.
(ii) There is a unique line passing through any two points.
(iii) Any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point.
(iv) There are lines that do not intersect each other.
(v) Any line can be continued indefinitely.
(vi) A line defines the shortest distance between any two of its
points.
(vii) A line cannot intersect itself transversely (i.e. with two non-
parallel tangent vectors at the point of intersection).
8.20 Construct a smooth function with the properties in (19) in the fol-
lowing steps:
(i) Show that, for all integers n (positive and negative), t n e- 1 / t 2
tends to 0 as t tends to O. (Use L'Hopital's rule.)
(ii) Deduce from (i) that the function
1/t2
8(t) = Oe- if t ~ 0,
{
s
if t 0
is smooth everywhere.
(iii) Show that the function
1/J(t) = 8(1 + t)8(1 - t)
is smooth everywhere, that 1/J(t) > 0 if -1 <t < 1, and that
1/J(t) = 0 otherwise.
8. Geodesics 197
(iv) Show that the function
4J(t) = 1/J C~ to)
has the properties we want .
8.5. Geodesie Coordinates

The existence of geodesics on a surface S allows us to construct a very useful
atlas for S .
p -y(v)
For this , let P be a point of Sand let 'Y , with parameter v say, be a unit-speed
geodesie on S with 'Y(O) = P. For any value of v, there is a unique unit-
speed geodesie 'f', with parameter '11 say, such that ;yv (0) = 'Y(v) and which is
perpendicular to 'Y at 'Y( v) . We define u( '11, v) = ;yv ('11).
Proposition 8.7
With the above notation, there is an open subset U of R 2 containing (0,0)
such that a : U ~ R 3 is an allowable surface patch for S . Moreover, the first
fundamental form of o is
du 2 + G(u,v)dv 2 ,
where G is a smooth function on U such that
G(O, v) = 1, Gu(O, v) = 0,
whenever (O,v) EU .
Proof 8.7
The proof that a is (for a suitable open set U) an allowable surface patch makes
use of the inverse function theorem, and is similar to the proof of Proposition
4.1 (see Section 4.6).
Note first that, for any value of v,
O"u(O,v) = d~ ;yV(U)lu=o' O"v(O,v) = 1 ;yV(O) = 1

'Y(v),
and that these are perpendicular unit vectors by construction. If 0"( U, v) =

(f(u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)), it follows that the jacobian matrix
lu Iv)
(h gu gv
u hv
has rank 2 when u = v = O. Hence, at least one of its three 2 x 2 submatrices
is invertible at (0,0), say
(lu Iv).
gu gv
(21)
By the inverse function theorem 4.2, there is an open subset U of R 2 such that
the map given by
F(u, v) = (f(u,v),g(u,v))
is a bijection from U to an open subset F(U) of R 2 , and such that its inverse
map F(U) ~ U is also smooth. The matrix (21) is then invertible for all
(u, v) EU, so 0"u and 0"v are linearly independent for (u, v) EU. It follows that
3
0" : U ---+ R is an allowable surface patch.
As to the first fundamental form of 0", note first that
E=IIO"u 11 2=1I:U ;yV(u) 11 2= 1

because ;yV is a unit-speed curve . Next, we apply the second of the geodesie
equations (2) to ;yv. The unit-speed parameter is u and v is constant, so we get
Fu = O. But when u = 0, we have already seen that o"u and O"v are perpendic-
ular, so F = O. It follows that F = 0 everywhere . Hence, the first fundamental
form of 0" is
du 2 + G(u, v)dv 2 •
We have
G(O, v) = 11 O"v(O, v) 11 2 =11 ~~ 11 2 = 1

because 'Y is unit-speed. Finally, from the first geodesie equation in (2) applied
to the geodesie 'Y, for which u = 0 and v is the unit-speed parameter, we get
Gu(O, v) = O. 0
8. Geodesics 199
A surface patch a constructed as above is called a geodesic patch, and u and

v are called geodesic coordinates.
Example 8.10
If P is a point on the equator of the unit sphere 8 2 , take 'Y to be the equator
with parameter the longitude <p, and let .y'P be the meridian parametrised by
latitude () and passing through the point on the equator with longitude sp, The
corresponding geodesie patch is the usual latitude longitude patch, for which
the first fundamental form is
d()2 + cos2 () d<p2,
in accordance with Proposition 8.7.
We shall give an application of geodesie coordinates in the proof of Theorem

10.4.
EXERCISES
8.21 Let P be a point of a surface Sand let v be a unit tangent vector to

S at P. Let 'Y/J (r) be the unit-speed geodesie on S passing through
P when r = 0 and with tangent vector v there, Let tT(r,()) = 'Y/J(r).
It can be shown that a is smooth for -€ < r < e and all values of (),
where e is some positive number, and that it is an allowable surface
patch for S defined for 0 < r < € and for () in any open interval of
length ~ 271". This is called a geodesic polar patch on S. Show that,
if 0< R < €,
l R
11 d:' 11
2
dr = R.
By differentiating both sides with respect to (), prove that
tTr.tT/J = O.
geodesics
This is called Gauss 's Lemma - geometrically, it means that the

parameter curve r = R, called the geodesie circle with cent re P
and radius R , is perpendicular to each of its radii , i.e, the geodesics
passing through P .
Deduce that the first fundamental form of a is
dr 2 + G(r,8)dfP,
for some smooth function G(r,8) .
9
Minimal Surfaces
In Section 8.4 we considered the problem of finding the shortest paths between
two points on a surface. We now consider the analogous problem in one higher
dimension , that of finding a surface of minimal area with a fixed curve as its
boundary. This is called Plateau 's Problem. The solutions to Plateau's problem
turn out to be surfaces whose mean curvature vanishes everywhere. The study
of these so-called minimal surfaces was initiated by Euler and Lagrange in the
mid-18th century, but new examples of minimal surfaces have been discovered
quite recently.
9.1. Plateau's Problem

In Section 8.4, we found the condition for a curve on a surface to minimise
distance between its endpoints by embedding the given curve in a family of
curves passing through the same two points, and studying how the length of
the curve varies as the curve varies through the family. Accordingly, we shall
now study a family of surface patches (TT : U -t R 3 , where U is an open subset
ofR2 independent of r, and r lies in some open interval (-0,0), for some 0> O.
Let (T = (T0 . The family is required to be smooth, in the sense that the map
on
(u, v, r) ~ (TT(U , v) from the open subset {(u, v, r) I (u, v) E U, r E (-0,
of R 3 to R 3 is smooth. The surface variation of the family is the function
3
I{): U -t R given by
I{) = .TI
(T T=O'
201
where here and elsewhere in this section, a dot denotes df dr ,

Let 'tr be a simple closed curve that is contained, along with its interior
int('tr), in U (see Seetion 3.1). Then 'tr corresponds to a simple closed curve
"(T = a" 0 'tr in the surface patch a" ; and we define the area function A( r) to
be the area of the part of a" inside "(T:
A(r) = j' r dk~.

Jint('tr)
Note that, if we are considering a family of surfaces with a fixed boundary curve
"(, then "(T = "( for all r , and hence <pT(U,V) = 0 when (u,v) is a point on the
curve 'tr.
Theorem 9.1
With the above notation, assume that the surface variation <pT vanishes along
the boundary curve 'tr. Then,
.4(0) = -2 j'r H(EG - F 2 ) 1/ 2 0: dudv , (1)

Jint('tr)
where H is the mean curvature of a, E, Fand Gare the coefficients of its first
=
fundamental form , 0: <p.N, and N is the standard unit normal of a ,
We defer the proof of this theorem to the end of this section.

If o has the smallest area among all surfaces with the given boundary curve
"(, then A must have an absolute minimum at r = 0, so .4(0) = 0 for all smooth
families of surfaces as above. This means that the integral in (1) must vanish
for all smooth functions 0: : U ---+ R. As in the proof of Theorem 8.2, this can
happen only if the term that multiplies 0: in the integrand vanishes, in other
words only if H = O. This suggests the following definition .
Definition 9.1
A minimal surface is a surface whose mean curvature is zero everywhere.
Theorem 9.1 and the preceding discussion then give
Corollary 9.1
If a surface S has least area among all surfaces with the same boundary curve,
then S is a minimal surface.
Minimal surfaces have an interesting physical interpretation as the shapes

taken up by soap films. A soap film has energy by virtue of surface tension,
9. Minimal Surfaces 203
and this energy is proportional to its area. A soap film spanning a wire in the
shape of a curve C should therefore adopt the shape of a surface of least area
with boundary C. By Corollary 9.1, this will be a minimal surface.
More generally, if the soap film separates two regions of different pressure,
the film will adopt the shape of a surface of constant mean curvature. This is
the case for a soap bubble, for example, for which the air pressure inside the
bubble is greater than the pressure outside. To see this, we apply the principle
of 'virtual work' . This teIls us that, if the soap film is in equilibrium, and we
imagine a ('virtual') change in the surface, the change in the energy of the film
must be the same as the work done by the film against the air pressure. If p
is the pressure difference, the force exerted by the air on a small piece of the
surface of area LlA is pLlA, so the work done when it moves a small distance
a perpendicular to itself is apLlA. On the other hand, the formula in Theorem
9.1 shows that the change in area of the surface is proportional to aHLlA (note
that o is the component of the variation cp perpendicular to the surface). So p
is proportional to H. Since the pressure difference must be the same across the
whole surface , so must the mean curvature H. Surfaces of constant non-zero
mean curvature were discussed in Section 7.4.
For the moment, we give only one example of a minimal surface; others will
be given in the next section. This example already shows, however, that the
converse of Corollary 9.1 is false.
Example 9.1
A catenoid is the surface obtained by revolving the curve x = ~ cosh az in

the xz-plane around the z-axis, where a is a non-zero constant (a picture of
the catenoid can be found in Example 9.2). We take a = 1 for simplicity. The
catenoid can be parametrised by
e (u,») = (coshucosv,coshusinv,u) .
Then,
O'u = (sinh u cosv, sinh u sin v, 1), a; = (- cosh u sin v, cosh u cos v, 0),
O'u X O'v = (- cosh u cosv, - cosh u sin v, sinh u cosh u),
N = (-sech u cos v, - sech u sin v, tanhu),
O'uu = (coshucosv, coshusinv, 0),
O'uv = (- sinh u sin v, sinh u cos v, 0),
O'vv = (- cosh u cosv, - cosh u sin v, 0).
This gives the coefficients of the first and second fundamental forms of 0' as
E=G =cosh2u, F=O, L= -I, M=O, N=1.
The first three of these equations show that the parametrisation (1 is conformal,
and Proposition 7.1(ii) gives
H = LG - 2MP + NE
2(EG - P2)
= °,
showing that the catenoid is a minimal surface .
Fix a > 0, and let b = cosh a. The surface S consisting of the part of the
catenoid with Izi < a has boundary the two circles C± ofradius bin the planes
z = ±a with centres on the z-axis. Another surface spanning the same two
circles is, of course , the surface So consisting of the two discs x 2 + y2 ~ b2 in
the planes z = ±a. The area of S is, by Proposition 5.2,
r Ja
Jo -a
(EG _ p 2)1/ 2du dv = r: Ja
Jo -a
cosh'' u dudv = 211"(a + sinh a cosh a).
The area of So is, of course, 211"b2 = 211" coslr' a. So the minimal surface S will
not mini mise the area among all surfaces with boundary the two circles C± if
cosh 2 a < a + sinh a cosh a, i.e, if
1 + e- 2a < 2a. (2)
2a
a
The graphs of 1 + e- 2a and 2a as functions of a clearly intersect in exactly one

point a = ao, say, and the inequality (2) holds if a > ao. H this condition is
satisfied, the catenoid is not area minimising.
It can be shown that if a < ao the catenoid does have least area among all
surfaces spanning the circles C+ and C- .
It is time to prove Theorem 9.1.
Proof 9.1
Let tpT = ü T, so that tp0 = tp, and let NT be the standard unit normal of a",
There are smooth functions o:T, ßT and 'YT of (u, v, r) such that
tpT = o:TN T + ß"u~ + 'YTu~,
so that 0: = 0:° . To simplify the notation, we drop the superscript r for the rest
of the proof; at the end of the proof we put r = O.
We have
A(r) = J' { 11 Uu X a; 11 dudv = J' ( N .(uu x u v ) dudv,

Jint('lr) Jint(1f')
so
Ä= J' { :
Jint(1f') r
(N.(uu x u v »dudv . (3)
Now,
:r (N.(uu x u v »= N.(uu x u v) + N.(üu x u v) + N .(uu x ü v) . (4)

Since N is a unit vector,
N .(uu x u v ) = N .N 11 Uu x a; 11 = o.
On the other hand,
. ) _ (uu x uv) .(üu x u v)
N .(Uu x Uv - 11 Uu x U 11
v
_ (uu .üu)(uv.u v) - (uu.uv)(uv.ü u)
- 11 Uu X a; 11
_ G(uu'üu) - F(uv.ü u)
- (EG - F2)l/2 '
using Proposition 5.2. Similarly,
N ( ' ) _ E(uv.üv) - F(uu'üv)
. Uu x a; - (EG _ F2)1/2
Substituting these results into Eq. (4), we get

~(N ( )) _ E(tTv.iTv) - F(uu.tTv + tTu .uv) + G(tTu.uu)
07 . tT u X a; - (EG _ F2)1/2 (5)
Now
Uu = !Pu = auN + ßutTu + 'YutTv + aNu + ßtTuu + 'YtTuv ,
tTu .u u = Eßu + F'Yu + (tTu .Nu)a + (tTu.tTuu)ß + (tTu .tTuvh·
Since tTu .Nu = - tTuu.N = - L , tTu.tT uu = !Eu and tTu .tTuv = !Ev, we get
tTu 'u u = es; + F'Yu - La + ~Euß + ~Ev'Y'
Similarly,
tTv.uu = Fß., + G'Yu - Mo + (Pu - ~Ev)ß + ~Gu'Y'

tTu .uv = Eß; + F'Yv - M.« + ~Evß + iF; - ~Guh,
tTv'uv = Fß; + G'Yv - Na + ~Guß + ~Gv'Y'
Substituting these last four equations into the right-hand side of Eq. (5), sim-
plifying, and using the formula for H in Proposition 7.1(ii), we find that
:7 (N .(tTu x tTv)) = (ß(EG - F 2)1/2L+ ('Y(EG - F 2)1/2) v

- 2aH(EG - F 2)1/2. (6)
Comparing with Eq. (3), and reinstating the superscripts, we see that we must
prove that
/1m«~)
{(ßO(EG - F 2)1/2) + ('Y°(EG - F 2)1/2) } dudv
u v
= O. (7)
But by Green 's Theorem (see Section 3.1), this integral is equal to
L (EG - F 2)1/2(ßodv - 'Y° du),
and this obviously vanishes because ßO = "10 = 0 along the boundary curve ~ .
This completes the proof of Theorem 9.1. 0
Note that we did not quite use the full force of the assumptions in Theorem
9.1, since they imply that aO (= o) vanishes along the boundary curve, and
this was not used in the proof. So Bq. {1} holds provided the surjace variation
!P is normal to the surjace along the boundary curve.
Note also that Theorem 9.1 is intuitively obvious for variations !p that are
parallel to the surface, i.e. those for which a = 0 everywhere on the surface,
since such a parallel variation causes the surface to slide along itself and will
not change the shape, and in particular the area, of the surface . Thus, the
main point is to prove Theorem 9.1 for normal variations, i.e, those for which
ß = 'Y = 0 everywhere on the surface . Making this restriction simplifies the
above proof considerably.
EXERCISES
9.1 Show that any rigid motion of R 3 takes a minimal surface to another
minimal surface , as does any dilation (x,y,z) t-+ a(x,y,z), where a is
a non-zero constant.
9.2 Show that z = ! (x, y), where ! is a smooth function of two variables,
is a minimal surface if and only if
(1 + !;)!xx - 2!x!y!xy + (1 + /;)!yy = o.
9.3 Show that every umbilic on a minimal surface is a planar point (see
Proposition 6.3).
9.4 Show that the gaussian curvature of a minimal surface is ~ 0 ev-
erywhere, and that it is zero everywhere if and only if the surface is
part of aplane. (Use Proposition 6.5.) We shall obtain a much more
precise result in Corollary 9.2.
9.5 Show that there is no compact minimal surface . (Use Proposition 7.6
and Exercise 9.4.)
9.2. Examples of Minimal Surfaces

The simplest minimal surface is, of course, the plane, for which both principal
curvatures are zero everywhere. Apart from this, the first minimal surfaces to
be discovered were those in the following two examples .
Example 9.2
A catenoid is obtained by rotating a curve x = ~ cosh az in the xz-plane around
the z-axis, where a > 0 is a constant. We showed in Example 9.1 that this is a
minimal surface (we only dealt there with the case a = 1, but the general case
follows from it by using Exercise 9.1).
The catenoid is a surface of revolution. In fact, apart from the plane it is

the only minimal surface of revolution:
Proposition 9.1
Any minimal surface 0/ revolution is either part 0/ a plane or can be obtained
by applying a rigid motion to part 0/ a catenoid.
Proo/9.1
By applying a rigid motion, we can assurne that the axis of the surface S is the
z-axis and the profile curve lies in the xz-plane. We parametrise S in the usual
way (see Example 6.2):
D'(u, v) = (f(u) cosv,/(u) sin v, g(u)) ,
where the profile curve u t-+ (f(u),O,g(u)) is assumed to be unit-speed and
/ > 0. From Example 6.2, the first and second fundamental forms are
du2 + /(u)2dv 2 and u» -
jiJ)du2 + /iJdv2,
respectively, a dot denoting d/du . By Proposition 7.1(ii), the mean curvature
is
We suppose now that, for some value of u, say u = uo, we have g(uo) f. O.
We shall then have g(u) f. 0 for u in some open interval containing uo. Let
(o , ß) be the largest such interval. Supposing now that u E (o, ß), the unit-
speed condition j2 + g2 = 1 gives (as in Example 7.2)
. .. j
Jg-f9=-7'
9
so we get
H = ~ (j -~) .
Since g2 = 1 - j2, S is minimal if and only if
fj=l-P . (8)
To solve the differential equation (8), put h = j , and note that
j= dh = dhdf =hdh .
dt df dt df
Hence, Eq. (8) becomes
fh~; = 1- h2 .
Note that, since 9 f. 0, we have h 2 f. 1, so we can integrate this equation as
folIows:
hdh =I df
I 1- h 2 i '
1
-===
V1- h 2 -af
- ,
vr-a2;;-f~2---=-1
.. h= af '
where a is a non-zero constant. (We have omitted a ±, but the sign can be
changed by replacing u by -u if necessary.) Writing h = df/ du and integrating
again,
afdf Id
I Ja 2 j2 -1 = u,
f = ~J1 + a2(u + b)2,

a
where b is a constant. By a change of parameter u ~ u + b, we can assume that
b = O. So
To compute g, we have
1
ii = 1 - P. = 1 - h
2
= --,
a 2 j2
dg =± 1 ,
du VI + a2u2
9 = ±~a sinh-1(au) + c (where cis a constant),
au = ± sinh(a(g - c)),
1
f = - cosh(a(g - c)).
a
Thus, the profile curve of S is
x = -a1 cosh(a(z - c)).

By a translation along the z-axis, we can assume that c = 0, so we have a
catenoid.
We are not quite finished, however. So far , we have only shown that the part
of S corresponding to u E (o, ß) is part of the catenoid, for in the proof we
used in an essential way that iJ ::/: O. This is why the proof has so far excluded
the possibility that S is aplane. To complete the proof, we argue as follows.
Suppose that ß < 00. Then, if the profile curve is defined for values of u ~ ß,
we must have iJ(ß) = 0, for otherwise iJ would be non-zero on an open interval
containing ß, which would contradict our assumption that (o, ß) is the largest
open interval containing Uo on which iJ ::/: O. But the formulas above show that
iJ2 = 1 if u E (a,ß),
1 + a 2u2
so, since iJ is a continuous function of u, iJ(ß) = ±(I + a2ß2)-1/2 ::/: O. This
contradiction shows that the profile curve is not defined for values of u ~ ß. Of
course , this also holds trivially if ß = 00. A similar argument applies to o, and
shows that (o, ß) is the entire domain of definition of the profile curve. Hence,
the whole of S is part of a catenoid.
The only remaining case to consider is that in which iJ(u) = 0 for all values
of u for which the profile curve is defined. But then g(u) is a constant, say d,
and S is part of the plane z = d. 0
Example 9.3
A helicoid is a ruled surface swept out by a straight line that rotates at constant
speed about an axis perpendicular to the line while simultaneously moving at
constant speed along the axis. We can take the axis to be the z-axis, Let w be
the angular velocity of the rotating line and a its speed along the z-axis, If the
line starts along the z-axis, at time v the centre of the line is at (0,0 , av) and
it has rotated by an angle wv. Hence, the point of the line initially at (u, 0, 0)
is now at the point with position vector
u(u, v) = (ucoswv,usinwv,av) .
We leave it to Exercise 9.6 to check that this is a minimal surface.
We have the following analogue of Proposition 9.1.
Proposition 9.2
Any mied minimal surface is part 0/ a plane or part 0/ a helicoid.
Proo/9.2
We take the usual parametrisation
u(u, v) = 'Y(u) + v6(u)
(see Example 4.12), where y is a curve that meets each of the rulings and 6(u)
is a vector parallel to the ruling through 'Y( u). We begin the proof by making
some simplifications to the parametrisation.
First, we can certainly assurne that 116( u) 11 = 1 for all values of u. We assume
°
also that 6 is never zero, where the dot denotes djdu. (We shall consider later
what happens if 6(u) = for some values of u .) We can then assurne that 6is
a unit-speed curve (we do not assurne that 'Y is unit-speed). These assumptions
imply that 6.6 = 6.6 = o. Now we consider the curve
-y(u) = 'Y(u) - ('Y.6)6(u).
If ii = v + 1'.6, the surface can be reparametrised using -y and the parameters
u and ii, namely
u(u, ii) = -y(u) + ii6(u) ,
hut now we also have
~.6 = (i' - ~ (i'.6)6 - (i'.6)6).6 = 0,

since 6.6 = 0 and 6.6 = 1. This means that we could have assumed that i'.6 = 0
at the heginning, and we make this assumption from now on.
We have
tTu = i' + v6, tTv = 6,
E = 11 i' + v611 = (i' + v6).6 = i'.6, = 1.
2
.. , F G
Let A = (EG - F 2)1/ 2. Then,
N = A- 1 (i' + v6) x 6.
Next , we have
= ;y + v6, tTuv = 6, tTv v = 0 ,
tTu u
L = A -1 (;y + v6).((i' + v6) x 6),

M = A- 16.((i' + v6) x 6) = A- 16.(i' x 6),
N=O.
Hence, the minimal surface condition
H= LG-2MF+NE =0
2A2
gives
(;y + v6).((i' + v6) x 6) = 2(6.i')(6.(i' x 6)).
This equation must hold for all values of (u, v) . Equating coefficients of powers
of v gives
;Y.(i' x 6) = 2(6.i')(6.(i' x 6)), (9)
;Y.(6 x 6) + 6.(i' x 6) = 0, (10)
6.(6 x 6) = O. (11)
Equation (11) shows that 6,6 and 6 are linearly dependent. Since 6 and 6
are perpendicular unit vectors, there are smooth functions a(u) and ß(u) such
that
6= a6+ß6.
But, since 6 is unit-speed, 6.6 = O. Also, differentiating 6.6 = 0 gives 6.6 =
-6.6 = -1. Hence, o = -1 and ß = 0, so
6= -6. (12)
Equation (12) shows that the curvature ofthe curve 6 is 1, and that its principal
normal is -6. Hence, its binormal is 6 x (-6), and since
d . .. . .
du (6 x 6) = 6 x 6 + 6 x 6 = -6 x 6 = 0,
it follows that the torsion of 6 is zero. Hence, 6 parametrises a circle of radius
1 (see Proposition 1.5). By applying a rigid motion, we can assume that 6 is
the circle with radius 1 and cent re the origin in the xy-plane, so that
6(u) = (cosu,sinu,O).
From Eq. (12), we get 6.(1' x 6) = -6.(1' x 6) = 0, so by Eq. (10),
i.(eS x 6) = 0.
It follows that i is parallel to the xy-plane, and hence that
-y(u) = (f(u),g(u),au + b),
where fand gare smooth functions and a and bare constants. If a = 0, the
surface is part of the plane z = b. Otherwise, Eq . (9) gives
= 2(j cosu + gsin u) .
jjcosu - jsin u (13)
We finally make use of the condition 1'.6 = 0, which gives
jsinu = gcosu. (14)
Differentiating this gives
jsinu + jcosu = jjcosu - gsinu. (15)
Equations (13) and (15) together give
j cos u + 9 sin u = 0.
and using Eq. (14) we get j = 9 = 0. Thus, fand
gare constants. By a
translation of the surface, we can assume that the constants I, 9 and b are
zero, so that
-y(u) = (O,O,au)
and
u(u,v) = (vcosu,vsinu ,au),
which is a helicoid.
We assumed at the beginning that 6 is never zero. If 6 is always zero, then
6 is a constant vector and the surface is a generalised cylinder. But in fact a
generalised cylinder is a minimal surface only if the cylinder is part of a plane
(Exercise 9.8). The proof is now completed by an argument similar to that used
at the end of the proof of Proposition 9.1, which shows that the whole surface
is either part of a plane or part of a helicoid. 0
After the catenoid and helicoid, the next minimal surfaces to be discovered
were the following two.
Example 9.4
Enneper's minimal surface is
tT(u, - (u - ~u3
v)- 3 - ~V3 + vu 2 ' u 2 -
+ uv 2 'V3 v2) .
It was shown in Exercise 7.15 that this is a minimal surface.
Strictly speaking, this is not a surface patch in the sense used in this book as
it is not injective. The self-intersections are clearly visible in the picture above.
However, if we restriet (u, v) to lie in sufficiently small open sets, tT will be
injective by the inverse function theorem.
Example 9.5
Scherk 's minimal surface is the surface with cartesian equation
z -_ In (COS Y ) .
cosx
It was shown in Exercise 7.16 that this is a minimal surface. Note that the
surface exists only when cos x and cos Y are both > 0 or both < 0, in other
words in the interiors of the white squares of the following chess board pattern,
in which the squares have vertices at the points (7r/2 + m7r, tt /2 + mr) , where m
and n are integers, no two squares with a common edge have the same colour,
and the square containing the origin is white :
The white squares have centres of the form (m7r, mr), where m and n are
integers with m + n even. Since, for such m, n,
cos(y + mr) cosy
-~--.:.,-=
cos(x + m7r) cosx'
it follows that the part of the surface over the square with centre (m7r,n7r) is
obtained from the part over the square with centre (0,0) by the translation
(x, y, z) f-t (x + m7r, y + mr, z). So it suffices to exhibit the part of the surface
over a single square:
EXERCISES
9.6 Show that the helicoid is a minimal surface.

9.7 Show that the surfaces u t in the isometrie deformation ofthe helicoid
into the catenoid given in Exercise 5.8 are minimal surfaces .
9.8 Show that a generalised cylinder is a minimal surface only when the
cylinder is part of aplane.
9.9 A translation surface is a surface of the form
z = f(x) + g(y),
where fand gare smooth functions . (It is obtained by mov-
ing the curve u ~ (u, 0, f(u)) parallel to itself along the curve
v ~ (O ,v ,g(v)) .) Use Exercise 9.2 to show that this is a minimal
surface if and only if
cF f fdx 2
----;-:-:-:--:-:-",-
1 + (dfldx)2
= 1 + (dgfdy)2 '
Deduce that any minimal translation surface is part of aplane or
can be transformed into part of Scherk's surface in Example 9.5 by
a translation and a dilation (x , y, z) ~ a(x , y, z) for some non-zero
constant a.
9.10 Verify that Catalan's surjace
atu; v) = (u - sin ucosh v , 1 - cosu cosh v, -4sin ~ sinh~)
is a conformally parametrised minimal surface . (As in the case of
Enneper's surface, Catalan's surface has self-intersections, so it is
only a surface if we restriet (u , v) to sufficiently small open sets .)
°
Show that
(i) the parameter curve on the surface given by u = is a straight
line;
(ii) the parameter eurve u = 'Ir is a parabola;

(iii) the parameter eurve v = 0 is a eycloid (see Exercise 1.7).
Show also that each of these eurves, when suitably parametrised, is
a geodesie on Catalan's surfaee.
9.3. Gauss Map of a Minimal Surface

Reeall from Seetion 7.3 that the Gauss map of a surfaee pateh (1 : U -t R 3
associates to a point (1(U , v) of the surfaee the standard unit normal N(u,v)
regarded as a point of the unit sphere 8 2 • By Eq . (15) in Chapter 7,
where K is the gaussian eurvature of (1, so N will be regular provided K is

nowhere zero , and we assume this for the remainder of this seetion.
Proposition 9.3
Let (1( u, v) be a minimal surface patch with nowhere vanishing gaussian cur-
vature . Then, the Gauss map is a eonformal map from (1 to part 0/ the unit
sphere.
We should really be a little more eareful in the statement of this propo-

sition, sinee for us eonformal maps are always diffeomorphisms (see Seetion
5.3). However, even if Nu x N1.I is never zero, it does not follow that the map
(1(u, v) H N(u, v) is injective (see Exercise 9.12(ii». Nevertheless, the inverse
function theorem tells us that, if (uo ,vo) E R 2 is a point where (1 (and henee
N) is defined, there is an open set U eontaining (uo, vo) on whieh (1 is defined
and on whieh N is injeetive. Then, N : U -t 8 2 is an allowable surfaee pateh
on the unit sphere 8 2 , and the Gauss map is a diffeomorphism from (1(U) to
N(U) .
Proo/9.3
By Theorem 5.2, we have to show that the first fundamental form
(N u.Nu)du 2 + 2(N u.N1.I)dudv + (N1.I.N1.I)dv 2
of N is proportional to that of (1. Form the symmetrie 2 x 2 matrix
in the same way as we associated symmetrie 2 x 2 matriees FI and FII to the

first and second fundamental forms of {1 in Section 6.3. Then, we have to show
that
(16)
for some scalar >..
By Proposition 6.4,
2
Nu .N = a {1u.{1u + 2abuu .{1v + b2 {1v .{1v = a2E + 2abF + b2G,
u
where ( ~ ~) = - Wand W = Fi 1FII is the Weingarten matrix. Computing

Nu.N v and Nv.N vin the same way gives
2
F _ ( a E + 2abF + b2G acE + (ad + bc)F + bdG)
III - acE + (ad + bc)F + bdG c2 E + 2cdF + ~G
=(: :)(; ~)(~ ~)

= (-W)tFI(-W)
= (-Fi 1FII)t FI( -Fi 1FII)
=FIIFi1 F 1Fi1FII
=FIIFi1 FII·
Hence, Eq. (16) is equivalent to
F/ 1FIIF/ 1FII = AI,
i.e. W 2
= AI.
But,
2+bc
W 2 = (a C)2 = (a C(a+d))
b d b(a + d) ~ + bc .
Now, recall from Section 6.3 that the principal curvatures 11:1 and 11:2 are the
eigenvalues of W. Since the sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal to the
sum of its diagonal entries,
11:1 + 11:2 = -(a + d).
If (1 is minimal, the mean curvature H = HII:1 + 11:2) vanishes, so a + d = 0 and
hence
as we want. o
We saw in Exercise 5.14 that a conformal parametrisation of the plane is

necessarily holomorphic or anti-holomorphic, so this proposition strongly sug-
gests a connection between minimal surfaces and holomorphic functions . This
connection turns out to be very extensive, and we shall give an introduction to
it in the next section.
EXERCISES
9.11 Show that the scalar .x appearing in the proof of Proposition 9.3 is
equal to - K, where K is the gaussian curvature of the surface.
9.12 Show that
(i) the Gauss map of the catenoid is injective and its image is the
whole of the unit sphere except for the north and south poles;
(ii) the image of the Gauss map of the helicoid is the same as that
of the catenoid, but that infinitely many points on the helicoid
are sent by the Gauss map to any given point in its image.
9.4. Minimal Surfaces and Holomorphic

Functions
In this section, we shall make use of certain elementary properties of holomor-
phic functions. Readers without the necessary background in complex analysis
may safely omit this section , whose results are not used anywhere else in the
book .
We shall need to make use of special surface patches on a minimal surface .
Recall from Section 5.3 that a surface patch a : U -t R 3 is called conformal if
its first fundamental form is equal to E(du 2 + dv 2 ) for some positive smooth
function E on U .
Proposition 9.4
Every surface has an atlas consisting of conformal surface patches.
We shall accept this result without proof (the proof is non-trivial) .

Let a : U -t R 3 be a conformal surface patch. We introduce complex
coordinates in the plane in which U lies by setting
( = u + iv for (u, v) E U,
and we define
(17)
Thus, cp = (!Pi,!P2,!P3) has three components, each of which is a complex-valued
function of (u, v), i.e, of ( . The basic result which establishes the connection
between minimal surfaces and holomorphic functions is
Proposition 9.5
Let u : U -t R 3 be a eonformal surfaee pateh . Then a is minimal if and only
if the function cp defined in Eq. (17) is holomorphie on U .
Saying that cp is holomorphic means that each of its components !Pi,!P2 and
!P3 is holomorphic.
Proof 9.5
Let !p( u, v) be a complex-valued smooth function, and let 0 and ß be its real
and imaginary parts, so that !P = 0 + iß, The Cauchy-Riemann equations
Ou = ßv and Ov = -ts«
are the necessary and sufficient conditions for !P to be holomorphic. Applying
this to each of the components of cp, we see that cp is holomorphic if and only if
(uu)u = (-uv)v and (uu)v = -( -uv)u'
The second equation imposes no condition on a, and the first is equivalent to
Uuu +u v v = o. So we have to show that a is minimal if and only if the laplacian
.du = u uu + u vv is zero.
By Proposition 7.2(ii) and the fact that a is conformal, the mean curvature
of u is given by
H=L+N
2E '
so a is minimal if and only if L + N = 0, i.e.
(uuu + uvv).N = 0. (18)
Obviously, then, a is minimal if .du =O. For the converse, we have to show
that .du = 0 if Eq. (18) holds. It is enough to prove that .du.uu = .du.uv = 0,
since {uu,uv,N} is a basis ofR3 •
We compute
,1O"'O"U = O"uu ,O"u + O"vv .O"u
1
= 2(O"u ,O"u)u + (O"v'O"u)v - (O"v 'O"uv)
1
= 2(O"u,O"u - O"v.O"v)u, + (O"v .O"u)v '
But, since 0" is conformal, O"u.O"u = O"v.O"v and O"u .O"v = O. Hence, ,1O".O"u = O.
Similarly, ,1O".O"v = O. 0
The holomorphic function cp associated to a minimal surface 0" is not arbi-

trary, however:
Theorem 9.2
If 0" : U -t R 3 is a conformally parametrised minimal surface, the vector-valued
holomorphic function cp = (!Pl,!P2,!P3) defined in Eq. (17) satisfies the following
conditions:
(i) !pi + !p~ + !p~ = o,
(ii) cp is nowhere zero.
Conversely, if U is simply-connected, and if !Pl,!P2 and!p3 are holomorphic
functions on U satisfying conditions (i) and (ii) above, there is a conformally
parametrised minimal surface 0" : U -t R 3 such that cp = (!Pl,!P2,!P3) satis-
fies Eq. (17) . Moreover, 0" is uniquely determined by !Pl,!P2 and!p3 up to a
translation.
An open subset U of R 2 is said to be simply-connected if every simple closed

curve in U can be shrunk to a point staying inside U. Intuitively, this means
that U has no 'holes'.
simply-connected not simply-connected

In the course of the following proof, and in the proof of Proposition 9.7
below, we shall need to recall that, if Fis a holomorphic function of (= u+iv,
then
F« = F', F; = iF ' , (F)u = F', (F)v = - iF ' ,
where F' = dFfd( is the complex derivative of F, and the bar denotes complex-
conjugate.
Proof 9.2
Suppose first that a = (al , a 2 , ( 3) is minimal, where a k : U -t R for k = 1,2,3.

We have to show that tp = (CPl ,CP2,CP3) satisfies conditions (i) and (ii). Since
CPk = a~ - ia~ for k = 1,2,3,
3 3
L cP~ = L ((a~)2 - (a~)2 - 2ia~a~) = \llTu \12 -\llTv \12 -2ilTu.lT v, (19)
k=l k=l
which vanishes since o is conformal . Finally, tp = 0 if and only if lT u = a; = 0,
and this is impossible since a is regular.
For the converse, take tp satisfying conditions (i) and (ii). We must show
that tp arises from a minimal surface as above, and that this minimal surface
is unique up to a translation of R 3 • Fix (uo,vo) E U and define a as the real
part of a complex line integral:
lT(u,v) = 9te 1tp(~)df.,

where 11" is any curve in U from (uo, vo) to (u, v) EU . The fact that U is
simply-connected implies, by virtue of Cauchy's Theorem, that I1I" tp(~)d~ is in-
dependent of the path 11" chosen, and hence so is lT(u, v). Now, ~(() = I1I" tp(~)d~
is a holomorphic function of (= U + iv, and ~'(() = tp(() . Hence, by the facts
stated just before the beginning of the proof,
lT u = 9te(~u) = 9te(~') = 9te(tp),
(20)
a; = 9te(~v) = 9te(i~') = -Jm(tp),
so tp = lT u - ia. :
To complete the proof, we have to show that o is a conformal surface patch.
But, condition (ii) and Eq . (20) show that lT u and lT v are not both zero. By
condition (i) and Eq. (19), \llTu \I = \llTv \I and lT u .(1v = O. Since (1u and a; are
not both zero, this proves that (1u and (1 v are both non-zero and perpendicular,
hence linearly independent, so that (1 is a regular surface patch; it also proves
that (1 is conformal.
If another conformal minimal surface u corresponds to the same holomor-
phic function tp as (1, then Uu = (1u and Uv = (1v everywhere on U, which
implies that U - (1 is a constant, say a, so that u is obtained from o by trans-
lating by the vector a . 0
Before giving some examples, we observe that, if a holomorphic function

tp satisfies the conditions in Theorem 9.2, so does itp. If tp is the holomorphic
function corresponding to a minimal surface 5, the minimal surface to which
itp corresponds is called the conjugate of 5. It is weH defined by 5 up to a
translation.
Example 9.6
The parametrisation
u(u, v) = (cosh u cos v, cosh u sin v, u)
of the catenoid is conformal (see Example 9.1). The associated holomorphic
function is
tp«() = Uu - ia;
= (sinh u cos v + i cosh u sin v, sinh u sin v-i cosh u cos v, 1)
= (sinh(u + iv), -icosh(u + iv), 1)
= (sinh (, -i cosh(, 1).
Note that conditions (i) and (ii) in Theorem 9.2 are satisfied, since tp is clearly
never zero and the sum of the squares of its components is
sinh 2 ( - cosh2 ( + 1 = O.
Let us determine the conjugate minimal surface Ü of the catenoid. From the
proof of Theorem 9.2,
ü(u, v) L
= !>te (i sinh f , cosh f, i) ~
= !>te(i cosh c. sinh (, i()
= (- sinh u sin v, sinh u cosv, -v),
up to a translation. If we reparametrise by defining u = sinh u, ii = v + 7r /2, we
get the surface
(u,ii) 1-+ (ucosii,usinii,-ii),
after translating by (0,0, -7r /2), which is obtained from the helicoid in Exercise
4.14 by reflecting in the z-axis,
Note that the parametrisation of the helicoid given in Example 4.14 is not
conformal, so the constructions in this section cannot be applied to it.
It is actuaHy possible to 'solve' the conditions on tp in Theorem 9.2.

Proposition 9.6
Let 1«() be a holomorphie funetion on an open set U in the eomplex plane ,
not identieally zero, and let g(() be a meromorphie function on U such that, i/
(0 E U is a pole 0/ 9 0/ order m ;::: 1, say, then (0 is also a zero 0/ 1 0/ order
;::: 2m . Then ,
(21)
satisfies eonditions (i) and (ii) in Theorem 9.2, and eonversely every holomor-
phie [unction Ip satisfying these eonditions arises in this way.
The correspondence given by Theorem 9.2 and Proposition 9.6 between

pairs of functions 1 and 9 and minimal surfaces is called Weierstrass's repre-
sentation.
Prooj Il.B
Suppose that 1 and gare as in the statement of the proposition. If 9 has a pole
of order m ;::: 1 at (0 EU, and 1 has a zero of order n ;::: 2m at (0, then the
Laurent expansions of 1 and gabout (0 are of the form
b
I«() = a«( - (o)n + . . . and g«() = «(_(o)m + "',
where a and b are non-zero camplex numbers and the ... indicates terms in-
volving higher powers of ( - (0' Then,
1(1 ± g2) = ±ab2«( - (0)n-2m + . . . and Is = ab«( - (o)n-m + ...
involve only non-negative powers of ( - (0, so Ip is holomorphic near (0 ' Since
it is clear that Ip is holomorphic wherever 9 is holomorphic, it follows that the
function Ip defined by Eq . (21) is holomorphic everywhere on U . It is clear that
Ip is identically zero only if 1 is identically zero, and simple algebra shows that
Ip satisfies condition (i) in Theorem 9.2.
Conversely, suppose that Ip = (lpI,lp2,lp3) is a holomorphic function satis-
fying conditions (i) and (ii) in Theorem 9.2. If Ipl - ilp2 is not identically zero ,
define
1 = Ipl - ilp2, 9 = Ipl 1p3. (22)
- tlp2
Since Ip is holomorphic, 1 is holomorphic and 9 is meromorphic. Condition (i)

implies that (lpl + ilp2)(lpl - ilp2) = -Ip~, and hence that
Ipl + ilp2 = - Il. (23)
Simple algebra shows that Eqs. (22) and (23) imply Eq. (21). Equation (23)
implies that 1g2 is holomorphic, and the argument with Laurent expansions
in the first part of the proof now gives the condition on the zeros and poles
of 1 and g. Finally, if 'PI - i'P2 = 0, we repeat the above argument replacing
'PI ± i'P2 by 'PI T i'P2 (note that 'PI - i'P2 and 'PI + i'P2 cannot both be zero, for
if they were we would have 'PI = 'P2 = 0, hence 'P3 = by condition (i), and
this would violate condition (ii)).
°0
We give only one application of Weierstrass's representation.
Proposition 9.7
The gaussian cUnJature 0/ the minimal surjace corresponding to the /unctions
1 and 9 in Weierstrass 's representation is
-16Idg/d(1 2
K = 111 2 (1 + Ig1 2 ) 4 •
Proof 9.7
This is a straightforward, if tedious, computation, and we shall omit many of
the details. Define ip by taking the complex-conjugate of each component of
tp. Then, tT u = Htp + ip), tT v = ~(ip - tp). Since tp.tp = ip.ip = 0, the first
fundamental form is ~tp.ip(du2 + dv 2). Substituting the formula for tp into Eq.
(14) and simplifying, we find that the first fundamental form is
(24)
Next,
1( _) (_ ) 1 _
au X a v = 4i tp + tp x tp - tp = 2i tp x tp,
.. 11 tT u X a; 11 2 = -~(tp X ip).(tp x ip),

= _~((tp.tp)(ip.ip) _ (tp.ip)2),
-)2 ,
1(tp.tp
= 4
N=iipxtp.
tp.ip
In terms of 1 and g, this becomes
1
N = 1 + Igl 2 (g + g, -i(g - g), Igl
2
- 1) . (25)
Using the remarks preceding the proof of Theorem 9.2 and the formulas
(which follow by differentiating O'u .N = O'v.N = 0), we find that the second
fundamental form is
-~ ((Jg' + /g')(du 2 + dv 2 ) + 2i(Jg' - /g')dudv) . (26)
Combining Eqs. (24), (25) and (26), and using the formula for the gaussian
curvature K in Proposition 7.1(i), we finally obtain the formula in the statement
of the proposition. 0
Corollary 9.2
Let S be a minimal surjace that is not part 0/ a plane. Then, the zeros 0/ the
gaussian curvature 0/ S are isolated.
This means that, if the gaussian curvature K vanishes at a point P of

S, then K does not vanish at any other point of S sufficiently near to P.
More precisely, if P lies in a surface patch 0' of S, say P = 0'(uo, vo), there
is a number € > 0 such that K does not vanish at the point 0'(u, v) of S if
0< (u - UO)2 + (v - VO)2 < €2 .
Proo/9.5
From the formula for K in Proposition 9.8, K vanishes exactly where the
meromorphic function g' vanishes . Ir g' is zero everywhere, so is K and S is
part of a plane (this was shown in Proposition 6.5, but follows immediately
from Eq. (18) which shows that N is constant if 9 is constant). But it is a
standard result of complex analysis that the zeros of a non-zero meromorphic
function are isolated, so if K is not identically zero its zeros must be isolated.
o
EXERCISES
9.13 Find the holomorphic function I{) corresponding to the plane pass-
ing through the origin with unit normal a. What is its conjugate
surface?
9.14 If a minimal surface S corresponds to a pair of functions / and 9
in Weierstrass's representation, to which pair of functions does the
conjugate minimal surface of S correspond?
9.15 Calculate the functions f and 9 in Weierstrass's representation for

the catenoid and the helicoid.
9.16 Find the holomorphic function tp corresponding to Enneper's mini-
mal surface given in Example 9.4. Show that its conjugate minimal
surface coincides with a reparametrisation of the same surface ro-
tated by 1r / 4 around the z-axis .
9.17 Find a parametrisation of Henneberg 's surface, the minimal surface
corresponding to the functions f(() = 1 - (-4, g(() = ( in Weier-
strass's representation. (Reparametrise by putting ( = e< .) The fol-
lowing are a 'elose up' view and a 'large scale' view of this surface.
Henneberg: elose up
Henneberg: large scale

9.18 Let 9 be the Gauss map of a minimal surface in Weierstrass's repre-

sentation. Let tt : 82\(0,0,1) -t R 2 be the stereographic projection
map defined in Example 5.7, and identify the point (u,v) E R 2 with
the complex number u + iv as usual. Show that 1f 0 9 is the function
g.
10
Gsuss's Theoreme Egregium
One of Gauss's most important discoveries about surfaces is that the gaussian
curvature is unchanged when the surface is bent without stretching. Gauss
called this result 'egregium ', and the Latin word for 'remarkable' has remained
attached to his theorem ever since.
10.1. Gauss's Remarkable Theorem

The purpose of this section is to prove the following important theorem and to
study its consequences.
Theorem 10.1
The gaussian curvature 0/ a surface is preserved by isometries.
This means , more precisely, that if 8 1 and 8 2 are two surfaces and if f :
8 1 -t 8 2 is an isometry between them, then für any point P in 8 1 the gaussian
curvature of 8 1 at P is equal to that of 8 2 at f(P). The theorem is sometimes
expressed by saying that the gaussian curvature is an intrinsie property of a
surface, for it implies that the gaussian curvature could be measured by a bug
living in the surface.
In proving the theorem, it is enough by Theorem 5.1 to consider the case
of a surface patch a on 8 1 , and to prove that, if t1 and f 0 o have the same
229
first fundamental forms, then they have the same gaussian curvature. This is
far from obvious, for the formula
LN-M 2
K= EG-F2
that we obtained for the gaussian curvature K in Proposition 7.1(i) depends
on the coefficients L, N and M of the second fundamental form , as weIl as the
coefficients E , Fand G of the first fundamental form. Hence, the theorem is
telling us that LN - M2 can be expressed in terms of E, Fand G (although
it is not saying that L , M and N individuaIly can be so expressed).
To prove the theorem, we shall make use of a smooth orthonormal basis
{e' , eil} of the tangent plane at each point of the surface patch, where 'smooth'
means that e' and eil are smooth functions of the surface parameters (u, v) .
Then, {e' , eil, N} is an orthonormal basis of R 3 (N being the standard unit
normal of 0'), and we shaIl assurne that it is right-handed, i.e. that N = e' x eil .
This can always be achieved by interchanging e' and eil if necessary. Note that
the dashes on e' and eil have nothing to do with derivatives.
We can express the partial derivatives of e' and eil with respect to u and
v in terms of the orthonormal basis {e' ,ell ,N} . Since both partial derivatives
of e' are perpendicular to e' , the e' components of e~ and e~ are zero (and
similarly for eil) . Thus,
e'u = + ,X'N,
ae"
e'v = ße" + JL'N,
e~ = -eie' + ,XIIN,
e~ = -ß'e' + JLIIN,
for some scalars 0., ß, o", ß','x',JL', N', JLII (which may depend on u and v) . More-
over, by differentiating the equation e' .e ll = 0 with respect to u, we see that
e~ .ell = -e' .e~. i.e. 0.' = 0: (and similarly ß' = ß) . Thus,
e~ = ae" + ,X'N,
e~ = ße" + JL'N,
(1)
e~ = -o.e' + ,XIIN,
e~ = -ße' + JLIIN.
The foIlowing lemma is the crucial step in the proof of Theorem 10.1.
Lemma 10.1
With the above notation, we have
e~.e~ - e~.e~ = A'/1," - A"/1,' (2)
= Qv - ßu (3)
2
LN-M
(4)
= (EG - p2)l/2 .
Proof 10.1
Equation (2) follows immediately from Eq. (1), since e /, e" and N are perpen-
dicular unit vectors .
Next, we compute
Qv - 8 (e I")
ßu = 8u .ev - 8 (e I .e")
8v u (by Eq. (1»
= e~ .e~ + e/ .e~v - e~.e~ - e/.e~v

= e~.e~ - e~ .e~ .
This proves Eq. (3).
To prove Eq. (4), we use the formula
Nu x N, = K{Tu x a;
(see Eq. (15) in Chapter 7) . Combining this with the formulas
N - {Tu X {Tv 11 {Tu X {Tv 11 = (EG _ p2)1/2
- {Tu X a;
11 11'
(see Proposition 5.2) , we get
and hence
LN-M 2
(Nu x Nv) .N = (EG _ p2)l/2' (5)
Since N = e' x e", we get

(Nu x Nv) .N = (Nu x Nv).(e' xe"),
= (Nu.e/)(Nv .e") - (Nu .'e")(Nv.e /)
= (N.e~)(N.e~) - (N .e~)(N .e~)
= A'JL" - A"JL' (by Eq. (1)), (6)
where in passing from the second line to the third we used the equations
Nu .e'= -N .e~, Nu .e"= -N .e~,
Nv.e' = -N .e~, Nv.e" = -N .e~ ,
which follow by differentiating N .e' = 0 = N .e" with respect to u and v.

Putting Eqs, (5) and (6) together shows that the right-hand sides of Eqs. (2)
and (4) are equal. Since Eq. (2) has already been established, this proves Eq.
~). 0
Now we can prove Theorem 10.1.
Proo/10.1
Combining Eqs . (3) and (4), we get
O:v - ßu
K = (EG _ F2)l/2 ' (7)
so to prove the theorem it suffices to show that, [or a suitable choice 0/ {e', eil},
the scalars 0: and ß depend only on E, Fand G. We shall construct {e' , eil} by
applying the Gram-Schmidt process to the basis {O'u,O'v} ofthe tangent plane ,
and will then show that they have the desired property.
So we first define
, O'u
e = 11 O'u 11 = €O'u ,
where € = E- 1 / 2 • Now we look for a vector eil = 70'u + 60'v, for some scalars
7 ,6, such that eil is a unit vector perpendicular to e' . These conditions give
E- 1/2hE + 8F) = 0, 7 2 E + 27JF + 82G = 1.
The first equation gives 7 = -JFjE, and substituting in the second equation
then gives
2
6 (~ -2~ +G) = 1,
El/2 FE-l/2
6 e = E- 1 / 2 • (8)
= (EG - F2)1/2 '
'V
f =- (EG - F2)l/2 '
(We could change the sign of 6, and hence also that of 7, but it would make no
difference in the end .) Thus,
(9)
where 7,8 and e depend only on E, Fand G.
We now compute Q and ß. First,

Q = e~ .e" {by Eq. {I}}
= {€uO'u + €O'uu).{')'O'u + dO'v} {by Eq. {9}}
= -{€O'u}.(-yO'u
€u
€
+ dO'v } + €')'O'uu·O'u + €dO'uu.O'v
= €; e/ .e" + ~€')'{O'u.O'u}u + €d{{O'u.O'v}u - O'u·O'uv}
= 2€')'E
1 u + eo~{1}
E; - 2Ev (si ' ' '=}
smce e.e 0 , {10}
which does indeed depend only on E, F and G (because the same is true for
')',d and e). And finally,
ß= e~.e"
= {€vO'u + €O'uv).{')'O'u + dO'v}
€v .e + €')'O'uv.O'u + €UO'uv
= -e I " s
.O'v
e
1 1
= 2€')'Ev + 2€dGu, {11}
which also depends only on E, Fand G.
This completes the proof of Gauss's Theorem. o
By substituting the actual values of ')', d and e into these formulas for Q and
ß, and then using Eq. (7), we get an explicit formula for K in terms of E, F
and G. Here is the result:
Corollary 10.1
The gaussian cUnJature is gitJen by
-~Evv + Fuv - ~Guu ~Eu F u - ~Ev 0 ~Ev ~Gu
F v - ~Gu E F - ~Ev E F
~Gv F G !Gu F G
K=
{EG - F2)2
We shall not go through the details of this calculation, partly because the
proof is very tedious, and partly because the following special cases are often
all that is needed:
Corollary 10.2
(i) If F = 0, we have
K= - 2J~G {:u (J?G) + :v (J~G)}·

(ii) If E = 1 and F = 0, we have
K 1_ß2..(G
- ..(G ßu2 .
Proof 10.2
HF = 0, Eq. (8) gives
,= 0, 8 = G- 1 / 2 , e = E- 1 / 2 •
Substituting in Eqs. (10) and (11), we get
a = _~(EG)-1/2
2
Ev, ß = ~(EG)-1/2Gu.
2
Hence,
K= ~~;)~~ = - 2V~G {:v (J~G) + :u (J?G)}' (12)

proving the formula in (i).
If, in addition, E = 1, the first term on the right-hand side of (12) vanishes,
so
K _ 1 (Gu)
o
- - 2..(Gßu
_ 1ß2..(G
..(G - - ..(G ßu2 '
proving the formula in (ii). o
Example 10.1
For the surface of revolution
u(u ,v) = (f(u) cos v, f(u) sin v, g(u)),
where f > 0 and j2 + 92 = 1 (a dot denoting d/du), we found in Example 6.2
that E = 1, F = 0, G = f(U)2. Hence, Corollary 10.2(ii) applies and gives
K _ 1 ß2..(G _ j
- - ..(G ßu2 - -7'
in agreement with Eq. (2) of Chapter 7.
10. GaU55'S Theorema Egregium 235
We are now in a position to give the application of geodesie coordinates

that we promised in Section 8.5.
Theorem 10.2
Any point of a surfaee of eonstant gaussian eurvature is eontained in a pateh
that is isometrie to part of a plane, a sphere or a pseudosphere.
Proof 10.2
Let P be a point of a surface S with constant gaussian curvature K . By applying
a dilation of R 3 (see Exercise 7.6), we need only consider the cases K = 0,1
and-l.
We take a geodesie patch 0'( u, v) with 0'(0,0) = P . Writing 9 = ..;c, the
first fundamental form is
By Corollary 10.2(ii),
(13)
Note that
g(O,v) = 1, gu(O,v) = 0, (14)
by Proposition 8.7.
If K = 0, the solution of Eq . (13) is g(u, v) = Cl:U + ß, where Cl: and ß are
smooth functions of v only. The boundary conditions (14) give Cl: = 0, ß = 1,
so 9 = 1 and the first fundamental form of 0' is
du 2 + dv 2 •
This is the same as the first fundamental form of the usual parametrisation of
the plane (see Example 5.1), and Theorem 5.1 now shows that 0' is isometrie
to part of the plane.
If K = 1, the general solution of Eq. (13) is 9 = Cl:COSU + ßsinu, where Cl:
and ß only depend on v. The boundary conditions (14) give Cl: = 1, ß = 0, and
the first fundamental form of 0' is
du 2 + cos2 U dv 2 •
This is the first fundamental form of the unit sphere, with u and v being latitude
and longitude, respectively (see Example 5.2). Hence, 0' is isometrie to part of
the unit sphere.
Finally, if K = -1, we find in the same way that the first fundamental form
of a is
We have not encountered this first fundamental form before. However, let us
reparametrise a by defining
V = eVtanh u , W = eVsech u .
We then find, using the formulas in Exercise 5.4, for example, that the first
fundamental form becomes
dV 2 +dW2
W2
Comparing with Example 8.8, we see that this is the first fundamental form of
the pseudosphere. 0
EXERCISES
10.1 If a surface patch has first fundamental form e>'(du 2 + dv2 ) , where
Ais a smooth function of u and v, show that its gaussian curvature
K satisfies
.dA + 2Ke>' = 0,
where .d denotes the laplacian 8 2/8u2 + 8 2 /8v 2.
10.2 With the notation of Exercise 8.21, define u = rcosO, v = rsinO,
and let l1(u, v) be the corresponding reparametrisation of a , It can
be shown that 11 is an allowable surface patch for S defined on the
open set u 2 + v 2 < €2 . (Note that this is not quite obvious because o
is not allowable when r = 0.) Show that the first fundamental form
of 11 is Edu 2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv 2 , where
_ u2
E = -2
Gv 2
+ -4, F =
_ (
1- -2
G) uv - v2
- 2 , G = -2
Gu 2
+ - 4-
r r r r r r
(use Exercise 5.4). Show that u 2 (E - 1) = v 2 (G - 1), and by con-
sidering the Taylor expansions of E and Gabout u = v = 0, deduce
that
G(r,O) = r 2 + kr 4 + remainder
for some constant k, where remainder/r" tends to zero as r tends to
zero. Show finally that k = -K(P)/3, where K(P) is the value of
the gaussian curvature of S at P (use Corollary 10.2(ii)) .
10.3 With the notation of Exercises 8.21 and 10.2, show that
(i) the cireumferenee of the geodesie circle with eentre P and ra-
dius R is
CR = 27fR (1 - K~P) R2 + remainder) ,

where remainderj R 2 tends to zero as R tends to zero;
(ii) the area inside the geodesie circle in (i) is
AR = 7fR2 (1 - Ki:) R
2
+ remainder) ,
where the remainder satisfies the same eondition as in (i).

Calculate CR and AR exaetly when S is the unit sphere , and verify
that the results agree with those in (i) and (ii) above.
10.4 Let ABC be a triangle on a surface a whose sides are ares of
geodesics. Assurne that ABC is eontained in a geodesie pateh o as in
Exercise 8.21 with P = A. Thus, with the notation in that exercise,
if we take v to be parallel to AB at A, then AB and AC are the
parameter eurves {} = 0 and {} = LA, and BC ean be parametrised
by 'Y({}) = u(f({}) , (}) for some smooth function fand 0 :5 {} :5 LA.
(i) Use the geodesie equations (Chapter 8, Eqs. (2)) to show that
1" r >.' _ 1 ea
-A2"-2or'
where a dash denotes djd{) and A = 11 "1' 11 .
(ii) Show that, if 'l/J({}) is the angle between Ur and the tangent
veetor to BC at 'Y({}), then
'l/J'({}) =- 0't; (f({}),{}).
(iii) Show that, if K is the gaussian eurvature of S ,
f! ABC
K dAu = LA + LB + LC - n,
This result will be generalised in Chapter 11.
10.2. Isometries of Surfaces

The Theorema Egregium provides a necessary condition for the existence of an
isometry between surfaces : if such an isometry exists, the gaussian curvature
must be the same at corresponding points of the two surfaces. We give two
examples of this idea; others can be found in the exercises.
Our first result shows that it is impossible to draw a 'perfect ' map of the
Earth (which is why cartography is an interesting subject).
Proposition 10.1
Any map 0/ any region 0/ the earth's surface must distort distances.
Proo/10.1
A map of a region of the earth's surface which did not distort distances would
be a diffeomorphism from this region of a sphere to a region in a plane (the
map) which multiplied all distances by the same constant factor, say C. We
might as well assurne that the plane passes through the origin. Then, by com-
posing this map with the map from the plane to itself which takes a point
with position vector r to the point with position vector C-1r, we would get
an isometry between this region of the sphere and some region of a plane. This
would imply, by the Theorema Egregium, that these regions of the sphere and
the plane have the same gaussian curvature. But we know that a plane has
gaussian curvature zero everywhere, and a sphere has constant positive gaus-
sian curvature everywhere (if the sphere has radius R, the gaussian curvature
is 1/ R 2 ) . So no such isometry can exist . 0
Note, on the other hand, that it is possible to draw a map of the Earth that
correctly represents angles, for we saw in Example 5.7 and Exercise 5.11 that
the stereographic and Mercator projections are conformal , and Archimedes's
Theorem 5.4 shows that there is a map that correctly represents areas.
Our next example shows how the Theorema Egregium can sometimes be
used to determine all the isometries of a surface.
Proposition 10.2
The only isometries of a helicoid
O'(u,v) = (ucosv ,usinv,v)
are SA' R; 0 SA' Ry 0 SA and R; 0 SA for some value of >., where SA is the
screwing motion O'(u,v) ~ O'(u,v + A), and R x , Ry and R, are rotations by 1r
around the x, y and z-axes.
Proof 10.2
Suppose that an isometry of the helicoid takes 0'(u, v) to 0'(U, ii), where u and
ii are smooth functions of u and v . Since the gaussian curvature at O'(u, v) is
-1/ (1 + u 2 ) 2 (see Exercise 7.2), the Theorema Egregium teIls us that
-1 -1
(1 + u 2)2 = (1 + U2 )2 '
so U = ±u. Applying a rotation R; by 1r around the z-axis changes u to -u
(and fixes v), so we assume that u = u. Let ii = f(u,v). By Theorem 5.1,
the patches O'(u, v) and Ö'(u, v) = O'(u, f(u, v)) have the same first fundamental
form. That of 0' is du 2 + (1 + u 2)dv2, and that of Ö' is found to be
(1 + (1 + u2)f~)du2 + 2(1 + u2)fufududv + (1 + u 2)/;dv2.
Equating these, we find that fu = 0 and fu = ±l. Hence,
ii = f(u,v) = ±v + >.,
where >. is a constant. A rotation R z by 1r around the z-axis changes v to -v
(and fixes u), so we take the + sign. This gives the isometry
SA : O'(u, v) ~ O'(u, V + >.).
This proves the proposition (the isometry Ry 0 S A arises because R y = Rx 0 Rz ' )
o
EXERCISES
10.5 Show that there is no isometry between any region of a sphere and
any region of a (generalised) cylinder or a (generalised) cone. (Use
Proposition 10.1 and Exercise 5.7.)
10.6 Show that the gaussian curvature of the Möbius band in Example
4.9 is equal to -1/4 everywhere along its median circle. Deduce
that this Möbius band cannot be constructed by taking 'a strip of
paper and joining the ends together with a half-twist. (The analytic
description of the 'cut and paste' Möbius band is more complicated
than the version in Example 4.9.)
10.7 Consider the surface patches
O'(u, v) = (ucosv ,usinv,lnu), u(u,v) = (ucosv,usinv,v).
Prove that the gaussian curvature of 0' at 0'(u, v) is the same as that
of u at u(u, v), but that the map from 0' to u which takes 0'(u, v) to
u( u , v) is not an isometry. Prove that, in fact, there is no isometry
from 0' to u.
10.8 Show that the only isometries from the catenoid to itself are products
of rotations around its axis, reflections in planes containing the axis,
and reflection in the plane containing the waist of the catenoid.
10.3. The Codazzi-Mainardi Equations

Gauss 's Theorema Egregium shows that the coefficients of the first and second
fundamental forms of a surface cannot be arbitrary smooth functions, for it
shows that LN - M 2 can be expressed in terms of E, Fand G. It is natural to
ask if there are any further relations between these coefficients. In this section,
we find that there are indeed some additional relations, and we show that, in
a sense we shall explain, there are no others.
We begin with a computation similar to that in Lemma 10.1.
Proposition 10.3 (Gauss Equations)

Let 0'(u, v) be a surface patch. Then,
O'uu = rfl(fu + rflO'v + LN,
O'uv = rf20'u + rf20'v + MN,
(fvv = ri20'u + ri20'v + NN,
where
r: _ GEu - 2FFu + FEv r2 _ 2EFu - EEv - FEu
11 - 2(EG _ F2) , 11 - 2(EG _ F2) ,
1 GEv -FG u 2 EG u - FEv
r 12 = 2(EG _
F2) , r 12 = 2(EG _ F2) ,
r.l _ 2GFv - GG u - FG u r.2 _ EG v - 2FFv + FG u
22 - 2(EG - F2) , 22 - 2(EG _ F2)
The six r eoefficients in these formulas are ealled Christoffel symbols.
Proof 10.3
Sinee {O'u, O'v, N} is a basis of R 3 , sealar functions al , ... ,1'3 satisfying
O'uu = alO'u + a20'v + a3N,
O'uv = ßIO'u + ß20'v + ß3 N, (15)
O'vv = 1'IO'u + 1'20'v + 1'3 N ,
eertainly exist. Taking the dot produet of each equaticn with N gives
a3 = L, ß3 = M, 1'3 = N.
Now we take the dot product of eaeh equation in (15) with O'u and O'v ' This gives
six sealar equations from which we determine the remaining six eoefficients. For
example, taking the dot produet of the first equation in (15) with O'u and a;
gives the two equations
1
Eal +Fa2 = O'uu·O'u = "2Eu,
1
Fa, + Ga2 = O'uU 'O'v = (O'u'O'v)u - O'u'O'uv = E; - "2Ev .
Solving these equations gives al = n..a2 = rrl ; similarly for the other four
eoefficients in Eqs. (15). 0
The new relations between the eoefficients of the first and seeond funda-
mental forms of a surface pateh are eontained in the following result.
Proposition 10.4 (Codazzi-Mainardi Equations)

Define the Christoffel symbols of a surface patch 0'(U, v) as above. Then,
L; - M u = Lrl2 + M(rf2 - rl1 ) - «n:
M; - Nu = Lri2 + M(ri2 - rl2) - N rf2'
Proof 10.4
We write down the equation (O'uu)v = (O'uv)u, using the Gauss equations for
O'uu and O'uv:
ct», + rf10'v+ LN)v = (Fl20'u + rr20'v + MN)u,

ar l 1 _ arl2) (ar f1 _ arf2) (L _ M )N
( & ~ ~+ & ~ ~+ v u
= tu«: + (rr2 - n»: -r 1210'vv - LN v + MN u

= rl2(rl10'u+ rr10'v + LN) + (rr2 - rld(rl20'u + rr20'v + MN)
- rt. (ri20'u + ri20'v + NN) - LN v + MN u• (16)
using the Gauss equations again. Now, Nu and N, are perpendicular to N,

and so are linear combinations of a u and (fv - Hence, equating N components
on both sides of the last equation gives
L ; - Mu = Lrl2 + M(r[2 - rl1 ) - Nr[l ,
which is the first of the Codazzi-Mainardi equations. The other equation follows
in a similar way from ((fuv)v = ((fvv)u' 0
At first sight, it seems that we could get four other identities like those
in Theorem 10.2 by equating the coefficients of (fu and (fv in Eq. (16) and in
its analogue coming from ((fuv)v = ((fvv)u' It turns out, however, that these
identites are all equivalent to the formula in Corollary 10.1 (and so, in partic-
ular, they give another proof of the Theorema Egregium) . In fact, there are no
further identites to be discovered , as the following theorem shows.
Theorem 10.3
Let a : U ~ R 3 and i1 : U ~ R 3 be surface patches with the same jirst and
second fundamental forms . Then, there is a rigid motion M of R 3 such that
i1=Mo(f.
Moreover, let V be an open subset of R 3 and let E, F, G, L, M and N be
smooth functions on V . Assume that E > 0, G > 0, EG - F 2 > 0 and that the
equations in Corollary 10.1 and Proposition 10·4 hold, with K = 7f&-=-hJ.: and
the Christoffel symbols dejined as in Proposition 10.3. Then, if (uo, vo) E V,
there is an open set U contained in V and containing (uo, vo), and a surface
patch a : U ~ R 3 , such thatEdu 2+2Fdudv+Gdv2 andLdu 2+2Mdudv+Ndv2
are the jirst and second fundamental forms of a, respectively.
This theorem is the analogue for surfaces of Theorem 2.3, which shows that
unit-speed plane curves are determined up to a rigid motion by their signed
curvature. We shall not prove Theorem 10.3 here . The first part depends on
uniqueness theorems for the solution of systems of ordinary differential equa-
tions, and is not particularly difficult. The second part is more sophisticated
and depends on existence theorems for the solution of certain partial differential
equations. The following example will illustrate what is involved.
Example 10.2
Consider the first and second fundamental forms du 2 + dv 2 and -du2, respec-
tively. Let us first see whether a surface patch with these first and second
fundamental forms exists . Since all the coefficients of these forms are constant,
all the Christoffel symbols are zero and the Codazzi-Mainardi equations are
obviously satisfied. The formula in Corollary 10.1 gives K = 0, so the only
other condition to be checked is LN - M 2 = 0, and this dearly holds since
M = N = 0. Theorem 10.3 therefore teIls us that a surface patch with the
given first and second fundamental forms exists.
To find it, we note that the Gauss equations give
CT~u = -N, CT u v = 0, CT v v = o.
The last two equations tell us that CTv is a constant vector, say a, so
CT(U, v) ~ b(u) + av, (17)
where b is a function of u only. The first equation then gives N = -b" (a dash
denoting djdu) . We now need to use the expressions for Nu and N, in terms
of CT u and CTv in Proposition 6.4. The Weingarten matrix is
(
1 0)-1 (-1 0)
01 ° ° = (-10 00) '
so Proposition 6.4 gives
Nu = CT u , N, = O.
The second equation teIls us nothing new, since we already knew that N = - b"
depends only on u . The first equation gives
b lll + b' = O.
Hence, b" + bis a constant vector, which we can take to be zero by applying
a translation to CT (see Eq. (17)). Then,
b(u) = ccosu + dsinu,
where c and d are constant vectors , and N = -b" = b . This must be a unit
vector for all values of u. It is easy to see that this is possible only if c and d
are perpendicular unit vectors, in which case we can arrange that c = (1,0,0)
and d = (0,1,0) by applying a rigid mot ion, giving b(u) = (cosu,sinu,O).
FinaIly, CT u x CT v = >.N for some non-zero scalar >., so b' x a = Ab. This forces
a = (0,0 , >'), and the patch is given by
CT(U, v) = (cosu,sinu, >'v),
a parametrisation of a circular cylinder of radius 1 (which the reader had prob-
ably guessed some time aga).
EXERCISES
10.9 A surface patch has first and second fundamental forms

cos2 v du 2 + dv 2 and - cos2 v du 2 - dv 2 ,
respectively. Show that the surface is part of a sphere of radius one.
(Compute the Weingarten matrix.) Write down a parametrisation
of the unit sphere with these first and second fundamental forms.
10.10 Show that there is no surface patch whose first and second funda-
mental forms are
du 2 + cos2 U dv 2 and cos2 u du 2 + dv 2 ,
respectively.
10.11 Suppose that the first and second fundamental forms of a surface
patch are Edu 2 + Gdv 2 and Ldu 2 + N dv 2 , respectively (cf. Propo-
sition 7.2). Show that the Codazzi-Mainardi equations reduce to
t; = ~Ev (~ + ~), = ~Gu (~ + ~) .

Nu
Deduce that the principal curvatures 11:1 = L / E and 11:2 = N / G

satisfy the equations
(lI:l)V = ~~ (11:2 - 1I:t}, (1I:2)u = ~~ (11:1 - 11:2) '
10.4. Compact Surfaces of Constant Gaussian

C urvature
We conclude this chapter with a beautiful theorem that is the analogue for
surfaces of the characterisation given in Example 2.2 of circles as the plane
curves with constant curvature.
Theorem 10.4
Every compact surface whose gaussian curvature is constant is a sphere.
Note that, by Proposition 7.6, the value of the constant gaussian curvature
in this theorem must be > O.
The proof of this theorem depends on the following lemma.
Lemma 10.2
Let a : U -+ R 3 be a surjace patch containing a point P = rr(uo, vo) that is
not an umbilic . Let 11:1 ~ 11:2 be the principal curvatures 0/ a and suppose that
11:1 has a local maximum at P and 11:2 has a local minimum there. Then, the
gaussian curvature 0/ a at P is :::; O.
Proo/10.2
Since P is not an umbilic, 11:1 > 11:2 at P, so by shrinking U if necessary, we
mayassume that 11:1 > 11:2 everywhere.
By Proposition 7.2, we can assurne that the first and second fundamental
forms of a are
Edu 2 + Cdv 2 and Ldu 2 + N dv2 ,
respectively. By Exercise 10.11,
2E 2C
Ev = - (lI:t}v, Cu = 11:1 - (1I:2)u,
11:1 - 11:2 11:2
and by Corollary 1O.2(ii), the gaussian curvature
K = - 2J~C (:u (J;C) + ~ (J~C) ) .

Since P is a stationary point of 11:1 and 11:2, we have (lI:t}v = (1I:2)u = 0, and
hence E; = Cu = 0, at P. Hence, at P,
1 1 ( 2C 2E)
K = -2EC(C u U + Ev v ) = -2EC .
11:1 - 11:2
(1I:2)uu -
11:1 - 11:2
(1I:1)vv
(again dropping terms involving E v , Cu and the first derivatives of 11:1 and 11:2)'
Since 11:1 has a Iocal maximum at P, (lI:t}vv :::; 0 there, and since 11:2 has a local
minimum at P, (1I:2)uu ~ 0 there. Hence, the last equation shows that K ::; 0
at P. 0
Proo/10·4
The proof of Theorem 10.4 will use a little point set topology. We consider the
continuous function on the surface S given by J = (11:1 -11:2)2, where 11:1 and 11:2
are the principal curvatures. Note that this function is weIl defined even though
11:1 and 11:2 are not , partly because we do not know which principal curvature
is to be caIled 11:1 and which 11:2, and partly because the sign of the principal
curvatures depends on the choice of parametrisation of S. We shaIl prove that
this function is identicaIly zero on S, so that every point of S is an umbilic.
Since the gaussian curvature K > 0, it foIlows from Proposition 6.5 that S is
part of a sphere, say S . In fact , S must be the whole of S. For , any point P of
S is eontained in a pateh er : U ~ R 3 of S, and er(U) = Sn W, where W is an

open subset of R 3 ; it follows that S is an open subset of S. On the other hand,
sinee S is eompaet, it is neeessarily a closed subset of R 3 , and henee a closed
subset of S. But sinee S is eonneeted, the only non-empty subset of S that is
both open and closed is S itself.
Suppose then, to get a eontradiction, that J is not identically zero on S .
Sinee S is eompaet, J must attain its maximum value at some point P of S, and
this maximum value is > 0. Choose a pateh er: U ~ R 3 of S eontaining P , and
°
let ~1 and ~2 be its principal eurvatures. Sinee ~1 ~2 > 0, by reparametrising
if neeessary, we ean assurne that ~1 and ~2 are both > (see Exercise 6.17).
Suppose that ~1 > ~2 at P; then by shrinking U if neeessary, we ean assurne
that ~1 > ~2 everywhere on U. Sinee K is a eonstant > 0, the function (x _ ~) 2
inereases with x provided that x > K]» > 0. Sinee ~1 > K/~l = ~2 > 0, this
function is inereasing at x = ~1, so ~1 must have a loeal maximum at P, and
then ~2 = K/~l must have a loeal minimum there. By Lemma 10.2, K ~ at
P . This eontradicts the assumption that K > 0. 0
°
EXERCISES
10.12 Show that a eompact surfaee with gaussian eurvature > every- °
where and eonstant mean eurvature is a sphere. (As in the proof
of Theorem 10.4, if ~1 has a loeal maximum at a point P of the
surfaee, then ~2 = 2H - ~1 has a loeal minimum there.)
11
The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem
The Gauss-Bonnet theorem is the most beautiful and profound result in the
theory of surfaces . Its most important version relates the average over a surface
of its gaussian curvature to a property of the surface called its 'Euler number'
which is 'topological', i.e, it is unchanged by any continuous deformation of
the surface. Such deformations will in general change the value of the gaussian
curvature, but the theorem says that its average over the surface does not
change. The real importance of the Gauss-Bonnet theorem is as a prototype
of analogous results which apply in higher dimensional situations, and which
relate geometrical properties to topological ones. The study of such relations is
one of the most important themes of 20th century Mathematics.
11.1. Gauss-Bonnet for Simple Closed Curves

The simplest version of the Gauss-Bonnet Theorem involves simple closed
curves on a surface. In the special case when the surface is a plane, these
curves have been discussed in Section 3.1. For a general surface, we make
Definition 11.1
A curve -y(t) = (1(u(t),v(t)) on a surface patch (1 : U ~ R 3 is called a simple
closed curve with period a if lI'(t) = (u(t), v(t)) is a simple closed 'curve in
R 2 with period a such that the region int(1r) of R 2 enclosed by 11' is entirely
247
contained in U (see the diagrams below). The curve 'Y is said to be positively-
oriented if 'Ir is positively-oriented. Finally, the image of int('Ir) under the map
o is defined to be the interior intb) of 'Y.
allowed not allowed

We can now state the first version of the Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.
Theorem 11.1
Let 'Y(s) be a unit-speed simple closed CU1"'Je on a surjace o 0/ length f('Y), and
assume that 'Y is positively-oriented. Then,
lo
l
('Y) "'uds = 21r - /1
int('Yl
Kd,Aq,
where "'u is the geodesic curvature 0/ 'Y, K is the gaussian curvature 0/ a and
d,Aq = (EG - P2)1/2dudv is the area element on a (see Secti~n 5.4).
We use s to denote the parameter of 'Y to emphasize that 'Y is unit-speed.
Proo/11.1
As in the proof of Theorem 10.1, choose a smooth orthonormal basis {e', eil} of
the tangent plane of q at each point such that {e', eil, N} is a right-handed or-
thonormal basis of R 3 , where N is the unit normal to o , Consider the following
integral:
l
l ('Y)
I = 0 e'.i/'ds
=l
l ('Y)
0 e'.(e~ü + e~v)ds
l
= (e'.e~)du + (e'.e~)dv.
By Green 's theorem (see Section 3.1), this can be rewritten as a double integral:
I = /1 {(e'.e~)u - (e'.e~)v}dudv
= /1
int(1r)
{(e~.e~) - (e~.e~)}dudv
int(1r)
/1
LN-M2
= int(1r) (EG _ F2)l/2 dudv (by Lemma 10.1)
= /1 int(1r)
2
LN - M (EG _ F 2)1/2dudv
EG - F2
= /1 int (1r)
KdAq. (1)
Now let O( s) be the angle between the unit tangent vector 'Y of'Y at 'Y( s) and
the unit vector e' at the same point. More precisely, 0 is the angle, uniquely
determined up to a multiple of 211", such that
'Y = cos Oe' + sin Oe". (2)
Then,
N x 'Y = - sinOe' + cosOe". (3)
N
Now, by Eq . (2),
;Y = cos Oe' + sin Oe" + Ö( - sin Oe' + cos ~e"), (4)
so by Eqs. (3) and (4) the geodesie curvature of"( is
"'g = (N x -y) .;Y (see Section 6.2)
= Ö( - sin Oe' + cos Oe").(- sin Oe' + cos Oe")
+ (- sin Oe' + cos Oe").(cos Oe' + sin Oe")
= Ö+ cos 2
O(e' .e") - sin 2 O(e" .e')
+ sinOcosO(e" .e" - e' .e') (by Eqs. (2) and (3».
Since e' and e" are perpendicular unit vectors,
e' .e' = e" .e" = 0, e' .e" = -e' .e" .
Hence,
"'g =D U - e , .e." ,
and by the definition of I ,
(l("()
=J
(Ö - "'g)ds.
I
o
Thus, to complete the proof of Theorem 11.1, we must show that
(("()
J Öds = 271". (5)
o
Equation (5) is called 'Hopf's Umlaufsatz' - literally 'rotation theorem' in
German. We cannot give a fully satisfactory proof of it here because the proof
would take us too far into the realm of topology. Instead, we shall justify Eq.
(5) by means of the following heuristic argument.
The main observation is that, if i is any other simple closed curve contained
in the interior of "(, there is a smooth family of simple closed curves "(T , defined
for 0 ~ T ~ 1, say, with "(0 ="( and "(1 = i (see Section 8.4 for the notion of
a smooth family of curves) . The existence of such a family is supposed to be
'intuitively obvious'.
Note, however, that it is crucial that the interior of 11' is entirely contained in
U, otherwise such a family will not exist , in general :
Observe next that the integral f~(-YT") 0ds should depend continuously on T .
Further, since -yT and e' return to their original values as one goes once round
-yT, the integral is always an integer multiple of 211". These two facts imply
that the integral must be independent of T - for by the Intermediate Value
Theorem a continuous variable cannot change from one integer to a different
integer without passing through some non-integer value. To compute f~(-Y) 0ds,
we can therefore replace -y by any other simple closed curve ;y in the interior
of -y, since this will not change the value of the integral. We take ;y to be the
image under (T of a small circle in the interior of 11'. It is 'intutively clear' that
because
ro Ods = 211",
(i) e' is essentially constant at all points of;y (because the circle is very small) ,
and
(ii) the tangent vector to ;y rotates by 211" on going once round ;y because the
interior of ;y can be considered to be essentially part of aplane, and it is
'intutively clear' that the tangent vector of a simple closed curve in the
plane rotates by 211" on going once round the curve.
This completes the 'proof' of Hopf's Umlaufsatz, and hence that of Theorem
11.1.
EXERCISES
11.1 A surface patch a has gaussian curvature g 0 everywhere . Prove that

there are no simple closed geodesics in o, How do you reconcile this
with the fact that the paralieis of a circular cylinder are geodesics?
11.2 Let ")'(8) be a simple closed curve in R 2, parametrised by arc-Iength
and of total length l(")'). Deduce from Hopf's Umlaufsatz that, if
[(")')
11:8 (8) is the signed curvature of ")', then
1 o 11: 8 (8) ds = 211'.
(Use Proposition 2.2.)
11.2. Gauss-Bonnet for Curvilinear Polygons

For the next version of Gauss-Bonnet, we shall have to generalise our not ion
of a curve by allowing the possibility of 'corners'. More precisely, we make the
following definition .
Definition 11.2
A curoilineor polygon in R 2 is a continuous map 1r : R 4 R 2 such that, for
some real number a and some points 0 = to < tl < ... < t n = a,
(i) 1r(t) = 1r(t') if and only if t' - t is an integer multiple of a;
(ii) 1r is smooth on each of the open intervals (to, tl), (tl , t2), .. . , (tn-l, t n ) ;
(iii) the one-sided derivatives
1r. -(t..)--l m
I' 1r(t) -1r(ti) , (6)
ttt; t - t;
exist for i = 1, . .. ,n and are non-zero and not parallel.
The points ")'( ti) for i = 1, . . . , n are called the vertices of the curvilinear polygon
1r, and the segments ofit corresponding to the open intervals (ti-I, ti) are called
its edqes.
It makes sense to say that a curvilinear polygon 11' is positively-oriented:

for all t such that lr(t) is not a vertex, the vector n, obtained by rotating ir
anticlockwise by 11'/2 should point into int(1r). (The region int(lr) enclosed by 1r
makes sense because the Jordan Curve Theorem applies to curvilinear polygons
in the plane.)
Now let (J : U ~ R 3 be a surface patch and let 1r : R ~ U be a curvilinear

polygon in U, as in Definition 11.2. Then, 'Y = (J 0 11' is called a curvilinear
polygon on the surface patch (J, int('Y) is the image under (J of int(1I'), the
vertices of'Y are the points 'Y(ti) for i = 1, ... , n, and the edges of (J are the
segments ofit corresponding to the open intervals (ti-l, ti) ' Since (J is allowable,
the one-sided derivatives
.) - l' 'Y(t) - 'Y( ti) ,
'Y. - (t ~-lm
ttt, t - ti
exist and are not parallel.
Let 0; be the angles between .y± (ti) and e', defined as in Eq, (2), let
8i = 0; - 0i be the external angle at the vertex 'Y(ti), and let ai = 'Ir - 8i be
the internal angle. Since the tangent vectors v" (ti) and .y- (ti) are not parallel,
the angle 8i is not a multiple of 'Ir. Note that all of these angles are weIl defined
only up to multiples of 2'1r. We assume from now on that 0 < ai < 2'1r for
i = 1, . .. ,no
A curvilinear polygon 'Y is said to be unit-speed if 11 .y 11 = 1 whenever .y is
defined, i.e, for all t such that 'Y(t) is not a vertex of 'Y. We denote the parameter
of'Y by s if'Y is unit-speed. The period of'Y is then equal to its length l('Y),
which is the sum of the lengths of the edges of 'Y .
Theorem 11.2
Let 'Y be a positively-oriented unit-speedcurvilinear polygon with n edges on a
surface (J , and let al, a2, . . . ,an be the interior angles at its vertices. Then,
t"o
K,gds = :~:::>i
n
i=l
- (n - 2)'Ir - /1
int('Y)
KdAq.
Proof 11.2
Exactly the same argument as in the proof of Theorem 11.1 shows that
o 1(')' ) = 1(')')
K.gds
0
Öds - j' (
Jint(')')
KdAq.
We shall prove that

(')')
1
n
Öds=21r- Lck (7)
o i=l
Assuming this, we get
l
l
(')' ) K.gds = 21r - t s, - j ' ( K dAq
o i=l Jint(')')
=21r- t(1r-a i)-j'( KdAq

i=l Jint(')')
=tai-(n-2)1r-j'( KdAq.
i=l Jint(')')
To establish Eq. (7), we imagine 'smoothing' each vertex of')' as shown in

the following diagram.
If the 'smoothed' curve i

(')'):. =
is smooth (!), then, in an obvious notation,
1 o 8ds 21r. (8)
(')'):. l
Since y and i are the same except near the vertices of ')', the difference
1
l (')' ) .
8ds 8ds - (9)
o 0
is a sum of neontributions, one from near each vertex. Near ')'(Si), the picture
is
Si
i.e, "( and 'Y agree except when s belongs to a small interval (si, si'), say, con-
taining Si, SO the contribution from the ith vertex is
I , -1 -I'
8'.' . 8i 8'.'
Öds iJds iJds.
8~ 8~ Bi
The first integral is the angle between .y(si') and .y(si), which as si and si'
tend to Si becomes the angle between 1'+ (Si) and 1'-(Si), i.e. Oi' On the other
hand, since "((s) is smooth on each of the intervals (si, Si) and (Si, si'), the last
two integrals go to zero as si and si' tend to Si. Thus, the contribution to the
expression (9) from the ith vertex tends to Oi as si and si' tend to Si . Summing
over all the vertices, we get
l(1') . ll("()
L 0;.
n
Öds - iJds =
lo 0 i=1
Equation (7) now follows from this and Eq. (8). o
Corollary 11.1
// "( is a curvilinear polygon with n edges each 0/ which is an are 0/ a qeodesic,
then the internal angles Ql, Q2, ... ,Qn 0/ the polygon satisfy the equation
Proo/11 .1
This is immediate from Theorem 11.2, since "'g = 0 along a geodesic. 0
As a special case of Corollary 11.1, consider an n-gon in the plane with

straight edges. Sinee K = 0 for the plane, Corollary 11.1 gives

n
Lai = (n - 2)1T,
i=l
a weIl known result of elementary geometry.
For a eurvilinear n-gon on the unit sphere whose sides are ares of great
eircles, we have K = 1 so E ai exeeeds the plane value (n - 2)1T by the area
JJ dAa of the polygon . Taking n = 3, we get for a spherieal triangle ABC
whose edges are ares of great circles,
A(ABC) = LA + LB + LC - tt .
This is just Theorem 5.5, which is therefore a special ease of Gauss-Bonnet,

Finally, for a geodesie n-gon on the pseudosphere (see Section 7.2), for which
K = -1, we see that E 0 i is less than (n - 2)11" by the area of the polygon . In
particular, for a geodesie triangle ABC on the pseudosphere,
A{ABC) = 11" - LA - LB - LC .
EXERCISES
11.3 Suppose that the gaussian curvature K of a surface patch a satisfies

K $ -1 everywhere and that 'Y is a curvilinear n-gon on a whose
sides are geodesics. Show that n ~ 3, and that, if n = 3, the area
enclosed by 'Y cannot exceed 11".
11.4 Consider the surface of revolution
a{u, v) = (f(u) cos v, f{u) sin v, g(u)),
where 'Y{u) = (f(u),O,g{u)) is a unit-speed curve in the xz-plane.
Let U1 < U2 be constants, let 'Y1 and 'Y2 be the two parallels u = U1
and u = U2 on a, and let R be the region of the uv-plane given by
$ u$ 0< V < 211".
c:
U1 U2 ,
Compute
o K.gds,
ll('Y2)
0 K.gds and
j'J{ KdAa,
R
and explain your result on the basis of the Gauss-Bonnet theorem.
11.3. Ganss-Bonnet for Compact Surfaces

The most important version ofthe Gauss-Bonnet Theorem applies to a compact
surface S. It is a surprising result that there are very few compact surfaces in
R 3 up to diffeomorphism, and they can all be described explicitly. The simplest
example is, of course, the sphere. The next simplest is the torus, which can be
obtained by rotating around the z-axis a circle in the xz-plane which does not
intersect the z-axis :
One can also join such tori together:
This surface is denoted by T g , where gis the number of holes, called the genus
of the surface (we take 9 = 0 for the sphere). We accept the following theorem
without proof:
Theorem 11.3
For any integer 9 ~ 0, T g can be given an atlas making it a smooth surface.
Moreouer, every compact sur/ace is diJJeomorphic to one 0/ the T g •
The version of the Gauss-Bonnet theorem we are aiming for is obtained by

covering a compact surface S with curvilinear polygons that fit together nicely,
applying Theorem 11.2 to each one, and adding up the results. We begin to
make this precise with
Definition 11.3
Let S be a surface, with atlas consisting of the patches (fi : U, -+ R 3 • A
triangulation of S is a collection of curvilinear polygons, (the interior of) each
of which is contained in one of the (fi(Ui), such that
(i) every point of S is in at least one of the curvilinear polygons;
(ii) two curvilinear polygons are either disjoint, or their intersection is a com-
mon edge or a common vertex;
(iii) each edge is an edge of exactly two polygons.
Thus, situations like
are not allowed. A triangulation of the unit sphere with eight polygons is ob-
tained by intersecting the sphere with the three coordinate planes:
z
We state without proof:

Theorem 11.4
Every compact surface has a triangulation with finitely many polygons.
We introduce the following number associated to any triangulation:
Definition 11.4
The Euler number X of a triangulation of a compact surface S is
X=V-E+F,
where
v= the total number of vertices of the triangulation,
E = the total number of edges of the triangulation,
F = the total number of polygons of the triangulation.
For the triangulation of the sphere given above, V = 6, E = 12 and F = 8,

so X = 6 - 12 + 8 = 2. The importance of the Euler number is that, although
different triangulations of a given surface will in general have different numbers
of vertices, edges and polygons, X is actually independent of the triangulation
and depends only on the surface. For example, we can get another triangulation
of the sphere by 'inflating' a regular tetrahedron:
This time, V = 4, E = 6 and F = 4, so X = 4 - 6 + 4 = 2, the same as

before. This property of X is a consequence of the following theorem, which is
the desired extension of Theorem 11.2 to compact surfaces:
Theorem 11.5
Let S be a compact surjace . Then, for any triangulation 0/ S,
!L KdA = 27rX,
where X is the Euler number 0/ the triangulation.
We need to explain what is meant by the left-hand side of the equation

in Theorem 11.5. Fix a triangulation of S with polygons Pi, say. Each Pi is
contained in the image of some patch a, : U, -t R 3 in the atlas of S, say
Pi = ui(Ri), where R; ~ Ui. Then, by definition,
where K is the gaussian curvature of Ui. Unfortunately, we have to show that

this is a good definition, i.e. that it does not depend on our choice of patches
a; (since, even for a given triangulation, Pi may be contained in more than one
patch), nor does it depend on the triangulation itself.
To see this, we note first that, if iTi : Üi -t R 3 is a reparametrisation of Ui
and if Pi = iTi(Ri), where R i ~ Üi , then
JL. Kdk. = JI: KdAiT.
because both the area element dk and the gaussian curvature Kare un-
changed by reparametrisation (see Proposition 5.3 and Exercise 6.17).
Next , if {Pi} and {Pi} are two triangulations of S, it is intuitively clear
that we can find a third triangulation {Pk'} of S such that each Pi is the union
of some of the P~', as is each Pi. For example, if some Pi and some Pi overlap
as folIows ,
p~
J
then by inserting additional vertices we can create the appropriate polygons

PIeli •.
It is then clear that (in an obvious notation)
since both sides are equal to
"'j'[J
L...,;
k
R"
I<
KdAq" .
I<
This is just because the integral of K over the union of finitely many polygons,
all contained in a single surface patch and any two of which are either disjoint
or intersect only in a common edge or vertex, is simply the sum of the integrals
of K over each polygon .
Together with the fact that JJs K dA is independent of the triangulation,
Theorem 11.5 thus implies
Corollary 11.2
The Euler number X 0/ a triangulation 0/ a compact sur/ace S depends only on
Sand not on the choice 0/ triangulation.
We now give the proof of Theorem 11.5.
Proo/11.5
As above, we fix a triangulation of S with polygons Pi, say, each of which is
contained in the image of some patch tTi : U, ~ R 3 in the atlas of S, say
Pi = tTi(~), where ~ ~ Ui. By Theorem 11.2,
j'[J
Ri K dAtr i = Li - (ni - 2)11'" + J
o
[l("ti)
"'g ds , (10)
where ni is the number of vertices of Pi, 'Yi is the curvilinear polygon that
forms the boundary of Pi, l('Yi) is its length, and Li is the sum of its interior
angles . We must therefore sum the contributions of each of the three terms on
the right-hand side of Eq. (10) over all the polygons Pi in the triangulation.
First, Li Li is the sum of all the internal angles of all the polygons. At
each vertex, several polygons meet, but the sum of the angles at the vertex is
obviously 2'1l", so
(11)
where V is the total number of vertices.
Next ,
~(ni - 2)'Il" = (~ni) 'Il" - 2'1l"F = 2'1l"E - 2'1l"F, (12)
where F is the total number of polygons and E the total number of edges, since
in the sum Li ni each edge is counted twice (as each edge is an edge of exactly
two polygons).
Finally, we claim that
(13)
Indeed, note that in the sum in Eq. (13), we integrate twice along each edge,
once in each direction. By Eq . (5) in Chapter 6, "'g changes sign when we
traverse a given curve in the opposite direction, so these two integrals cancel
out. The various contributions to the sum in Eq . (13) therefore cancel out in
pairs, thus proving Eq. (13).
Putting Eqs . (10), (11), (12) and (13) together gives
fL K dA = 2; f Li K dAq ,
rWY,)
= 4= Li - 4=(n i - 2)1T + 4= 1 0
"'g ds
t t t
= 21TV - (21TE - 21TF) + 0

= 21TX,
proving Theorem 11.5. o
To see why Theorem 11.5 is so remarkable, let us apply it to the unit sphere
52. Then, X = 2 so we get
(14)
Of course, this result is not remarkable at all because K = 1 so the left-hand

side of Eq. (14) is just the area of the sphere. But now suppose that we deform
the sphere, i.e, we think of the sphere as being a rubber sheet and we pull and
stretch it in any way we like, but without tearing:
For such a deformed sphere S, K will not be constant and the direct computa-
tion of the integral JJs K dA will be difficult . But if we start with a triangulation
of the undeformed sphere, then after deformation we shall have a triangulation
of the deformed sphere with the same number 0/ oeriices, edges and polygons
as the original triangulation. It follows that the Euler number of the deformed
sphere is the same as that ofthe undeformed sphere, i.e. 2, so by Theorem 11.5,
JJ8 K dA = 411". (More generally, this discussion shows that the Euler number
of any compact surface is unchanged when the surface is deformed without
tearing.)
We complete the picture by determining the Euler numbers of all the com-
pact surfaces .
Theorem 11.6
The Euler number of the compact surface T g of genus 9 is 2 - 2g.
Proof 11.6
The formula is correct when 9 = 0, since we know that X = 2 for a sphere.
We now prove it for the torus Tl' To find a triangulation of the torus, we use
the fact that it can be obtained from a square in the plane by gluing opposite
edges:
1\ /1\
.-'/
We subdivide the square into triangles as shown:

This leads to a triangulation of Tl with V = 9, E = 27 and F = 18. One must

count carefully : for example, the four circled vertices of the square correspond
to a single vertex on the torus. Note also that not just any sub division of the
square into triangles is acceptable. For example, the sub division
is not acceptable, since after gluing, the two shaded triangles intersect in two
vertices, which is not allowed:
But the finer sub division above does work, and gives
x =9 - 27 + 18 = 0 = 2 - 2 x 1,
proving the theorem when 9 = 1.
We now complete the proof by induction on g, using the fact that T g + I can
be obtained from T g by gluing on a copy of Tl :
Suppose we carry out the gluing by removing a curvilinear n-gon from T g and
Tl and gluing corresponding edges (having fixed suitable triangulations of Tg
and Tl) ' If V', E' and F ' are the numbers of vertices, edges and polygons in
the triangulation of Tg, and V", Eil and F" those for Tl , the numbers V, E
and F for Tg+l are given by
V = V' - n + V" - n + n = V' + V" - n,
E = E' - n + Eil - n + n = E' + Eil - n,
F = F ' - 1 + F" - 1 = F ' + F" - 2.
Indeed, V is the number V' of vertices in Tg plus the number V" in Tl, except
that the n vertices of the polygon along which Tl and Tg are glued have been
counted twice, so V = V' + V" - nj a similar argument applies to the edges;
and F is as stated because the polygon along which Tl and T g are glued is not
part of the triangulation of Tg+l . Hence,
x(Tg+d = V - E +F
= (V' + V" - + Eil - n) + (F ' + F" - 2)
n) - (E'
=V' - E' + F' + V" - Eil + F" - 2
= X(Tg) + x(Td - 2
= 2 - 2g + 0 - 2 (by the induction hypothesis)
= 2 - 2(g + 1),
proving the result for genus 9 + 1. o
Corollary 11.3
We have
JJT.r KdA = 471"(1- g) .

Proof 11.3
Just combine Theorems 11.5 and 11.6. o
EXERCISES
11.5 Show that, if a triangulation of a compact surface with Euler num-

her X hy curvilinear triangles has V vertices, E edges and F trian-
gles, then
1
3F = 2E, E = 3(V - X), V ~ 2(7 + ';49 - 24x)·
11.6 A triangulation of the sphere has n curvilinear triangles, and r

triangles meet at each vertex. Explain why there are 3n/r vertices
altogether in the triangulation, and write down the total number
of edges. Show that
~-~=1.
nr
Deduce that r ~ 5, and sketch triangulations of the sphere corre-
sponding to r = 3,4 and 5.
11.7 Show that, given 5 points on a sphere, it is impossible to connect
each pair by curves on the sphere that intersect only at the given
points. (Such a collection of curves would give a triangulation of
the sphere for which 2E 2: 3F, since each face would have at least
3 edges.) Deduce that the same result holds if 'sphere' is replaced
by 'plane'. (Use stereographic projection.)
11.8 Let Pl ,P2,P3 and Ql,Q2,Q3 be points on a sphere. Show that it
is impossible to join each Pi to each Q j by 9 curves on the sphere
that intersect only at the given points. (This is sometimes called
the 'Utilities Problem', thinking of Pl , P2 and P3 as the gas, water
and electricity supplies to th ree hornes Ql , Q2 and Q3')
11.9 Show that, if a compact surface S is diffeomorphic to the torus Tl,
then
Can such a surface have K = 0 everywhere?

11.10 Show that, if S is the ellipsoid
x 2 + y2 z2
a2 + b2 = 1,
where a and b are positive constants,
Il KdA= 4rr.
By computing the above integral directly, deduce that
j rr/2
-rr/2 2 2
ab2 cos 0
(a sin 0 + b2 cos2 0)3/2
dO = 2.
11.11 Suppose that S is a compact surface whose gaussian curvature K

is > 0 everywhere. Show that S is diffeomorphic to a sphere. Is the
converse of this statement true?
11.12 One of the following surfaces is compact and one is not:
(i) x 2 - y2 + z4 = 1;
+ y2 + z4 = 1.
(ii) x 2
Which is which, and why? Sketch the compact surface and write
down its Euler number.
11.4. Singularities of Vector Fields

Suppose that S is a surface and that V is a smooth tangent vector field on S .
This means that, if a : U -t R 3 is a patch of Sand (u , v) are coordinates on
U, then
V = a(u , v)uu + ß(u , v)u v ,
where a and ß are smooth functions on U . It is easy to see that this smoothness
condition is independent of the choice of patch u (see Exercise 11.14).
Definition 11.5
If V is a smooth tangent vector field on a surface S, a point P of S at which
V = 0 is called a stationary point of V .
The reason for this terminology is as folIows. We saw in the proof of Propo-
sition 7.4 that, if P is any point of S, there is a unique curve "Y(t) on S such
that 'Y = V and "Y(O) = P ; "Y is called an integral curve of V. We can think of "Y
as the path followed by a particle of some fluid that is flowing over the surface.
If V = 0 at P, the velocity 'Y of the flow is zero at P, so the fluid is stationary
there.
We are going to prove a theorem which says that the number of stationary
points of any smooth tangent vector field on a compact surface S, counted
with the appropriate multiplicity, is equal to the Euler number of S. To define
this multiplicity, let P be a stationary point of V contained in a surface patch
a : U -t R 3 of S, say, with u(uo , vo) = P . Assume that P is the only stationary
e
point of V in the region u( U) of S. Let be a nowhere vanishing smooth tangent
e
vector field on u(U) (for example, we may choose = Uu or u v ), and let 1/1 be
the angle between V and e.
Definition 11.6
With the above notation and assumption, the multiplicity of the stationary
point P of the tangent vector field V is
1 rl("Y) d1/1
j.L(P) = 271" Jo ds ds,
where 'Y( s) is any positively-oriented unit-speed simple dosed curve of length

l('Y) in tT(U) with P in its interior.
It is dear that J1.(P) is an integer, and an argument similar to our heuristic

proof of Hopf's Umlaufsatz in Section 11.1 shows that J1.(P) does not depend on
the choice of simple dosed curve 'Y. It is also easy to see that it is independent
of the choice of 'reference' vector field ( (see Exercise 11.15).
Example 11.1
The following smooth tangent vector fields in the plane have stationary points
of the indicated multiplicity at the origin (we have shown the integral curves
of the vector fields for the sake of darity):
(i) V(x,y) = (x,y); J1. = +1.
(ii) V(x ,y) = (-x,-y); J1. = +1
(iii) V(x,y) = (y,-x)j J1. = +1

(iv) V(x ,y) = (x , -y) j J.L =-1
The stationary point in examples (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) is called a source, sink,
vortex and bifurcation, respectively.
Let us verify the multiplicity in case (iv), for example. Take the 'reference'
tangent vector field to be the constant vector field ( = (1,0) . Then, the angle
1jJ is given by
(cos1jJ,sin1jJ) = 11 VV 11 = (J x2
x
+ y2 ,- J+ Y
x2 y2
) .
Taking 'Y(5) = (cos 5, sin 5) to be the unit circle, at 'Y(5) the angle 1jJ satisfies
(cos 1jJ, sin 1jJ) = (cos 5, - sin s),
so 1jJ = 211" - s. Hence,
J.L(O,O) = 1
211" 1 0
2 lr
d 211"
d/ - s) ds = -1.
Theorem 11.7
Let V be a smooth tangent vector field on a compact surface S which has only
finitely many stationary points, say PI, P2, ... ,Pn . Then,
n
LJ.L(Pi ) = X,
i=1
the Euler number of S.
Proof 11.7
Let 'Yi be a positively-oriented unit-speed simple closed curve contained in a

patch (Si of S with Pi in the interior of 'Yi' Assurne that the 'Yi are chosen so
small that their interiors are disjoint. Choose a triangulation of the part S' of S
r
outside 'YI' 'Y2' ... ,'Yn by curvilinear polygons j • Note that the edges of some
of these curvilinear polygons will be segments of the curves 'Yä :
Note also that, when these polygons are positively-oriented, the indueed orien-
tation of the 'Yi is opposite to their positive orientation (see the diagram above,
in which the arrows indicate the sense of positive orientation).
We ean regard the eurvilinear polygons in S' , together with the simple
closed eurves 'Yi and their interiors, as a triangulation of S, so by Theorem
11.3,
r KdA+ tl
1S' i=l int('Y;)
KdA=211"X, (15)
where X is the Euler number of S. On S', we ehoose an orthonormal basis

{e', e"} of the tangent plane of S at each point so that e' is parallel to the
tangent veetor field V Arguing as in the proof of Theorem 11.1, we see that
0
r rl(r;)
J.~ K dA = L 100 e'.e" ds , (16)
s: j
where s is arc-length on r j and i(rj ) is its length. Any eommon edge of

r
two of the eurvilinear polygons j is traversed onee in each direetion so their
eontributions to the sum in Eq. (16) eaneel out . What remains is the integral
along the segments of the eurves 'Yi that are part of the polygons rj oIn view
of the remark about orientations above, we get
r
1.5 K dA = - L
l ('Y;)«« ds, n l
(17)
s' i=l 0
where s is arc-length along 'Yi and i('Yi) is its length.

Now ehoose an orthonormal basis {f' , f"} of the tangent plane of S on each
pateh (Ti. Bythe proof of Theorem 11.1,
1 int ('Y;)
K dA = I" .
0
f' .f " ds. (18)
Ll
Combining Eqs. (15), (17) and (18), we get
n
l ('Yi ) •
(fl.f" - e' .e" ) ds = 211X (19)
i=l 0
But, from the proof of Theorem 11.2,

e I .e. " = (J' - "'g, f ' .f'" = cp. - "'g,
where "'g is the geodesie curvature of 'Yi and (J and cp are the angles between 'Yi
and e ' and f', respectively. Then, 1/J = cp - (J is the angle between e ' and f', i.e.
between V and the 'reference' tangent vector field f' on tTi. So the left-hand
side of Eq. (19) is
as we want . o
We now give some simple examples of vector fields on surfaces (we show
their integral curves for clarity).
Example 11.2
A vector field on the sphere with 1 source and 1 sink: X = 2
Example 11.3
A vector field on the torus with no stationary points: X =0
Example 11.4
A vector field on the double torus T 2 with 2 bifurcations: X = -2
EXERCISES
11.13 Let k be a non-zero integer and let V(x,y) = (o:,ß) be the vector
field on the plane given by
+ "ß = { (x + iy)k if k > 0,
0: t (x-iy)-k ifk<O.
Show that the origin is a stationary point of V of multiplicity k.
(Take 'Y in Definition 11.6 to be the unit circle and use de Moivre's
theorem.)
11.14 Show that the definition of a smooth tangent vector field is inde-
pendent of the choice of surface patch. Show also that a tangent
vector field V on S is smooth if and only if, for any surface patch
a of 5, the three components of V at the point u( u,v) are smooth

functions of (u, v) .
11.15 Show that the Definition 11.6 of the multiplicity of a stationary
point of a tangent vector field V is independent of the 'reference'
vector field e.
(If ~ is another reference tangent vector field, and 0
e,
is the angle between ~ and then dOjds = -(1- p2)-1/2 p, where
p = cosO. Now use Green's theorem to show that J;('Y) (dOjds)ds =
0.)
11.5. Critical Points

If I (u, v) is a smooth function defined on an open subset U of R 2 , we say that a
point (uo, vo) is a critical point of I if 01 j OU and 01 j OV both vanish at (uo, vo).
Equivalently, the gradient of I,
VI = (0Bu.'1 (ov1) '

should vanish at (uo, vo).
If now F : 5 -t R is a smooth function on a surface 5 (see Exercise 4.11),
and if u : U -t R 3 is a surface patch of 5, then I = F 0 o is a smooth function
on the open subset U of R 2 • This suggests
Definition 11.7
Let 5 be a surface and F : 5 -t R a smooth function on S. A point P of 5 is
a critical point of F if there is a surface patch a of 5, with P = u(uo, vo), say,
such that I = F 0 a has a critical point at (uo, vo).
It is easy to check directly that the definition of a critical point is indepen-

dent of the choice of patch a (see Exercise 11.18), but this will follow imme-
diately from another characterisation of critical points that we shall now give
and which is independent of any arbitrary choices.
If F : 5 -t R is a smooth function, we want to define an analogue of the
gradient of I that is a tangent vector field on 5. This is accomplished in
Proposition 11.1
// F is a smooth /unction on a surface 5, there is a unique smooth tangent
vector field V sF on 5 such that, i/ P is a point 0/5 and 'Y(t) is a curve in 5
which passes thro11.gh P when t = 0, we have
(VsF) .-y(O) =:
t
It=o F('Y(t)). (20)
M oreover, P is a critical point 01 F il and only il V s F =0 at P.
Proof l tJ
The tangent vector field V sF is obviously unique, if it exists. Indeed, every
tangent vector to S at P is of the form -y(0) for some curve 'Y on S with
'Y( 0) = P, so any two choices of V s F at P would differ by a vector perpendicular
to every tangent vector to S at P, which must be zero.
To see that V s F exists, choose a surface patch 0'(11., v) for S with 0'(11.0, vo) =
P, say, and let I = F 0 0'. Let {e', e"} be the basis of the tangent plane of S
at P such that
e'.O'u = e".O'v = 1, e'.O'v = e".O'u = O. (21)
Explicitly,
GO'u - FO'v
, " EO'v - FO'u
e =
EG _ F2' e = EG _ F2 ' (22)
2 2
where Ed11. + 2Fd11.dv + Gdv is the first fundamental form of 0'. We take
VsF = lue' + fve", (23)
where the derivatives are evaluated at (11.0, vo). If 'Y is as in the statement of
the proposition, say 'Y(t) = O'(11.(t) , v(t)) , then (with d/dt denoted by a dot)
(VsF) .-y(O) = Uue' + Ive") .(O'uv' + O'"v)
= luv' + Ivv (by Eqs. (21))
=j,
the derivatives with respect to t being evaluated at t = O. It is clear from Eqs .
(22) and (23) that V sF is smooth and that P is a critical point of F if and
only if V s F = 0 at P . 0
Since V sF is a smooth tangent vector field on S, we can apply Theorem

11.7 to it. To do so, we must compute the multiplicity of the stationary points
of V sF. For this, we shall make an additional assumption about F, contained
in
Definition 11.8
A critical point P of a smooth function F on a surface S is said to be non-
degenerate if, whenever 0'(11., v) is a patch of S with P = 0'(11.0, vo), say, the
matrix
'lJ _
TL
(8U~ft
-{t2f_
8u8v )
~
8ü8ü 8v
is invertible, where f = F 0 a and the derivatives are evaluated at (11.0, vo).
°
In this case, the point P is called a IDeal maximum, a saddle point or a local
minimum if 11. has 2, 1 or negative eigenvalues, respectively.
It is not difficult to show that this definition is sensible, i.e, independent of

the choiee of patch a (see Exercise 11.16). Note that the matrix 11. is real and
symmetrie, so it always has two real eigenvalues (not necessarily distinct) .
Proposition 11.2
Let P be a eritieal point 0/ a smooth function F on a surface S. Then, the
multiplieity 0/ P as a stationary point 0/ VsF is
P ) = {1 i/ P is a local maximum or a local minimum,
(
JL -1 i/ P is a saddle point.
Example 11.5
The function on the plane given by F(u, v) = -11. 2 - v 2 (resp. 11. 2 - v2, 11. 2 + v2)
has a local maximum (resp. saddle point, local minimum) at the origin.
We shall not give a complete proof of Proposition 11.2 here. But the fol-
lowing argument should convince the reader of its truth. Let us assume that
(uo,vo) = (0,0) for simplicity, and write the matrix in Definition 11.8 at
u=v=Oas
1l=(~ ~).
Then, Taylor's theorem teIls us that
1
/(11., v) = 2(AU2 + 2JLuV + vv 2) + r(u, v),
where r( 11., v)/ (11. 2 + v 2) tends to zero as 11. and v tend to zero. It is plausible,
then, that the behaviour of V sF near P is the same as that of V sF, where
F(a(u, v)) = ~(Au2 + 2JLuV + vv 2).

In partieular, F and F should have the same type of critical point at P .
But the multi plicity of P as a critical point of F is easy to compute. To do
so, note first that there is a rotation matrix P such that
pt(A JL)p=(€l
JL v ° 0) €2
is a diagonal matrix. This means that, by applying a rotation in the uv-plane

(i.e. a reparametrisation of 0'), we can assume that
F(O'(u,v» = ~(f1U2 + f2V2).

We can also assume that the patch 0' is con/ormal, so that angles measured in
the uv-plane are the same as those measured on the surface (see Section 9.4) .
Taking our 'reference' tangent vector field to be O'u, the angle t/J between
V sF and O'u is given by
(f1 U,f2 V)
(cos t/J, sin t/J) = -F=#=;~=ir::;;:
Jf~U2 + f~V2
We take the simple closed curve in the uv-plane given by the ellipse
f~U2 + f~V2 = r 2 ,
where r is a small positive number, which can be parametrised by
r r .
u= ~cost, v= ~smt.
Hence,
f1
cost/J =~ cost,
. ./.
sm'f' =
f2
~smt,
.
and so
t if f1 > 0 and f2 > 0,
t/J = 211" - t if f1 > 0 and f2 < 0,
{ 11" - t if f1 < 0 and f2 > 0,
11" + t if f1 < 0 and f2 < o.
This gives the multiplicity of P as a stationary point of V sF as
2- [21< dt/J dt = { 1 if f1 and f2 have the same sign,
211" J0 dt -10therwise,
in accordance with Proposition 11.2.
Ir we accept this heuristic argument, we can combine Theorem 11.7 and
Proposition 11.2 to give
Theorem 11.8
Let F : S ~ R be a smooth function on a compact surface S with only finitely
many critical points, all non-degenerate. Then,
num ber 0/ local) _ (number 0/ saddle) (number 0/ loeal) =
( maxima 0/ F points 0/ F + minima 0/ F X,
the Euler number 0/ S.
Example 11.6
If we take the surface T g of genus 9 described at the beginning of Section 11.2
and stand it upright on the xy-plane, the height above the plane is a smooth
function F on Tg • The critical points of F are as shown in the following diagram,
and they are all non-degenerate (cf. Exercise 11.18).
There is a unique local minimum P, 2g saddle points Ql, Q2, . . . , Q2g , and a
unique local maximum R. Hence, Theorem 11.8 gives the Euler number of Tg
as
1 - 2g + 1 = 2 - 2g,
in accordance with Theorem 11.6.
EXERCISES
11.16 Show direetly that the definition of a eritical point, and whether
it is non-degenerate, is independent of the ehoice of surfaee pateh
in Definitions 11.7 and 11.8. Show that the classifieation of non-
degenerate eritical points into loeal maxima, local minima and
saddle points is also independent of this ehoice. (Show that the
eritical point is a local maximum (resp. loeal minimum) if and only
if v t1lv < 0 (resp . > 0) for all non-zero 2 x 1 matrices v.)
11.17 For whieh of the following funetions on the plane is the origin a non-
degenerate eritical point? In the non-degenerate ease(s), classify
the origin as a local maximum, loeal minimum or saddle point.
(i) x 2 - 2xy + 4y 2 ;
(ii) x 2 + 4xy;
(iii) x 3 - 3x y 2 .
11.18 Let S be the torus obtained by rotating the circle (x-2)2+ z2 = 1 in
the xz-plane around the z-axis, and let F : S -t R be the distanee
from the plane x = -3. Show that F has four eritieal points, all
non-degenerate, and classify them as loeal maxima, saddle points,
or loeal minima. (See Exercise 4.10 for a parametrisation of S.)
Solutions
Chapter 1
1.1 It is a parametrisation of the part of the parabola with x ~ O.
1.2 (i) -y(t) = (sect,tant) with -7r/2 < t < 7r/2 and 7r/2 < t < 37r/2.
(ii) -y(t) = (2cost ,3sint).
=
1.3 (i) x 1- y 1.
(ii) y = (lnx)2 .
1.4 (i) i'(t) = sin2t(-I, 1).
(ii) i'(t) = (e", 2t).
1.5 i'(t) = 3 sin t cos t( - cos t, sin t) vanishes where sin t = 0 or cos t = 0, i.e.
t = n7r /2 where n is any integer. These points correspond to the four
cusps of the astroid.
281
1.6 (i) Let OP make an angle 0 with the positive z-axis. Then R has coordi-
nates 'Y(O) = (2acotO,a(1 - cos20)).
(ii) From x = 2acotO, y = a(l- cos20), we get sin 2 (} = y/2a, cos2 (} =
cot 2 () sin 2 () = x 2 y/8a 3 , so the cartesian equation is y/2a + x 2 y/8a 3 = 1.
1.7 When the circle has rotated through an angle t, its cent re has moved to
(at , a), so the point on the circle initially at the origin is now at the point
(a(t - sin t), a(l - cos t)) .
ot
1.8 Let the fixed circle have radius a, and the moving circle radius b (so that
b < a in the case of the hypocycloid), and let the point P of the moving
circle be initially in contact with the fixed circle at (a, 0). When the moving
circle has rotated through an angle tp, the line joining the origin to the
point of contact of the circles makes an angle 0 with the positive z-axis,
where a(} = bip, The point P is then at the point
'Y(O) = «a + b)cosO - bcos(O + cp), (a + b) sin(} - bsin(O + tp))
= «a + b)cosO - bcos«a + b)O/b), (a + b) sinO - bsin«a + b)O/b))
in the case of the epicycloid,
and
'Y(O) = «a - b)cosO + bcos(tp - 0), (a - b) sinO - bsin(tp - 0))
= «a - b)cosO + bcos«(a - b)O/b), (a - b) sinO - bsin((a - b)O/b))
in the case of the hypocycloid .
Solutions 283
1.9 A point (x, y, z) lies on the cylinder if x 2 + y2 = 1/4 and on the sphere
if (x + ~)2 + y2 + z2 = 1. From the second equation, -1 ~ z ~ 1 so
let z = sin t. Subtracting the two equations gives x + + sin 2 t = tso i,
x = ~ - sin 2 t = cos2 t - ~ . From either equation we then get y = sin t cos t
(or y = - sin t cos t , but the two solutions are interchanged by t f--t 7r - t).
1.10 -y(t) = (e'{cos r - sint),et(sint + cos ej) so the angle (J between 'Y(t) and
-y(t) is given by
(J 'Y.-Y e2t(cos2t-sintcost+sin2t+sintcost) 1
= 11 'Y 1111 -y 11
cos = e2t«cos t - sin t)2 + (sin t + cos t)2)
= 2'
and so (J = 7r/3.
1.11 -y(t) = (1, sinh t) so 11 -y 11 = cosh t and the arc-length is s = f~ cosh u du =
sinh t.
1.12 (i) 11 -y 11 2 = t(l + t) + t(l - t) + ~ = 1.
(ii) 11 -y 11 2 = ~: sin 2 t + cos2 t + i5
sin 2 t = cos2 t + sin 2 t = 1.
1.13 The cycloid is parametrised by 'Y(t) = a(t - sin t, 1 - cos t), where t is
the angle through which the circle has rotated. So -y = a(1 - cos t, sin t) ,
11 -y 11 = a - 2 cos t) = 4a2 sin 2 ~, and the arc-length is
2 2(2
I
1
t
271" t t = 271"
2a sin 2 dt = -4a cos 2 = 8a.
o t=o
1.14 (i) -y = sin2t(-I, 1) vanishes when t is an integer multiple of 7r/2, so 'Y is
not regular.
(ii) Now 'Y is regular since -y ::j:. 0 for 0 < t < n /2.
(iii) -y = (1, sinh t) is obviously never zero, so 'Y is regular.
1.15 x = r cos (J = sin 2 (J, y = r sin (J = sin 2 (Jtan (J , so the parametrisation in
terms of (J is (J f--t (sin2 (J , sin 2 (J tan (J). Since (J f--t sin (J is a bijective smooth
map (-7r/2,7r/2) --7 (-1 ,1), with smooth inverse t f--t sin " ! t , t = sin f is
a reparametrisation map. Since sin 2 (J = t 2 , sin 2 (J tan (J = t 3 /~, the
reparametrised curve is as stated.
1.16 We have s = ft: 11 d'Y/du 11 du, S = fL 11 d;y/du 11 du. By the chain rule,
d'Y/du = (d;Y/du)(du/du), so s = ±
sign being that of du/du .
ft: 11 d;y/du 11 (du/du) du = ±s, the
1.17 If'Y(t) = (x(t),y(t),z(t» is a curve in the surface f(x ,y,z) = 0, differen-

tiating f(x(t), y(t), z(t» = 0 with respect to t gives xfx + iJfy + ifz = 0,
so -y is perpendicular to (Ix, fy , fz). Since this holds for every curve in the
surface , (Ix , fy, fz) is perpendicular to the surface. The surfaces f = 0 and
9 = 0 should intersect in a curve if the vectors (Ix, fy, fz) and (gx, gy, gz)
are not parallel.
1.18 Let 'Y(t) = (u(t), v(t), w(t» be a regular curve in R 3 . At least one of ü, V, tU
is non-zero at each value of t, Suppose that ü(t o) ::j:. 0 and xo = u(t o). As
in the 'proof' of Theorem 1.2, there is a smooth function h(x) defined

for x near Xo such that t = h(x) is the unique solution of x = u(t) for
each t near to. Then, for t near to, -y(t) is contained in the level curve
!(x,y ,z) = 9(X,y,Z) = 0, where !(x ,y,z) = y - v(h(x» and 9(X,y,z) =
z - w(h(x». The functions ! and 9 satisfy the conditions in the previous
exercise, since (fx , !y, !z) = (-iJh', 1,0), (9x, 9y, 9z) = (-wh', 0,1), a dash
denoting d] dx.
1.19 Define 8(t) = tan rr{}(t)/2, where {} is the function defined in Exercise
8.20. Then 8 is smooth, 8(t) = 0 if t ~ 0, and 8 : (0, (0) --t (0, (0) is a
bijection. The curve
(8(t) ,8(t» if t ~ 0,
-y(t) = { (-8(-t), 8(-t» if t ~ 0,
is a smooth parametrisation of y = [z],
There is no regular parametrisation of y = [z]. For if there were, there

would be a unit-speed parametrisation ;y(t), say, and we can assume that
;y(0) = (0,0) . The unit tangent vector-j would haveto be either ~(1, 1) or
- ~(1, 1) when x > 0, so by continuity we would have ly(O) = ±~(1, 1).
But, by considering the part x < 0 in the same way, we see that ly(O) =
±~(1 , -1). These statements are contradictory.
Chapter 2
2.1 (i) -y is unit-speed (Exercise 1.12(i» so
=11 ;Y 11 =11 (-41 (1 + t)-1/2, -41 (1 - t)-1/2, 0) 11 = 1

V8(1 -
It
t2 )
(ii) -y is unit-speed (Exercise 1.12(ii» so
1t=1/;Y1/=1I (-~cost,sint,~cost) 11= 1.

Solutions 285
(iii) Using Proposition 2.1,

_ 11 (1, sinh t, 0) x (0, cosh t, 0) 11 _ cosh t _ h
", - - - - - sec 2 t.
11 (1, sinh t, 0) 11 3 cosh" t
(iv) (-3 cos? t sin t, 3 sin2 t cost, 0) x (-3 cos3 t+6 cos tsin 2 t, 6 sin t cos2 t-
3 sin3 t, 0) = (0,0, -9 sin2 t cos2 t), so
(0,0, -9 sin2 t cos2 t) 11
11 1
", = 11 (-3 cos2 t sin t, 3 sin2 t cos t, 0) 11 3 = 31 sin t cos tl'
This becomes infinite when t is an integer multiple of 7l"/2, i.e, at the four
cusps (±I,O) and (0, ±I) of the astroid.
2.2 The proof of Proposition 1.4 shows that, if v(t) is a smooth (vector)
function of t, then 11 v(t) 11 is a smooth (scalar) function of t provided v(t)
is never zero. The result now follows from the formula in Proposition 2.1.
The curvature of the regular curve 'Y(t) = (t, t 3 ) is ",(t) = 6Itl/(I + 9t4)3/2,
which is not differentiable at t = O.
2.3 Differentiate t .n, = 0 and use i = ",sn s.
2.4 If 'Y is smooth, t = "I is smooth and hence so is n, (since it is obtained by
applying a rotation to t) and i. So "'s = t .n, is smooth.
2.5 The arc-length s = J 11 "I 11 dt = J 11 e kt (k cos t - sin t, k sin t + cos t) 11 dt
= J Vk 2 + Ie kt dt = ~ekt + c, where cis a constant. Taking c = 0
makes s ~ 0 as t ~ =foo if ±k > O.
Since t = "1/11 "I 11= v'k;+l(kcost-sint,ksint+cost), we have
n, = v'k!+l (-ksint - cost,kcost - sint). So dt/ds = (dt/dt)/(ds/dt) =
-Alt -let
:2+1 (-ksint-cost,kcost-sint) = Jk2+lnS so x, = I/ks . By Theorem
2.1, any other curve with the same signed curvature is obtained from the
logarithmic spiral by applying a rigid motion .
2.6 (i) Differentiating 'Y = rt gives t = rt + "'srns. Since t and n, are per-
pendicular unit vectors, it follows that "'s = 0 and 'Y is part of a straight
line.
(ii) Differentiating ry = rn s gives t = rn, + rn s = rn s - "'srt (Exercise
2.3). Hence, r = 0, so r is constant, and x, = -I/r, hence x, is constant.
So 'Y is part of a circle.
(iii) Write'Y = r(t cos O+ns sin 0). Differentiating and equating coefficients
=
of t and n, gives r cos 0 - ",sr sin 0 1, r sin 0 + ",sr cos 0 0, from which =
r = cosO and ",sr = -sinO. From the first equation, r = scosO (we can
assurne the arbitrary constant is zero by adding a suitable constant to
s) so x, = -1/scotO. By Exercise 2.5, 'Y is obtained by applying a rigid
motion to the logarithmic spiral defined there with k = - cot O.
2.7 We can assurne that 'Y is unit-speed. Then "I>" = (1 - A"'s)t, and this is
non-zero since 1 - A",s > O. The unit tangent vector of 'Y>" is t, and the
arc-length s of '1>' satisfies ds/dt = 1- )."'s. Hence, the curvature of '1>' is

11 dtJds 11 = 11 i 11 /(1 - )."'s) = "'s/{1 - >"",s) .
2.8 The circle passes through 'Y(s) because 11 E - '1 11 = 11 K,lo , 11 = 1/I"'sl,
which is the radius of the circle. It is tangent to '1 at this point because
E- '1 = ...L
K, n s
is perpendicular to the tangent t of '1. The curvature of the
circle is the reciprocal of its radius, i.e. I"'sl, which is also the curvature
of '1.
2.9 The tangent vector of Eis t +...L( ~.
-"'st) - ~ns
K.
= -~ns
K.
so its arc-length
is u = J 11 E 11 ds = J ~ds
It.
= Uo - ...L,
It.
where Uo is a constant. Hence,
the unit tangent vector of Eis -ns and its signed unit normal is t . Since
3
-dns/du = "'st/(du/ds) = ~t, the signed curvature of E is ",~/ks .
Denoting d/dt by a dash, '1' = a(1 - cos t, sin t) so the arc-length
s of '1 is given by ds/dt = 2asin(t/2) and its unit tangent vector
is t = 'Y = (sin(t/2), cos(t/2)) . So n, = (- cos(t/2), sin(t/2)) and
i = (dt/dt)/(ds/dt) = 4ash~(t72) (cos(t/2), - sin(t/2)) = -1/4asin(t/2)n s,
so the signed curvature of'Y is -1/4asin(t/2). Its evolute is therefore
E = a(t-sin t, l-cos t) -4a sin(t/2)(- cos(t/2), sin(t/2)) = a(t+sin t, -1 +
cos t). Reparametrising by t = ?T+t, we get a(t-sin t, l-cos t)+a( -?T, -2),
which is obtained from a reparametrisation of'Y by translating by the vec-
tor a( -?T, -2).
2.10 The free part of the string is tangent to '1 at 'Y( s) and has length l- s, hence
the stated formula for ,( s). The tangent vector of , is 'Y - 'Y + (l - s).:y
= "'s(l - s)n, (a dot denotes d/ds). The arc-length v of , is given by
dv/ds = "'s{l - s) so its unit tangent vector is n, and its signed unit
normal is -t. Now dns/dv = ~1 D.s = i-I
1C..\~-8J -8
t, so the signed curvature
of s is 1/(l- s) .
2.11 (i) With the notation in Exercise 2.9, the involute of Eis
dE 1
,(u) = E + (l- u)-d = '1 + -ns - (l- u)n s = '1 - (l- uo)n s,
u "'s
since u = Uo - ...L,
K,
so , is the parallel curve 'Y-(i-u o) .
(ii) Using the results of Exercise 2.10, the evolute of s is
,+ (i- s)( -t) = '1 + (i- s)t - (i- s)t = '1.
2.12 Ir we take the fixed vector in Proposition 2.2 to be parallel to the line of
reflection, the effect of the reflection is to change cp to -cp, and hence to
change "'sto -"'S'
2.13 Ir two unit-speed curves have the same non-zero curvature, their signed
curvatures are either the same or differ in sign . In the first case the curves
differ by a rigid motion by Theorem 2.1; in the latter case, applying a
reflection to one curve gives two curves with the same signed curvature
by Exercise 2.12, and these curves then differ by a rigid motion.
Solutions 287
2.14 (i) t = (~(1 + t)1/2, - Hl - t)1/2, ~) is a unit vector so 'Y is unit-speed;

i = (t(1 + t)-1/2, t(l- t)-1/2, 0), so ~ =11 i 11 = 1/ J8(1 - t 2 )j n = ~i =
~((1 - t)1/2, (1 + t)1/2,0)j b = tx n = (-Hl + t)1/2, ~(1- t)1/ 2, ~)j
b = (-t(l + t)-1/2 , -t(1 - t)-1/2, 0) so the torsion 7 = 1/ J8(1 - t 2 ) .
The equation il = -~t + 7n is easily checked.
I
(ii) t = (- ~ sin t, - cos t, sin t) is a unit vector so 'Y is unit-speed; i =
(-~cost,sint,Icost), so ~ =:,11 i 11= I: n = ~i = (-~cost,sint,Icost);
b = t x n = (-1,0, -~), so b = 0 and 7 = O.
2.15 Show that 7 = 0 or observe that x = 11
t2
, Y = t + 1, Z = l ; t satisfy
x - y - Z = O.
2.16 By Proposition 2.5, 'Y is a circle of radius 1/ ~ = 1 with centre 'Y +
~n = (0,1,0) in the plane passing through (0,1,0) perpendicular to
b = (-I, 0, -~), i.e. the plane 3x + 4z = O.
2.17 Let a = ~/(~2 + 7 2), b = 7/(~2 + 7 2). By Examples 2.1 and 2.4, the
circular helix with parameters a and b has curvature a/(a 2 + b2 ) = ~ and
torsion b/(a2 + b2 ) = 7. By Theorem 2.3, every curve with curvature ~
and torsion 7 is obtained by applying a rigid motion to this helix.
2.18 This follows from Proposition 2.3 since the numerator and denominator
of the expression in (11) are smooth functions of t.
2.19 Let a dot denote d/dt . Then, 6 =;y= xn, so the unit tangent vector of 6 is
T = n and its arc-Iength s satisfies ds/dt = n, Now dT/ds = il/(ds/dt) =
~-l( -~t + 7b) = -t + ~b. Hence, the curvature of 6 is 11 - t + ~b 11 =
(1 + ~)1/2 = JL, say. The principal normal of 6 is N = JL-l(-t + ~b)
and its binormal is B = T x N == JL-l(b + Lt). The torsion T of 6 is
. '"
given by dB/ds = -TN, i.e, ~-lB = -TN. Computing the derivatives
and equating coefficients of b gives T = (~f - 7K)/~(~2 + 72).
2.20 Differentiating t.a (= constant) gives n .a = O; since t, n, b are an or-
thonormal basis of R 3 , a = t cos 0 + JLb for some scalar JLj since a is a unit
vector, JL = ± sin 0; differentiating a = t cos 0 ± b sin 0 gives 7 = ~ cot O.
Conversely, if 7 = >'~, there exists 0 with >. = cot Oj differentiating shows
that a = t cos 0 + b sin 0 is a constant vector and t.a = cos 0 shows that
() is the angle between t and a.
2.21 Differentiating ('Y - a) .('Y - a) = r 2 repeatedly gives t .('Y - a) = Oj t.t +
~n .('Y-a) = 0, and so n .('Y-a) = -I/~j n.t+ (-~t+7b).('Y-a) = K/~2 ,
and so b.('Y- a) = K/7~2j and finally b .t - 7n.('Y - a) = (K/7~2)", and so
7/ ~ = (K/7~2)".
Conversely, if Eq. (20) holds, then p = -a(pa}, so (p2 + (pa)2)" = 2pp +
2(pa)(pa)" = 0, hence p2 + (pa)2 is a constant, say r 2 (where r > 0). Let
a = 'Y+pn+ pabj then ä. = t+ pn+ p( -~t+7b) + (pa)"b+ (pa)( -7n) = 0
using Eq. (20); so ais a constant vector and 11 'Y - a 11 2 = p2 + (pa)2 = r 2,
hence -y is contained in the sphere with centre a and radius r .

2.22 Let A ij = v i .v] , The vectors VI, V2 , Va are orthonormal if and only if
Aij = &i j (= 1 if i = j and = 0 if i =I j) . So it is enough to prove that
Aij = 8i j for all values of 8 given that it holds for 8 = 80 . Differentiating
vi .v, gives
a
).ij = 'L)aikAkj + ajkAik).
k=l
Now Aij = 8i j is a solution of this system of differential equations because

a ij + aji = O. But the theory of ordinary differential equations teIls us
that there is a unique solution with given values when 8 = 80 .
Chapter 3
3.1 If;Y is obtained from -y by a translation, then .y = l' so by Eqs. (1) and (3)
the length and area of;Y are the same as those of -y. If;Y is obtained from -y
by a rotation by an angle () about the origin, then x = x cos ()- Y sin (), fj =
x sin ()+ Y cos (). This implies that &;2 + t/ =
±2 + il and Xii -
fj&; xiJ - y±, =
so Eqs. (1) and (3) again show that the length and area are unchanged.
3.2 -y(t') = -y(t) <===} cost' = cost and sint' = sint <===} t' - t is a multiple of
27r, so -y is simple closed with period 27r. Taking x = a cos t, y = b sin t in
Eq. (3) gives the area as ~
3.3 l' = (-
1r
I:
abdt = nab.
=
sin t - 2 sin 2t, cos t + 2 cos 2t) so 11 l' 11 V5 + 4 cos t, which is never
zero, so -y is regular. -y(t + 27r) = -y(t) is obvious. If -y is simple closed with
period a, then -y(O) = -y(a) implies (1 + 2cosa) cosa = 3 so cosa = 1 and
a = 27r. But -y(2rr/3) = -y(47r/3) and 47r/3 - 2rr/3 is not a multiple of 27r.
3.4 Differentiating -y(t + a) = -y(t) gives t(t + a) = t(a); rotating anti-clockwise
by 7r/2 gives ns(t+a) = ns(t); differentiating again gives Ks(t+a)ns(t+a) =
Ks(t)ns(t), so Ks(t + a) = Ks(t).
3.5 By Exercise 3.2 and the isoperimetric inequality, the length i of the ellipse
satisfies i ~ v'47r x 7rab = 27r../äb, with equality if and only if the ellipse
is a circle, i.e, a = b. But parametrising the ellipse as in Exercise 3.2, its
length is
Jr Jr
21r 21r
11 l' 11 dt =
o
J a2 sin 2 t + v cos2 t dt.
o
3.6 Let (Xl, YI) and (X2, Y2) be points in the interior of the ellipse, so that
2 2
~ + ~ < 1 for i = 1,2. A point of the line segment joining the two points
is (txI + (1- t)X2,tYI + (1- t)Y2) for some 0 $ t $ 1. This is in the interior
Solutions 289
of the ellipse because

(txI + (1 - t)X2)2 (tYI + (1 - t)Y2)2
a2 + b2
= t2 (x~2 + Y~) + (1- t)2 (x~2 + Y~) + 2t(1- t) (X IX2 + YIY2)

a 2 b a v a2 b2
x2 y2 x2 y2)
< t 2 + (1 - t)2 + t(l - t) ( ---!..2 + -.!. + .2 + 2
a b2 a2 b2
e
< + (1 - t)2 + 2t(1 - t) = 1.
3.7 If i(t) is a reparametrisation of 'Y(t), the vertices of'Y (resp. i) are given by
dKs/dt = 0 (resp . dKs/dt = 0). Since dKs/dt = (dKs/dt)(dt/dt) and sinee
dt/dt is never zero, 'Y and i have the same vertices.
3.8 'Y = (- sin t - 2 sin 2t, cos t + 2 cos 2t) and 11 'Y 11 = y"'5-:-+-'4'-e-os"""7t, so the angle
<p between 'Y and the z-axis is given by
- sin t - 2 sin 2t .
eosif) = , Sln'f) = eos t + 2 eos 2t .
T V5 + 4eost T V5 + 4eost
Differentiating the seeond equation gives <p eos <p = - sin t(24 eos2 t
+
42cost + 9)/(5 + 4cost)3/2, so <p = sint(24eos2t + 42eost + 9)/(5 +
4cost)(sint + 2 sin 2t ) = (9 + 6eost)/(5 + 4eost). Henee, if s is the arc-
length of 'Y, Ks = d<p/ds = (d<p/dt)/(ds/dt) = (9 + 6 eos t)/(5 + 4 eos t)3/2,
so Ks = 12 sin t(2 + eos t)/(5 + 4 COS t)5/2. This vanishes at only two points
of the eurve , where t = 0 and t = 1r.
Chapter 4
4.1 Let U be an open disc in R 2 and S = {(x, Y, z) E R 3 I (x, y) E U, z = O}.
If W = {(x , y, z) E R 3 I (x, y) EU}, then W is an open subset of R 3 ,
and Sn W is homeomorphic to U by (x , y, 0) t-t (x, y) . So S is a surface.
4.2 Let U = {(u,v) E R 2 10< u 2 +v 2 < 11"2}, let r = vu
2 +v 2, and define
a : U -+ R by u(u,v) = (;, ~,tan(r - I».

3
4.3 The image of u~ is the intersection of the sphere with the open set ±x > 0
in R 3 , and its inverse is the projection (x, y, z) t-t (y, z). Similarly for u~
and u±. A point of the sphere not in the image of any of the six patches
would have to have x , y and z all zero, which is impossible.
4.4 Multiplying the two equations gives (X2_ Z 2) sin 8 eosB = (1_ y2) sin 8 eos 8,
so x 2 +y2 - z2 = 1 unless cos8 = 0 or sin8 = 0; if cos8 = 0, then x = -z
and y = 1 and if sin 8 = 0 then x = z and y = -1, and both ofthese lines
are also eontained in the surface.
The given line L o passes through (sin 28, - cos 28,0) and is parallel to the
vector (cos 28, sin 28, 1) j it follows that we get all of the lines by t aking
o::; 8 < tt , Let (x , y , z) be a point of the surface; if x i- z , let 8 be such
that cot8 = (1 - y)/(x - z}; then (x,y, z) is on LOi similarly if xi- - z.
The onl y remaining cases are the points (0,0, ±1), which lie on the lines
L 7r / 2 and u;
With the notation of Exercise 4.2, define (1 : U -+ R 3 by (1(u , v) =
(sin 28, - cos 28,0) + t(cos 28, sin 28,1) , where t = tan(r - ~), cos 8 = u/r
and sin 8 = u]«, This is a surface patch which, by the preceding paragraph,
covers the whole surface.
Let M <p be the line
(x - z) cos e = (1 + y) sin <p, (x + z) sin <p = (1 - y) cos <po
By the same argument as above, M<p is contained in the surface and
every point of the surface lies on some M<p with 0 ::; sp < 'Tr. Ir 8 +
<p is not a multiple of 1r, the lines L o and M <p intersect in the point
( cos(O-<p) sin 0- '1' cos(O+<p») r h LI • h 0 <
sin( O+<p) 'sin (O+<p ' sin(O+ <p ) i ror eac U wit
here i 1
_ U < rr, t ere IS exact y
LI
one <p with 0 ::; <p < 1r such that 8 + sp is a multiple of n , and the lines L o
a nd M <p do not intersect. Ir (x, y, z) lies on both L o and L <p , with 8 i- sp,
then (1 - y) tan 8 = (1 - y) tan <p and (1 + y) cot 8 = (1 - y) cot <p, which
gives both y = 1 and y = -1 (the case in which 8 = 0 and sp = 1r/2 , or
vice versa, has to be treated separately, but the conclusion is the same).
This shows that L o and L <p do not intersect; similarly, Mo and M <p do not
intersect.
4.5 Ir the sphere S could be covered by a single surface patch (1 : U -+ R 3 , then
S would be homeomorphic to the open subset U of R 2 • As S is a closed
and bounded subset of R 3 , it is compact. Hence, U would be compact,
and hence closed. But, since R 2 is connected, the only non-empty subset
of R 2 that is both open and closed is R 2 itself, and this is not compact
as it is not bounded.
4.6 (1 is obviously smooth and (1u X a; = (-lu, - Iv, 1) is nowhere zero, so (1
is regular.
4.7 (1± is a special case of Exercise 4.6, with I = ±Vl - u 2 - v 2 (VI - u 2 - v 2
is smooth because 1 - u 2 - v 2 > 0 if (u, v) E U) i similarly for the other
patches. The transition map from (1,+- to (1~, for example, is tP(ü , v) =
(u,v) , where (1~(ü,v) = (1,+-(u ,v) j so u = Vl- ü 2 - v2, V = v, and this is
smooth since 1- ü 2 - v 2 > 0 if (ü,v) EU.
4.8 (1 is a smooth map on the open set R = {(r,8) E R 2 Ir> O} , and
its image is contained in the surface because cosh 28 - sinh 28 = 1; and
(1 r X (10 = (- 2r cosh 8, 2r sinh 8, r), which is never zero on R.
2 2
Exercise 4.6 gives the parametrisation Ö'(u, v) = (u, v, u 2 - v2), defined on
Solutions 291
the open set U = {( u, v) E R 2 I u 2 - v 2 > O}. This is a reparametrisation

of a via the reparametrisation map (u, v) 1--7 (r,O), where r = vu 2 - v 2 ,
0= cosh-1(u/VU2 - v 2) (this is smooth because u 2 - v 2 > 0).
For the part with z < 0, we can take u(r,O) = (r sinhO, r cosh 0, _r 2 )
defined on the open set R; and Ö'(u,v) = (u,v,u 2 - v 2 ) defined on the
open set V = {(u,v) E R 2 I u 2 - v 2 < O}.
4.9 This is similar to Example 4.5, but using the 'latitude longitude' patch
u(O,cp) = (acosOcoscp,bcosOsincp ,csinO). Alternatively, one can use
Theorem 4.1, noting that if I(x , y, z) = ~+~+~ -1, then (Ix , I y , Iz) =
(2x/a 2,2y/b2,2z/c2) vanishes only at the origin , and hence at no point of
the ellipsoid.
4.10 A typical point on the circle C has coordinates (a + b cos 0,0, bsin 0); ro-
tating this about the z-axis through an angle sp gives the point u(O, cp)j
the whole of the torus is covered by the four patches obtained by tak-
ing (0, cp) to lie in one of the following open sets : (i) 0 < 0 < 27r, 0 <
sp < 27r, (ii) 0< 0 < 27r, -7r < cp < 7r, (iii) -7r < 0 < 7r,0 < cp < 27r,
(iv) -7r < 0 < 7r, -7r < sp < rr. Each patch is regular because
Ue x ul{> = -b(a + bcosO)(cosOcoscp,cosOsincp, 1) is never zero (since
a + bcosO ~ a - b > 0).
Let u(O,cp) = (x,y,z) . Then, x 2 + y2 + Z2 + a2 - b2 = 2a(a + bcosO), so
(x 2+y2+ z2+ a2_b 2)2 = 4a2(a+bcosO)2 = 4a2(x2+y2) . Let I(x,y ,z) be
the left-hand side minus the right-hand side; then , Ix = 4x(x 2 + y2 + z2 -
a2 - b2), I y = 4y(x 2 + y2 + z2 - a2 - b2), Iz = 4z(x 2 + y2 + z2 + a2 - b2); if
I z = 0 then z = 0 since x 2 + y2 + Z2 + a2 - b2 > 0 everywhere on the torus;
if Ix = I y = 0 too, then since the origin is not on the torus, we must have
x 2 + y2 = a 2 + b2, but then substituting into the equation of the torus
gives (2a 2)2 = 4a 2(a2 +b 2), a contradiction. So (Ix, I y , fz) is nowhere zero
on the torus, which is therefore a smooth surface by Theorem 4.1.
4.11 If S is covered by a single surface patch a : U ~ R 3 , then I : S ~ R is
smooth if and only if I 0 u : U ~ R is smooth. We must check that, if
Ö' : (j ~ R 3 is another patch covering S, then 10 Ö' is smooth if and only
if I 0 a is smooth. This is true because I 0 Ö' = (I 0 u) 0 1/>, where I/> is the
transition map from a to Ö', and both I/> and 1/>-1 are smooth.
4.12 If Ö' = u+a, where a is a constant vector, then Ö' is smooth if a is smooth,
and Ö' u = U u , Ö' v = U v, so Ö' is regular if a is regular.
If Ö' = A 0 a, where A is a linear transformation of R 3 , then 0' is smooth
if a is smooth, and O'u = A(uu),O'v = A(uv), so, if Ais invertible, O'u and
O'v are linearly independent if Uu and U v are linearly independent.
4.13 (i) At (1,1,0), Uu = (1,0,2) , U v = (0,1 , -2) so Uu x U v = (-2,2,1) and
the tangent plane is -2x + 2y + z = O.
(ii) At (1,0,1), where r = 1,0 = 0, Ur = (1,0,2), Ue = (0,1,2) so Ur XUe =
(-2, -2, 1) and the equation of the tangent plane is -2x - 2y + z = 0.

4.14 Suppose the centre of the propeller is initially at the origin. At time t, the
cent re is at (0,0, at) where o is the speed of the aeroplane. If the propeller
is initially along the z-axis, the point initially at (v, 0, 0) is therefore at
the point (v cos wt,v sin wt, at) at time t, where w is the angular velocity
of the propeller. Let U = wt, ,X = ccli».
fT u = (-vsinu ,vcosu,'x) , fT v = (cosu,sinu,O), so the standard unit nor-
mal is N = (,X2 +v 2)-1/2(-'xsinu,'xcosu, -v) . IfO is the angle between
N and the z-axis, cosO = -V/(,X2 +v 2)1/ 2 and hence cotO = ±v/'x, while
the distance from the z-axis is v.
4.15 Let Ö"(u, u) be a reparametrisation of a . Then,
8u_ 8u_ 8u_ 8u_
fT u = 8u fT ü + 8u fT u, o; = 8v fT ü + 8v fT u,
so a.; and a; are linear combinations of Ö"Ü and Ö"U. Hence, any linear
combination of fT u and fT v is a linear combination of Ö"Ü and Ö"U . The
converse is also true since o is a reparametrisation of Ö".
If 'Y(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) is a curve in 5, differentiating I(x(t), y(t), z(t)) =
°
4.16
gives Ixx+lyiJ+Izz = 0, i.e. V I."y = 0, showing that V I is perpendicular
to the tangent vector of every curve in 5, and hence to the tangent plane
of 5 . Since 5 has a canonical (smooth) choice of unit normal V I /11 V I 11
at each point , it is orientable.
4.17 See the proof of Proposition 11.1 for the first part. By the argument in
Exercise 4.16, V F."y(O) = !tF(-y(t))lt=o, so V sF- VF is perpendicular to
the tangent plane of 5 at P. This proves that V s F is the perpendicular
projection of V F onto the tangent plane . If F has a local maximum or
°
minimum at P, then t ~ F(-y(t)) has a local maximum or minimum at
t = for all curves 'Y on 5 with 'Y(O) = P; hence, VsF = 0 at P, so VF
is perpendicular to the tangent plane of 5 at P, and hence is parallel to
VI by Exercise 4.16. So VF = ,XVI for some scalar X.
From Example 4.13, the surface can be parametrised by fT(u, v) =
°
4.18
(cosh u cosv, cosh u sinv, u), with u E Rand -11" < v< 11" or < v < 211".
11 fT(u,v) 11 2 = sech v+sin 2 v) +tanh 2u = sech2u+tanh2u = 1, so fT
2u(cos 2
4.19
parametrises part of the unit sphere; (1 is c1early smooth; and o u X a v =
-sech2u(1(u , v) is never zero, so a is regular. Meridians correspond to the
parameter curves v = constant, and parallels to the curves u = constant.
4.20 The vector a u is tangent to the meridians, so a unit-speed curve y is a loxo-
drome if "y.fT u/ 11 a u 11 = cos a , which gives u = cosh u cos o ; since 'Y is unit-
speed, "y = (-u sech u tanh u cos v - i.J sech u sin v, -u sech u tanh u sin v +
i.J sech u cos v, Ü sech2u) is a unit vector; this gives ü 2 + i.J2 = cosh'' U, so
i.J = ± cosh u sin o. The correponding curve in the uv-plane is given by
Solutions 293
dv/ du = iJ /iJ. = ± tan o , and so is a straight line v = ±u tan a + c, where

cis a constant.
4.21 The point at a distance v from the z-axis on the ruling through (0,0, u)
has position vector given by O'(u, v ) = (O ,O,u) + v(cosB(u) ,sinB(u) ,O) =
(vcosB(u) ,vsinB(u),u) ; O'u x O'v = (-sinB ,-cosB,-vdB/du) is clearly
°
never zero, so 0' is regular.
4.22 (i) i'.a = so i' is contained in the plane perpendicular to a and passing
through the origin; (ii) simple algebra; (iii) ii is clearly a smooth function
of (u, v) and the jacobian matrix of the map (u, v) ~ (u, ii) is ('Y~a ~ ),
where a dot denotes d/du; this matrix is invertible so i' is a reparametri-
sation of 'Y.
4.23 (i) (a cos u cos v , bcos u sin v, csin u) (cf. Exercise 4.9); (ii) see Exercise 4.4 ;
(iii) (u, v, ± V/1 +~
p
+ ~)j
q
(iv), (v) see Exercise 4.6j (vi) see Example 4.3 j
(vii) (p cos u, q cos u, v); (viii) (±p cosh u, q sinh u, u): (ix) (u , U 2/ p2, v) ; (x)
(0, u , v); (xi) (±p, u, v).
4.24 (a) Types (viij-fxi); (b) type (vi) ; (c) types (ii) (see Exercise 4.4), (v) (see
Exercise 4.25) and (vij-Ix); (d) type (i) if p2, q2 and r 2 are not distinct,
types (ii), (iii) , (iv), (vi) and (vii) if p2 = q2, and type (x).
4.25 z = (~- ~) (~ + ~) = uv , x = ~p(u + v), Y = ~q(v - u) , so
a parametrisation is O'(u, v) = (~p(u + v) , ~q(v - u),uv); O'u x O'v =
(-~q(u + v), ~p(v - u) ,pq) is never zero so 0' is regular. For a fixed value
of u, O'(u,v) = (~pu , -~qu,O) +v(~p, ~q,u) is a straight line; similarly for
a fixed value of Vj hence the hyperbolic paraboloid is the union of each of
two families of straight lines.
4.26 Substituting the components (x, y, z) of 'Y(t) = a + bt into the equation
of the quadric gives a quadratic equation for t; if the quadric contains
three points on the line, this quadratic equation has three roots, hence is
identically zero, so the quadric contains the whole line.
Take three points on each of the given lines; substituting the coordinates
of these nine points into the equation of the quadric gives a system of
nine homogeneous linear equations for the ten coefficients al, ... , c of the
quadric; such a system always has a non-trivial solution. By the first part,
the resulting quadric contains all three lines.
4.27 Let LI, L 2 , L 3 be three lines from the first family; by Exercise 4.26, there
is a quadric Q containing all three Iines; all but finitely many lines of
the second family intersect each of the three lines; if L' is such a line, Q
contains three points of L', and hence the whole of L' by Exercise 4.26j
so Q contains all but finitely many lines of the second family ; since any
quadric is a closed subset of R 3 , Q must contain all the lines of the second
294 Efementary Differential Geometry
family, and hence must contain S .

4.28 Both parts are geometrically obvious.
4.29 Let (a, b, c) be a point of R 3 with a and b non-zero . Then Ft(a, b, c) -t 00
as t -t 00 and as t approaches p2 and q2 from the left; and Ft(a , b, c) -t
-00 as t -t -00 and as t approaches p2 and q2 from the right. From
this and the fact that Ft(a, b, c) = 0 is equivalent to a cubic equation
for t, it follows that there exist unique numbers u, v, w with u < p2,
p2 < V < q2 and q2 < w such that Ft(a, b, c) = 0 when t = u, vor w. The
surfaces Fu(x, y, z) = 0 and Fw(x, y, z) = 0 are elliptic paraboloids and
Fv(x , y , z) = 0 is a hyperbolic paraboloid, and we have shown that there
is one surface of each type passing through each point (a, b, c).
To parametrise these surfaces, write Ft(x, y, z) = 0 as the cubic equation
X2(q2 _t)+y2(P2 -t) -2z(p2_t)(q2 -t)+t(P2 -t)(q2 -t) = 0, and note that
the left-hand side must be equal to (t - u)(t - v)(t - w); putting t = p2, q2
zives x = ±..j(p2_U)(p2_
and then equating coefficients of t 2 (say) O' V)(p2_ W)
q2_ p 2 '
Y = ±..j(q2_ p2_ q'i

U)(q2_ v)(q2_ w) z = !(u + v + w _ p2 _ q2).
, 2
4.30 Let F : W -t V be the smooth bijective map with smooth inverse F -l :
V -t W constructed in the proof of Proposition 4.1. Then, (u(t), v(t)) =
F- 1 (-y( t)) is smooth.
4.31 Suppose, for example, that fy :f: 0 at (xo, Yo). Let F(x, y) = (x,J(x, y)) ;
then F is smooth and its jacobian matrix (~ ~:) is invertible at
(xo, Yo) . By the inverse function theorem, F has a smooth inverse G de-
fined on an open subset of R 2 containing F(xo, Yo) = (xo, 0), and G must
be of the form G(x,z) = (x ,g(x,z)) for some smooth function g. Then
-y(t) = (t,g(t,O)) is a parametrisation of the level curve f(x ,y) = 0 con-
taining (xo, Yo) .
The matrix (fx fy fz) has rank 2 everywhere ; suppose that, at some
gx gy gz
point (xo, Yo, zo) on the level curve, the 2 x 2 submatrix (fY fz) is
gy gz
invertible. Define F(X'y,z();= (Xof(tiy),z),g(x,y,z)) ; then Fis smooth
and its jacobian matrix fx fy fz is invertible at (XO,yo,zo). Let

gx gy gz
G(x, u, v) = (x, cp(x, u, v), .,p(x, u, v)) be the smooth inverse of F defined
near (xo, 0, 0). Then -y(t) = (t, cp(t, 0, 0), .,p(t, 0, 0)) is a parametrisation of
the level curve f(x, y, z) = g(x, y, z) = 0 containing (xo, s», zo).
Solutions 295
Chapter 5
5.1 (i) Quadric cone; we have Uu = (cosh usinh v, cosh u cosh v , cosh u) , a; =
(sinhu cosh v, sinhusinhv, 0), and so we get 11 Uu 11 2 = 2cosh2u, uu.u v =
2sinhucoshusinhvcoshv, 11 a; 11 2 = sinh 2u, and the first fundamental
form is 2 cosh'' U du 2 + 4 sinh u cosh u sinh v cosh v dudv + sinh 2 u dv 2.
(ii) Paraboloid of revolution; (2 + 4u 2) du 2 + 8uv dudv + (2 + 4v 2) dv 2.
(iii) Hyperbolic cylinder; (cosh2 u + sinh 2 u) du 2 + dv 2.
(iv) Paraboloid of revolution; (1 + 4u 2) du 2 + 8uv dudv + (1 + 4v 2) dv 2.
5.2 The first fundamental form is 2 du 2 + u 2 dv 2, so the length of the curve is
Jo'/l" (2u 2 + U 2V2)1/ 2 dt = Jo'/l" (2).2 e2>.t + e2>.t)1/2 dt = (2).2~l) lI2 (e>.t - 1).
5.3 Applying a translation to a surface patch o does not change Uu or Uv' H

Ais a rotation about the origin, (Au)u = A(uu), (Au)v = A(u v), and A
preserves dot products (A(p) .A(q) = p .q for all vectors p ,q E R 3 ) .
5.4 By th e chai I Uü
am rue, - -- UU&ü&u &v -
+UV&ü' Ujj -- UU8jj
&u &v
+UV8jj ' w hilC h grves
.
- - - - _E(&U)2
E_ - u ü .uü - 8ü 2F 8u 8v
+ 8ü 8ü + 8 ü ' Iml ar expreSSlOns lor an d
G(&V)2 S' '1 . J: F
-
G can be found; multiplying out the matrices shows that these formulas
are equivalent to the matrix equation in the question.
5.5 The map is u(u, v) I--t (uV2 cos 0 ' uV2sin 0 ,0) = Ö'(U, v), say. The im-
age of this map is the sector of the xy-plane whose polar coord inates (T,9)
satisfy 0 < 9 < 1rV2. The first fundamental form of u is 2 du 2+u 2 dv 2 (Ex-
ercise 5.2); Ö'u = (V2cos ~, V2sin~, 0),
Ö'v = (-usin ~, ucos ~, 0),
2 2 2
so 11 Ö'u 11 = 2, uU'u v = 0, 11 a; 11 = u and the first fundamental form of
Ö' is also 2 du 2 + u 2 dv 2.
5.6 No: the part of the ruling (t, 0, t) with 1 ~ t ~ 2 (say) has length .,fi and
is mapped to the straight line segment (t, 0, 0) with 1 ~ t ~ 2, which has
length 1.
5.7 For the generalised cylinder, Example 5.3 shows that the first fundamental
form is du 2 + dv 2, so O'(u, v) t-t (u, v, 0) is an isometry from the cylinder

to part of the xy-plane. For the generalised cone, Example 5.4 shows that
the first fundamental form is v 2 du 2 + dv 2. This is the same as the first
fundamental form of Ü (.12' uv'2), where ü is as in Exercise 5.5. Since ü
parametrises part of the plane, the generalised cone is isometrie to part
of the plane.
5.8 A straightforward calculation shows that the first fundamental form of O't
is coslr' u(du 2+dv 2)j in particular, it is independent of t. Hence, O'(u, v) t-t
O't (u, v) is an isometry for all t, Taking t = 'Ir /2 gives the isometry from
the catenoid to the helicoid; under this map, the paralleIs u = constant
on the catenoid go to circular helices on the helicoid, and the meridians
v = constant go to the rulings of the helicoid .
5.9 If the first fundamental forms of two surfaces are equal, they are certainly
proportional, so any isometry is a conformal map . Stereographie projec-
tion is a conformal map from the unit sphere to the plane, but it is not
an isometry since >. ::11 (see Example 5.7).
5.10 The vector O'u is tangent to the rulings ofthe cone, so the angle () between
the curve and the rulings is given by cos() = "/'O'u/ 11 "/ 1II1 O'u 11. l.From
')'(t) = (eAtcost,eAtsint ,eAt) and O'u = (cost,sint,l) at ')'(t), we get
cos() = J2>.2/(2).2 + 1), whieh is independent oft.
5.11 The first fundamental form is sech 2 u(du 2 + dv2 ) .
5.12 The first fundamental form is (1 + P)du 2 + u 2 dv 2, where a dot denotes
d/du . So 0' is conformal if and only if i = ±vu2 - 1, i.e, if and only if
f(u) = ±(tuvu2 - 1 - t cosh"? u) + c, where c is a constant.
5.13 The first fundamental form is (1 + 2v"/.6 + v 26.6)du2 + 2"/.6 dudv + dv 2. So
0' is conformal if and only if 1 + 2v"t.6+ v .6 = 1 and "/.6 = 0 for all u, Vj
26
the first condition gives 6 = 0, so 6 is constant, and the second condition
then says that ')'.6 is constant, say equal to d. Thus, 0' is conformal if and
only if 6 is constant and ')' is contained in a plane r .6 = d. In this case, 0'
is a generalised cylinder.
5.14 0' is conformal if and only if I~ + g~ = f; + g; and lulv + gugv = O. Let
z = lu +igu, w = Iv +igvj then 0' is conformal if and only if zz = ww and
zw + zw = 0, where the bar denotes complex conjugate; if z = 0, then
w = 0 and all four equations are certainly satisfied; if z ::I 0, the equations
give z2 = _w 2 , so Z = ±iwj these are easily seen to be equivalent to
the Cauchy-Riemann equations if the sign is +, and to the 'anti-Cauchy-
Riemann' equations if the sign is - .
5.15 Parametrise the paraboloid by O'(u, v) = (u, v, u 2+v 2), its first fundamen-
tal form is (1 + 4u2)du2 + 8uv dudv + (1 + 4v 2)dv2. Hence, the required
area is JJ JI + 4(u 2 + v 2) dudv, taken over the disc u 2 + v 2 < 1. Let
u = r sin B, v = r cosBj then the area is 2'1r J; vI + 4r 2r dr = *(5 3/ 2 - 1).
Solutions 297
This is less than the area 21T of the hemisphere .

5.16 Parametrize the surface by O'(u , v) = (p(u) cosv,p(u) sinv, a(u)) , where
'Y(u) = (p(u), 0, a(u)) . By Example 6.2, the first fundamental form is
du 2 + p(U)2 dv 2, so the area is JJ p(u) dudv = 21T J p(u) du.
(i) Take p(u) = cosu, a(u) = sinu, with -1T/2 ~ u ~ 1T/2j so
21T J~~~2 COS u du = 41T is the area.
(ii) For the torus, the profile curve is 'Y(O) = (a + bcosO,O,bsinO),
°
but this is not unit-speed; a unit-speed reparametrisation is .y(u) =
(a+bcosI,O ,bsinI) with ~ u ~ 21Tb. So 21TJ:7I"b(a+bcosI) du =
41T 2ab is the area.
5.17 0' is the tube swept out by a circle of radius a in aplane perpendicular to
'Y as its centre moves along 'Y. 0'a = (1 - IW cos O)t - Ta sin On+ Ta cos Ob,
0'9 = -asinOn+acosOb, givingO'aX0'9 = -a(1-KacosO)(cosOn+sinOb);
°
this is never zero since na < 1 implies that 1 - sa cos 0 > for all O.
The first fundamental form is «1 - KacosO)2 + T2a2) ds 2 + 2Ta2 dsdO +
2
a2 d02, so the area is J;l0 J0 71" a(l - na cos O)dsdO = 21Ta(SI - so).
5.18 If EI = E 2,F1 = F2,G1 = G2, then E 1G1 - F12 = E 2G2 - F2, 2 so any
isometry is equiareal. The map f in Archimedes's theorem is equiareal
but not an isometry (as EI ::j:. ~ , for example).
5.19 If EI = >'~,F1 = >.F2, GI = >'G2, and if E 1G1 - Fr = ~G2 - F:j, then
>.2 = 1 so >. = 1 (since >. > 0).
5.20 By Theorem 5.5, the sum of the angles of the tri angle is 1T + A/R 2 ,
where A is its area and R is the radius of the earth, and so is ~
1T + (7500000)/(6500)2 = 1T + 136°9 radians. Hence, at least one angle
of the tri angle must be at least one third of this, i.e, 1T + 116°9 radians.
5.21 3F = 2E because every face has three edges and every edge is an edge
of exactly two faces. The sum of the angles around any vertex is 21T, so
the sum of the angles of all the triangles is 21TV; on the other hand, by
Theorem 5.5, the sum of the angles of any triangle is 1T plus its area, so
since there are F triangles and the sum of all their areas is 41T (the area
of the sphere), the sum of all the angles is 1TF + 41T. Hence, 2V = F + 4.
Then, V - E + F = 2 + ~ F - E + F = 2 + ~ (3F - 2E) = 2.
5.22 Let 0' : U -+ R 3 . Then, f is equiareal if and only if
!L (EI GI - Ff)1/2 dudv = !L (E 2G 2 - Fi)1/2 dudv
for all regions R ~ U. This holds if and only if the two integrands are
equal everywhere, i.e. if and only if EI GI - Fr
= ~G2 - Fi .
Chapter 6
6.1 (Tu = (1,0, 2u), a; = (0,1, 2v), so N = .>.( -2u, -2v, 1), where .>. = (1 +
4u 2+4v2 ) - 1/ 2 j (Tuu = (0,0,2), (Tuv = 0, (Tvv = (0,0,2), so L = 2'>', M = 0,
N = 2'>', and the second fundamental form is 2'>'(du 2 + dv 2 ) .
6.2 (Tu .Nu = -(Tuu.N (since (Tu.N = 0), so Nu .(Tu = O; similarly, Nu.(Tv =
Nv·(Tu = Nv .(Tv = O; hence, Nu and N, are perpendicular to both (Tu
and (Tv, and so are parallel to N . On the other hand, Nu and N v are
perpendicular to N since N is a unit vector. Thus, Nu = N, = 0, and
hence N is constant. Then, ((T.N)u = (Tu.N = 0, and similarly ((T.N)v = 0,
so (T.N is constant, say equal to d, and then (T is part ofthe plane r.N = d.
6.3 From Section 4.3, N = ±N, the sign being that of det(J). From Ö'ü =
(Tu 8u
8ü
+ a; 8ü'
8v (Tii 8ii + a; 8v
- -_ (Tu 8u 8ii' we get
_ = (Tu 02 u + (Tv 02
(Tüü 2
V (OU)2
ou +(Tuu ou +2(Tuv
OU ov +(Tvv (OV)2
ou
ou 2 ou ou
So
L =± (L (OU)2
OU
2M oUOV N(OV)2)
+ ouou+ OU
since (Tu .N = (Tv.N = 0. This, together with similar formulas for !VI and
N, are equivalent to the matrix equation in the question.
6.4 Applying a translation to a surface patch (T does not change (Tu and (Tv , and
hence does not change N, (Tuu, (Tuv or (Tvv, and hence does not change the
second fundamental form. A rotation A ab out the origin has the following
effect: (Tu ~ A((Tu), (Tu ~ A((Tv) and hence N ~ A(N) , (Tuu ~ A((Tuu),
(Tuv ~ A((Tuv), (Tvv ~ A((Tvv)j since A(p) .A(q) = p.q for any vectors
p, q E R 3 , the second fundamental form is again unchanged.
6.5 By Exercise 6.1, the second fundamental form ofthe paraboloid is 2(du 2 +
dv 2)/Jl + 4u 2 + 4v2 j so
"'n = 2((- sin t)2 + cos2 t)/v'1 + 4cos2 t + 4sin2 t = 2/../5.

°
6.6 ",2 = "'~ + "'~ = 0, so '" = and 'Y is part of a straight line.
6.7 Let 'Y be a unit-speed curve on the sphere of centre a and radius r . Then,
('Y - a).('Y - a) = r 2 j differentiating gives 'Y.('Y - a) = 0, so ;Y.('Y - a) =
-1'.1' = -1. At the point 'Y(t), the unit normal of the sphere is N =
±~('Y(t) - a), so "'n = ;Y.N = ±~;Y.('Y - a) = =F~.
6.8 Ir the sphere has radius R, the parallel with latitude () has radius r =
R cos (}j if P is a point of this circle, its principal normal at P is parallel to
the line through P perpendicular to the z-axis, while the unit normal to
the sphere is parallel to the line through P and the centre of the sphere.
Solutions 299
The angle t/J in Eq. (8) is therefore equal to () or 'Ir - () so K g = ±~ sin () =

*
± tan (). Note that this is zero if and only if the parallel is a great circle.
6.9 The unit normal is N = (-gcosv, -gsin v, j) , where a dot denotes d/du.
On a meridian v = constant, we can use u as the parameter; since (Tu =
(j cos v, j sin v, g) is a unit vector, u is a unit-speed parameter on the
meridian and
jcosv jsinv jj
K g = (Tuu .(N x (Tu) = -gcosv -gsinv j =0.
jcosv jsinv 9
On a parallel u = constant, we can use v as a parameter, but a; =
(-f sin v, f cos v, 0) is not a unit vector ; the arc-length s is given by
ds/dv = 11 (Tv 11 = f(u), so s = f(u)v (we can take the arbitrary con-
stant to be zero). Then,
1 ( 1) 1 - f cos v - f sin v 0 j
Kg = f(u) 2(TVV ' N X f(u)(Tv = f(u)3 -gcosv -gsinv j = 7'
- f sin v f cos v 0
KIN2 - K2Nl = K«(N1 .n)N2 - (N 2.n)N 1 ) = K(N 1 x N 2) x n .

Taking the squared length of each side, we get
Ki + K~ - 2KIK2Nl.N2 = K2 11 (NI x N 2) x n 11 2 .
Now, N 1.N2 = cos o ; 'Y is perpendicular to NI and N 2, so NI X N 2 is
parallel to 'Y, hence perpendicular to n; hence,
11 (NI x N 2) x nll = 11 NI X N2 1111 n 11 = sin o .
6.11 N .n = cost/J, N.t = 0, so N .b = sint/Jj hence, N = ncost/J + b sin e and
B = t x (n cos e + b sin e) = b cos e - n sin e. Hence,
N = n cos t/J + b sin t/J + .,p(-n sin t/J + b cos t/J)
= (-Kt + rb) cos t/J - nr sin t/J + .,p(-n sin t/J + b cos t/J)
= -K cos t/Jt + (r + .,p)(bcos t/J - n sin t/J)
= -Knt + rgB.
The formula for B is proved similarly. Since {t, N, B} is a right -handed
orthonormal basis of R 3 , Exercise 2.22 shows that the matrix expressing
i, N,B in terms of t, N, B is skew-symmetric, hence the formula for i.
6.12 A straight line has a unit-speed parametrisation -y(t) = P + qt (with q a
unit vector), so ;y = 0 and hence Kn = ;Y.N = O.
In general, Kn = 0 {::::::} ;y is perpendicular to N {::::::} N is perpendicular
to n {::::::} N is parallel to b (since N is perpendicular to t).
6.13 The second fundamental form is (-du 2 + u 2 dv2)/uV1 + u 2, so a curve

-y(t) = O'(u(t),v(t)) is asymptotic if and only if -u2 + u 2iJ2 = 0, i.e,
dof du = iJju = ±1/u, so lnu = ±(v + c), where c is a constant.
6.14 By Exercise 6.12, b is parallel to N , so b = ±N; then, B = t x N = =fn.
Hence, B = =fit = =f(-Kt+rb) = ±Kt-rNj comparing with the formula
for B in Exercise 6.11 shows that rg = r (and Kn = ±K).
6.15 For the helicoid 0'(u, v) = (v cos u, v sin u , ,xu), the first and second funda-
mental forms are (,X2 + v 2)du2 + dv 2 and 2'xdudv/J,X2 + v 2, respectively.
Hence , the principal curvatures are the roots of
- K(,X2 + v
2) ,,;}+v2!_
I ~
x
-K
-0,
i.e. ±,X/(,X2 + v2 ) .
For the catenoid O'(u,v) = (coshucosv,coshusinv,u) , the first and sec-
ond fundamental forms are cosh'' u(du 2+dv2) and -du 2+dv2, respectively.
Hence , the principal curvatures are the roots of
- I - K COSh
2
u 0 I
I o 1 - Kcosh 2u '
i.e, K = ±sech2u .
6.16 Let s be arc-length along -y, and denote df ds by a dash. Then, by Propo-
sition 6.1,
_L,2 2M" N,2 _ Lu 2 + 2MuiJ + NiP _ Lu 2 + 2MüiJ + NiJ2
Kn - U + uv + v - (ds/dt)2 - Eü2 + 2FüiJ + GiJ 2 .
6.17 By Exercises 5.4 and 6.3, we have (in an obvious notation),:F] = JtT]J,
:Fu = ±JtTuJ, where the sign is that of det(J) . The principal curvatures
of Ö' are the roots of det(:Fu -k:F]) = 0, i.e. det(±JtTuJ -kJ t TuJ) = 0,
which (since J is invertible) are the same as the roots of det(±Tu-kT]) =
O. Hence, the principal curvatures of Ö' are ± those of 0'.
Let ~Ö'ii. + ijÖ'ü be a principal vector for Ö' corresponding to the principal
curvature k. Then,
so if J (~) = (~), then ~O' u +TJO'v is a principal vector for 0' correspond-
. to t hee nri
ing pnncip al curvature K . B u, t smce
' ..c 8u =
811."i + 8u - TJ
8fJ TJ, =8v i+ 8v
tJii." 8ü TJ- ,
we have ..O'u + TJO'v_ =.. 8ii.(1u + 8ii.O'v + TJ 8ü(1u + 8üO'v = .. 0'11. + TJ(1ü,
c i ( 8u 8v) - (8u 8v) c- --
which shows that eÖ'ii. + ijÖ'ü is a principal vector for 0' corresponding to
the principal curvature K.
The second part also follows from Corollary 6.2.
Solutions 301
6.18 l' = Ü(fu + iia; is a principal vector corresponding to the principal curva-
ture K ~ (FII - KF]) (:) = (~) ~ Fi l FII (:) =K (:) ~
(~ ~) (:) = -K ( : ) ~ aü + eil = -KÜ and bü + dv = -KV. But,
N = üNu+vN v = Ü(OOu+bo'v)+V(Ct:1 u+Mv) = (aü+eil)(fu+(bü+dv)(fv '
Hence, l' is principal ~ N = -K(Üt:1u + V(fV) = -K'Y.
From Example 6.2, the first and second fundamental forms of a surface
of revolution are du 2 + f(U)2dv 2 and (jü - jiJ)du 2 + fiJdv 2, respectively.
Since the terms dudv are absent, the vectors (fu and a v are principal; but
these are tangent to the meridians and parallels, respectively.
6.19 By Exercise 6.11, N = -Knt + TgB, so by Exercise 6.18 '1 is a line of
curvature if and only if T g = 0 (in which case A = K n ) .
6.20 Let NI and N 2 be unit norm als of the two surfaces; if'Y is a unit-speed
parametrisation of C, then NI = -Al'Y for some scalar Al by Exercise
6.18. If Cis a line of curvature of 8 2, then N 2 = -A2'Y for some scalar A2,
and then (N l .N 2)" = -Al'Y.N2 - A2'Y.Nl = 0, so N l .N 2 is constant along
'1, showing that the angle between 8 1 and 8 2 is constant. Conversely, if
N l .N 2 is constant, then N l.N2 = 0 since N l .N 2 = -Al'Y.N2 = 0; thus,
N 2 is perpendicular to Nb and is also perpendicular to N 2 as N 2 is a
unit vector; but l' is also perpendicular to NI and N 2; hence, N 2 must
be parallel to 1', so there is a scalar A2 (say) such that N 2 = -A2'Y.
6.21 (i) Differentiate the three equations in (21) with respect to w, u and v,
respectively; this gives
Subtracting the second equation from the sum of the other two gives
(fu.(fvw = 0, and similarly (fv.(fuw = (fw.(fuv = O.
(ii) Since (fv .(fw = 0, it follows that the matrix F] for the u = Uo surface
is diagonal (and similarly for the others) . Let N be the unit normal of the
u = Uo surface; N is parallel to a v x o w by definition, and hence to (f u since
(fu, (fv and (fw are perpendicular; by (i), (fvw.(fu = 0, hence (fvw.N = 0,
proving that the matrix F ] ] for the u = Uo surface is diagonal.
(iii) By part (ii), the parameter curves of each surface u = Uo are lines
of curvature. But the parameter curve v = vo, say, on this surface is the
curve of intersection of the u = Uo surface with the v = Vo surface.
6.22 We have Nu = oa.; + oov, N , = ca.; + dtT v, so

F rII = ( NNuu.N u
.N v
Nu .Nv)
N v·N v
_ ( 2
Ea + 2Fab + Gb 2 Eac + F(ad + bc) + Gbd)
- Eac + F(ad + bc) + Gbd Ee + 2Fcd + GrP
= (~ :) (; ~) (: ~) =(-FilFrdFr(-FilFII)
=FrrFi 1FrFi1 Fu =FrrFi 1Fu-
6.23 By Example 6.2, the principal curvatures are jg - jiJ and iJ/ [ , If iJ = 0,
the surface is part of a plane z = constant and no point is parabolic. Thus,
iJ # 0, and every point is parabolic if and only if jg - jiJ = 0. Multiplying
through by iJ and using j2 + iJ2 = 1 (which implies that j j + iJg = 0), we
get j = 0. Hence, f(u) = au + b, where a and bare constants. If a = 0,
we have a circular cylinder; if a # 0, we have a circular cone.
6.24 On the part of the ellipsoid with z # 0, we can use the parametrisation
u(x,y) = (x,y ,z) , where z = ±rVl-~-~ .
The first and second
fundamental forms are (l+ z;)dx2+2zzzydxdy+(I+ z~)dy2 and (zz zdx 2+
2zzydxdy+zyydy2)/ VI
+ zi + z~ , respectively. By Proposition 5.3(ii) , the
condition for an umbilic is that Frr = KFr for some scalar K. This leads
to the equations
Zz z = >'(1 + z; ), Zzy = >'zzZy, Zyy = >'(1 + z~) ,
where>. = KV1+ zi + z~. If x and y are both non-zero , the middle equa-
°
tion gives >. = 1/ z, and substituting into the first equation gives the con-
tradiction p2 = r 2 • Hence, either x = or y = 0. If x = 0, the equations
have the four solutions
q: r:
x = 0, y = ±qvq - P:, z
-r
= ±rvr - P: .
-q
Similarly, one finds the following eight other candidates for umbilics :
~
2 _ q2 ~2_q2
X = ±p 2
P -r
2' Y = 0, z = ±r r
2
-p
2'
x = ±PV~ =::, y = ±qv:: =; , z = 0.

Of these 12 points, exactly 4 are real, depending on the relative sizes of
p2, q2 and r 2 .
Solutions 303
Chapter 7
7.1 tT u = (1,1, v), tTv = (1, -1, u), tTuu = tTvv = 0, tTuv = (0,0,1). When
u = v = 1, we find from this that E = 3, F = 1, G = 3 and L =
N = 0, M = -Ij.,fi. Hence, K = (LN - M 2)j(EG - F 2) = -IjI6,
H = (LG - 2MF + NG)j2(EG - F2) = IjS.,fi.
7.2 For the helicoid tT(u,v) = (vcosu,vsinu,Au), tTu = (-vsinu,vcosU,A),
tT v = (cosu,sinu,O), N = (A2 + v2)-1/2(-Asinu,AcosU,-v), tTuu =
(-vcosu,-vsinu,O), tT uv = (-sinu,cosu,O), tT vv = O. This gives
E = A2 + v 2, F = O,G = 1 and L = N = O,M = AjVA2 +v 2. Hence,.
K = (LN - M 2)j(EG - F 2) = _A 2j(A 2 + V 2)2.
For the catenoid tT( u, v) = (cosh u cos v, cosh u sin v, u), we have a u =
(sinh u cos v, sinh u sin v, 1), a; = (- cosh u sin v, cosh u cosv, 0),
N = sechu(-cosv,-sinv,sinhu), tT uu = (coshucosv,coshusinv,O),
tT uv =(- sinh u sin v, sinh u cos v, 0), tT vv = (- cosh u cosv, - cosh u sin v, 0).
2
K = (LN - M2)j(EG - F2) = -sech4u.

°
This gives E = G = cosh U, F = and L = -1, M = 0, N = 1. Hence,
Alternatively, use the results of Exercise 6.15.

7.3 Parametrise the surface by tT(u,v) = (u,v ,f(u,v» . Then, tT u = (I,O,fu),
a; = (O,I,fv), N = (I+f~+{;)-1/2(-fu,-fv,I), tT uu = (0,0, fuu),
tT uv = (0, o'/uv) , tT vv = (0, 0, fvv). This gives E = 1 + f~,F = fufv,G =
1 + {; and L = (1 + f~ + f;)-1/2 fuu, M = (1 + f~ + J';)-1/2 fuv, N =
(1 + f~ + f;)-1/2 fvv. Hence,
K = fuufvv - f~v
(1 + f~ + f;)2 .
7.4 (i) From Example 7.3, K = 0 {::::::::} 6.N = °{:: : : :}
6.«t + v6) x eS) = 0 {::::::::}
6.(t x eS) = 0. If 6 = n , 6 = -lI:t + rb, t x 6 = b, so K = °{: : : : } °{: : : : }
'Y is planar (by Proposition 2.4). If 6 = b, 6 = -rn, t x 6 = -n, so again
r =
K =0 {::::::::}r =0.
(ii) Let NI be a unit normal of S. Then, K = °{: : : : }
NdtxNd = O. Since
NI is perpendicular to NI and NI is perpendicular to t, this condition
holds {::::::::} NI is parallel to t, i.e. {::::::::} NI = -A'Y for some scalar A. Now
use Exercise 6.IS .
7.5 Using the parametrisation tT in Exercise 4.10, we find that E = b2 , F =
O,G = (a + bCOSO)2 and L = b,M = O,N = (a + bcosO)cosO. This gives
K = cosOjb{a + bcosO), dk = (EG - F 2)1/2dOdep = b{a + bcosO)dOdep.
Hence,
7.6 The first part follows from Exercises 5.3 and 6.4. The dilation multiplies
E, F, G by a2 and L, M, N by a, hence H by a- 1 and K by a- 2 (using
Proposition 7.1).
7.7 Since (T is smooth and (Tu X a; is never zero, N = (Tu x (Tvl 11 (Tu x (Tv 11
is smooth. Hence, E, F, G, L , M and N are smooth. Since EG - F2 > 0
(by the remark following Proposition 5.2), the formulas in Proposition
7.1(i) and (ii) show that H and K are smooth. By Proposition 7.1(iii),
the principal curvatures are smooth provided H 2 > K, i.e, provided there
are no umbilics.
7.8 At a point P of an asymptotic curve, the normal curvature is zero. By
Corollary 6.2, one principal curvature Kl ~ 0 and the other K2 ~ O. Hence
K = KIK2 ~ O. On a ruled surface, there is an asymptotic curve, namely
a straight line, passing through every point (see Exercise 6.12).
7.9 By Exercise 6.22, FIII = FIIF]1 FII. Multiplying on the left by F]I,
the given equation is equivalent to
A 2+2HA+KI=0,
where A = _F]1 FI I = (: ~). By the remarks following Definition

6.1, the principal curvatures are the eigenvalues of -A. Hence, 2H =
sum of eigenvalues of -A = -(a + d), K = product of eigenvalues of
-A = ad - bc. Now use the fact stated in the question.
7.10 By Eq. (9) in Chapter 6, -y.-y = TtFITj by Eq. (10) in Chapter 6,
N.-y = -N..:y (since N.-y = 0) = -Kn = - T tF II T . Now, N.N = (üN u +
iJNv).(üNu+iJN v) = (Nu .Nu)ü2+2(Nu.Nv)üiJ+(Nv .Nv)iJ2 = TtFIIIT.
Hence, multiplying the equation in Exercise 7.9 on the left by T" and on
the right by T gives N .N+2HN.-Y+K-Y.-Y = O.JE.-yis an asymptotic curve,
K n = 0 so N.-y = O. So, assuming that 'Y is unit-speed, we get N.N = -K.
But Exercise 6.12 gives N = ±b, so N = =frn and N.N = r 2 .
7.11 The parametrisation is (T(U, v) = (f(u) cosv, f(u) sin v , g(u)) , f(u) = e",
g(u) = VI - e2u - cosh- 1(e-u ) , -00 < u < O.
(i) A parallel u = constant is a circle of radius f(u)= e", so has length
271'e u •
(ii) From Example 7.2, E = I,F = O,G = f(U)2 , so dAq = f(u)dudv and
the area is J: 1f
J~oo eUdudv = 271'.
(iii) From Example 7.2, the principal curvatures are Kl = jg - iiJ =
-i IiJ = _(e- 2U- 1)-1/2, K2 = NIP = iJI f = (e- 2u - 1)1/2.
(iv) Kl < 0, K2 > O.
7.12 (i) Setting ü = v,v = w = e- u , we have u = -lnv,v = ü so, in the
notation of Exercise 5.4, J = (~ -o~). Since J is invertible, (u, v) I-t
Solutions 305
(v,w) is a reparametrisation map. The first fundamental form in terms of

v, w is given by
(~ ~) = r (; ~) J
= (_Oi ~) (~ f(~)2) (~ -oi) = (* ?), ~
so the first fundamental form is (dv2 + dw2)/ w2.

(ii) We find that the matrix
_ (8V
J- 8V) - (
äU 8V v(w+1) 1(v
2
2_(W+1)2))
- ~~ ~~ - _~(v2 - (w + 1)2) v(w + 1) ,
so the first fundamental form in terms of U and V is given by
2
Jt(~ O)J=(V + (W+ 1)2)2 I=
° ~ 4w2
1 I
(1 - U2 - V2)2 '
<°
after some tedious algebra.
In (i), u and -1r < V < 1r corresponds to -1r < V < 1r and w > 1, a
semi-infinite rectangle in the upper half of the vw-plane.
To find the corresponding region in (ii), it is convenient to introduce the

complex numbers z = v + iw , Z = U + iV. Then, the equations in (ii)
are equivalent to Z = ~+~, z = i(~!.ll)' The line v = 1r in the vw-plane
corresponds to z + Z = 21r (the bar denoting complex conjugate), i.e,
i(~!ll) - i(~!.ll) = 21r, which simplifies to IZ - (1 - ~W = ~; so v = 1r
corresponds to the circle in the UV -plane with centre 1 - ~ and radius ~.
Similarly, v = -1r corresponds to the circle with centre 1 + ~ and radius
~. Finally, w = 1 corresponds to z - z = 2i, i.e. i(~!.~) + i&!.ll) = 2i.
This simplifies to IZ - ~12 = ~; so w = 1 corresponds to the circle with
centre 1/2 and radius 1/2 in the UV-plane. The required region in the
UV -plane is that bounded by these three circles:
v
~~--7U
7.13 Let -y(u) = (J(u) ,O,g(u)) and denote d/du by a dot; by Eq . (2), j +KI =
0. If K < 0, the general solution is 1 = ae- FKu + beFKu where a, b
°
are constants; the condition 1(1r /2) = I( -1r /2) = forces a = b = 0,
so -y coincides with the z-axis, contradicting the assumptions. If K = 0,
°
1 = a + bu and again a = b = is forced. So we must have K > and
1 = acosVKu + bsinVKu. This time, 1(1r/2) = 1(-1r/2) = and a,b °
°
not both zero implies that the determinant
cos ..jK1r /2 sin ..jK1r /2 I= 0.
Icos VK1r /2 - sin VK1r /2
This gives sin VK1r = 0, so K = n 2 for some integer n =!' 0. If n = 2k
is even, 1 = bsin 2ku, but then 1(0) = 0, contradicting the assumptions.
°
If n = 2k + 1 is odd, 1 = acos(2k + l)u and 1(1r/2(2k + 1)) = 0, which
contradicts the assumptions unless k = or -1, Le. unless K = (2k+ 1)2 =
1. Thus, 1 = acosu, 9 = )1- j2 = J1- a 2sin 2u. Now, 'Y = <i,O,g) is
perpendicular to the z-axis {::::} 9 = 0. So the assumptions give '-"I - a 2 =
0, i.e. a = ± 1. Then, -y( u) = (± cos u, 0, ± sin u) (up to a translation along
the z-axis) and S is the unit sphere.
7.14 Let ü(ü, v) be a patch of S containing P = ü(üo,vo). The gaussian curva-
°°
ture K of S is < at P; since K is a smooth function of (ü, v) (Exercise
7.7), K (u, v) < for (u, v) in some open set Ü containing (uo, vo); then
°
every point of ü(Ü) is hyperbolic. Let 11':1,11':2 be the principal curvatures
J
of ü, let < () < tt /2 be such that tan () = -1I':t! 11':2, and let Cl and e2 be
the unit tangent vectors of Ü making angles () and -(), respectively, with
the principal vector corresponding to 11':1 (see Corollary 6.1). Applying
Solutions 307
Proposition 7.4 gives the result.

7.15 See the proof of Proposition 9.5 for the first part.
The first fundamental form ofthe given surface patch is (l+u 2+v2)2(du2+
dv 2), so it is conformal, and Uuu +utItI = (-2u, 2v, 2) + (2u, -2v, -2) = O.
7.16 Parametrize the surface by u(u, v) = (u, v, f(u, v)). By Exercise 7.3, E =
1 + f~,F = fuftl,G = 1 + {;,L = (1 + f~ + J';)-1/2fuu,M = (1 + f~ +
{;)-1/2 futl, N = (1 + f~ + {;)-1/2 ftltl. Hence,
H = LG - 2MF + NE = fuu(1 + {;) - 2futlfuftl + ftltl(1 + f~)
2(EG - F2) 2(1 + f~ + f';)3/2
Taking f(u,v) = In (~~:~) gives
H _ sec u(1 + tan 2 v) - sec2 v(1 + tan 2 u) _ 0
2
- 2(1 + tan 2 u + tan 2 v)3/2 - .

7.17 Eu = Uu + wN u, E tl = a; + wN tI, E w = N . Eu.E w = 0 since
uu .N = Nu.N = 0, and similarly EtI .Ew = O. Finally, Eu .EtI = Uu.UtI +
w(uu .NtI + utI.Nu) + w 2Nu .NtI =
F - 2wM + w 2N u .NtI w 2Nu .NtI; by =
Proposition 6.4, Nu = -~uu, N, = -~UtI, so Nu .NtI = ~~F = O.
Every surface u = Uo (a constant) is ruled as it is the union of the straight
lines given by v = constant; by Exercise 7.4(ii) , this surface is Hat provided
the curve 'Y(v) = u( Uo, v) is a line of curvature of S, i.e, if U tI is a prin-
cipal vector; but this is true since the matrices ;:1 and ;:11 are diagonal.
Similarly for the surfaces v = constant.
7.18 By Eq. (15), the area of u(R) is
J1 11 Nu x x, 11 dudv = J11K'1I UU x Utl 11 dudv = J11K1dAq .
7.18 From the formula for K in the solution of Exercise 7.5, it follows that S+
and S- are the annular regions on the torus given by -71"/2 ~ u ~ 71"/2
and 71"/2 ~ u ~ 371"/2, respectively.
S+ S-
It is clear that as a point P moves over S+ (resp. S-), the unit normal at P
covers the whole of the unit sphere. Hence, 11s + IK ldA = 11s - IKldA =
411" by Exercise 7.18; since IKI = ±K on S±, this gives the result.
Chapter 8
8.1 By Exercise 4.4, there are two straight lines on the hyperboloid passing
through (1,0,0); by Proposition 8.3, they are geodesics. The circle given
by z = 0, x 2 + y2 = 1 and the hyperbola given by y = 0, x 2 - z2 = 1
are both normal sections, hence geodesics by Proposition 8.4 (see also
Proposition 8.5).
8.2 Let IIs be the plane through "Y(s) perpendicular to t(s); the parameter
curve s = constant is the intersection of the surface with IIs . From the
solution to Exercise 5.17, the standard unit normal of t1' is N = -(cosOn+
sin 0 b). Since this is perpendicular to t, the circles in question are normal
sections.
8.3 Take the ellipsoid to be ~ + ~ + ~ = 1; the vector ('ir,~,~) is normal
to the ellipsoid by Exercise 4.16. If "Y(t) = (f(t),g(t),h(t» is a curve on
j2 ·2 .2 ,2 2 2 1
?-
the ellipsoid, R = (~+ ~ + ~ )-1 / 2, 8 = (j;4 + + ~ )-1 2. Now, "Y is a
geodesie -<==>;Y is parallel to the normal -<==> (1,9, h) = >..({;t ,~ , ~) for
some scalar >..(t). From ~ +;; + ~
j2 I/ .. hh .
= 1 we get
j2
fJ + ~ + I;4 = 0, hence
(/ 2 h2)
·2 ;'2
=
~+~+~+~+'+j:"2"" 0, i.e. ~+~+~+>.. j;4 + ~ +
.2 ;'2 2
j:4 = 0,
which gives >.. = _8 2 / R 2 • The curvature of"Y is
1I;Y1I=(P+92+ h2)1 /2=1>"I(P +g2 +h2)1/2

p4 q4 r4
=~=!.-.
8 R2
Finally,
1d ( 1) (li
2 dt R28 2 = p4
99 hh)
+ q4 + -;:4
(i2 2
9 h2
p2 + q2 + r
2)
+ (P + g2 + h
p4 q4 r4
2)
(ii p2
+ 99
q2
+ hh)
r2
= R2
1 (li 99 hh)
p4 + q4 + -;:4 + 82
x (li 99 hh)
p4 + q4 + -;:4 = 0,
since >.. = _8 2 / R 2 • Hence, R8 is constant.

8.4 If "Y is a geodesic, ;Y = xn is parallel to N (in the usual notation), so
n = ±N. In the notation of Exercise 6.11, B = t x N = ±b, so B =
Solutions 309
Kgt - TgN = ±b = =fTn = -TN. Hence, T g = T (and K g = 0, whieh we

knew already).
8.5 ;y is parallel to II since "I lies in II , and ;y is parallel to N since "I is a
geodesic ; so N is parallel to II . It follows that N is also parallel to II .
Since N is perpendieular to N, and l' is also perpendieular to N and
parallel to II, N is parallel to 1'. By Exercise 6.18, "I is a line of curvature
of S.
8.6 Ir P and Q lie on the same parallel of the cylinder, there are exactly
two geodesies joining them, namely the two circular arcs of the parallel
of whieh P and Q are the endpoints. Ir P and Q are not on the same
parallel, there are infinitely many circular helices joining P and Q (see
Example 8.7).
8.7 Take the cone to be O'(u,v) = (ucosv,usinv,u) . By Exercise 5.5, 0' is
isometrie to part ofthe xy-plane by O'(u,v) t-+ (uV2cos~, uV2sin .12,0).
°
By Corollary 8.2, the geodesies on the cone correspond to the straight lines
in the xy-plane. Any such line, other than the axes x = and y = 0, has
equation ax + by = 1, where a, b are constants; this line corresponds to the
curve v t-+ ( cos v sin V I ) .,
y'2(acos 72+bsin 72)' y'2(acos ~+bsin~)' V'2(acos ~+bsin~)
the x and y-axes correspond to straight lines on the cone.
8.8 From Example 5.3, O'(u, v) = 'Y(u) + va, where "I is unit-speed, 11 a 11 = 1,
and "I is contained in aplane perpendicular to a ; the map 0'( u, v) t-+
(u,v ,O) is an isometry from the cylinder to the xy-plane. A curve t t-+
O'(u(t), v(t)) is a geodesie on the cylinder {::::::} t t-+ (u(t) ,v(t) , 0) is a
constant-speed parametrisation of a straight line in the plane {::::::} ü
and iJ are constant {::::::} iJ is constant (since ü 2 + iJ2 is constant). Since
a.ftO'(u(t) ,v(t)) = ii, iJ = constant {::::::} the tangent vector ftO'(u ,v)
makes a fixed angle with the unit vector a parallel to the axis of the
cylinder.
8.9 Take the cylinder to be O'(u, v) = (cos u, sin u, v) . Then, E = G = 1, F = 0,
so the geodesie equations are ü = ii = 0. Hence, u = a + bt, v = c + dt,
°
where a, b, c, d are constants. Ir b = this is a straight line on the cylinder ;
otherwise, it is a circular helix.
8.10 E = 1, F = 0, G = 1 + u 2 , so "I is unit-speed {::::::} ü 2 + (1 + U2)iJ2 = l.
The second equation in (2) gives ft«1 + u 2 )iJ) = 0, i.e. iJ = 1':u2' where
a is a constant. So ü 2 = 1 - (1~U2) and , along the geodesic,
2
dv = '!!. = ± a
du ü J(1 - a2 + u 2 )(1 + u 2 ) •
Ir a = 0, then v = constant and we have a ruling. If a = 1, then dv/du =
±1/uVI + u 2 , which can be integrated to give v = Vo =f sinh"? ~, where
Vo is a constant.
8.11 We have
N x a = (tTu X tTtI) x tT u = (tTu.tTu)tTtI -
(tTu.tTtI)tTu = EtTtI -FtTu
u 11 au X tT tI 11 J EG - F2 J EG - F2 '
and similarly for N x tT tI. Now, -y = iur; + iJtTtI, so
. u(EtTtI - FtT u) + iJ(FtTtI - GtT u)
N X 'Y - --'-----.:..---:~===1=~=---~
- JEG-F2 '
;y = ÜtTu + iitTtI + U2 tT u u + 2uiJtTutl + iJ2 tTtltI .
Hence, /\,g = ;Y.(Nx-Y) = (uii-iJü)VEG - F2+Au 3+Bu2iJ+CuiJ2+DiJ3,
where A = tTuu .(EtTtI - FtT u) = E«tTu.tTtI)u - tTu.tTUtl) - ~F(tTu.tTu)u =
E(Fu - ~EtI) - ~FEu, with similar expressions for B,C,D.
8.12 We have
(Eu 2+2FuiJ + GiJ2)'
= (Euu + EtliJ) u2 + 2(Fuu + FtliJ)uiJ + (Guu + G tliJ)iJ 2
+ 2Euü + 2F( uii + üiJ) + 2GiJii
=u(Euu2 + 2FuuiJ + G uiJ2) + iJ(Etlu2 + 2FtluiJ + G tliJ2)
+ 2Euü + 2F( uii + üiJ) + 2GiJii
= 2(Euu + FiJ)'u + 2(Fu + GiJ)'iJ
+ 2(Eu + FiJ)ü + 2(Fu + GiJ)ii (by the geodesie equations)
=2[(Eu + FiJ)u]' + 2[(Fu + GiJ)iJ]'
= 2(Eu2 + 2FuiJ + GiJ 2r
Hence, (Eu 2 + 2FuiJ + GiJ2)' = 0 and so 11 -y 11 2 = Eu 2 + 2FuiJ + GiJ 2 is
constant.
8.13 They are normal sections.
8.14 Every parallel is a geodesie {:::::::} every value of u is a stationary point
of f(u) (in the notation of Proposition 8.5) {:::::::} f = constant {:::::::} the
surface is a circular cylinder.
8.15 The two solutions of Eq. (13) are v = b - w 2 , so the condition
Vo ±)
for a self-intersection is that, for some w > 1,2) b - w 2 = 2k1r for some
integer k > O. This holds {:::::::} 2) b - 1 > 21r, i.e. n < (1 + 1r2)- 1/ 2. In
this case, there are k self-intersections, where k is the largest integer such
that 2k1r < 2)b - 1.
8.16 (i) If 'Y(t) is a geodesic, so is fh(t)) , and if'Yis defined for all -00 < t < 00 ,
so is f('Y(t)). So f takes meridians to meridians, i.e, if v is constant, so is
v. Hence, v does not depend on w.
Solutions 311
(ii) f preserves angles and takes meridians to meridians, so must take

parallele to parallels. Hence, tÜ does not depend on v .
(iii) The parallel w = constant has length 27r/w by Exercise 7.11(i) (w =
e- U ) . As f preserves lengths, part (ii) implies that 27r [ui = 27r [ib, so
w=w.
(iv) We now know that f(O'(u,v)) = O'(F(v),w) for some smooth function
F(v) . The firstfundamental form ofO'(F(v) ,w) is w- 2 ((~~)2 dv 2 + dw 2 ) ;
since f is an isometry, this is equal to w- 2(dv2+dw2 ) , hence dF/dv = ±1,
so f(v) = ±v + o, where o is a constant. If the sign is +, fis rotation by
o around the z-axis ; if the sign is -, f is reflection in the plane containing
the z-axis making an angle a/2 with the xz-plane.
8.17 From the solution to Exercise 7.12, Z = U + iV = ~+~, where z = v +
iw. Since the geodesics on the pseudosphere correspond to straight lines
and circles in the vw-plane which are perpendicular to the v-axis, they
correspond in the UV -plane to straight lines and circles perpendicular to
the image of the v-axis under the transformation z ~ ~+~' i.e, the unit
circle U 2 + V2 = 1.
8.18 (i) Let the spheroid be obtained by rotating the ellipse ~ + ~ = 1 around
the z-axis, where a, b > O. Then, a is the maximum distance of a point of
the spheroid from the z-axis, so the angular momentum {] of a geodesie
must be ::; a (we can assurne that {] ~ 0). If {] = 0, the geodesie is a
meridian. If 0 < {] < a, the geodesie is confined to the annular region
on the spheroid contained between the circles z = ±bJ
1 - ~' and the
discussion in Example 8.9 shows that the geodesie 'bounces' between these
two circles:
n
If = a, Eq. (10) shows that the geodesie must be the parallel z = O.
n
(ii) Let the torus be as in Exercise 4.10. If = 0, the geodesie is a meridian
(a circle). If 0 < n < a - b, the geodesie spirals around the torus:
If n = a - b, the geodesie is either the parallel of radius a - b or spi-

rals around the torus approaching this parallel asymptotically (but never
crossing it) :
If a - b < n < a + b, the geodesie is confined to the annular region

consisting of the part of the torus a distance ~ n from the axis, and
bounces between the two parallels which bound this region:
If n = a + b, the geodesie must be the parallel of radius a + b.

Solutions 313
8.19 From Exercise 5.5, the cone is isometrie to the 'sector' S of the plane with
vertex at the origin and angle nV2:
Geodesies on the cone correspond to possibly broken line segments in S: if

a line segment meets the boundary of S at a point A, say, it may continue
from the point B on the other boundary line at the same distance as A
from the origin and with the indieated angles being equal :
o B
(i) TRUE: if two points P and Q can be joined by a line segment in S

there is no problem; otherwise, P and Q can be joined by a broken line
segment satisfying the conditions above:
o s
p
To see that this is always possible , let PI, P2, ql and q2 be the indicated
distances, and let R and S be the points on the boundary of the sector at
a distance (1J2ql + PIq2)/(1J2 + q2) from the origin. Then, the broken line
segment PR followed by SQ is the desired geodesic.
(ii) FALSE:
(iii) FALSE: many meet in two points, such as the two geodesics joining
P and Q in the diagram in (ii).
(iv) TRUE: the meridians do not intersect (remember that the vertex of
the cone has been removed), and parallel straight lines that are entirely
contained in S do not intersect.
(v) TRUE: since (broken) line segments in S can c1early be continued
indefinitely in both directions.
(vi) TRUE: a situation of the form
in which the indicated angles are equal is c1early impossible. But the
answer to this part of the question depends on the angle of the cone: if
the angle is 0:, instead of 1r/4, lines can self-intersect if 0: < 1r/6, for then
the corresponding sector in the plane has angle < 1r:
Solutions 315
o
8.20 (i) This is obvious if n ~ 0 since e- 1 / t 2 ~ 0 as t ~ O. We prove that
t2
t - n e- 1 / ~ 0 as t ~ 0 by induction on n ~ O. We know the result if
n = 0, and if n > 0 we can apply L'Hopital's rule :
. r» . nt- n- 1 • n t-(n-2)
hm l/t2 = hm 2 l/t2 = hm -2 l/t2'
e-su e t-tO i!"e t-tO e
which vanishes by the induction hypothesis.
(ii) We prove by induction on n that 0 is n-times differentiable with
~O = { ~n3lt) e- 1 / t 2 if t i:- 0,
dt n 0 if t = 0,
where Pn is a polynomial in t. For n = 0, the assertion holds with Po = 1.
Assuming the result for some n ~ 0,
~+l0 _ (-3nPn P~ 2Pn ) e-1/t2
dt n+1 - t 3n +l + t3n + t3n+3
if t i:- 0, so we take Pn+l = (2 - 3nt2)Pn + t 3P~ . If t = 0,
t2_
~+10 _ . Pn(t) -1/t2 _ . e- 1/
dt n+1
- hm 3 +1e
t-tO t n
- Pn(O) hm 3 +1 - 0
t-tO t n
by part (i).
Parts (iii) and (iv) are obvious .
8.21 Since "(s is unit-speed, Ur'U r = 1, so Jo Ur 'U r dr = R. Differentiating
R
with respect to 0 gives Jo Ur.UrS dr = 0, and then integrating by parts

R
gives
l=
R
r=R
us.urlr=o - 0 US 'U rr dr = O.
Now u(O,O) = P for all 0, so Us 0 when r = O. So we must show that

the integral in the last equation vanishes. But, U r r = 'Ys, the dot denoting
the derivative with respect to the parameter r of the geodesie "(s, so U rr
is parallel to the unit normal N of Uj since us.N = 0, it follows that
US'U rr = O.
The first fundamental form is as indicated since Ur 'U r = 1 and Ur .Us = O.
Chapter 9
9.1 This follows from Exerdse 7.6.
9.2 This follows from Exercise 7.3.
9.3 K1 + K2 = 0 and K1 = K2 ==> K1 = K2 = O.
9.4 K1 + K2 = 0 ==> K2 = -K1 ==> K = K1K2 = -K~ :$ O. K = 0 ~ K~ =
o ~ K1 = K2 = 0 ~ the surface is part of a plane (by Proposition
6.5).
9.5 By Proposition 7.6, a compact minimal surface would have K > 0 at some
point, contradicting Exerdse 9.4.
9.6 By the solution of Exerdse 7.2, the helicoid 0'(u, v) = (v cos u, v sin u, >.u)
has E = >.2 + v 2 , F = O,G = I ,L = O,M = >./(>.2 + V 2)1/2,N = 0, so
H = LG- 2MF+NG = 0
2(EG - F2) .
9.7 A straightforward calculation shows that the first and second fundamental
forms of O't are cosh'' u( du 2 + dv 2 ) and - cos t du 2 - 2 sin t dudv + cos t dv 2 ,
respectively, so
2 2
H = - cos t cosh U + cos t cosh U = O.
2cosh4 u
9.8 From Example 4.10, the cylinder can be parametrised by O'(u, v) = 'Y(u) +
va , where 'Y is unit-speed, 11 a 11 = 1 and 'Y is contained in aplane II
perpendicular to a. We have O'u = 'Y = t (a dot denoting d/du), a; = a,
so E = 1, F = 0, G = 1; N = t x a , O'uu = i = xn, O'uv = O'vv = 0, so
L = Kn.(t x a) , M = N = O. Now t x a is a unit vector parallel to II
and perpendicular to t, hence parallel to n; so L = ±K and H = ±K/2.
SO H = 0 ~ K = 0 ~ 'Y is part of a straight line ~ the cylinder is
part of a plane.
9.9 Using Exercise 9.2, the surface is minimal ~
(1 + g'2)j + (1 + p)g" = 0,
where a dot denotes d/dx and a dash denotes d] dy ; hence the stated
equation. Since the left-hand side of this equation depends only on x and
the right-hand side only on y , we must have
j g"
- - . =a, ---=-a
1 + j2 1 + g/2 '
for some constant a. Suppose that a =j:. O. Let r = j ; then j = rdr/df and
the first equation is rdr/ df = a(1 + r 2 ) , which can be integrated to give
!
af = In(1 + r 2 ) , up to adding an arbitary constant (which corresponds
to translating the surface parallel to the z-axis). So df /dx = ±Je2a J - 1,
Solutions 317
which integrates to give f = -~ In cosa(x + b), where b is a constant;

we can assurne that b = 0 by translating the surface parallel to the x-
axis , Similarly, 9 = ~ In cos ay, after translating the surface parallel to the
y-axis. So, up to a translation, we have
_ 1 1 (cosa y
z--n - -) ,
a cosax
which is obtained from Scherk 's surface by the dilation (x, y, z) H
a(x, y, z) . Ir a = 0, then j = 9" = 0 so f = b + cx, 9 = d + ey, for
some constants b, c, d, e, and we have the plane z = b + d + cx + ey.
9.10 The first fundamental form is (cosh v + 1)(cosh v - cos u)(du 2 + dv2 ) , so a
is conformal. By Exercise 7.15, to show that a is minimal we must show
that lT u u + lT v v = 0; but this is so, since
lT u u = (sin u cosh v, cos u cosh v, sin ~ sinh ~),
lT v v = (- sin u cosh v, - cosu cosh v , - sin ~ sinh ~) .
(i) lT(O, v) = (0,1 - cosh v , 0), which is the y-axis . Any straight line is a
geodesic.
(ii) lT( 11", v) = (11", 1 + cosh v, -4 sinh ~), which is a curve in the plane x = 11"
such that
Z2 = 16sinh2 ~ = 8(coshv -1) = 8(y - 2),
i.e, a parabola. The geodesie equations are
d(Eu')
dt = 21E u (u' 2 +v' 2), d(E v')
dt = 21E v (u' 2 +v' 2) ,
where a dot denotes the derivative with respect to the parameter t of the
geodesie and E = (cosh v + 1)(cosh v - cos u). When u = 11", the unit-speed
condi tion is EiJ2 = 1, so iJ = 1/(cosh v + 1). Hence, the first geodesie
equation is 0 = !E
u iJ2, which holds because Eu = sin u(cosh v + 1) = 0
when u = 11"; and the second geodesie equation is
~ (cosh v + 1) = (cosh v + 1) sinh v iJ2 = sinh v b,
which obviously holds.

(iii) lT(u, 0) = (u-sin u, 1-cosu, 0), which is the cycloid ofExercise 1.7 (in
the xy-plane, with a = 1 and with t replaced by u) . The second geodesie
equation is satisfied because E; = sinh v(2 cosh v + 1 - cos u) = 0 when
v = O. Theunit-speedconditionis2(1-cosu)ü2 = l,soü = 1/2sin~. The
1t 1t
first geodesie equation is (4 sin 2 ~ü) = sin uü 2 , i.e, (2 sin ~) = cos ~ü,
which obviously holds .
9.11 >. = a 2 + bc = -(ad - bc) (since d = -a) = - det W = - K.
9.12 (i) From Example 9.1, N = (-sech u cos v, -sech u sin v, tanh u). Hence ,
if N(u,v) = N(U',V '), then u = u' since u ~ tanhu is injective, so
cos v = cos Vi and sin v = sin o" , hence v = Vi; thus, N is injective. If N =
(x , y , z), then x 2 + y2 = sech 2u :p 0, so the image of N does not contain
the poles. Given a point (x, y, z) on the unit sphere with x 2 + y2 :p 0, let
u = ±sech -1 J x 2 + y2, the sign being that of z, and let v be such that
cosv = -x/Jx2 +y2, sinv = -y/Jx 2 +y2 j then, N(u,v) = (x ,y,z).
(ii) By the solution ofExercise 7.2, N = (A2+V2)- 1/ 2( -Asin u, A cos u, -v) .
Since N (u, v) = N (u + 2k7r, v) for all integers k, the infinitely many points
0'(u + 2k1l", v) = 0'(U, v) + (0, 0, 2k1l") of the helicoid all have the same image
under the Gauss map. If N = (x, y, z), then x 2 + y2 = A2/(A2 + v 2) :p 0,
so the image of N does not contain the poles. If (x, y, z) is on the unit
sphere and x 2 + y2 :p 0, let v = -AZ/ Jx 2 + y2 and let u be such that
sinu = -x/Jx 2 +y2, COSU = -y/Jx 2 +y2; then N(u, v) = (x,y,z).
9.13 The plane can be parametrised by O'(u,v) = ub +vc, where {a, b,c} is a
right-handed orthonormal basis of R 3 . Then, tp = O'u - ia; = b - ic . The
conjugate surface corresponds to itp = c + ib; since {a, c, - b} is also a
right-handed orthonormal basis of R 3 , the plane is self-conjugate (up to
a translation).
9.14 tp = (~f(1 - g2), ~ f(1 + g2), fg) ==} itp = (~if(1 - g2), ~if(1 + g2), ifg),
which corresponds to the pair if and g.
9.15 By Example 9.6, tp«() = (sinh (, -i cosh (,1). From the proof of Proposi-
tion 9.7, f = <PI - i<P2 = sinh( - cosh( = -e-C:, 9 = <P3/f = -eC:.
9.16 cp = O'u - ia; = (1 - u 2 + v 2 - 2iuv, 2uv - i(1 - v 2 + u 2 ) , 2u + 2iv) =
(1 - (2, -i(1 + (2), 2() . So the conjugate surface is
Ö'(u, v) = ~e ! (i(1 - (2),1 + (2, 2i() d(
= ~e (i (( - ~) , (+ ~ ,i(2) (up to a translation)

3 3
= (-v + u 2v _ v U + u _ uv 2 -2UV)
3' 3 ' .
Let U = (u - v)/V2, V = (u + v)/V2, Ö'(U, V) = O'(u,v); then,
-
O'(U
,V) = ( -V2
1 (U - V + UV 2 - U 2V + -31 V 3--U
1 3)
3 '
~
V2
(u + V + UV 2 + U 2V - !V3 - !U 3) U 2 - V2) .
3 3 '
Applying the 11"/4 rotation (x,y,z)~(~(x + y), ~(y - x),z)

to Ö'(U, V)
then gives (U - ~U3 + UV2, V - ~ V3 + U 2V, 2
U - V 2), which is En-
neper's surface again.
Solutions 319
9.17 I{) = (t(1- C 4)( 1 - (2) , t(1 - (-4)(1 + (2) , «(1 - (-4)), SO
1 ( (3 -1 (-3) i ( (3 -1 (-3) (2 (-2)
u=~t ( 2 (-3"-( + 3 '2 (+3"+( + 3 ' 2 + 2
= ~t ( -~( - C 1 ) 3 , ~( + C 1)3, ~( + C 1 )2),

up to a translation. Put ( = i, ( = ü+iii. Then, u(u, v) = ü(ü, ii), where
ü(ü , ii) = ~t ( -~ sinh3 ( , ~ cosh" ( ,2 cosh'' ()
= (4sinhüCOSii(COSh 2üsin2ii - ~sinh2ücos2ii),
4 sinh ü sin ii( ~ sinh 2 ü sin 2 ii - cosh 2 Ü cos2 ii),
2(cosh 2 Ü cos2 ii - sinh 2 ü sin 2 ii)) .

9.18 By Example 5.7, 1r(x,y,z) = (u,v,O), where x = 2u/(u 2 +v 2 + l),y =
2v/(u 2 + v 2 + 1), z = (u2 + v 2 - 1)/(u2 + v 2 + 1). If ( = u + iv , then
x+iy = 2(/(1(1 2+1), z = (\(1 2 _ 1)/ (\( 12+ 1). This gives ( = (x+iy)/(I-z).
Hence, identifying (u, v , 0) with u+iv, we have 1r(x, y, z) = (x+iy)/(I-z).
From Eq. (25) , Q() = IgIJ+l (g + g, -i(g - g), Igl 2 - 1), so
g+g+g-g
1r(Q()) = Igl2 + 1 _ (lgl 2 - 1) = g(() .
Chapter 10
10.1 By Corollary 10.2(i),
(0ou ((e>.)u)
K=-2e>'
1 0 ((e>')tI)) =-2e>.(A
~ + ov ~
1 uu+AtltI).
10.2 . (E F) (E F)
By Exercise 5.4, F G = Jt F G J, where J =
(8r!~ !~8r) =
( !tI ~). By Exercise 8.21 , E = 1, F = 0, and we get the stated
?"" ~
--- - -
formulas fo: E ,F,G. Fr~m E - 1 = 2'2a
(~-J), G - 1 = ~ (~-1),
» ra
we get u 2 (E - 1) = v 2 (G - 1). Since E and G are smooth functions of
(u, v), they have Taylor expansions E = L:i+ ' < 2 eijUiV j + o(r 2), G =
L:i+j<2 gijUiVj +o(r2), where o(r k) denotes ter~s such that o(rk)/r k -+
o as r -+ O. Equating coefficients on both sides of u 2 (E -1) = v 2 (G -1)
shows that all the e's and g's are zero except e02 = g20 = k , say. Then,
jj; = 1 + kv 2 + 0(r 2), which implies that G = r 2 + kr" + 0(r 4).
By Corollary 1O.2(ii), K = - Ja
8~'!P . From the first part, .j(j = r +
~ kr3 + 0(r 3), hence K = -3k + 0(1). Taking r = 0 gives K(P) = -3k.
10.3 (i) CR = J;7T 11 Uo 11 d8 = J;7T .j(j dB = J;7T (R - ~K(P)R3 + 0(R3)) dB
= 211" (R - ~K(P)R3 + 0(R 3)).
R 27T
(ii) Since dAq = .j(j drdB, the area AR = Jo J0 .j(j drdB is equal to
R
211" Jo (r - ~K(P)r3 + 0(r 3)) dr = 1I"R2 (1-
Kg')R 2 + 0(R 2)).
Let S be the unit sphere, let P be the north pole, and let (B , cp) be
the usual latitude longitude parametrisation of S. Then, the geodesie
circle with cent re P and radius R is the parallel B = ~ - R , which is an
ordinary circle of radius sin R, so that CR = 211" sin R; since 211" sin R =
211"(R - ~R3 + 0(R 3)) and K = 1, this agrees with the formula in (i).
Similarly,
27T
AR= r ["/2 COSBdBdCP=211"(I-cOSR)=211"(~2 _~: +0(R4)),
Jo J7T/2 -R
in agreement with the formula in (ii).
10.4 (i) Let s be the arc-length of 'Y, so that ds/dB = A, and denote dl ds by
a dot. The first of the geodesie equations «2) in Chapter 8) applied to
'Y gives r = ~GrÖ2 . Since r = !(B) , this gives
1
A AI'
(1)' 1
= 2A2Gr.
This simplifies to give the stated equation.

(ii) Since Ur and-j are unit vectors, cos1/J = ur.'Y = ±Ur.(f'ur + uo) =
I'/A. Also, Ur X 'Y = ±(ur X uo) = VfN , so sin1/J = .j(j/A. Hence ,
( ~ ) 1 = -1/J' sin 1/J = - ~ 1/J/,

1/J' = _ _
1
.j(j
(I" _f'A')
A
= __1_8G = _ 8.j(j
2.j(j 8r 8r .
(iii) Using the formula for K in Corollary 1O.2(ii) and the expression for
the first fundamental form of U in Exercise 8.21, we get
r t'" __1_8 vp VGdrdB

J!
LA 2
KdAq =
Jo Jo .j(j 8r
l
A BC
8.j(j I ) dB.
l
LA LA
8.j(j r=f(O)
= - -- dB =
('
1/J +- -
o 8r 0 8r
r=O r=O
Solutions 321
= r + o(r) so ßJG/ßr = 1 at r = O. Hence,

By Exercise 10.2, JG
J'(
lABe
KdAa = 1/7(LA) - 1/7(0) + LA = LC - (11" - LB) + LA
= LA + LB + LC - 11".
,p(L A )
,p(O)
10.5 By Exercise 5.7, generalised cylinders and cones are isometrie to a plane .
Hence, if the sphere were isometrie to a generalised cylinder or cone, the
sphere would be isometrie to a plane, sinee eomposites of isometries are
isometries. This eontradiets Proposition 10.l.
10.6 With the notation of Example 4.9 we have, on the median circle t = 0,
a t = (- sin ~ eos (}, - sin ~ sin (}, eos ~) , o U = (- sin (}, eos (}, 0), henee E =
1,F = O,G = 1 and N = (-eos~eos(},-sin~sin(},-sin~); qtt = 0,
a tU = (- ~ eos ~ cos (} + sin ~ sin (}, - ~ eos ~ sin (} - sin ~ eos (}, - ~ sin ~) ,
from whieh L = 0, M = ~. Henee, K = (LN - M2)/(EG - F 2) = -1/4.
Since K :f 0, the Theorema Egregium implies that the Möbius band is
not isometrie to a plane.
10.7 The first fundamental forms of a and iT are found to be (1+ ~ )du2+u 2dv 2
and du2 + (u 2 + 1)dv2, respectively. Since these are different, the map
q(u,v) I-t iT(u, v) is not an isometry. Nevertheless, by Corollary 1O.2(ii),
the gaussian curvatures are equal:
K=K= 2~(:U(~))=-(1+lU2)2.
If q( u, v) I-t iT( ü, v) is an isometry, the Theorema Egregium tells us
that -1/(1 + U2)2 = -1/(1 + Ü 2)2, so Ü = ±u; let v = f(u, v). The
first fundamental form of iT(±u, f(u, v)) is (1 + (1 + u2)f~)du2 + 2(1 +
u 2) fufv dudv + (1+u 2)f;dv2j this is equal to the first fundamental form of
° °
q(u,v) <==> 1+(1+u2)f~ = 1+ 1/u 2, fufv = and (1+u 2)f; = u 2. The
middle equation gives fu = or fv = 0, but these are both impossible
by the other two equations. Henee, the isometry does not exist.
10.8 For the eatenoid q(u,v) = (eoshueosv,eoshusinv,u), the first funda-
mental form is cosh'' u(du 2 + dv 2) (Exercise 5.8) and the gaussian curva-
ture is K = -seeh4u (Exercise 7.2). If q(u, v) I-t q(ü, v) is an isometry,
then sech 4u = sech4ü, so Ü = ±Uj reflecting in the plane z = 0 changes

U to -U, so assume that the sign is +. Let ii = f(u , v); the first funda-
mental form of O'(±u, f(u , v)) is (cosh'' U + f~)du2 + 2fufv cosh 2 ududv +
f; cosh" udv 2j hence, cosh'' u = cosh'' U + f~ , fufv = 0 and f; cosh 2 u =
cosh 2 U , so I« = 0, fv = ±1. Thus, f = ±v + Q , where Q is a constant; if
the sign is +, we have a rotation by Q about the z-axis: if the sign is -
we have arefleetion in the plane containing the z-axis, making an angle
Q/2 wit h the xz -plane.
10.9 W
2
0)
= -Tl-1 Tu = - (cos0 V 1 -1 ( - cos? 0
V 0)
-1 = I , so Nu = O'u,
N, = O'v' Thus, N = O'-a, where a is a constant vector. Hence, 11 O'-a 11
= 1, showing that the surface is part of the sphere of radius 1 and cent re
a . The standard latitude longitude parametrisation of the unit sphere has
first and second fundamental forms both given by du 2 + cos2 vdv 2, so the
parametrisation O'(v , u) has the given first and second fundamental forms
(the second fundamental form changes sign because 0' v X 0' u = -0' u X 0' v).
10.10 r i2 = sin u cos u and the other Christoffel symbols are zero; the second
Codazzi-Mainardi equation is not satisfied.
'10.11 The Christoffel symbols are rl1 = E u/2E , rrl = -Ev/2G, rl2 =
E v/2E , rr2 = Gu/2G , Fi2 = -Gu/2E, ri2 = Gv/2G . The first Codazzi-
Mainardi equation is
= LE (-E v ) (L
+ N)
v
L; 2E - N 2G = 2"1 E; E G '
and similarly for the other equation. Finally,
(~d v
s;
= 2E (L
E + N) LEv e, (N L) e ; (
G - E2 = 2E G - E = 2E ~2 - ~d ,
and similarly for (~2)u'
10.12 Arguing as in the proof of Theorem 10.4, we suppose that J attains
it s maximum value > 0 at some point P of S contained in a patch
0' of S . We can assume that the principal curvatures ~1 and ~2 of 0'
satisfy ~1 > ~2 > 0 everywhere. Since H = H~l + ~2), ~1 > Hand
J = 4(~1 - H)2. Thus, J increases with ~1 when ~1 > H, so ~1 must
have a maximum at P, and then ~2 = 2H - ~1 has a minimum there.
By Lemma 10.2, K ::; 0 at P , contradicting the assumption that K > 0
everywhere.
Solutions 323
Chapter 11
11.1 If 'Y is a simple closed geodesic , Theorem 11.1 gives JJ;nt('Y ) KdA = 271";
since K ~ 0, this is impossible. The parallels of a cylinder are not t he
images under a surface patch a : U -t R 3 of a simple closed curve 1r in
the plane such that int(1r) is contained in U. Note that the whole cylinder
can actually be covered by a single patch (see Exercise 4.2) in which U
is an annulus, but that the parallels correspond to circles going 'around
the hole' in the annulus.
11.2 By Proposition 2.2, "-s = dcp/ds, where cp is the angle through which a
fixed unit vector must be rotated anti-clockwise to bring it into coinci-
dence with the unit tangent vector of 'Y. So
l ('Y)
l
ll('Y) dcp
"-s ds = -d ds = 271",
o 0 s
by the Umlaufsatz.
11.3 By Corollary 11.1, the interior angles 01, • . . , On of the polygon satisfy
t Oi
i=l
= (n - 2)71" + f'Jint('Y)
~ KdAu.
Since 0 < 0 i < 271" for all i , the left-hand side is > 0; since K < 0, we have
(n - 2)71" > 0 and hence n ;::: 3; and if n = 3, t hen JJ;nt('Y)(- K)dAu < 71"
so
r dAu s f'Jint('Y)
f'Jint('Y) r (-K)dAu < 71".
11.4 The parallel u = U1 is the curve 'Yl (v) = (f(ud cos v, f(U1) sin v , g(Ul));
if s is the arc-length of "Y1 ' dsf d» = /(ut}. Denote d/ds by a dot and
d/du by a dash. Then, "I = (-sinv,cosv,O),;Y = - !(~tl(cosv,sin v ,O) ,
and the unit normal of the surface is N = (-g' cos V, -s' sin v , /,) . This
gives the geodesie curvature of "Y as "-g = ;Y.(N x "I) = ~(<::8 . Since
f('Y1) = 271"f(ud , Jol("Yl) "-gds = 271"/'(Ul) . Similarly for 'Y2' By Example
7.2, K = -1"//, so
'f r
JR KdAu = Jor r r
JUl - j f dudv = 21l'(f'(ud - f'(U2))'
Hence ,
r:
J0 "-g ds - J
r 0
l
('Y2)
"-g ds =
f'JRrK dAu.
This equation is the result of applying Theorem 11.2 to the following
curvilinear polygon,
where AB is part of the meridian v = 0 (or v = 211"); the integrals of

K g along AB and along BA cancel out . (Strictly speaking, this curve
is not a curvilinear polygon in the sense of Definition 11.2 - condition
(i) is violated - but this difficulty can be circumvented by replacing the
double path AB and BA by two meridians v = e and v = 211" - € and
then letting e tend to zero.)
11.5 3F = 2E because each face has 3 edges and each edge is an edge of 2
faces. From X = V -E+F , we get X = V -E+~E, so E = 3(V -X) . Since
each edge has 2 vertices and two edges cannot intersect in more than one
vertex, E S; ! V(V -l)j hence, 3(V - X) S; ! V(V -1), which is equivalent
to V 2 -7V + 6X ~ O. The roots of the quadratic are! (7 ± J49 - 7X), so
t
V S; ! (7- J49 - 7X) or V ~ (7 + J49 - 7X) . Since X = 2,0, - 2, .. .,
the first condition gives V S; 3, which would allow only one triangle;
hence, the second condition must hold.
11.6 The n triangles have 3n vertices , but each vertex is counted r times as
it is a vertex of r triangles, so V = 3n/rj similarly, E = 3n/2. Then,
V - E + F = 2 gives 6/r - 4/n = 1. This implies 6/r > 1, so r < 6.
Triangulations for r = 3,4 and 5 can be obtained by 'inflating' a regular
tetrahedron, octahedron and icosahedron, respectively.
tetrahedron octahedron icosahedron

Solutions 325
11.7 H such curves exist they would give a triangulation of the sphere with 5
vertices and 5 x 4/2 = 10 edges , hence 2 + 10 - 5 = 7 polygons. Since each
edge is an edge of two polygons and each polygon has at least 3 edges,
3F ~ 2E j but 3 x 7 > 2 x 10. H curves satisfying the same conditions
exist in the plane, applying the inverse of the stereographic projection
map of Example 5.7 would give curves satisfying the conditions on the
sphere, which we have shown is impossible.
11.8 Such a collection of curves would give a triangulation of the sphere with
V = 6, E = 9, and hence F = 5. The total number of edges of all the
polygons in the triangulation is 2E = 18. Since exactly 3 edges meet at
each vertex, going around each polygon once counts each edge 3 times,
so there should be 18/3 = 6 polygons, not 5.
11.9 By Corollary 11.3, ffs KdA = 411"(1 - g), and by Theorem 11.6, 9 = 1
since S is diffeomorphic to Tl. By Proposition 7.6, K > 0 at some point
of S.
11.10 The ellipsoid is diffeomorphic to the unit sphere by the map (x ,y,x) t-+
(x / a, y / a, z / b), so the genus of the ellipsoid is zero . Hence, Corollary 11.3
gives ffs KdA = 411"(1 - 0) = 411".
Parametrising the ellipsoid by 0'(0, cp) = (a cos 0 cos ip, a cos 0 sin cp, b sin 0)
(cf. the latitude longitude parametrisation of the sphere), the first and
second fundamental forms of 0' are (a2 sin 2 0+b2 cos2 0)d02 +a 2 cos2 Odcp2
and v a2
2
sin 2 ~~b2 cos 2 1J (d0 + cos
20dcp2), respectively. This gives K =
b2/(a 2 sin 2 0+b2 cos2 0)2, dAcr = acosOVa 2 sin 2 0 + b2 cos- OdOdcp; hence ,
/1 1
2"' 1 "./ 2 ab2 cosO dOdcp
s
KdAcr = 0 _". /2 (a sin 2 0 + b2 cos- 0)3/2
2 .
11.11 K > 0 =? ffs KdA > O. By Corollary 11.3, 9 < 1; since 9 is a non-
negative integer, 9 = 0 so S is diffeomorphic to a sphere by Theorem
11.6. The converse is false: for example, a 'cigar tube' is diffeomorphic
to a sphere but K = 0 on the cylindrical part.
11.12 Both surfaces are closed subsets of R 3 , as they are of the form 1-1 (0),
where I : R 3 ~ R is a continuous function (equal to x 2 - y2 + Z4 - 1
and x 2 + y2 + z4 - 1 in the two cases). The surface in (i) is not bounded,
and hence not compact, since it contains the point (1, a 2 , a) for all real
numbers a; that in (ii) is bounded, and hence compact, since X 2+y2+ z4 =
l~-l~x,y,z~1.
The surface in (ii) is obtained by rotating the curve x 2 + z4 = 1 in the
xz-plane around the z-axis:
It is clearly diffeomorphic to the sphere, so X = 2.

11.13 Take the reference tangent vector field to be ( = (1,0), and take the
simple closed curve 'Y(s) = (coss,sins) . At 'Y(s), we have V = (Ci,ß),
where
'ß - {(coss + i sin s)k if k > 0,
Ci + t - ( cos s - t" sm s) - k 1ifk <.0
By de Moivre's theorem, Ci = cos ks, ß = sin ks in both cases . Hence,
the angle t/J between V and ( is equal to ks, and Definition 11.6 shows
that the multiplicity is k.
11.14 If O'(u,v) = ü(ü,v), where (ü,v) M (u ,v) is a reparametrisation map,
- - ß-O'iJ~Ci=Ciäü+
t hen V =CiO'u7 ßO'v=CiO'ü+ - - 8ü ß8u'
8iJ ß- =Ci 8ü ß8v'
8iJ
8v+
Hence, Ci and ß are smooth if Ci and ß are smooth.
Since the components of the vectors 0' u and 0' v are smooth, if V is smooth
so are its components. If the components of V = CiO'v + ßav are smooth,
then V .O'u and V.O'v are smooth functions, hence
G(V.O'u) - F(V .O'v) ß = E(V.O'v) - F(V.O'u)
Ci = EG -F2 ' EG-F2
are smooth functions, so V is smooth.
e,
11.15 If;P is the angle between V and we have ;p - t/J = () (up to multiples
of 271"); so we must show that J;m iJ ds = 0 (a dot denotes d/ds) . This is
not obvious since () is not a weIl defined smooth function of s (although
d()/ds is weIl defined) . However, p = cos() is weIl defined and smooth,
since p = (.e;
11 ( 1111 e
11 · Now, jJ = -Osin(), so we must prove that
Solutions 327
J:('Y) -J--ds
y1- p2
= O. Using Green's theorem, this integral is equal to
r Pu du + Pv dv r 8 ( Pv )
J'Ir VI - p2 = Jint('Ir) 8u VI - p2 -
8 (
8v
Pu
VI _ p2
)
'
where er is the curve in U such that 'Y(s) = O'('Ir(s))j and this Une integral
vanishes because
8 ( Pv ) 8 ( Pu )
8u ~ = 8v VI _ p2
11.16 Let F : S ~ R be a smooth function on a surface S, let P be a point of S,
let 0' and iT be patches of S containing P, say 0'( UO, vo) = iT( üo, vo) = P,
and let I = F 0 0' and i = F 0 iT. Then, iü ~ lu$~ + Iv~, iv =
lu ~~ + Iv~, so if I« = Iv = 0 at (uo, vo), then l« = Iv = 0 at (üo, vo).
Since I« = Iv = 0 at P, we have
s; = t.; (::r + 2/ uv:: :~ + Ivv (:~r,

with similar expressions for iüv and ivv. This gives, in an obvious no-
tation, il = J t1iJ, where J = (i~
8ü
i!)
~
is the jacobian matrix of
the reparametrisation map (ü,v) t-7 (u,v) . Since J is invertible, il is
invertible if 'H is invertible.
Since the matrix 1i is real and symmetrie, it has eigenvectors VI, V2,
with eigenvalues Al , A2, say, such that vfvj = 1 if i = j and 0 if i :j; j .
Then, if v = 0:1 VI + 0:2V2 is any vector, where 0:1,0:2 are scalars, v t1iv =
A10:~ + A20:~ j hence, v t1iv > 0 (resp. < 0) for all v :j; 0 {::::} Al and A2
are both > 0 (resp . both < 0) {::::} P is a local minimum (resp. local
maximum); and hence P is a saddle point {::::} v t1iv can be both > 0
and < 0, depending on the choiee of v. Since J is invertible, a vector
v :j; 0 {::::} v = Jv :j; O; and vtilv = v t J t1iJv = v t1iv. The assertions in
the last sentence of the exercise follow from this.
11.17 (i) Ix = 2x - 2y, I y = - 2x + 8y , so Ix = Iy = 0 at the origin . lxx =
2,lxy = -2,/yy = 8, so 1i = (~2 ~2). 1i is invertible so the origin
is non-degenerate; and the eigenvalues 5 ± v'l3 of 1i are both > 0, so it
is a local minimum.
(ii) Ix = I y = 0 and 1i = (~ ~) at the origin; det1i = -16 < 0, so
the eigenvalues of 1i are of opposite sign and the origin is a saddle point.
(iii) Ix = I y = 0 and 1i = 0 at the origin, whieh is therefore adegenerate
critical point.
11.18 Using the parametrisation u in Exercise 4.10 (with a = 2, b = 1) gives

J(O, ip) = F(u(O, ip)) = (2 + eos 0) eos ip + 3. Then, 10 = - sin 0 eos ip,
°
J<P = -(2 + eosO) sin o; sinee 2 + eosO > 0, J<P = ~ ip = or °
° °
n, and then Je = ~ 0 = or 'Trj so there are four eritical points,
P = (3,0,0), Q = (1,0,0), R = (-1,0,0) and S = (-3,0,0). Next, 'H =
- eos 0 eos ip
( sinOsinip
sin 0 sin ip
-(2 + eosO)eosip
) = (-1° 0) -3
(1 0)
at P =
' 0-1
at Q, = ° 0)1 at
(-1 R, and = (1° 0)
3 at S;
henee, . a loeal
P IS
maximum, Q and R are saddle points, and S is a loeal minimum (all of

which is geometrically obvious).
Index
angle, 106 Codazzi -Mainardi equations, 241, 244,

angular momentum, 185 322
anti-holomorphic, 112, 219 compact, 164
Archimedes's Theorem, 117, 238, 297 conformal, 107-8, 111, 190, 203, 216-7,
arc-length, 7-8, 11, 97 219-21, 296, 307
area, 50, 113-5, 202 connected, 18, 72
- of a geodesie triangle, 119, 237, continuous, 60
256-7, 320-1 convex, 55, 289
- signed, 168 Cornu's spiral, 33
astroid, 3, 6, 281, 285 critical point, 275-8, 280, 327-8
asymptotic curve, 129-30, 150-1, 161, - non-degenerate, 276-8, 280
304 curvature
- constant, 31-2, 41, 44
atlas, 60
- of a curve, 24, 25
- maximal 68
- gaussian, 147, 150, 161-2, 164, 166,
bifurcation, 271
168-9, 207, 219, 225-6, 229, 233, 239,
binormal, 36 245, 248, 268
Catalan's surface, 216, 317 - geodesie, 127, 248, 310, 323
catenary, 9, 283 - mean, 147, 150, 161-2, 201, 307
catenoid, 83, 106, 140, 150, 203, 216, - normal, 127, 130, 137-8, 140, 299-300
219, 223, 227, 240, 296, 300, 303, 318, - principal, 132-3, 137-8, 140, 142-3,
321 148, 150, 162, 164, 244-4, 300, 304,
Cauchy-Riemann equations, 112, 220, 306
296 - signed, 28-30, 34-6, 51, 165, 242, 252
cent re of curvature, 35 curve
Christoffel symbols, 241, 322 - asymptotic, 129-30, 150-1, 161, 304
circular cone, 63, 72, 103, 105, 180, - level, 2, 16, 19, 96
196,313-5 - parallel, 35, 285
circular cylinder, 65, 103, 136, 179-80, - parameter, 107,161,175
252,289 - parametrised, 2, 16, 19, 21
circular helix , 26-7, 39, 104, 115, 287, - plane, 40, 150, 242
296 - smooth, 4, 74, 96
cissoid, 15 - spherical, 6, 45, 287, 298
Clairaut's theorem, 183, 185 curvilinear polygon, 252
closed set, 195 - positively-oriented, 252
329
cyeloid , 6, 35, 282-3 geodesie equations, 176-7, 181, 309,

diffeomorphic, 71 317, 320
diffeomorphism, 71 geodesie patch, 199
- conformal, 107-8, 111, 121, 190 geodesie polar patch, 199
- equiareal, 116, 121, 297 geodesie torsion, 129, 141, 309
dilation, 207, 304 gradient, 275
disc model, 155, 190 graph, 72, 163
double to rus, 274 great cirele, 174,179,299
doubl y ruled, 66, 90, 290, 293 Green's Theorem, 50
Dupin's Theorem, 141 helicoid, 77, 106, 140, 150, 181, 210-1,
edge , 252 216, 219, 223, 227, 239, 292, 296, 300,
ellipsoid, 73, 85, 91, 145, 175, 268, 302, 303,318
308 Henneberg's surface, 227
elliptic cylinder, 86 holomorphic, 112, 219-20, 222
elliptic paraboloid, 85, 93, 126, 129, homeomorphism, 60
143, 294 Hopf's Umlaufsatz, 250-2, 270, 323
elliptic point, 143, 164 hyperbolic cylinder, 86
Enneper's surface, 163, 214, 227 hyperbolic paraboloid, 72-3, 86, 89, 93,
epicyeloid, 6, 282 143,293-4
equiareal, 116, 121, 297 hyperbolic point, 143, 161, 164
Euler number, 260-2, 264-5, 267, 269, hyperboloid
271,324 - of one sheet, 66, 85, 91, 175, 187,
Eule r's Theorem, 137 289, 308
evolute, 35-6, 285 - of two sheets, 85, 91
first fundamental form , 98, 100, 102, hypo cyeloid, 6, 282
108,242 integral curve, 269
Four Vertex Theorem, 56 Inverse Function Theorem, 93-4
Frenet-Serret equations, 41 involute, 35-6, 285
Fresnel's int egrals, 33 isometric, 101, 235, 296
Gauss-Bonnet Theorem, 248, 253, 255, - deformation, 105-6, 216, 296
260 isomet ry, 101, 111, 121, 179, 190, 229,
Gauss equations, 240 238-40, 297, 321-2
Gauss map, 166, 169, 217, 228, 318-9 isoperimet ric inequality, 51, 288
gauss ian curvature, 147, 150, 161-2, jacobian matrix, 93, 100, 126, 160
164, 166, 168-9, 207, 219, 225-6, 229, Jordan Curve Theorem, 48,252
233, 239, 245, 248, 268 Lagrange's Method of Undeterm ined
- constant, 162, 235, 244 Multipliers, 78, 292
Gauss's Lemma, 200, 315 latitude, 61
general helix , 44-5 level curve , 2, 16, 19, 96
generalised cone, 79, 89, 99, 105, 157-8, level surface, 71
239,296 limacon, 20, 51, 57, 289
generalised cylinder, 78, 84, 89, 99, line of curvature, 140-1, 150, 301, 307,
105, 157-8, 168, 174, 180, 216, 239, 309
295-6,309 local maximum, 277-8, 280, 292, 327-8
genus, 258, 265, 325 local min imum, 277-8, 280, 292, 327-8
geodesic, 171, 175, 177-83, 187-96, 217, logarithmic spiral, 7, 8, 14, 34-5, 285
308-15, 317 longitude, 61
- incomplete, 186, 196 loxodrome, 83
- simple elosed, 252, 323 lune , 118
geodesie cirele , 199-200, 237, 320 mean curvature, 147, 150, 161-2, 201,
geodesie coordinates, 199, 235 307
geodesie curvature, 127, 172, 181,248, - constant, 203, 246
310,323 Mercator's projection, 83, 111, 238
Index 331
meridian, 81, 129, 140, 182, 189, 292 ruling, 80, 293, 296
Meusnier's Theorem, 131 saddle point, 277-8, 280, 327-8
Möbius band, 76-7,239-40,321 Scherk's surface, 164, 214, 216, 317
Möbius transformation, 190 second fundamental form , 125-6, 242
monkey saddle, 143 signed unit normal, 28, 51
multiplicity, 269, 274-5, 277, 326 simple closed curve, 47, 247-8, 288
non-euclidean geometry, 154 - area of, 50-1
normal - exterior of, 48
- to a curve, 17 - interior of, 48, 248
- to a surface, 75 - length of, 49, 51
normal curvature, 127, 130, 137-8, 140, - period of 47, 247
299-300 - positively-oriented, 49, 248
normal section, 128, 173 simply-connected, 221
open ball, 60 sink, 271, 273
open disc, 60, 289 smooth
open interval, 2, 60 - curve, 4, 74, 96
open set, 59 - function, 73, 78
osculating circle, 35, 285 - map, 69
parabolic cylinder, 87 - surface, 67, 71
parabolic point, 143, 164 soap films, 202-3
parallel, 81, 129, 140, 182, 189, 252, source, 271, 273
292 speed, 9, 172
parallel curve, 35, 285 spheroid, 190, 311-2
parallel surface, 161-4
standard unit normal, 75, 139
parameter curve, 107, 161, 175
stationary point, 269, 271, 274-5
parametrisation
stereographie projection, 110, 238, 296
- of a curve, 2
- of a surface, 60 surface, 60
parametrised curve , 2, 16, 19, 21 - area of, 113-5
period, 47, 247 - compact, 164, 207, 244, 246, 258,
planar point, 143, 164 260, 268, 271
Plateau's problem, 201 - conjugate, 223, 226-7, 318
principal curvature, 132-3, 137-8, 140, - Hat, 155, 164
142-3, 148, 150, 162, 164, 244-5, 304, - level, 71
306 - minimal, 202, 207-8, 211, 214-7,
principal normal, 36, 175, 298 219-21
principal patch, 156 - of revolution, 81, 89, 125, 129, 140,
principal vector, 133, 137-8, 140, 162, 145, 149, 182-3, 189, 208, 234, 257
300,306 - orientable, 75, 78, 166
profile curve, 81 - parallel, 161-4
pseudosphere, 153-5, 185-6, 190, 235-6, - ruled, 80, 89, 111, 149-50, 156, 164,
257, 304-6, 310-1 211, 304
quadric, 84-7, 89, 293 - smooth 67, 71
quadric cone, 86, 295 - translation, 216, 316
regular, 11, 15, 21 surface patch, 60
regular point, 11, 16 - allowable 68-70
reparametrisation, 10, 69, 100, 126 - regular 67-8
- unit-speed, 12, 13, 172 surface variation, 201-2, 206
reparametrisation map, 10, 69 tangent developable, 103-4, 157-8
right conoid, 83 tangent plane, 75, 292
rigid motion, 30, 42, 100, 150, 207, tangent space, 74
242, 285-6 tangent vector, 4, 5, 51
Rodrigues' formula, 140 tangent vector field, 269, 274, 326
Theorema Egregium, 229, 238, 240, unit sphere, 61, 65, 67-8, 71-2, 135,
242,321 152, 168, 177
third fundamental form, 141, 150, 302 upper half-plane model, 155
torsion, 37-8, 40-1, 44, 151, 175 Utilities problem, 268
torus, 73, 144, 150, 169, 190, 258, 274, vertex
291, 297, 312 - of a curve, 55, 289
tractrix, 153
- of a curvilinear polygon, 252
transition map, 65, 68, 72, 291
triangulation, 259-60, 324-5 Viviani's curve, 6, 45
triply orthogonal system, 90, 92-3, 141, vortex, 271
164,294 Weierstrass's representation, 224,
tube, 115, 175, 297 226-8
twisted cubic, 14 Weingarten matrix, ·139
umbilic, 133, 144-5, 155, 207, 245, 302 Wirtinger's inequality, 52, 54
unit-speed, 9 witch of Agnesi, 6

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Springer Undergraduate Mathematics Series

Other books in this series

Libraryof CongressCataloging-in-Publication Data

1. Geometry,Differential. 1. Title. 11. Series.

ISBN 978-1-85233-152-8 ISBN 978-1-4471-3696-5 (eBook)

12/3830-5 Printed on acid-freepaper SPIN11324355

5. The First Fundamental Form 91

11.4 Singularities of Vector Fields 269

1.1. What is a Curve?

a curve is a set of points, namely

The symbol (0., ß) denotes the open interval

11(t) = t,'2(t) = t 2. To get every point on the parabola we must allow t to

Take the parametrised curve (called an astroicI)

To save space, we often denote d-y/dt by -y(t), ~-y/dt2 by i'(t), etc .

The following result is intuitively clear:

1.1 Is 'Y(t) = (t 2 , t 4 ) a parametrisation of the parabola y = x 2 ?

1.8 Generalise the previous exercise by finding parametrisations of an

11 v 11 = JVf + ... + V~.

This motivates the following definition:

s(t) = r 1/ -y(u) 1/ du.

If s is the arc-Iength of a curve "Y starting at "Y(to), we have

We use the 'product formula' for differentiating dot products of vector-valued

Note that, since 4; has a smooth inverse, 'Y is a reparametrisation of i:

As we remarked in the previous section, the analysis of a curve is simplified

Before we show the relation between regularity and unit-speed reparametri-

We have already seen that (whether or not "1 is regular) s is a differentiable

where u and v are smooth functions of t. Define I : R 2 -+ R by

The main result we want is

du = ± 11 d'Y 11 = ± ds (by Eq. (5)).

;Y(s) = ( (.; + 1) cos (ln ( . ; + 1)),(.; + 1) sin (ln ( . ; + 1))).

This integral cannot be evaluated in terms of familiar functions like logarithms

1.14 Which of the following curves are regular?

and show that

1.4. Level Curves vs. Parametrised Curves

This implies that vertical lines x = constant near x = Xo all intersect e in a

unique point (x, y) near P . In other words, the equation

In this example, lines x = constant just to the left of x = Xo do not meet C

With these assumptions on I, there is a regular parametrised curve 'Y whose

A similar argument can be used to pass from parametrised curves to level

The proof of Theorem 1.2 is similar to that of Theorem 1.1. Let

1.17 State a generalisation of Theorem 1.1 for level curves in R 3 given by

For the remainder 01 this book, we shall speak simply 01 'curues',

a vector) . Unfortunately, however, this depends (in a fairly complicated way)

'Y( s) = (xo + R cos ~, Yo + R sin ~) .

11 "I(s) 11 = J(- sin ~) 2 + (cos~) 2 = 1,

so the curvature of the circle is inversely proportional to its radius.

Of course, since a curve in R 2 can be viewed as a curve in R 3 whose last

Let ;y (with parameter s) be a unit-speed reparametrisation of 'Y, and let us

K, = 11 .y (*)2 - 'Y~* 11 = 11 .y('Y .'Y) - 'Y('Y ..y) 11

If 'Y is a non-regular curve , its curvature is not defined in general. Note,

If (x , y , z) is a point on (the image of) the helix, so that

2.1 Compute the curvature of the following curves :

For the astroid in (iv), show that the curvature tends to 00 as we

2.2. Plane Curves

By Proposition 1.2, i = ;y is perpendieular to t, and hence parallel to Os ' Thus,

The signed curvature has a simple geometrie interpretation:

Note that, even though the angle ip is only determined up to adding an

1'i.s(os.a) =- sin e ~~ (since i = 1'i.sos) ' (5)

n s.a = eos (cp + %) = - sin cp.

'Y(s) = costp(t)dt, sintp(t)dt) .

K, = 11 .y ()2 - 'Y~ 11 = 11 .y('Y .'Y) - 'Y('Y ..y) 11