The Reproductive System

In human beings, while both male and female are responsible for perpetuating the species. It is the female body
that is responsible for nurturing the offspring from conception up to sometime after birth
The Male Reproductive System
Anatomy:
Testes: Produces sperm, the gametes in human males. They also produce the male hormone Testosterone.
They hang outside the body in the scrotum
Seminiferous Tubules: Lined with cells that divide by meiosis to produce Spermatozoa

SPERM starts in the testis into the

epididymis (convoluted tube) and
into the Vas Deferens

A healthy male can produce millions

of spermatozoa everyday between
puberty and old age

GLANDS
- PROSTATE GLAND: Alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids present in the female reproductive system
- SEMINAL VESICLE: Fluid rich sugars that sperm cells use for energy
- BULBOURETHRAL GLAND (COWPERS GLAND): Alkaline fluid that neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the
urethra

EJACULATION
- High pressure in the penis. The sperm pass from the testis to the outside in an Ejaculation

An Average of 3.5 ml of semen is expelled during ejaculation. It normally contains 300 to 400 million sperm cells or
about 5 to 10 million in just one drop

Only a few reaches the egg cell because most of them die due to the acidic environment of the females reproductive
tract

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 - Testis Anatomy

Seminiferous Tubules: Long tubes found in the testes

Epididymis: Wider, convoluted tube. Where inactive spermatozoa are stored

Seminiferous Tubules: Have space in the middle where growing spermatozoa can develop and mature
Leydig Cells : Tissues that nourish and produce the hormone testosterone, which maintains the secondary sexual
characteristics of males

SPERM PRODUCTION
- Affected by the temperature - which is why the testes hands out the body

Acrosome contains a package of enzymes that can digest the outer skin of the egg, thereby allowing the nucleus to
pass into the cell

A collection of mitochondria surrounds the filaments of the tail in the middle part of the spermatozoa. These provides
energy in the form of ATP

Gametogenesis: : Production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of meiosis
Spermatogenesis: Production of sperm
Oogenesis: Production of eggs

The Female Reproductive System

Ovaries: Produces the female gametes

Fallopian Tube (Oviduct): connects each ovary to the top of the uterus
Eggs produces by ovaries pass down this tube
Uterus: A thick-walled structure sealed by the cervix

External Structures

Vagina: Opening bounded by several flaps of tissue called Labia

Clitoris: Sensitive Area
Bladder: Connects to the outside via the urethra in this area as well

Babies develop in the Uterus

Eggs produce in the ovaries and passes down the

fallopian tube toward the uterus

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 - The Ovarian Cycle

The production of human eggs is controlled by hormones. These act on tissues in the ovaries to switch on,
in turn produces hormones that regulate the cycle

Hormones in the brain produces by the pituitary gland causes the Primordial Follicles to develop into
primary follicles. These go through various stages until a mature Graafian Follicle is formed

Graafian Follicle: Contains a mature ovum, it moves to the edge of the ovary where it ruptures to release the
ovum and form a yellow body called the Corpus Luteum
Corpus Luteum: Produces a hormone called Progesterone, which prevents the development of further ova

PHASES: FOLLICULAR - OVULATION - LUTEAL

The Menstrual Cycle

Fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone
Occurs in the uterus to prepare it for implantation
Average cycle lasts for 28 days. Controlled by the changing levels of estrogen and progesterone during the
ovarian cycle

Increased levels of estrogen and progesterone cause the lining of the uterus to thicken and become a
conductive place for a fertilized ovum

If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease, causing the lining of the
uterus to shed, which marks the end of the menstrual cycle. When this happens, blood vessels break, and
bleeding occurs. A mixture of blood and discarded tissues leaves the body through the vagina in the process
called menstruation, which usually occurs 14 days after ovulation.

At the end of the ovarian and menstrual cycles, neither estrogen nor progesterone is being produced. This
signals the
pituitary gland to produce follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), starting the
cycles again

Sexual Intercourse
Preparation for Coitus or Sexual Intercourse
: A man inserts his erect penis into the vagina of a woman. The penis is kept erect by blood that floods into
spongy tissue in the penis at high pressure

Sperm released is mixed with secretions from the seminal vesicles, prostate and Cowper's gland to produce
semen: Mixture of sperm and liquid containing sugar that gives the sperm energy to swim

The walls of the vagina produce secretions that help to lubricate the penis

Intercourse
The man inserts his penis into the woman's vagina. The head of the penis reaches near the cervix, which is
the base of the uterus projecting slightly into the vagina

The male climax (the orgasm) occurs when semen containing sperm is forcefully ejected from the penis into
the vagina. The female climax produces increased secretions from the vagina as well as contractions of the
uterus and vagina.

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 - Human Fertilization

Fertilization must occur high up in the fallopian tube so that the ovum can divide by mitosis before it attaches itself
to the uterus

The sperm must swim up through the uterus to reach this point. Chemical gradients guide the sperm towards the
egg. This must occur within 72 hours of ejaculation, or the sperm will be non- viable

The nucleus from one sperm penetrates the egg and fuses with the egg nucleus to form the first cell of the zygote.
This then divides repeatedly by mitosis to form a pair of cells and then again to form a ball of eight cells
and so on. By the time a 64-cell ball has been formed, it enters the uterus

Contraception "Protection"
Male and Female Condom
Covers all of the technologies that prevent a viable embryo from forming

Tubectomy: Fallopian tubes are cut and tied

Human Development
FERTILIZATION: Unfertilized egg is activated by fusion with sperm in the fallopian tube

CLEAVAGE: Zygote cleaves by mitosis as it moves down the uterus

BLASTULATION: Embryo forms a hollow ball 3 to 6 days after fertilization implanted in the uterus

GASTRULATION: The placenta forms around the two week old embryo

NEURULATION: 3 week old Embryo, 2mm. Develops muscle tissues, vertebra, blood vessels and nervous system

ORGANOGENESIS: 1 month old Embryo is 1/2cm. Forms organs

CONTINUED MORPHOGENESIS: Embryo is 2 months old. Shows miniature limbs as hands, arms, elbows, legs, knees

END OF FIRST TRIMESTER: Fetus is 3 months old. Has complete organs

SECOND TRIMESTER: Heartbeat detected and fine body hairs. 1 foot and approx. 1kg

THIRD TRIMESTER: Fetus reaches 6 - 9 lbs.

Childbirth
Towards the end of the ninth month, the baby's head is pointed towards the lower end of the uterus. When the time
for birth comes, the wall of the uterus starts to contract

At first, the interval between contractions is long, then the contraction becomes more and more frequent, and
slowly, the head of the baby is pushed toward the birth canal or vagina

Shortly after this, the bag of liquid (in which the baby floats inside the uterus) bursts; the liquid gushes out, making
the delivery easier. The baby is finally pushed out of the mother, headfirst

Placenta is removed

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 Endocrine System

The nervous system and endocrine system have the same function — control and regulation of body processes

The body receives information about the environment through the sense organs. The information is relayed by nerves
to the central nervous system where it is processed. The central nervous system sends messages through nerves to the
body organs for appropriate response such as that;

(a) the body's infernal balance or equilibrium and ;

(b) organism survival are insured

Hormones are substances produced by ductless glands. These substances diffuse from the secreting cells through the
walls Of the blood vessels directly into Hormones belong to four classes of chemicals: proteins, amines, peptides, and
steroids

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- Endocrine Glands

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- Endocrine Glands

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 - Hormones

1. Hormones act in very small amounts

An increase or decrease in said amount may result in a body disorder.

An example is the case of thyroxine, which controls; Physical and mental growth and
Metabolic rate or oxidation in the cells.

A vital component of this hormone is iodine. If iodine is lacking in the diet, not enough thyroxine is produced. The
condition is called hypothyroidism. The thyroid gland enlarges in an effort to produce more thyroxine. The result is
simple goiter, which is characterized by the swelling in the front part of the neck.

The opposite condition is hyperthyroidism, where there is more than the normal amount of thyroxine in the blood. The
result is exophthalmic goiter, which is characterized by protruding eyeballs.

2. Hormones are secreted by ductless gland

3. As mentioned earlier, hormones may be proteins, peptides, amines, or steroids.

Only a few endocrine glands produce steroids; the rest produce nonsteroid hormones.

4. Some hormones have many targets

Some hormones affect most issues of the body. Some affect only a few targets. The growth hormone from the pituitary
promotes proteins synthesis and other metabolic functions in practically all tissues. In contrast prolactin also from
pituitary stimulates only milk production in the mammary glands.

5. Some hormones affect other endocrine glands

For instance, the thyroid-stimulating hormone of the pituitary stimulates the thyroid gland, while the
adrenocorticotropic hormone, also of pituitary, stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids.

6. Hormones function closely with the nervous system

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 - Connection of Nervous and Endocrine System

Demonstrated by the relation between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

HYPOTHALAMUS: Made up of nervous tissue and is part of the forebrain. The pituitary gland is just below the hypothalamus

The pituitary gland or hypophysis consists of three lobes: the anterior, the middle and posterior lobes

The anterior and middle lobes are also called Adenohypophysis and is made up of Glandular tissue

The posterior lobe is also called Neurohypophysis. It is an expansion of the hypothalamus and mase up of nervous tissue

The posterior pituitary does not secrete hormones. It simply stores and releases two hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus, which are oxytocin and vasopressin

The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control the activities of other endocrine glands.

Releasing hormones, which makes anterior pituitary secrete its hormones

Inhibiting hormones, which makes the anterior pituitary stop secreting hormones

The hypothalamus is truly the control center of the endocrine system

- It is in the forebrain. It is vital in controlling the glands activity. It sends out both nerve and endocrine signals

Antagonistic Effect of some hormones

Thyroid hormone calcitonin lowers the calcium level in the blood,

Parathyroid hormone raises the blood calcium level

Insulin from the pancreas causes the transformation of blood glucose into liver glycogen, lowering the sugar level.
Glucagon also from pancreas causes the transformation of liver glycogen into blood glucose, raising the blood glucose level.

These two pairs of hormones illustrate opposite or antagonistic effects of some hormones.

how does the body know which to produce and when?

Through the peripheral nervous system, the hypothalamus receives information about the conditions both inside and
outside the body; said conditions are stimuli to which the body must respond.

By sending both nervous signals and glandular signals (through the pituitary gland), the hypothalamus indirectly stimulates
the particular organ(s) to secrete the appropriate hormone in order to address the problem situation or stimulus.

Thus, if stimulus is a high level of blood sugar, the pancreas secrets insulin.

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 - Role of hormones in Homeostasis

A healthy body, like other biological systems, tends to maintain condition it in its internal environment by
continuously adjusting to changes from within and outside the body or system

Homeostasis: State of internal equilibrium as well as the tendency of the body or

system to attain such a dynamic state of internal equilibrium

In a healthy body, homeostasis is possible because the body has efficient control mechanisms that oppose changes in
the internal environment. For instance, the body keeps the following within normal range or level:

Body temperature
Amount of water in the body
Amount of metabolic wastes in the cell
Blood calcium level
Hormones in the blood

The following discussion illustrates how homeostasis involving the sugar level in the blood.
The normal level is about 90 mg of glucose per 100 mL of blood:

Suppose a student plays basketball during the noon break and accidentally misses his lunch what may happen inside
his body as a result?

1. The level of his blood glucose may drop below the normal.
2. The hypothalamus detects the situation and sends out appropriate signals.
3. The pancreas is stimulated to release glucagon directly into the blood.
4. The liver transforms glycogen into glucose and releases it into the blood.
5. The blood glucose level rises to normal; the pancreas stop releasing
glucagon.

Suppose a student chooses for snacks a serving of spaghetti, cake, ice cream, and a bottle of soft drink. What may
result inside her body as a result?

1. The level of her blood glucose may rise beyond normal.

2. The hypothalamus detects the situation and sends out appropriate signals.
3. The pancreas is stimulated to release insulin into the bloodstream.
4. The liver transforms glucose into glycogen and stores it in its tissues, while the muscles and other body tissues can
also take up additional glucose.
5. The blood glucose level goes down to normal; the pancreas stop
releasing extra insulin.

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 The Nervous System

Body is controlled and regulated in two ways

- Through the Nervous system
- Through Hormones

Function of the Nervous System

1. Receives information about our surrounding from the sense organs or receptors by the way of sensory nerves
2. Process information in the brain and in the spinal cord
3. The body reacts or respond to the information through command from the brain or spinal cord by the way of
motor nerves or effectors

Stimuli (Stimulus): Causes an organism to react or respond

Receptor: Cell or organ that perceives a stimulus

Effector: Cell or organ that demonstrates the body's response to action

Divided in to two parts

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Consists of the brain and spinal chord

1. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- Consists of nerves which arise from the brain called Cranial nerves and from the spinal cord are called Spinal
nerves

The sense organs detects the stimulus. Sensory nerves relay the information to the spinal cord and/or brain where it is
processed. The central nervous system sends a command to the proper effector through the motor nerves

Cells that make up the Nervous System

1. Nerve Cells or Neurons
- Transmits messages from one part of the body to another
2. Supporting Cells
- Protects and assists Neurons

Structure and Function

Neuron
consists of;
a. Cell bodies - Contains the nucleus
b. Nerve Fibers
- Dendrites: shorter, thinner, numerous and highly branched
- Axon: longer and thicker with fewer branches

Dendrites release signals toward the cell body

Axon conduct signal away from the cell body either to another neuron or to an effector

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 - Neurons
Neurons differ in the direction of the message and type of impulse they
carry

Sensory Neurons: Carry impulses to the brain or spinal cord

Motor Neurons: Carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles

Associative Neurons (Interneurons): Integrates data from sensory neurons

and relay commands to motor neurons

Neurons appear in bunches; the long fibers of a bunch of neurons bundled together from a nerve

Sensory Nerve: long fibers of a bunch of sensory neurons

Motor Nerve: long fibers of a bunch of motor neurons

Mixed Nerve: Bundle of long fibers of both sensory and motor neurons

Passage of Impulse
Electrical and chemical changes accompany the transmission of a nerve impulse along a neuron

Chemical: Involves the participation of salt ions (Sodium and Potassium) and organic molecules

Electrical: There is electrical charge difference across the cell membrane or plasma membrane
- Cytoplasm (Outside): Negatively charged because it contains dissolves cell proteins and other large organic
molecules
- Fluid (Inside): Positively charges

Opposite charges tend to move toward each other. The cell membrane keeps the opposite charges apart, the
membrane consequently stores electrical energy

Scientists learned that

- More k+ than Na+ diffuse the cell membrane
- There are more Na+ outside the neuron than inside
- There are more k+ inside the neuron than outside
- The k+ (since they are positively charged) leave behind and excess of negative charge ay they diffuse out of
the neuron

Production of a Nerve Signal

1. The Na gates on a particular region on the membrane (near the cell body) open, thereby allowing Na+ to
enter the neuron. This created and electrical event at a specific region of the axon
2. The Na gates closed; the K gates open and allow K+ to diffuse out. At this point, the electrical event at a
region subsides. Next, in the adjacent region of the axon, the Na gates open repeating the step
3. This is followed by the second step during which the electrical event begins to subside. This phenomenon is
repeated from one region of the axon to the next, moving away from the cell body

The fine branches at the end of the axon of one neuron are located close to the dendrites of another neuron.
Between the two neurons is a microscopic place called Synapse. Across the space, the nerve impulse is transmitted
through a substance called Nerve hormone or Neurohormone or Neurotransmitter released by the transmitting
neuron

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 - The Central Nervous System

Processing center. It is where the body interprets the information it has received from outside, analyzes its implication, and
decides what to do in order to maintain equilibrium

The Brain
- Human Brain, weighs about 1kg. Is made up of millions of neurons and a large number of supporting cells. These cells
are wonderfully arranged in an intricate structure that allows the brain to function more efficiently than the best
possible computer
CEREBRUM
CEREBRAL CORTEX: Highly convoluted gray matter consists mostly of cell bodies of around 10 million
neurons. The seat of thinking, reasoning, and imagination

Cerebrum Divisions
The left and the right cerebral hemisphere joined together by a thick band of nerve fibers called
Corpus Callosum

Each hemisphere has four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital

Each Contains association areas used for primary motor and sensory functions like: Seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling

However the two hemisphere function very differently in some wats

Roger Sperry
Nobel Prize Winner

Found that the left hemisphere has associated areas for: Language, logic, and mathematical abilities

The right hemisphere has associated areas for: Spatial Perception, Physical Ability, Artistic Ability, Emotions

Thalamus: Sorts out all information before relaying them to the cerebrum

Hypothalamus: Controls the secretion of many hormones. It regulates blood pressure and responses to needs:
Thirst and hunger, and controls emotions

Midbrain: Relay information to the cerebrum from the sense organs. It coordinates eye reflexes and helps regulate
sleep

Medulla Oblongata and Pons (Hind Brain): Contains sensory and motor neurons between the spinal cord and forebrain
Relays information between the spinal cord and brains. Regulates breathing,
heartbeat, digestion. Coordinates walking and body movements

Spinal cord
Brain is protected by the skull
Spinal cord is protected by the backbone/ Spine/ Vertebral Column

The bones of the vertebral column is gently curved like a double S. This shape allows to acts like a spring and absorb
shock

Reflex Arc (Reflex Action): An act done quickly without thinking

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 - The Peripheral Nervous System
Connects the central nervous system to different organs and glands. Made up of 12 pairs of nerves originating from
the brain (Cranial Nerves) and 31 pairs of nerves originating from the spinal cord (Spinal Nerves)

Divisions
Somatic: Voluntary System; Connects the brain and the spinal cord to the voluntary muscle/skeletal muscle

Autonomic; Involuntary System; Connects the brain and the spinal cord to the involuntary muscles
muscles that are not controlled by internal organs

Each internal organ has two autonomic nerves: Sympathetic nerves and Parasympathetic nerves

Diseases and Disorders

Caused by infections, injury or aging
Common symptoms: Headache, numbness, weakness of muscle, loss of coordination, seizures, back pain

Alzheimer's Disease
Age-related disease, the degeneration of healthy brain tissue.
The condition is characterized by loss of social and intellectual skills that adversely affect daily life.
The symptoms: memory loss, disorientation, and loss of judgement

Since there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease, the best approach to treatment of the disease is to focus on the
patient's quality of life

Cerebral Palsy
Neurological and mental problems .May be caused by infection or damage to the brain before, during or
immediately after birth. The disease is associated with neurological and mental problems
Among the common disabilities resulting from the disease are impaired sensations and intelligence, loss of
balance and paralysis

Epilepsy
A neurological disorder, epilepsy typically causes seizures due to faulty electrical impulses in the brain.
Symptoms: Uncontrollable movements, temporary confusion, and blank staring spells. May cause bodily harm

Methods of treatment for epilepsy may include medication, vagus nerve stimulation and surgery

Multiple Sclerosis
Due to damaged protective myelin sheath surrounding nerves in the brain and the spinal cord
Results to disruption of communication between central nervous system and affected body parts.
Symptoms: Blurred vision, speech defects, unsteady gait and shaky movements of the limbs

In the absence of the existing cure, medication and physical therapy can help lessen the symptoms.

Parkinson's Disease
Affect the basal ganglia of the brain. It is associated with a deficiency in the neurotransmitter dopamine.
Symptoms: Trembling of hands, slowed movements, expressionless and modulated voice, and memory loss.

With no existing cure, treatment that helps control and lessen the symptoms of the disease is in the form of
medication, physical therapy, and surgery in some cases.

Caring for the Nervous System

- Proper nutrition
- Adequate rest and sleep
- Regular exercise
- Plenty of water
- No drug and alcohol abuse, avoid smoking
- Undergo immunization

3rd Quarter Page 14

 Molecular Genetics

Heredity and Variations

Genetics: The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation

Crossing Over; Gene Variation

No Crossing Over

Prophase I Meiosis I Meiosis II

Single Crossing Over

Prophase I Meiosis I Meiosis II

Double Crossing Over

Prophase I Meiosis I Meiosis II

Meiosis: Early Prophase - Mid Prophase I - Late Prophase I - Metaphase I - Anaphase I - Telophase I - Prophase II -
Metaphase II - Anaphase II - Telophase II

Interphase - Meiosis I - Meiosis II

II II XX II II

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 - DNA composition
Double Helix
Protein DNA supercoil

Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Polypeptide; linked together in a long chain

Composed of:

Pentose Sugar Nitrogenous Base

Phosphate Group Adenine
Purines (A - G)
Guanine
Cytosine
Pyrimidines (C - T)
Thymine

James Watson and Francis Crick

- The first scientists to describe the DNA molecule as "Double Helix"

Nitrogenous bases pair up by forming weak hydrogen bonds between them

The two complementary base pairs are adenine with thymine (A - T) and guanine with cytosine (C - G)

The bond connecting the pentose sugar and the phosphate group is known to be Phosphodiester Bond

DNA as Genetic Material

A gene is a short segment of the DNA which could be 3000 base pair long

Genes control the expression of inherited characters

Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics

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 - Molecular Genetics

DNA REPLICATION DNA to DNA

In the nucleolus of the cell, there is your DNA with other nucleotides that are freely floating

The hydrogen bond between the two DNA strands break as enzymes unwind and unzip the molecule

DNA helicase is the enzyme responsible for this

New nucleotides, always present in the nucleus fit into place beside each old strand by the process of
complementary pairing

These nucleotides become joined by an enzyme called DNA Polymerase

When the process it finished, two complete DNA molecules are present, identical to each other and to
the original molecule

This is known to be the semi-conservative replication

TRANSCRIPTION DNA to RNA

In the nucleolus of the cell, there are freely floating RNAs

They find their complementary bases in a DNA chain

Enzymes and ATP break hydrogen bond, DNA chains separate

RNA TRANSLATION RNA to Proteins

There are many types of tRNA. Each type transfers one particular amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain

When messenger RNA (mRNA) enters the ribosome, tRNA anticodons on the tRNA molecule recognize and bind
to the appropriate codon on an mRNA molecule, bringing the correct amino acid into sequence for the formation
of the polypeptide chain

DNA; ATG GTA GCT AAC CTT -> TAC CAT CGA TTG GAA

mRNA -> tRNA; AUG GUA GCU AAC CUU -> UAC CAU CGA UUG GAA

AUG Met
GUA Val
GCU Ala
AAC Asn
CUU Leu

3rd Quarter Page 17

 Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics and Mutation
DNA RNA
Genetic material Protein synthesis

Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar

Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil

Double-stranded Single-stranded

Helical form Linear form

Central Dogma
First proposed by Francis Crick (1958)
: The sequence involved in the expression of hereditary
characteristics is;
DNA -> RNA -> Proteins

Central Dogma three major players

: DNA, RNA, Protein
: It involves the process of : DNA replication, transcription, Translation and Protein Synthesis
: It forms the basis of storage, transmission and expression of hereditary information

DNA Replication
Part of DNA Synthesis
Process of Duplication

SEMICONSERVATIVE; Old strands serve as templates

SEMIDISCONTINOUS; New strands formed by fragments (Okazaki Fragment)

RNA Transcription
DNA is transferred to RNA
DNA sequence is copied by mRNA to tRNA
Significant difference is Uracil

RNA Translation
It is the process of translating RNA message (from mRNA) into proteins with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA)
This uses an mRNA sequence as a template to guide the synthesis of a chain of amino acids that forms proteins
Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where the ribosomes are located

1. Initiation - A ribosome attaches to the mRNA and starts to code at the Fmet codon (START codon: AUG,)
2. Elongation - tRNA brings the corresponding amino acid to each codon as the ribosome moves down the mRNA
strand.
3. Termination - Reading of the final mRNA codon (STOP codon: UAA, UAG, UGA), which ends the synthesis of the
peptide chain and releases it.

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3rd Quarter Page 19
 - The Genetic Code

Mapping between tri-nucleotide sequences called codons and amino acids

Every triplet of nucleotides in a nucleic acid sequence specifies a single amino acid

Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is the process by which cells build proteins
Proteins are large organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined
together by peptide bonds

Functions of Protein
Act as enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism
Structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton
Cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle.

Protein Structures
Triose Phosphate Isomerase (TPI)

Mutation
Permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene
Mutations in a gene's DNA sequence can alter the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene
Most mutations are neutral or harmless, these are called silent mutations.

However, when mutations affect the composition of a gene, they can cause illness or even death

Due to mistakes that are made when cells copy their DNA before dividing
Can caused by outside mutagenic agents
Mutations that happen in body cells may cause an illness like cancer
Only mutations that happen in germ cells (egg or sperm cells) are passed from parent to offspring. In this case,
the mutation will be in every cell of the offspring

Mutation is a stable, heritable change in the genetic material

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 Mutation

Types of Mutation
Point Mutation/ Single Base Pair Substitution
: One base is incorrectly added during replication
SILENT MUTATION: base of the mRNA was replaced by a different base but the proteins are still the same

MISSENSE MUTATION: base of the mRNA was replaced and the protein could be different
i.e. Albinism, Sickle Cell Anemia ( Dramatic malfunction due to change in a single nucleotide in the DNA

NONSENSE MUTATION: Amino acid codon become the stop codon

Frameshift Mutation
: Changes that cause a shift in the way the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule is read. The
alteration of the reading frame;
BY INSERTION: One or extra nucleotides were inserted. Duplication, Inversion, Translocation
i.e. Beta-thalassemia (Disorder of the hemoglobin Synthesis)

BY DELETION: One or more nucleotides is skipped

i.e. Cystic Fibrosis (Buildup of thick, sticky mucus that can damage the organs)

Causes of Mutation
1. Spontaneous Mutation
- Mutation resulting from errors during DNA replication or recombination

2. Mutagens
- The most common physical mutagen is high-energy radiation (e.g. X-ray, UV light)
- Chemical mutagens vary from heavy metals, caffeine, nicotine, and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

Mutants
Cells or Organisms that carry a changed gene

Application
Pregnancy
Ending Albino Persecution in Africa
Biotechnology

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 Biodiversity and Evolution

Variation
Deviation of structural, functional, or developmental characteristics of an organism from those typical
or standard to the group to which it belongs

Sources of Variation
Mutation
- Changes in the gene may translate to a change in phenotype, trait, or physical expression of a
character

Genetic Recombination
- Changes resulted from crossing over which makes the offspring not exactly identical with only one of
the parent but a combination of the two

Evolution: Natural Selection; Changes in Species Overtime

The Theory of Natural Selection Proposed by Charles Darwin

1. Overproduction
2. Struggle for Existence
3. Variation
4. Survival of the Fittest
5. Heredity

What determines which genes or traits will persist in population

Environmental change
Genetic Change
Directional Selection
Genetic Drift

ADAPTATION Which fits an organism to its environment or wat of life

STRUCTURAL: Change in physical characteristics
BEHAVIORAL: Change in set of activities to ensure survival

Relationship between survival and extinction

Survival of species that already have adaptation to the new set of environment
Out migration of non-adapted species to another place with conditions they can tolerate
Extinction of non-adapted species that cannot immigrate if their distribution is limited

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