The

BRITISH JOURNAL
OF R A D I O L O G Y FOUNDED 1896

VOL. XXII MAY 1949 No. 257

OBSERVATIONS ON THE I O N I Z A T I O N PRODUCED BY H I G H -

VOLTAGE R A D I A T I O N IN M O U L D E D I O N I Z A T I O N CHAMBERS
W I T H WALLS OF VARIOUS EFFECTIVE A T O M I C NUMBERS*
By SAMIRA M. ALY, M . S C , Ph.D., and C. W. WILSON, M . S C , Ph.D., F.Inst.P.
Physics Department, Westminster Hospital, London, S.WA

INTRODUCTION effective atomic numbers. It appeared practicable,

A USEFUL method that has been used to therefore, to mould small condenser ionization
* * examine the quality either of primary radiation chambers, identical in all respects except that of
from an X-ray tube or radium source or of the effective atomic number. Pairs of such chambers of
secondary radiation generated by the scattering of a different walls (if one was "air-walled"), seemed
radiation beam within a medium, is that which uses likely to be useful for the simultaneous measurement
the ratio of the ionizations in two chambers with of "depth-dose" and "depth-quality". Before this
walls of different atomic numbers as the index of stage could be reached, however, it was necessary to
quality. One of the chambers is usually "air-walled". study the behaviour of ionization chambers moulded
Mayneord and Clarkson (1939) used the method from various mixtures in order to examine:
very effectively in a study of the quality of the depth 1. If repetition mouldings with the same material
radiations in a water phantom irradiated by X-ray would produce the same ionization with sufficient
beams of various qualities, one chamber being of accuracy for a fixed beam of radiation, and
graphite and the other of graphite with the inner 2. Over what range of wavelengths it might be
wall electroplated with a layer of copper 8JU, thick. satisfactory to use the method for quality determina-
Wilson (1939) used an "air-wall" chamber combined tions and in this respect, whether a mixture of one
with either an elektron metal or copper chamber to particular effective atomic number might be better
examine the quality of the radiations used in the than another.
various forms of radium y-ray therapy. It was also of interest to examine the relation be-
In recent years conducting, thermo-setting resin tween the experimental findings and those that one
(bakelite) has been used {Medical Uses of Radium, might anticipate on existing theoretical grounds.
1941; Wilson, 1944; Lederman, Clarkson, and The purpose of this paper is to give an account of
Mayneord, 1944) for the relatively large scale pro- investigations made for these purposes.
duction of ionization chambers and it seemed pos-
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND APPARATUS
sible, by suitably adjusting the material proportions,
to produce wall materials of various, controlled (a) Sources of Radiation and the Effective Wavelengths
Used
* This paper is an abridged version of material presented Measurements were made with effective wave-
by one of the authors (S.M.A.) to the University of London lengths ranging from 0-013A to 0-50A by means of
as a Ph.D. thesis. It is published with the permission of that
university. the following sources of radiation:
243
VOL. XXII, No. 257
S. M. Aly and C. W. Wilson
(i) A 4 gm. radium unit (Flint and Wilson, wavelength as determined from the half-value layer
1938) which provided radiation of 0-013A was in agreement with that determined from the
effective wavelength. spectral distribution curve (see Table I).
(ii) The St. Bartholomew's Hospital constant
potential, continuously evacuated, one mil- TABLE I
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EFFECTIVE WAVELENGTHS (Xe)
lion volt tube (Phillips and Innes, 1944) DEDUCED FROM HALF-VALUE-LAYERS AND THOSE DEDUCED
which provided effective wavelengths of 0-041 FROM THE SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION CURVES
and 0-060A.*
(iii) A Victor Maximar (220 kVP) tube which, Xe Xe
with suitable filters, provided effective wave- deduced deduced
Ex- Filter additional from from
lengths from about 0-082 to 0-10A. citing to that of H.V.L. H.V.L. Spectral
(iv) A Westinghouse tube excited by a Villard kVP the tube A Distribu-
tion
circuit (200 kVP) provided for measurements A
in the region of 0-10 to 0-30A.
(v) A medium kilo voltage set (60-110 kVP) was 90 2 mm.Al 0-075 mm.Cu 0-405 0-417
used for qualities in the range of 0-30 to
150 Zero 5-0 mm.Al 0-288 0-287
0-50A.
170 Zero 6-0 mm.Al 0-269 0-256

220 0-5 mm.Cul 1 -14 mm.Cu 0-143 0-142

1-- 9OkVp; 2wn Al ateei filer 1-0 mm.Al
2<-l50WVp;No A&i f i l
220 0-5 mm.Cu + 2-59 mm.Cu 0-098 0-101
0-66 mm.Sn +
1 mm.Al
220 0-5 mm.Cu + 3-09 mm.Cu 0-088 0-086
l-74mm.Sn +
1 mm.Al

The spectral distributions for the various beams

U12
were deduced from absorption curves measured in
t Al or Cu for the 90, 150, and 170 kVP radiations
f
LU
and in Cu or Sn for the 220 kVP radiations using
the method developed by Silberstein (1933) and
extended by Jones (1940) and Greening (1947). The
results thus obtained are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2.
To compute the effective wavelength corresponding
0 01 0-2 0-3 0-4- 05 to one of these curves it was divided up into a large
A IN A-» number of narrow strips of width dX and area A
FIG. 1. where A=Ix.dx, 7A being the intensity correspond-
ing to a wavelength A. The effective wavelength was
The effective wavelengths of the various X-ray SAX
then taken as where A is the mean wavelength
beams were determined from their half-value-layers
using the.data compiled by Greening (1947). This of each strip. Allowance was made for the charac-
procedure was decided upon after a more detailed teristic radiation present, the amount of which was
study had been made of the complete spectral dis- deduced by the method proposed by Greening
tribution of a number of beams in the range of (1947).
effective wavelengths to be used. It was found that, The absorption curves were obtained with a
to a sufficient accuracy for our purposes, the effective Siemens dosage-rate meter using a diaphragm
system such that the beam of radiation just covered
* We are greatly indebted to Mr. G. S. Innes for the use the ionization chamber. The absorbing filters were
of this tube and for his ready co-operation in making these
particular measurements. added across the diaphragm aperture which was
244
 MAY 1949
Observations on Ionization Produced by High- Voltage Radiation in Moulded Ionization Chambers
placed 25 cm. from the tube target and the ioniza- The y radiation from the 4 gm. radium unit,
tion chamber was mounted 20 cm. beyond the dia- which was used as the hardest radiation, had
phragm. A measuring system independent of tube
fluctuations would have been preferred and such a TABLE II
system was used for our later observations; it was not
Xe
available, however, when these measurements were Ex- deduced
made. The above results are, therefore, susceptible citing Filter additional to that H.V.L. from
kVP of the tube H.V.L.
to the errors discussed by Greening (1947). A
In addition to the radiations listed in Table I a
60 Zero 0-7 mm.Al 0-630
series of similar H.V.L. measurements were made 107 4 mm.Al 4-06 mm.Al 0-322
for a number of beams generated at potentials be- 120 0-11 mm.Cu+ 1 mm.Al 0-356 mm.Cu 0-236
120 0-5 mm.Cu + 1 mm.Al 0-591 mm.Cu 0-192
tween 60 and 200 kVP using an intensity comparator 180 0-214 mm.Cu + 1 mm.Al 0-716 mm.Cu 0-177
of the Kemp type (Kemp, 1945) which is described 150 0-5 mm.Cu+1 mm.Al 0-78 mm.Cu 0-172
170 0-5mm.Cu+ 1 mm.Al 0-875 mm.Cu 0-163
later. On this the two ionization chambers were 200 0-5mm.Cu+ 1 mm.Al 1-07 mm.Cu 0-150
moulded "air-wall" chambers of the type to be des- 180 1 -5 mm.Cu + 1 mm.Al 1 -35 mm.Cu 0-137
200 1 • 5 mm.Cu + 1 mm.Al 1-77 mm.Cu 0-120
cribed. A thick lead diaphragm with two circular

•06 08 -10 «. -14- -16 •& 20 -22 -24 -26 -28 -30

FIG. 2. Fio. 3.

holes was used to define the beams falling on the previously been estimated (Wilson, 1939) to have
chambers. The various, known thicknesses of an effective wavelength of 0-013A.
absorber (Al or Cu) were inserted at the diaphragm (b) Measuring apparatus and its calibration
in the beam covering one of the chambers and in Since our purpose was to compare the ionization
each case, the radiation transmitted was directly in chambers identical in every respect except for the
compared with that received by the other chamber. wall material, and since the circuit described by
Thus the recorded transmissions are independent of Kemp (1945 and 1946) is eminently suitable for such
any fluctuations in tube output. The results obtained comparison, this circuit was used. Our apparatus
are listed in Table II. was similar to that described by Kemp in every
Beams were used from the St. Bartholomew's essential except for a small difference in the switch-
Hospital million volt set of two different effective ing arrangements which are an important part of the
wavelengths which were deduced from the H.V.L.'s apparatus. The three highly insulated sets of con-
determined by Mr. G. S. Innes. These were: tacts were separated to break the circuit and isolate
500 kV constant potential; filter 4-1 mm. Fe + condensers and leads by means of three cams
2-5 mm. Al: H.V.L.=5-0 mm. Cu; Ae=0-060A. mounted on a common shaft. The cams were
lOOOkV constant potential; filter 4-1 mm. Fe + operated together by a lever attached to the shaft and
2-5 mm. Al: H.V.L.=6>9 mm. Cu; A =0-04lA. the time of opening of each contact with respect to
245
VOL. XXII, No. 257
S. M. Aly and C. W. Wilson
the others was arranged by the setting of its cam on with two identical "air-wall" chambers on the instru-
the cam shaft.* The complete apparatus with its ment, it was calibrated by mounting both chambers
leads and ionization chambers, but without its H.T. symmetrically with respect to the axis of the X-ray
and L.T. supplies, is illustrated in Fig. 3. As already beam and taking observations of the condenser dial
mentioned, the same apparatus is ideally suitable for setting for balance when one chamber was at various
H.V.L. determinations and was also used for this known distances from the tube, while the other
purpose. chamber was kept at a known fixed position. Know-
To calibrate the instrument for use it was necessary ing the various intensity ratios from the previous
to determine the relation between the dial reading of experiment it was thus possible to determine the
the variable condenser and the ratio of the ionization relation between these and the dial readings for the
currents flowing in the two leads. This was done whole range of the dial. Observations were made
thus on three separate occasions with agreement to
within 1 per cent. The mean values of the readings
are shown graphically in Fig. 4.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SCALE READING ON DIAL-+
FIG. 4. FIG. 5.
Calibration curve of ionization comparator. Construction and mounting of ionization chambers.

using the method described by Kemp (1946) which The chamber potential required for saturation
is based upon the inverse-square law. The validity of current was examined for a fixed, known dose-rate
this law was checked for one of the tubes (No. V) using that chamber and wavelength for which the
specified earlier. A Siemen's dosage-rate meter was greatest ionization currents could be anticipated. In
all subsequent experiments this dose-rate was not
used as a fixed "monitoring" chamber while a
exceeded and at least this chamber potential was
Victoreen r meter was used to measure the dose-rate
used.
at known distances D from the tube filter. It was
The leads from the chambers to the instrument
found that for D values up to 90 cm. a graph of dose-
were "telcothene" metal-screened cables about 4 m.
rate versus ——gave an excellent straight line. Then, long; they were made of exactly equal length and,
therefore, of equal capacity, although this was not an
* We are indebted to Mr. N. H. Pierce, chief technician essential condition since it was not necessary to
in this laboratory, for the design of this switching arrange- interchange the leads. Any slight difference in cable
ment, for the construction of the apparatus and for assistance
with many of the measurements to be described. capacity was accounted for in the calibration. At the
246
 MAY 1949
Observations on Ionization Produced by High- Voltage Radiation in Moulded Ionization Chambers
instrument end all insulation of plugs, etc., was of bunsen burner and the press (a hydraulic jack
amber. suitably modified in the workshop) gave pressures up
(c) The Ionization Chambers to much more than the 2000 lb. per sq. in. used in
The ionization chambers and collecting electrodes the moulding process.
were moulded from mixtures of bakelite resin, pure Details of the construction and mounting of the
ionization chambers are shewn in Fig. 5. The
graphite and either vanadium oxide or cerium oxide.
chamber and electrode are of the same pressed
The mixtures used are listed in Table III along with
material and a guard ring of it was fitted to cover
their theoretical effective atomic numbers Z as cal-
most of the surface of the amber insulator to ensure
culated from Walter's (1927) formula that Z =
2 2 94 that very little of the ionization produced was due to
'^y/Eax Zx ' , where ax is the fractional content of electrons from material other than that being
electrons for each element of atomic number Zx and examined. A length of the connecting cable at the
the U is made for all the elements in the mixture. chamber end was screened with 3 mm. of lead to
In the last column of Table III are listed the minimise the X radiation falling on the polythene
TABLE III
insulation to possibly impair its good insulating
COMPOSITION, EFFECTIVE ATOMIC NUMBERS AND DENSITIES
properties (Farmer, 1945).
OF THE BAKELITE-GRAPHITE MIXTURES

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Mix- Calculated Density The ratio of ionizations in pairs of chambers was
ture Composition in
No. Z gm./c.c. measured for the effective wavelengths previously
specified using three separate pair types. Pair 1 con-
1 100 gm. bakelite 7-64 1-444
20 gm. graphite (Air-walled sisted of a chamber of air-wall mixture number 1
2 gm. Vanadium oxide material) and another of mixture number 2. Pair 2 was of
2 100 gm. bakelite 12-82 1-441
chambers- of mixtures 1 and 3 and pair 3 was of
20 gm. graphite mixtures 1 and 4. In each case observations were
2 gm. Cerium oxide made using two different chambers pressed from the
3 100 gm. bakelite 17-04 1-449 mixture of higher atomic number and the mean of
20 gm. graphite each corresponding pair of observations was the
5-1 gm. Cerium oxide
value finally used. It was found that in general, dif-
4 100 gm. bakelite 20-84 1-463 ferent pressings from the same mixture produced, to
20 gm. graphite
10 gm. Cerium oxide a sufficient accuracy, similar material in so far as its
interaction with X rays was concerned.
To make these observations the chamber pairs
densities of the processed solid material obtained were placed symmetrically in the beam with the
from the various mixtures. These were determined central axes of the chambers perpendicular to the
by weighing and measuring at least three discs central ray. The width of beam was just sufficient to
pressed from each mixture. It is seen that all the cover the chambers.
densities are very closely the same. To a close The results obtained are shewn in Fig. 6 where the
approximation the electron densities are also the measured ratio of ionization R is plotted against
same and equal to 4-64 x 1023 per c.c. effective wavelength for each chamber pair in turn.
The mixtures were prepared for moulding as It is seen that R increases as the wavelength increases
follows. The bakelite resin was ground for about from that of radium y rays up to about 0- 19A. From
eight hours in a ball mill and then sieved through a that point, in each case, R steadily falls with further
60 mesh sieve. The fine bakelite powder so obtained increase in wavelength. In the region where R in-
was mixed with the required amounts of graphite creases with wavelength the rate of increase and the
and metallic oxide and the mixture ground for another maximum R value reached both increase as the
eight hours in the ball mill to ensure good mixing. effective atomic number of the non air-walled
The moulds in which the various parts were chamber increases although, as will be seen later,
moulded were made in the laboratory workshop of these increases are not nearly so great as theory leads
high-tensile steel. Heating was provided by a ring one to expect.
247
VOL. XXII, No. 257
S. M. Aly and C. W. Wilson
THE RELATION BETWEEN R AND WAVELENGTH TO for electrons. This expression takes no account of
BE EXPECTED THEORETICALLY absorption of radiation in the chamber walls.
As it has been shewn previously (Mayneord and With the chambers mounted with respect to the
Clarkson, 1939; Wilson, 1939), it follows from the X-ray beam as they were in our experiments it may
Z-12-84- T
—- WALTEUO921)
VICTOREENUW)

-660

0-1 134
X IN
FIG. 6.
Behaviour of measured ionization ratios R with change of
wavelength of radiation.
Z-764- Z- 17-04-
WALTER (1927) —-WACTER(1927)
VICTOREENimS) VO0REENU943)

0-2. .
X IN A

FIG. 7. FIG. 9.

Bragg-Gray(Gray, 1936) theory of the ionization pro- be shewn that the fraction/ of the radiation trans-
duced in a small air cavity within a medium, that the mitted through the wall is given by:
ratio R of the ionization in two chambers of identical
air volume for a specific wavelength of high voltage = cos 6 sin2 6 • cos e\
.dd
radiation should be given by
er2
(1)where /x, is the total linear absorption coefficient of
S
2
the chamber wall for the radiation being considered
where eaa is the absorption scattering coefficient per and rx and r2 are the internal and external radii
electron, erx and er2 are the electronic photoelectric respectively, of the chamber. Therefore, corrected
absorption coefficients for walls 1 and 2 respectively, for absorption of radiation, equation (1) may be
and St and S2 are the corresponding stopping powers written
248
 MAY 1949
Observaticns on Ionization Produced by High-Voltage Radiation in Moulded Ionization Chambers

R = gC a
* eT2
X
the theoretical effective atomic number Z being used
r
el
S
2 for Z.
More recently Victoreen (1943) reviewed the

J a
2 COS 6 . FV ^ ~sin 0 . dd
absorption data and concluded that the expression

(2) P

J 2
cos 0 dd
represents that data for all elements when suitable
values are chosen for the constants a and f3 provided,
as with Walter's formula, that the wavelength of
for numerator. radiation is less than the K absorption level of the
S1 2Z
The values or( — were found from the results element of atomic weight A. The factor — corrects
for the variation in the number of atoms/gm. due to
published by Gray (1936). In order to evaluate R and
the presence of isotopes.
examine its variation with wavelength the absorption
The constants a and j3 are themselves dependent
on Z and they change at each critical wavelength.
They are expressed by:
aK = aZ2-\-bZ —c
PK = dZ* — eZ+f
where the constants a, b, c, d, e, and /change at each
critical wavelength and on each side of Z = 5 .
For comparison with the er values from Walter's
formula and in order to examine the effect that the
different assumptions of the two formulae have upon
the calculated values of R, we also made calculations
of er with Victoreen's expression, assuming the Z
values deduced from Walter's formula (Table III).
Since Z > 5 the values used for the constants a, b,
c, d, e, a n d / were (Victoreen, 1943)
FIG. 10.
a=0-0000400 </= 0-000380
coefficients eaa, er, and /x for the various materials £=0-00728 <?=0-00152
were evaluated over the required range of wave- c=0-0114 /=2-35
lengths as follows.
The values of er thus calculated by the two
The coefficient eaa was calculated from the Klein-
Nishina (1928) formula. The corresponding formula methods for the various pressed materials over a
was also used for similar calculations of the electronic wavelength range from 0-013 to 0-50A are shown
scattering coefficient ea since this was required for graphically in Figs. 7-10. It may be seen that for the
the evaluation of fx. two materials of lower Z (Z=7-64 and 12-82) the
The coefficient er depends upon the atomic values from Walter's formula are consistently
number of the medium as well as upon the wave- greater than those from Victoreen's expression.*
length of the radiation being absorbed. A number of For Z= 17-04 there is little difference between the
empirical expressions based on experimental data values given by the two formulas and for Z= 20-84
have been suggested for the calculation of er and one
* In a recent paper Greening (1948) has pointed out that
that has been widely used is that of Walter (1927), Walter's formula gives values for air which are considerably
viz., er = 2-64Z 294 A3. This formula was used for greater over the wavelength range 0-1A to 1-oAthan are
those given by Victoreen's expression and also that the latter
calculation of er for the materials listed in Table III, are a better approximation to the measured data.
249
VOL. XXII, No. 257
S. M. Aly and C. W. Wilson
the values from Victoreen's formula are consistently reflect the differences in er already described, but
a little greater than those from Walter's formula. the differences were smaller.*
The values of total linear absorption coefficients [i With the data calculated as described above the
were derived from the electronic coefficients since variation of R with wavelength was calculated from
H=(ea-\-er)nz where nz is the electron density of equation (2) for the chamber pairs with which the
the material. Thus two sets of values were obtained experiments had been done. The results are shown
by using the two series of er values. As is to be in Fig. 11. Also shown in these figures are the
expected, the differences in the two sets of /x values ratio values obtained when no correction is made for
absorption of radiation in the chamber walls, i.e., the
24
values obtained from equation (1). The factors
allowing for absorption were calculated by graphical
integration of the expressions of the form

COS de
using the fx values appropriate to the material and
wavelength for which the calculation was being made.
The curves so obtained, which allow for wall
absorption, are very similar in general characteristics
to those obtained experimentally, but there are
quantitative differences. For wavelengths greater
than about 0-1OA the experimental ratios are less
than the calculated values, the degree of difference
becoming more marked as the wavelength increases.
These differences will be discussed further later.
A feature of the theoretical curves (whichever er
CHAMBERPAIK N ° 3 ( 2 * 2 O 8 4 &.
1 i i i
values are used as basic data) is that the wavelength
for the maximum ratio depends upon the chamber
pair; the wavelength at which this maximum is at-
tained decreases as the Z of the non air-wall chamber
increases. This contrasts with the experimental
results where the maximum in each case occurred at
about the same wavelength (0- 19A); this is a shorter
wavelength than any of those at which the maximum
occurs on the theoretical curves.
CHAMBER PAIR N"2(Z-17-04- U Z Comparison of the curves calculated with and
without allowance for wall absorption shows how this
absorption is responsible for the point of inflexion in
the latter, a point previously made by Gray (1937).

COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

BEHAVIOUR OF THE RATIO R
CHAMBER PMRU<>l(Z=l2-&+ &. Z»T64)
The experimental behaviour of the ratio R with
change in wavelength may be compared with its
theoretical behaviour on the basis of the Bragg-Gray
FIG. 11. theory by plotting, as in Fig. 12, the ratio of the
Theoretical variation of ionization ratio with wavelength.
Rw and Rr are the ratios calculated using er values given by
Walter's and Victoreen's formula respectively, but with no * Tables of these values and of the er values of Figs. 7-10
allowance for absorption of radiation in the chamber walls. are available through the diagrams and data scheme of the
R'w and R'v are the corresponding values when allowance Hospital Physicists' Association (Brit. Journ. Rad, 1947, xx,
is made for wall absorption. 175).
250
 MAY 1949
Observations on Ionization Produced by High-Voltage Radiation in Moulded Ionization Chambers
experimental and theoretical values of R. In Fig. 12, based on er values calculated by Victoreen's formula;
since the necessary conditions of the theory are this probably more nearly fits the facts.
closely fulfilled for radium y radiation, it has been
assumed that the experimental and theoretical values DISCUSSION
will be equal at the 0-013A wavelength, i.e., that at From our experimental observations with dif-
this wavelength the ratio of the two R values is unity. ferent pressed ionization chambers it would seem
On this assumption it is seen from Fig. 12 that for that chambers having specific wall characteristics can
each of the wall materials studied the theoretical and be pressed, which may be reproduced fairly reliably;
experimental values agree up to a wavelength of this is of interest and value in relation to the produc-
about 0-08A. At wavelengths beyond 0-08A the tion of pressed chambers having specific wall
characteristics for the measurement of X rays or
neutrons. Variations from sample to sample, when
they did occur, were greatest for the materials of
08
higher effective atomic number and for the longer
wavelengths. In no case was any difficulty in obtain-
ing sufficient conductivity experienced.
04
In respect of the chamber pair method for the
02. estimation of the quality of primary or scattered X
radiation, our results show that theoretically the
method would seem to be practicable for wave-
CHAMBER PAIR 2.(11 ITO4-&744) lengths shorter than about 0-25A. The experimental
06 observations, however, show that in fact with
06-
chambers such as we have used, the method
would not be satisfactory for wavelengths greater
» 04 than 0-19A because it would be uncertain which of
a 02
the two possible wavelength values a given ratio in-
dicated. The method is, therefore, unsuitable for the
CHAMBERPMRHZ 11-84- &7M-) examination of the quality of the scattered radiations
generated in a light atom medium by beams of 200
06)-
kV X rays as in these cases the secondary radiations
may be expected to contain wavelengths which are
04 WAIT -
greater than 0-19A (Wilson, 1945); some other
method is required for this. The method would
05 -10 •15 2 0 •25 30 -55 -40 45 -50 appear to have its uses, however, for the examination
XIN A -
of the quality of the radiations scattered from harder
FIG. 12.
beams of X rays generated at say between 400 and
Comparison of the experimental and theoretical ionization
ratio values. 1000 kV. For such investigation it is apparent from
Fig. 6 that in order to obtain maximum sensitivity
experimental values are only a fraction of the the effective atomic number of the non air-walled
theoretical values; the degree of difference increases chamber should be the highest used here—perhaps
with wavelength very rapidly up to a wavelength even higher if that proves practicable. If the radia-
between about 0-20 and 0-30A and, thereafter, tions being studied have wavelengths less than
changes only very slowly. The degree of difference 0-08A, our results indicate that it would not be
also increases with increasing effective atomic num- necessary to calibrate the chamber pairs experi-
ber of the non air-walled chamber while the wave- mentally—calculation of the expected ratios should
length at which the maximum divergence is found is be sufficient.
seen to decrease with the effective atomic number of The difference between the experimental and
the non air-walled chamber. theoretical values of R and the variation of the dif-
The divergence between the theory and experi- ference with change in wavelength is undoubtedly
ment is greatest in the case of those theoretical values related to the range of the secondary particles, which
251
 VOL. XXII, No. 257
S. M. Aly and C. W. Wilson
are the ionizing agent, to the origin of the particles Knowing the values of eoa, erv er2 and the ratio
(i.e., to whether they are recoil or photo-electrons) of the experimental and theoretical values of R one
and to the dimensions of the ionization chamber. may thus examine the dependence of / upon wave-
Gray (1937) has suggested that even in the case of an length for the three different chamber pairs. Values
air-wall chamber the theory may only be expected to of/ calculated in this way* are plotted against wave-
hold for linear chamber dimensions of the order of a length in Fig. 13 in which it is seen that/is a fraction
few millimetres for radium y rays and of about 0-1 which has a value of unity for a wavelength in the
mm. for 200 kV X rays. It is difficult to provide an region of 0-08A (and for shorter wavelengths) and
analysis which describes the differences between the which appears to decrease smoothly with increase
theory and experiments in a completely precise of wavelength; the values derived from the results for
fashion, but the following semi-empirical approach the three chamber pairs all appear to fit the one
seems to lead to a reasonable conception of what curve as would be expected if the hypothesis pro-
occurs inside the ionization chambers. posed above is a reasonable explanation of the facts.

1-0 DEDUCED FOR-RMR N" j

O9 + —DEDUCED K)R PMR W Z
*—DEDUCED FOR PAIR N* 5
oe

lot-

fiCM

0-1 0-5 10 2O 3 0 4 0 53 bO 70 80 90 100 lio lio 130 M0 150 itlO TO 180 MO SCO
AIN A- ENERGY OFPHOTOELECTRONS, ekV •*
FIG. 13. FIG. 14.
Variation of the factor / with wavelength A Variation of the factor/with the photo-electron energy.

The theoretical expression (2) for the ratio of Further consideration of the possible physical
ionizations may be re-written as significance of/leads one to anticipate that it should
be related to the range of the photo-electrons, or,
R (theoretical) = gg+« T i + kT2 ~ er\) xF . . . (4) more directly, to their energy. A plot of/ versus the
photo-electron energy corresponding to the wave-
where F is a factor representing the effect of elec- length in question, as shown in Fig. 14, lends support
tronic stopping power and wall absorption. In this to this view; a smooth curve is indicated in which /
expression the factor (er2 - gTjJ may be regarded as has zero value for zero photo-electron energy and
the excess ionizing effect theoretically due to the has a value of unity for photo-electron energies
increase of atomic number of the chamber wall above greater than about 170 ekV. The energy of 170 ekV
that of air. In practice, however, we know that R is corresponds approximately to a range in air of about
smaller than the theory predicts and we may account 66 cm. for the photo-electron.
for this by assuming that the ionizing effect of the On this basis then, one is led to suggest that the
excess (er2 - eTx) actually produced is only a fraction difference between the theoretical and experimental
/ of the full amount. We may then write: findings is due to an incomplete contribution to the
ionization by the photo-electrons from the chambers
R (experimental) = x F . . (5) of atomic number greater than air. If the energy of
the photo-electrons is greater than 170 ekV, i.e., if
so t h a t the q u a n t i t y plotted in Fig. 12, viz., t h e ratio their range in air is greater than about 66 cm., the
of t h e experimental a n d theoretical values can b e contribution they make to the ionization is complete
written:
R (experimental) =/ra-\-erl + / ( g r 2 - erx) ,g * For these calculations we used the eT± and eT2 values
cr J T
derived from Victoreen's (1943) formula since the evidence
^(theoretical) e a re 2 suggests that these are the more reliable.
252
 MAY 1949
Observations on Ionization Produced by High-Voltage Radiation in Moulded Ionization Chambers
and equal to the theoretical amount; as the photo- metallique sert a ajuster le nombre atomique efficace du
materiel de la paroi, et, en outre des chambres a "parois
electron energy falls below this value, the contribu- d'air", d'autres ayant des nombres atomiques efficaces Z
tion that the photoelectrons make to the ionization egaux a 12,84, 17,04 et 20,84 ont ete utilisees. On constata
que la fabrication de ces chambres etait aisee et que les
falls smoothly and progressively. It is apparent that materiaux etaient des conducteurs electriques adequats.
the exact position of the curve of Fig. 14 should Les mesures des pourcentages d'ionisation ont ete faits
avec un dosimetre type Kemp et les calculs des memes
depend upon the dimensions of the ionization quantites bases sur la theorie de Bragg-Gray, en tenant
chambers used and further work with smaller and compte de l'absorption des radiations par les parois de la
chambre. Les valeurs experimentales montrent que la
larger chambers should prove interesting in this "methode des chambres couplees" peut-etre utilisee pour
respect. determiner des radiations de longueur d'onde inferieure
a 0,19 A, et qu'il est souhaitable que la chambre non pourvue
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS de "parois d'air" du couple possede un Z le plus eleve
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support possible, afin d'obtenir le maximum de sensibilite.
given by the British Empire Cancer Campaign to the depart- Les valeurs des pourcentages mesures et calcules con-
ment in which this work was done, and the most valuable cordent jusqu'a une longueur d'onde d'environ 0,08 A;
assistance of Mr. N. H. Pierce, chief technician in the depart- mais, pour les longueurs d'onde plus grandes, il y a une
ment, who was responsible for the design and construction divergence systematique entre la valeur se rapportant a la
of the moulds in which the chambers were pressed, and for longueur d'onde de la radiation et le nombre atomique
the construction of the Kemp type dose-meter. efficace du materiel de la chambre non pourvue de "parois
d'air". Une modification semi-empirique de la theorie de
Bragg-Gray est proposee afin d'expliquer ces resultats,
SUMMARY d'apres laquelle ces resultats seraient dus a une variation
An account is given of some experimental and theoretical dans l'importance de l'ionisation provoquee par les photo-
observations on the ratio of ionizations in pairs of chambers electrons provenant de la paroi de la chambre avec variation
one of which was "air-walled" while the other had a higher de l'energie (c'est-a-dire trajectoire dans l'air) de ces
effective atomic number. The observations were made over a electrons. Pour les energies de photo-electrons superieures
range of wavelengths from that of radium y rays (0-013A) to a environ 170 ekV (soit une trajectoire dans l'air superieure
0-50A. The ionization chambers were moulded from pow- a 66 cm.), la contribution a l'ionisation apportee par les
dered mixtures of bakelite, graphite, and either vanadium photo-electrons semble etre complete; au-dessous de cette
oxide or cerium oxide; the amount of metallic oxide served energie, cette contribution diminue regulierement avec
to adjust the effective atomic number of the wall material l'energie des photo-electrons.
and in addition to "air-wall" chambers, others having effec-
tive atomic numbers Z equal to 12-84, 17-04, and 20-84 were ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
used. It was found that such chambers could be reproduced
satisfactorily and that the materials were adequate electrical Eine experimentelle Untersuchung der relativen Ionisa-
conductors. tion in gepaarten Ionisationskammern wird beschrieben;
Measurements of the ionization ratios were made with a eine der beiden Kammern war mit einer Hiille von "luf-
Kemp type dose-meter and calculations of the same quanti- tahnlicher" Atomnummer versehen, wahrend die der
ties were based on the Bragg-Gray theory, suitable allowance anderen hoheres effektive Atomnummer aufwies. Beobach-
being made for absorption of radiation in the chamber walls. tungen wurden iiber einen Wellenlangenbereich von denen
The experimental values show that the "chamber pair der Radium-y-Strahlen (0.013 A) bis zu 0.50 A angestellt.
method" may be used to determine radiation wavelengths Die Ionisationskammern wurden aus gepulverten Mis-
shorter than 0-19A and that it is desirable that the non "air- chungen von Bakelit, Grafit und entweder Vanadiumoxid
walled" chamber of the pair have the highest practicable Z oder Ceriumoxid hergestellt; der Anteil an Metall wurde so
in order to obtain maximum sensitivity. gewahlt, dass die Atomnummer der Hiille einen bestimmten
Betrag erreichte und beseits "luftahnlichen Hiillen" solche
The measured and calculated ratio values agree up to a von Z gleich 12.84, 17.04 und 20.84 wurden benutzt. Es
wavelength of about 0-08A, but at longer wavelengths there konnte gezeigt werden, dass solche Kammern zufrieden-
is a systematic divergence between the values which is stellend reproduzierbar waren und dass die Materialien
related to the wavelength of radiation and effective atomic ausreichendes elektrisches Leitvermdgen besitzen.
number of the non "air-wall" material. A semi-empiric 1 Messungen der relativen Ionisationen wurden mit einem
modification of the Bragg-Gray theory is proposed in order von Kemp beschriebenen Messinstrument vorgenommen
to explain these results. This suggests that they are due to und dieser Grossen wurden auch nach der Theorie von
variation in the amount of ionization contributed by the Bragg-Gray, unter Beriicksichtigung der Absorption in der
photo-electrons from the chamber wall with variation in the Hiille, berechnet. Die experimentellen Resulta te zeigen,
energy {i.e., range in air) of these electrons. For photo- dass die Methode der gepaarten Kammern zur Bestimmung
electron energies greater than about 170 ekV {i.e., range in air von Wellenlange kiirzer als 0.19 A benutzt werden kann
greater than 66 cm.) the contribution to the ionization by the und dass die beste Empfindlichkeit erreicht wird, wenn die
photo electrons appears to be complete; below this energy schwerere der beiden Kammern den hochstmoglichen
the contribution diminishes regularly with photo-electron Wert von Z aufweist.
energy. Die gemessenen und berechneten Verhaltniswerte stim-
RESUME
men bis zu 0.08 A iiberein, fur grossere Wellenlangen
treten systematische Verschiedenheiten auf, die mit den
Compte-rendu de quelques observations experimentales beniitzten schwereren Kammern und der Wellenlange in
et theoriques sur le pourcentage des ionisations dans des Beziehung stehen. Eine empirische Abanderung der Bragg-
chambres couplees, l'une pourvue de "parois d'air" (air Grayschen Theorie wird vorgeschlagen um diese Resultate
walled), l'autre ayant un nombre atomique efficace plus zu erklaren; diese macht es wahrscheinlich, dass die
eleve. L'observation est faite sur une gamme de longueurs Abweichungen durch Verschiedenheiten im Betrag der
d'onde allant de celle des rayons y du radium (0,013 A) Ionisation die durch sekundare, aus der Hiille stammenden,
k 0,50 A. Les chambres d'ionisation sont fabriquees avec Elektronen von verschiedener Energie (d.h. Reichweite in
des melanges de poudre de bakelite, de graphite et soit Luft) hervorgerufen werden. Lichtelektronen von grosserer
d'oxyde de vanadium, soit d'oxyde de cerium; l'oxyde Energie als etwa 170 keV (d.h. Reichweite in Luft grosser
253
VOL. XXII, No. 257
S. M. Aly and C. W. Wilson
als 66 cm) targen vollstandig zur Ionisation bei; fur gerin- una modificacion semi-empfrica de la teoria de Bragg-Gray
gere Energien fallt der Beitrag mit der Energie der Elek- con el fin de explicar estos resultados que sugiere son
tronen. debidos a variacion en la cantidad de ionizacion que contri-
buyen los foto-electrones desde la pared de la camara con
RESUMEN variacion en la energfa (e.d. orden en el aire) de dichos
Se hace un relato de ciertas observaciones experimentales electrones. Para energias de foto-electrones mayores que
y tedricas sobre la proporcion de ionizaciones en pares de unos 170 ekV (e.d. orden en el aire superior a 66 cm.) la
camaras una de las cuales tenia "paredes de aire" en tanto contribucion de los fotoelectrones a la ionizacion parece ser
que la otra tenia un numero atomico efectivo mas elevado. completa; por debajo de esta energfa la contribucion dis-
Las observaciones se llevaron a cabo en una serie de longi- minuye regularmente con la energia foto-electronica.
tudes deo onda desde la de los rayos y de radium (.013 A)
a 0.50 A. Las camaras de ionizacion se moldearon con REFERENCES
mezclas en polvo de bakelita, grafito, y oxido de vanadio u
oxido de cerio; la cantidad de oxido metalico sirvio para CLARKSON, J. R., and MAYNEORD, W. V., Brit.Journ. Rad.,
ajustar el numero atomico efectivo del material de la pared 1939, xii, 168.
y ademas de camaras de "paredes de aire", se usaron otras FARMER, F. T., Brit.Journ. Rad., 1945, xviii, 148.
con numeros atomicos efectivos Z iguales a 12.84, 17.04, FLINT, H. T., and WILSON, C. W., Brit. Journ. Rad.,
y 20.84. Se vio que estas Camaras podian reproducirse satis- 1938, xi, 112.
factoriamente y que los materiales eran conductores electricos GRAY, L. H., Proc. Roy. Soc. A., 1929, cxxii, 647.
apropiados. GRAY, L. H., Brit.Journ. Rad., 1937, x, 601.
Se hicieron mediciones de las proporciones de ionizacion GREENING, J. R., Brit.Journ. Rad., 1947, xx, 71.
con un dosimetro de tipo Kemp y los calculos de las mismas GREENING, J. R., Brit. Journ. Rad., 1948, xxi, 75.
cantidades se basaron en la teoria de Bragg-Gray, dejando KEMP, L. A. W., Brit.Journ. Rad., 1945, xviii, 107.
el margen adecuado para absorcion de la radiacion en las KEMP, L. A. W., Brit.Journ. Rad., 1946, xix, 233.
paredes de la camara. Las cifras experimentales demuestran KLEIN, O., and NISHINA, Y., Zeit. Phys., 1928, Hi, 852.
que el "metodo de pares de camaras" puede usarse para LEDERMAN, M., CLARKSON, J. R., and MAYNEORD, W. V.,
determinar longitudes de onda de radiacion mas cortas que Brit.Journ. Rad., 1944, xvii, 115.
0.19 A y que es conveniente que la camara sin "paredes de "Medical Uses of Radium", Brit.Journ. Rad., 1941,xiv, 1.
aire" del par de camaras posea el maximo Z practicable con PHILLIPS, R., and INNES, G. S., Supervoltage X-ray
el fin de obtener la maxima sensibilidad. Therapy (H. K. Lewis and Co. Ltd., London, 1944).
Las cifras de proporcion medidas y calculadas estan de SILBERSTEIN, L., Phil. Mag., 1933, xii, 375.
acuerdo hasta una longitud de onda de alrededor de 0.08 A, VICTOREEN, J. A., Journ. App. Phys., 1943, xiv, 95.
pero a longitudes de onda mas largas existe una divergencia WALTER, B., Forts, a.d. Geb. d. Rdntgen, 1927, xxxv, 929.
sistematica entre las cifras que estan en relacion con la WILSON, C. W., Brit. Journ. Rad., 1939, xii, 231.
longitud de onda de radiacion y el numero atomico efectivo WILSON, C. W., Brit. Journ. Rad., 1944, xvii, 86.
del material de la camara sin "pared de aire". Se propone WILSON, C. W., Brit.Journ. Rad., 1945, xviii, 344.

HONORARY ASSOCIATE EDITORSHIP IN RADIOTHERAPY

T " H E resignation of Dr. Frank Ellis from the In discharge of a promise long given, Dr. Ellis
' editorial staff of the Journal has been accepted goes to help with the production of the Journal of
with regret. the Faculty of Radiologists, and we should like to re-
Dr. Ellis, as Honorary Associate Editor in Radio- gard this move as an augury of future happy relations
therapy, has been a most valued colleague, and it is between the two Journals.
a pleasure to record our thanks for the wise counsels We extend a most cordial welcome to Dr. I. G.
he has given us and for the time spent in helping to Williams, whose appointment as Honorary Associate
maintain the standard of the Journal. Editor Council has confirmed.

254