Human Reproduction, Vol.25, No.1 pp.

150–157, 2010
Advanced Access publication on October 19, 2009 doi:10.1093/humrep/dep345

ORIGINAL ARTICLE Psychology and counselling

Children raised in mother-headed

families from infancy: a follow-up
of children of lesbian and single
heterosexual mothers, at early
adulthood
Susan Golombok 1 and Shirlene Badger

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Centre for Family Research, Faculty of Politics, Psychology, Sociology and International Studies, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane,
Cambridge CB2 3RF, UK
1
Correspondence address: Fax: þ44-1223-330574; Email: [email protected]

background: The present investigation constituted the third phase of a longitudinal study of the quality of parent– child relationships
and the psychological adjustment of children in female-headed families with no father present from infancy.
methods: In this study, 27 families headed by single heterosexual mothers (solo mothers) and 20 families headed by lesbian mothers
were compared with 36 two-parent heterosexual families as the child entered adulthood. Data were obtained from mothers and their
young adult children by standardized interviews and questionnaires.
results: The female-headed families were found to be similar to the traditional families on a range of measures of quality of parenting and
young adults’ psychological adjustment. Where differences were identified between family types, these pointed to more positive family
relationships and greater psychological wellbeing among young adults raised in female-headed homes.
conclusions: The findings of this study show that children raised by solo heterosexual mothers or lesbian mothers from infancy con-
tinue to function well as they enter adulthood. The findings are of relevance to the UK Human Fertilisation and Embryology (2008) Act.
Key words: solo mothers / lesbian mothers / parenting / child development

parental separation or divorce. In an examination of four nationally

Introduction representative samples in the USA, McLanahan and Sandefur (1994)
In the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (2008) Act, the clause in showed that adolescents raised by single mothers during some
the original (1990) Act that required licensed clinics to consider the period of their childhood were twice as likely to drop out of high
child’s need for a father in the decision to offer fertility treatment school, twice as likely to have a baby before the age of 20 and one
has been substituted with a clause that simply requires consideration and a half times more likely to be out of work in their late teens or
of the child’s need for supportive parenting. As a result, there is early twenties than those from a similar background who grew up
likely to be a marked increase in the number of children born with two parents at home. Similarly, the National Child Development
through donor insemination to single heterosexual women, single Study in the UK, which has followed up a large general population
lesbian women and lesbian couples. These children will be raised sample of children born in 1958, found that children from single-
without a father from birth. parent families were at greater risk for psychological problems than
Research has consistently shown that children in single-parent a matched group of children from intact families not only in childhood
families are at greater risk for emotional and behavioural problems, (Ferri, 1976) but also in early adulthood (Chase-Lansdale et al., 1995)
and for poor academic achievement, than are children from traditional and middle age (Elliot and Vaitilingam, 2008). Most recently, an inves-
two-parent homes (for reviews see Amato, 2000; Pryor and Rodgers, tigation of single-mother families from the Avon Longitudinal Study of
2001; Coleman and Glenn, in press). However, these studies have Pregnancy and Childhood (ALSPAC), a representative community
largely focused on single-mother families that have resulted from study of 14 000 mothers and their children born in the 1990s in

& The Author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology. All rights reserved.
For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
Children of mother-headed families 151

the UK, also found that children from single-parent families showed perspective of the child, little is known about the psychological conse-
higher levels of psychological disorder than their counterparts from quences of discovering that their father is a sperm donor whom they
two-parent homes (Dunn et al., 1998). Although most epidemiological may never meet. The combination of two non-traditional pathways to
studies of father-absent families have focused on children’s psychologi- parenthood—donor insemination and single motherhood—together
cal adjustment, children’s gender development has also been investi- with the absence of a known father, may place these children at
gated using the ALSPAC sample, with no differences in gender role increased psychological risk.
behaviour identified between children in single-mother families and An alternative way in which mother-headed families can be formed
children in traditional families for either boys or girls (Stevens et al., is when lesbian women become mothers, either singly or with a
2002). This finding contradicts the widely held assumption derived partner. Research on lesbian mother families was initiated in the
from classic psychoanalytic and social learning theories that father- 1970s and concentrated on women who had become mothers
absent boys will be less masculine, and girls less feminine, than their within a heterosexual marriage before making the transition to a
father-present peers. lesbian relationship (Kirkpatrick et al., 1981; Golombok et al., 1983;
A key question that arises from these investigations is whether chil- Green et al., 1986). At that time, previously married lesbian women
dren from single-mother families show poorer psychological adjust- who fought for custody of their children when they divorced were,
ment because of the absence of a father or whether other factors without exception, denied custody on the grounds that this would
are involved. A number of influential factors have been established not be in the best interests of their children. Early investigations
including financial hardship, mothers’ lack of social support and chil- addressed the two main concerns raised in custody disputes; firstly,
dren’s exposure to conflict and hostility between parents before, that children would be teased and bullied by their peers and would

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during and sometimes after separation or divorce (Amato, 2000; develop psychological problems as a result and, secondly, that children
Pryor and Rodgers, 2001). The negative psychological consequences would show atypical gender development, i.e. that boys would be less
for children of parental separation or divorce are mediated to a masculine, and girls less feminine, in their identity and behaviour than
large extent through parenting (Hetherington et al., 1998; Coleman their counterparts from heterosexual homes. A further issue was that
and Glenn, in press). In the study by Dunn et al. (1998), negative feel- children of lesbian mothers may adopt a lesbian or gay identity in
ings towards their child were greater among single mothers than adulthood which was considered to be a negative outcome by
among mothers in two-parent families, and were associated with Courts of Law.
more behavioural problems in children. Other factors that were Regardless of the geographic or demographic characteristics of the
found to contribute to children’s psychological difficulties included samples studied, the findings of the early investigations were strikingly
multiple family transitions, lack of contact with the non-resident consistent (Kirkpatrick et al., 1981; Golombok et al., 1983; Green
father, poor family communication and ongoing conflict between the et al., 1986). Children with lesbian mothers did not show a higher inci-
mother and non-resident father (Dunn, 2008). Children in single- dence of psychological disorder or difficulties in peer relationships than
parent families also experience less discipline and monitoring from children from heterosexual homes, and there was no evidence of
their mother than do children in two-parent families (McLanahan gender identity confusion or atypical gender role behaviour (Patterson,
and Sandefur, 1994), often associated with increased conduct pro- 1992; Golombok, 1999). Individuals raised as children in lesbian
blems (Patterson et al., 1992), and no discipline from their father, families continued to function well in adult life, and the large majority
an aspect of parenting that is often associated with the paternal identified as heterosexual (Golombok and Tasker, 1996; Tasker and
role. The poorer quality of parenting shown by single mothers may Golombok, 1997). The latest wave of studies of children in lesbian
be explained, at least in part, by higher rates of psychological pro- mother families has examined general population samples in the
blems, particularly depression (Dunn et al., 1998). Depression inter- USA (Wainright et al., 2004) and the UK (Golombok et al., 2003).
feres with parents’ emotional availability and sensitivity to their As in earlier investigations, the children were found to be functioning
children and also with their control and discipline of them (Cummings well with no differences in gender-role behaviour between children of
and Davies, 1994), with depressed parents tending either to be very lesbian parents and children of heterosexual parents for either boys or
lenient with their children or very authoritarian, often switching girls. However, these studies focused on children born in the context
between the two (Kochanska et al., 1997). of a heterosexual relationship from which the mother later made the
There has been much controversy about access to assisted repro- transition to a lesbian household, often when the children were
duction by single heterosexual women. Concerns are based on the approaching or had reached school age. To the extent that early
research described above showing negative outcomes in terms of cog- experience influences children’s later psychological development, the
nitive and socio-emotional development for children raised by single findings of these studies cannot be generalized to children conceived
mothers. However, these outcomes cannot necessarily be generalized by donor insemination and raised in lesbian families from birth.
to children born to single mothers by donor insemination. The situ- The aim of the present investigation was to examine the quality of
ation of these mothers is different from that of single mothers who parent–child relationships and the psychological adjustment of chil-
have separated or divorced, or who became pregnant unintentionally, dren in female-headed families with no father present from birth or
in that they are generally financially secure with good social support, early infancy; families headed by single heterosexual mothers (solo
and the children have not been exposed to parental conflict or mothers) and families headed by lesbian mothers were studied in
family disruption (Murray and Golombok, 2005; Jadva et al., sub- comparison with two-parent heterosexual families. Phase I was con-
mitted). Nevertheless, other pressures, such as social stigma, may ducted in early childhood at age 6 (Golombok et al., 1997) and
interfere with parenting in these families, leaving the children vulner- Phase II was conducted in early adolescence at age 12 (Golombok
able to emotional or behavioural problems. Moreover, from the et al., 2004). The absence of a resident father from infancy was not
152 Golombok and Badger

found to have negative consequences for the psychological wellbeing age 48 years). There was no difference between family types with
of the children or for the quality of mother–child relationships, respect to social class as measured by mother’s occupation rated accord-
apart from the children perceiving themselves as less competent and ing to a modified version of the Registrar General’s classification ranging
the mothers reporting more severe disputes with their children at from 1 (professional/managerial) to 4 (partly skilled or unskilled). The
large majority of mothers in each family type were in professional, manage-
adolescence. In fact, the differences identified between the family
rial or skilled non-manual occupations. A significant difference between
types indicated more positive outcomes in mother-headed families;
family types was found for the presence of siblings, X 2 (4) ¼ 29.7, P ,
these children experienced a higher level of interaction with their
0.001, with fewer of the young adults from solo and lesbian mother
mother at ages 6 and 12, and perceived her as more available and families having siblings than those from traditional families. Eleven lesbian
dependable. The lesbian and single heterosexual mother families mothers cohabited with their female partner and two young adults from
were found to be similar to each other with respect to parenting solo mother families had lived with a stepfather since their junior school
and children’s development. The present study focuses on Phase III, years. Due to the small sample of lesbian families, it was not possible to
conducted when the children were entering adulthood at around carry out comparisons according to the number of mothers in the home.
age18, the time at which many young people are entering the work-
force or higher education, leaving home and becoming involved in inti-
mate relationships. Ethical approval was obtained from the University
Measures
of Cambridge Psychology Research Ethics Committee and written Mothers’ interview and questionnaires
informed consent was obtained from mothers and their young adult Mothers were interviewed using an adaptation of a standardized interview
children. designed to assess the quality of parenting (Quinton and Rutter, 1988).

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The biological mother was interviewed in lesbian families as only half of
these families were headed by two parents. Detailed accounts of the
young adult’s behaviour and the mother’s response to it were obtained,
Methods with reference to the young adult’s personality and family relationships.
Information obtained by interview was rated according to a standardized
Participants coding scheme to produce the following variables: expressed warmth was
Phase III involved 27 solo mother families, 20 lesbian mother families and rated on a 6-point scale from 1 (none) to 6 (high) and took account of
36 traditional families (i.e. two-parent heterosexual families), representing the mother’s tone of voice and facial expressions in addition to her
71, 80 and 95%, respectively, of the families assessed at Phase II (see verbal report of her relationship with the young adult; emotional involve-
Table I). Of those who did not participate, around half had died or ment was rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (little or none) to 5 (enmeshed)
could not be traced and the other half declined or did not reply. Only and took into account the extent to which the mother was over-
four of the solo or lesbian mothers actively declined the invitation to concerned or overprotective toward the young adult, and the extent
take part. There were also 20 young adults from solo mother families, to which the mother had interests apart from those relating to her
18 young adults from lesbian mother families and 32 young adults from tra- child; sensitive responding was rated on a 5-point scale from 0 (none) to
ditional families also took part in the study. Of those young people who 4 (very sensitive responding) and represented the mother’s ability to
did not participate, the large majority were overseas at the time of data recognize and respond appropriately to the young adult’s fears and
collection. Three young adults from solo mother families and two young anxieties; supervision was rated on a 5-point scale from 0 (very inadequate)
adults from lesbian mother families were in contact with their father. to 4 (over-supervised) and took account of the mother’s monitoring of the
There were similar proportions of boys and girls in each family type. young adult’s activities; control assessed the degree of maternal control of
However, the age of the young adults differed between groups, F (2, the young adult on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (little or no control,
76) ¼ 14.86, P , 0.001. The young adults from single-mother families mother dominated by child) to 5 (over-controlling, restrictive parenting);
were the oldest (mean age 19.5 years), followed by those from lesbian severity of disputes was rated on a 4-point scale from 0 (no confrontations)
families (mean age 19 years) with those from two-parent heterosexual to 3 (major battles) and assessed the intensity of disputes during conflict
families being the youngest (mean age 18 years). Reflecting this age differ- with the young adult and disciplinary indulgence was rated on a 6-point
ence, significantly more of the young adults from solo and lesbian mother scale from 1 (none) to 6 (indulgent) and assessed the degree of nego-
families than from traditional families had left home X 2 (6) ¼ 20.99, P , tiation between the mother and young adult with regard to control
0.05, with 42% from solo mother families, 32% from lesbian mother issues. In the previous phase of this study conducted in early adolescence,
families and 6% from traditional families having done so. A significant differ- 57 randomly selected interviews were coded by a second interviewer who
ence was also found for mother’s age, F (2, 76) ¼ 5.24, P , 0.01, with the was ‘blind’ to family type (Golombok et al., 2002). Agreement between
lesbian mothers and mothers from traditional families being the oldest raters ranged from 95 to 100% for all the variables used, with non-
(mean age 52 years) and the solo mothers being the youngest (mean agreement defined as a .1-point difference on any scale.

Table I Number of mothers and children participating at each phase of the study

Solo mother families Lesbian mother families Traditional families

............................................ ............................................ ...........................................
Mothers (n) Children (n) Mothers (n) Children (n) Mother (n) Children (n)
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
Phase I—early school age 42 42 30 30 41 41
Phase II—early adolescence 38 37 25 37 38 38
Phase III—early adulthood 27 20 20 18 36 32
Children of mother-headed families 153

In addition to the interview, mothers completed the Parents of Adoles-

cents Separation Anxiety Scale (PASAS) (Hock et al., 2001) to assess the
Results
parental emotions associated with separation. The scale produces two
subscale scores (i) anxiety about adolescent distancing, a measure of the
Statistical analysis
extent to which the parent feels worried about the young adult’s develop- The parenting variables from the mothers’ interviews and question-
ing autonomy and (ii) comfort with secure base role, a measure of how naires were separated into two categories, warmth and control. The
secure the parent feels with respect to his or her relationship with the data were analysed according to these two constructs using multi-
young adult. Mothers also completed the Conflict Behaviour Question- variate analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with age of young
naire (CBQ) (Prinz et al., 1979), an assessment of conflict between the adult, age of mother and the presence of siblings as covariates.
parent and adolescent. The CBQ produces two subscale scores (i) dissa- Where a significant group difference was found, contrast analyses
tisfaction with the adolescent’s behaviour and (ii) parent-adolescent conflict
were carried out to determine whether the female-headed families
interaction.
(solo mother and lesbian mother families) differed from the traditional
families, and whether the solo mother and lesbian mother families dif-
Young adults’ interview and questionnaires fered from each other. Regarding the data obtained from the young
The young adults were interviewed using the Child and Adolescent Func- adults, the interview and questionnaire variables were also analysed
tioning and Environment Schedule (John and Quinton, 1991), a standar- using MANCOVAs with age of young adult as a covariate, followed
dized semi-structured interview designed to obtain information on the by contrast analyses where significant group differences were found.
young adult’s relationships with parents and peers. The information

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acquired during the interview was rated according to a standardized Mothers’ interview and questionnaires
coding scheme to produce the following variables: gets on with mother The following warmth variables (expressed warmth, sensitive respond-
measured how easy the young adult found getting on with the mother,
ing, emotional involvement, anxiety about distancing and comfort with
ranging from 1 (very easy) to 4 (difficult); comfortable with mother measured
secure base role) were entered into a MANCOVA. Wilks’s l was sig-
how comfortable the young adult felt with the mother, ranging from
1 (comfortable) to 5 (very uncomfortable); mother’s affection measured nificant, F (10, 128) ¼ 3.32, P , 0.01, indicating an overall difference
how much the young adult felt the mother showed that she loved him between family types. Contrast analyses showed that female-headed
or her, ranging from 1 (none or very little affection) to 4 (a great deal) families differed from traditional families in emotional involvement
and mother’s criticism measured the extent to which the mother openly (P , 0.001), with mothers in female-headed families showing higher
criticized, or verbally or physically rejected, the young adult, ranging levels of emotional involvement with the young adult than mothers
from 1 (none or very little) to 4 (a great deal). The following variables in traditional families. There was no difference in level of emotional
evaluated the quality of relationships with peers: confidence in peer relation- involvement between the solo mothers and the lesbian mothers.
ships assessed the extent to which the young adult felt confident in making Regarding the PASAS, in comparison to the mothers from traditional
and sustaining friendships with peers, ranging from 1 (not at all confident) families, solo and lesbian mothers showed significantly lower levels of
to 4 (very confident) and reliance on peers assessed the amount of trust the
anxiety about adolescent distancing (P , 0.05), again with no differ-
young adult had in his or her peers, ranging from 1 (would never rely on
ence between these two family types. No differences were identified
friends for anything) to 4 (regularly relies on friends if necessary). In
addition, romantic relationships was rated as 1 (no dating) or 2 (dating). between any of the family types for expressed warmth, sensitive
For those who had been involved in dating, information was obtained responding or comfort with their secure base role (see Table II).
on partners’ gender. Information was also obtained by interview on The following control variables (supervision, control, severity of dis-
alcohol use rated as 1 (not problematic) or 2 (problematic, drunkenness putes, disciplinary indulgence, dissatisfaction with the adolescent’s
with moderate or serious consequences) and cannabis use rated as behaviour and conflict interaction) were entered into a MANCOVA
1 (none or tried once) or 2 (occasional or regular use). In the previous (see Table II). Wilks’s l was significant, F (12, 120) ¼ 2.94, P ,
phase of the study by the same research team, inter-rater reliabilities 0.01, indicating an overall difference between the family types. Con-
ranged from correlations of 0.50 – 0.87 (Golombok et al., 2002). trast analyses showed the solo mothers to differ significantly from
In addition to the interview, young adults completed the Inventory of the lesbian mothers in disciplinary indulgence (P , 0.01), with the
Peer and Parent Attachment (IPPA) (Armsden and Greenberg, 1987), a
solo mothers showing less disciplinary indulgence that the lesbian
questionnaire measure that assessed attachment to the mother. The
mothers. The solo mothers and lesbian mothers also differed signifi-
total attachment score was used as an indicator of warmth between the
mother and the child, derived from the three subscales of degree of cantly from each other in severity of disputes (P , 0.01), with solo
mutual trust, quality of communication and extent of anger and alienation mothers experiencing less severe disputes with their young adult chil-
between the young adult and the parent. The young adults also completed dren than lesbian mothers. With respect to the CBQ, the difference
the SCL-90-R, a multidimensional self-report inventory designed to assess between the solo and lesbian mothers for the parent –adolescent con-
psychological disorder (Derogatis, 1994). Scores were obtained for the flict interaction subscale reached significance (P ¼ 0.05), again reflect-
following subscales: interpersonal sensitivity, feelings of inadequacy and infer- ing less conflict in solo mother than lesbian mother families. There
iority; depression, symptoms of clinical depression; anxiety, feelings of ner- were no differences between any of the family types for supervision,
vousness, tension and trembling and hostility, thoughts, feelings and actions control or the dissatisfaction with the adolescent’s behaviour subscale
of anger. The Harter Self-Perception Profile for College Students of the CBQ.
(Neemann and Harter, 1986), a measure of self-esteem, was also adminis-
tered to the young adults. The measure comprises 13 subscales of which
the following 9 were used: global self-worth, job competence, scholastic com- Young adults’ interview and questionnaires
petence, social acceptance, appearance, close friendships, romantic relation- The following variables relating to the young adult’s relationship
ships, intellectual ability and sense of humour. with the mother (gets on with mother, comfortable with mother,
154 Golombok and Badger

Table II Means, standard deviations (SD), F-values and P-values for mother’s parent –child relationship measures by
family type

Solo mother (S) Lesbian mother Traditional (T) Contrasts

(L)
........................... ........................... ...................... .........................................
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD S/L versus T S versus L
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
Maternal warmth
Expressed warmth 5.08 0.65 5.22 0.87 4.78 0.90 ns ns
Sensitive responding 4.08 0.65 4.22 0.80 3.75 0.80 ns ns
Emotional involvement 3.75 0.53 3.50 0.61 2.66 0.78 P , 0.001 ns
Anxiety about distancing 46.17 8.93 45.22 9.93 52.44 9.95 P , 0.05 ns
Comfort with secure base role 54.63 5.54 53.78 7.00 59.28 7.07 ns ns
Maternal control
Supervision 3.90 0.62 3.58 0.69 3.68 0.54 ns ns
Control 3.71 0.71 3.58 0.69 3.58 0.67 ns ns
Severity of disputes 1.24 0.53 1.79 0.63 1.68 0.65 ns P , 0.01

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Disciplinary indulgence 3.33 0.65 4.00 0.47 3.52 0.57 ns P , 0.01
Dissatisfaction with behaviour 1.71 2.72 2.84 4.10 4.10 4.82 ns ns
Conflict interaction 1.14 0.91 2.42 2.71 1.87 2.64 ns P ¼ 0.05

mother’s warmth and criticism of mother) were entered into a competence (P , 0.001), romantic relationships (P , 0.05) and sense
MANCOVA. As shown in Table III, no difference between family of humour (P , 0.01). All of these differences reflected more positive
types was found. Neither was there a difference between family scores among the young adults from female-headed families. The only
types for the total attachment score of the IPPA. Similarly, there difference to emerge between young adults from solo mother and
was no difference between family types with respect to quality of lesbian mother families was greater humour among those with solo
relationships with peers (confiding to peers and reliance on peers). mothers (P , 0.01).
However, a significant difference between family types was found
for romantic relationships, with a higher proportion of young adults
from solo mother families (95%) and lesbian mother families (88%)
Discussion
than from traditional families (56%) involved in dating, X 2 (2) ¼ The findings of this study show that children raised by solo heterosex-
11.16, P , 0.01. With the exception of one young woman from a ual mothers or lesbian mothers from infancy continue to function well
lesbian family who identified as bisexual and had dated men and as they enter adulthood. The female-headed families were found to be
women, all of the young adults had dated the opposite sex. similar to a comparison group of traditional families on a range of
With respect to psychological problems, the following variables measures of quality of parenting and young adults’ psychological
from the SCL-90-R were entered into a MANCOVA (interpersonal adjustment, with the scores on these measures reflecting positive
sensitivity, depression, anxiety and hostility). Wilks’s l approached sig- family relationships and high levels of psychological wellbeing. The
nificance, F (8, 122) ¼ 1.67, P ¼ 0.10, indicating a non-significant trend differences that were identified between family types indicated that
towards a difference between family types. As shown in Table II, con- mothers from mother-headed households were more emotionally
trast analyses revealed that the young adults from female-headed involved with their young adult children than were mothers from tra-
families obtained lower scores than young adults from traditional ditional families, a finding that did not appear to be related to fewer
families on the depression (P , 0.05), anxiety (P , 0.05) and hostility siblings in the family home. The lower levels of separation anxiety
(P , 0.01) subscales of the SCL-90-R, with no difference between shown by the solo and lesbian mothers may stem from these
young adults from solo mother and lesbian mother families for any mothers’ ongoing involvement with the young adults or may reflect
of these subscales. A difference in the use of alcohol, X 2 (2) ¼ 7.25, the older age of their children and the fact that the majority had
P , 0.05, but not cannabis, was identified between family types, already left home whereas this had not yet happened in most of the
reflecting less problem drinking by young adults from solo mother traditional families.
families (5%) and lesbian mother families (0%) than by their peers Regarding conflict between mothers and their young adult children,
from traditional families (25%). The eight subscale scores of the Self- the solo mother families were characterized by low levels of conflict
Perception Profile for College Students were also entered into a and low levels of disciplinary indulgence in comparison with the
MANCOVA. Wilks’s l was significant, F (18, 108) ¼ 4.44, P , lesbian mother families. This suggests that the solo mothers were
0.001, showing a difference between family types. Contrast analyses stricter with their young adult offspring and that this disciplinary
revealed that young adults in female-headed families differed from approach resulted in lower levels of mother–child conflict.
those in traditional families in global self-worth (P , 0.001), scholastic However, the alternative explanation, that the young adults from
Children of mother-headed families 155

Table III Means, standard deviations (SD), F-values and P-values for young adult’s parent –child relationship and
psychological wellbeing measures by family type

Solo mother Lesbian mother Traditional Contrasts

......................... ......................... ......................... ...........................................
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD S/L versus T S versus L
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
Relationship with mother
Gets on with mother 1.22 0.54 1.44 0.62 1.47 0.71 ns ns
Comfortable with mother 1.11 0.32 1.25 0.44 1.19 0.39 ns ns
Mother’s warmth 3.83 0.38 3.50 0.73 3.38 0.79 ns ns
Criticism of mother 1.28 0.46 1.31 0.60 1.69 1.03 ns ns
IPPA
Total attachment score 108 13.30 109 8.12 101.7 15.70 ns ns
Peer relationships
Confiding in peers 3.61 0.60 3.81 0.40 3.31 0.78 ns ns
Reliance on peers 3.50 0.61 3.75 0.44 3.34 0.78 ns ns

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Psychological problems
Interpersonal sensitivity 3.25 3.47 6.24 5.62 8.29 7.51 ns ns
Depression 6.10 4.55 7.06 5.50 11.35 9.87 P , 0.05 ns
Anxiety 2.00 2.63 3.24 2.77 6.97 9.17 P , 0.05 ns
Hostility 1.55 1.46 2.53 3.06 5.26 5.50 P , 0.01 ns
Self-perception profile
Global self-worth 20.39 2.72 19.12 3.63 14.68 3.55 P , 0.001 ns
Job competence 12.67 1.97 12.00 2.17 11.74 2.68 ns ns
Scholastic competence 11.61 2.20 12.06 2.81 8.65 1.87 P , 0.001 ns
Social acceptance 12.83 1.85 12.65 2.54 12.61 2.72 ns ns
Appearance 12.17 2.55 11.18 3.00 10.87 3.06 ns ns
Close friendships 12.78 1.76 13.47 1.66 13.23 3.21 ns ns
Intellectual ability 13.22 1.73 12.24 2.77 13.26 2.50 ns ns
Romantic relationships 11.94 3.26 11.12 3.40 9.00 3.01 P , 0.05 ns
Humour 13.11 1.77 10.29 2.93 13.55 2.63 P , 0.01 P , 0.01
n % n % n % X2 P
Romantic relationships
Dating 18 95 14 88 18 56 11.16 ,0.01
Alcohol and cannabis
Problem drinking 1 5 0 0 8 25 7.25 ,0.05
Cannabis use 7 37 4 25 15 48 2.49 ns

solo mother families were less challenging in their behaviour, cannot influential in the sexual identity development of their children.
be ruled out. The young adults’ perceptions of the quality of their Although attitudes towards homosexuality have become more accept-
relationship with their mother did not differ according to family ing in recent years, as demonstrated by the introduction of same-sex
type, with their scores on variables such as mother’s affection and cri- marriage and civil partnerships, an outstanding concern by policy-
ticism reflecting positive mother–child relationships. Neither did they makers and legislators is that lesbian mothers will have lesbian and
differ with respect to the quality of their relationships with peers which gay children, an outcome that is considered by some to be undesirable
again appeared to be good. as illustrated in the tabloid press. Irrespective of opinion on this
The higher proportion of young adults from female-headed homes matter, the present study shows that this is not the case. Not only
who had started dating most probably again reflects their older age. Of do the findings replicate an earlier longitudinal study of the sexual
particular interest is the finding that all but one young adult with a orientation of adults raised from childhood in lesbian mother families
lesbian mother—a young bisexual woman—identified as heterosexual. (Golombok and Tasker, 1996) but also they confirm these findings
This finding is important as it contradicts the assumption that children with young adults reared in lesbian families from birth.
raised in lesbian families will grow up to be lesbian or gay themselves, Regarding the psychological wellbeing of the young adults, those
and challenges theoretical perspectives that consider parents to be from female-headed households showed lower levels of anxiety,
156 Golombok and Badger

depression, hostility and problematic alcohol use than their counter- Chan RW, Raboy B, Patterson C. Psychosocial adjustment among children
parts from traditional families, and higher levels of self-esteem, indicat- conceived via donor insemination by lesbian and heterosexual mothers.
ing more positive psychological adjustment among young adults who Child Dev 1998;69:443– 457.
had grown up in solo and lesbian mother homes, with no difference Chase-Lansdale P, Cherlin A, Kiernan K. The long-term effects of parental
divorce on the mental health of young adults: a developmental
between the two. This finding is in direct contrast to the more nega-
perspective. Child Dev 1995;66:1614 – 1634.
tive psychological outcomes associated with single-mother families fol-
Coleman L, Glenn F. Couple Relationship Breakdown: Impacts on Adults and
lowing parental separation or divorce, and highlights the diversity
Children. London: One Plus One 2009.
among female-headed families and the importance of not treating Cummings EM, Davies PT. Maternal depression and child development.
them as the same. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1994;35:73– 112.
This longitudinal study of the development of children in mother- Derogatis LR. SCL-90-R Symptoms Check List: Administration, Scoring and
headed families from infancy has allowed an investigation of the Procedures Manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems, 1994.
effects of growing up in a female-headed family without the confound- Dunn J, Deater-Deckard K, Pickering K, O’Conner TG, Golding J,
ing effects of factors associated with parental separation or divorce. Team TA. Children’s adjustment and prosocial behaviour in step-,
The findings as the children enter adulthood are in line with earlier single-parent, and non-stepfamily settings: findings from a community
phases of the study (Golombok et al., 1997; MacCallum and study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1998;39:1083 – 1095.
Dunn J. Family relationships: Children’s perspectives. London: One Plus
Golombok, 2004) and with previous studies of younger children
One, 2008.
raised by solo mothers (Weinraub et al., 2002) or lesbian mothers
Elliot J, Vaitilingam R. Now We Are 50: Key Findings from the National Child
(Flaks et al., 1995; Brewaeys et al., 1997; Chan et al., 1998; Bos,

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Development Study. London: The Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2008.
2004) from birth. As well as providing systematic data on the out- Ferri E. Growing Up in a One Parent Family. Slough: NFER, 1976.
comes for parenting and child development, the findings increase Flaks DK, Ficher I, Masterpasqua F, Joseph G. Lesbians choosing
theoretical understanding more generally of the relative importance motherhood: a comparative study of lesbian and heterosexual parents
for children’s psychological wellbeing of family process and family and their children. Dev Psychol 1995;31:105 – 114.
structure, and lend weight to the view that the quality of family Golombok S. New family forms: children raised in solo mother families,
relationships matters more than the way in which a family is formed lesbian mother families, and in families created by assisted
(Golombok, 2000). The findings do not lead to the conclusion that reproduction. In: Balter L, Tamis- LeMonda (eds). Child Psychology: A
fathers are unimportant for children’s psychological wellbeing. In Handbook of Contemporary Issues. Psychology Press, 1999, 429 – 446.
Golombok S. Parenting: What really counts? London: Routledge, 2000.
fact, there is much evidence to the contrary (e.g. Lamb, in press).
Golombok S, MacCallum F. Children raised in fatherless families from
However, it does appear that children can thrive in a variety of
infancy: A follow-up of children of lesbian and single heterosexual
family constellations and that the presence of a father in the home
mothers at early adolescence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2004;
is not necessary for children to function well. Although not all of the 45:1407 – 1419.
children in solo and lesbian mother families in the present study Golombok S, Tasker F. Do parents influence the sexual orientation of their
were conceived by donor insemination, the findings are of relevance children? Findings from a longitudinal study of lesbian families. Dev
to the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (2008) Act, as they shed Psychol 1996;32:3 – 11.
light on the long-term outcomes for children raised in mother-headed Golombok S, Spencer A, Rutter M. Children in lesbian and single-parent
families from the start. households: psychosexual and psychiatric appraisal. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 1983;24:551 –572.
Golombok S, Tasker F, Murray C. Children raised in fatherless families
Acknowledgements from infancy: family relationships and the socioemotional development
of children of lesbian and single heterosexual mothers. J Child Psychol
We would like to thank the Nuffield Foundation for funding this study Psychiatry 1997;38:783 –792.
and all of the families for taking part. Golombok S, MacCallum F, Goodman E, Rutter M. Families with children
conceived by donor insemination: a follow-up at age 12. Child Dev 2002;
73:952 – 968.
Funding Golombok S, Perry B, Burston A, Murray C, Mooney-Somers J, Stevens M,
Golding J. Children with lesbian parents: a community study. Dev Psychol
This study was funded by Nuffield Foundation.
2003;39:20 – 33.
Green R, Mandel JB, Hotvedt ME, Gray J, Smith L. Lesbian mothers and
their children: a comparison with solo parent heterosexual mothers
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