Ecosystem and Biodiversity

B.Tech.
Even Semester Mar – Jun 2023

II Semester (All Branches)
GED1206 Environmental Sciences
Name : ……………………………………………………………………………………….
RRN : …………………………………………………………………………...................
Branch-Section : …………………………………………………………………………...................
Module-2 Ecosystem and Biodiversity 8

Ecosystem - energy flow in the ecosystem - food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids -
ecological succession - characteristics, structure and function of (a) Terrestrial ecosystems (forest,
grassland, desert) and (b) Aquatic fresh water ecosystems (pond, lake, river) (c) Aquatic salt water
ecosystems (ocean, estuary).
Biodiversity - genetic, species and ecosystem diversity - hot-spots of biodiversity, Red Data
book- biogeographic classification of India - endangered, endemic, extinct and invasive species of
India - values of biodiversity: consumptive, productive, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values -
threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts - conservation of
biodiversity: in-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.
*****************
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 1 of 65
B.Tech. Even Semester Mar – Jun 2023
Ecosystems
The interaction of all the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components interact
themselves of any particular environment exchanging energy and matter.
Biome
Biome is the largest geographic biotic unit, a major community of plants and animals with
similar life forms and environmental conditions. It includes various communities such as grassland
or coniferous forest, etc.
Biome is a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that are similar in
vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal
communities.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 2 of 65
Types of Ecosystem
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 3 of 65
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 4 of 65
Structure (or) Components of an Ecosystem

Structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship between biotic and abiotic components.
i. Biotic components: The living components present in an ecosystem is called as biotic

components that includes plants, animals and microorganisms like bacteria, fungi etc. they are
classified as 3 major categories.
 Producers (Autotrophs): Producers are organisms that produce their own food from any
energy source such as the sun light and inorganic compounds
During photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide and energy from the Sun to produce
sugar molecules and oxygen. Since the plants prepare their own food by photosynthesis, these are
called as autotrophs.
 Consumers (Heterotrophs): Consumers are Organisms that consume other organisms as a
food source.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 5 of 65
 Herbivores (Primary consumers) Plant eaters - Eg. Cow, Elephant, Giraffe

 Carnivores (Secondary & Tertiary consumers) - Meat eaters - Eg. Secondary- Frog,
Tertiary - Lion , Tiger, Shark
 Omnivores Eat both plants and animals - Eg. Bears, Humans, rats and fox
 Detritivores Feed on the part of dead organisms, wastes of living organisms (both
plants & animals) - Eg. Vultures, Crows, earthworms, ants
 Decomposers: Feed on dead organisms. Breaking down the complex organic molecules to
simpler organic compounds and return the nutrients to the soil. Eg. – Bacteria, fungi and
Mushrooms
ii. Abiotic components: The non-living components of an ecosystem are called Abiotic
components.
 Organic substances-protein, fats, amino acids, carbohydrates.
 Inorganic substances-water, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen etc.
 Physical factors-light, temperature, wind, and humidity
Functions of an Ecosystem
The major functions are
 Plants producing the biomass for the herbivores.
 Herbivores participate in the food chain and food web and transfer the energy across the
carnivores.
 These carnivores after their life are decomposed by the decomposers.
 The decomposers further process these nutrients available in them into atmosphere or in soil
and complete the nutrient cycle.
 As a whole, they maintain and regulate the ecological balance (equilibrium between living
organisms such as human being, plants, and animals as well as their environment).
Energy flow in an ecosystem

 Energy is the most essential requirement for all living organisms.
 Solar energy is the only source of our earth.
 Solar energy is transformed into chemical energy in photosynthesis by the plants.
 This is the most essential step to provide energy for all living organisms in the ecosystem.
 Some amount of energy is used by the plants for their growth and the remaining is
transferred to consumers.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 6 of 65
The conversion of solar energy into other forms of energy is governed by law of
thermodynamics.
First Law: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it can be converted from one form
to another.
In ecosystems, during photosynthesis, solar energy is converted into chemical energy.
Second Law: Whenever the energy is transformed, there is a loss of energy through the release of
heat.
Plants (autotrophs) absorb the solar energy and produce glucose through photosynthesis and
are stored as starch in plants. Autotrophs pass this energy to the consumers through food chains.
The energy contained within the producers and consumers is ultimately passed to the decomposers
that are responsible for the recycling of nutrients.
Tropic level: The various steps through which the energy passes in a food chain of an ecosystem is
called as tropic levels. The tropic levels are arranged as
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 7 of 65
In the biotic community, energy can flow only in the forward direction, ie. T1 to T2 to T3 to T4,
etc. The amount of energy passed decreases in the successive tropic levels.
At every successive tropic level, there is a heavy loss of energy (~ 90%) in the form of heat
and therefore only 10% of the energy is transferred to the next tropic level.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 8 of 65
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 9 of 65
Food Chain
The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain. It
describes the order in which the organisms are being consumed. Every ecosystem or community
has one or more food chains.
Most food chains start with plants. The organisms that eat other living things are known as
consumers. Decomposers play the final role in food chain.
In food chain, if one organism is not available, then the other organisms finds it difficult to
survive and the ecological balance is also disturbed.
Significance of food chain

 In all food chains, one organism becomes the food for the other organism. As a result, a
situation of eating and being eaten exists. This keeps a check on the population and balance
in the ecosystem.
 Energy in the form of food is continuously transferred between different food chains. This
helps to maintain the equilibrium in an ecosystem.
 Food chains help us to understand the interaction and the interdependence of different
organisms in an ecosystem.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 10 of 65
Types of Food Chains
 Grazing food chain: Grazing food chain starts with the plants and passes through the
grazing herbivores and on to the carnivores.
 Predatory Food Chain: In predatory food chain, the predator hunts and eats other
animals and the prey is eaten by the predator.
o the frog is a predator and the grasshopper is its prey.
o the snake is a predator and the frog is its prey.
o the hawk is a predator and the snake is its prey.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 11 of 65
o Parasitic Food Chain: In parasitic food chain, a smaller organism consumes part of
a larger host and is parasitized by the smaller organisms. The larger organism is known as the
host and the smaller living organisms which acquire nutrition from the hosts are known to be the
parasites. Energy transfers from larger organisms to smaller organisms, without killing in case of a
predator. Here lice is the parasite and the parrot is the host.
 Detritus Food Chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic materials. The dead
organic substances are decomposed by microorganisms. The organisms that eats the dead organic
matter is known as detritivores or decomposers. These detritivores are later eaten by predators.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 12 of 65
 Saprophytic Food Chain: In saprophytic food chain, saprophytic organisms live on dead
organic matter. Saprophytes are organisms that feed on the dead decaying matter of plants and
animals and derive their energy directly from their organic matter but not from plants.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 13 of 65
Food Web
The interlocking pattern of various food chains in an ecosystem is called food web.
A food web is a group of food chains within an ecosystem. Most living things eat more than
one type of animal or plant. Since many food chains are overlapped and interconnected in a food
web, the organisms are having several opportunities of eating and being eaten at each tropic level.
An important difference between food chain and food web is that the food chain is linear and
if one species becomes extinct, the species in the subsequent tropic levels are also affected.
However in a food web, even though one species is affected, there is no serious effect on other
tropic levels as there are several options available at each tropic level.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 14 of 65
Significance of Food Web

 In the ecosystem the energy flow and nutrient cycling takes place through food chain and
food web.
 Food web helps in maintaining and regulating the population size of different species and
maintains the ecological balance.
 A major concern with the food chain and web is the biomagnification of pollutants in higher
tropic levels. Biomagnification is the increase in the concentration of non-biodegradable
toxicants (neither excreted nor metabolised in the body) in organisms at each successive
trophic level.
Ex: Heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic and pesticides such as polychlorinated biphenyls and
DDT
DDT is a pesticide which is used on crops to control the pest attack. Since it is soluble in fat
it is not easy to metabolise or excrete in organisms. In some food webs, through the primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers, the concentration of DDT keeps on increasing. A
significant concentration of DDT is observed in higher level organisms.
In bird’s body, the DDT interferes with calcium metabolism and induces egg shell thinning
and pre-mature breakage of eggs. This causes a decline in the bird’s population.
Bioaccumulation is the accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a particular organism.

Bioaccumulation is different from biomagnification. Here the pollutant directly enters into a particular
organism and is accumulated in the same organism as it can neither be excreted nor metabolized.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 15 of 65
Food Chain Food Web

A linear pathway showing the flow of energy A multitude of networks showing the flow of
energy
An organism of higher level trophic feeds on a An organism of higher trophic level has access
specific organism of lower trophic level to more members of a lower trophic level.
It is the flow of energy through a single straight It is the multiple linked food chains through
pathway from the lower trophic level to a higher which flow of energy happens in the ecosystem
one
It comprises of just one straight chain It comprises of various interconnected food
chains
Single linear pathway of energy and nutrient Multiple interconnected pathways through which
flow nutrient and energy flow
It increases because of an increasing number of It increases because of the presence of the
separate and confined food chains complex food chains
Comprises of 4-6 trophic levels of different Comprises of multiple trophic levels of different
species populations of species
The whole chain gets affected if just one group If one group of organisms is removed, it does
of an organism disturbs not impact the food web
Grazing food chain and Detritus food chain No type
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 16 of 65
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid is defined as the graphical representation of the structure and function of
tropic levels in an ecosystem.
This was first introduced by Elton in 1927 to represent the structure of an ecosystem in terms
of feeding relationships. He illustrated the population and population density relationship within and
between the trophic levels. In ecological pyramids, the producer form the base and the successive
trophic levels make up the apex. Ecological pyramids are of three types
 Pyramids of Numbers
 Pyramids of Biomass
 Pyramids of Energy
1. Pyramids of Numbers: The pyramid of numbers represents the number of individual

organisms at each tropic level. At each trophic level, the number of individuals decreases
due to the difference in population growth rate as well as the predation of small individuals
by larger animals. Generally the largest populated producers form the base of the pyramid
(e.g., grass plants, phytoplankton). Herbivores fed on the producers which are lesser in
number occupy the row above the producers (e.g., grasshoppers, zooplankton). The
number of secondary consumers (e.g., frogs, smaller fish) is still smaller and the number of
higher order carnivores is very few. Thus the number of individuals at each level produces a
typical stepped type pyramid.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 17 of 65
2. Pyramids of Biomass: Biomass is the total weight of dry matter present in the different
trophic level of any ecosystem at any time. Pyramid of biomass is generally upright with the
maximum biomass in producers followed by lesser biomass in herbivores and still small
biomass in carnivores. Only 10-20% biomass is transferred from the lower trophic level to the
higher trophic level.
3. Pyramids of Energy: Pyramid of energy represents the transfer of calories from one trophic
Level to the next. The producers are the main source of energy and the energy transfer from
one trophic Level to another show only about 10% efficiency. About 90 % of the energy in the
food consumed by the consumers is not stored. Part of the energy is utilised for its
respiration, metabolism, maintenance, etc. and a large amount of energy is lost in the form of
heat. Hence as we move to higher tropic level, the energy transferred is decreased
progressively irrespective of the number of biomass in that particular trophic level.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 18 of 65
Ecological Succession
The progressive replacement of one community by another community till the development of
a stable community in a particular area is called as ecological succession.
Succession occurs because the physical environment is gradually modified by the growth of
the biotic community and makes the area more favourable for another group of species. A dynamic
balance between all species and the physical environment is attained by the stable communities
established in the area. However all balances are relative to the current biotic community and the
existing climatic conditions. Therefore, even the climax communities are also subject to change.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 19 of 65
Stages of Ecological Succession

 Pioneer Community: The first group of organism that establish their community in a barren
area.
 Seral Community: A seral community (Sere) is an intermediate stage found in an ecological
succession progressing towards the climax community. In most of the succession, more than
one seral stage evolves until the climax stage is attained.
Types of Ecological Succession
 Primary Succession: The initial stage of development of an ecosystem which begins with
the creation of a community in a location which was not occupied by any living organism
before. The succession may take place based on the physical environment.
o Hydrarch: Establishment starts in a water area like river, pond, lake, etc.
o Xerarch: Establishment starts in a dry area like desert, rock, mountain, etc.
 Secondary Succession: It is the stage of reestablishment of a community that was inhabited
in the area but was destroyed due to some natural calamities like fire, flood, landslide, lava
flow, or human activity, etc. Such reestablishment occurs due to the presence of seeds and
organic matter present in the soil.
Process of Ecological Succession
The ecological succession takes place through the following steps.
1. Nudation: The succession begins with the development of a bare area by natural
accomplishments such as volcanic eruption, landslide, flood, erosion, deposition, fire, disease
or any other catastrophic agent.
2. Invasion: Establishment of one or more species on bare area through migration followed by
establishment. Invasion is the arrival of seeds, spores of various organisms and their
settlement in the bare area. The invasion includes the following three steps:
 Migration: The seeds and spores reach the bare area through air, water or animals,
birds, etc.
 Establishment: This is the successful establishment of migrated plant species into
the new area. It includes germination of seeds, growth of seedlings and starting of
reproduction by adult plants.
 Aggregation: This is the final stage of invasion that the successful species increase
in their number by reproduction and aggregate in a large population in the area. As a
result of this, the individual species come closer to each other.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 20 of 65
3. Competition: As the numbers of individuals increases due to multiplication and

aggregation in the limited space, the competition for space, water and nutrition occurs in
between them. They also compete with individuals of other species that may enter the area.
4. Reaction: All the individual species interact among themselves and with the environment.
Consequently the environment is modified and progressively becoming unsuitable for the
existing community which is replaced by another community in the near future. The increase
in the availability of food makes various animals to enter into the community and further
modify the environment.
5. Stabilization: At the end, a dominant community becomes more or less stabilized for a
longer period and can maintain the equilibrium with the climatic conditions of that area. This
final stable community is the climax community and the vegetation supporting is the climax
vegetation.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 21 of 65
Types of Ecosystem
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 22 of 65
Types of Terrestrial Ecosystem

1. Forest ecosystem
2. Grassland ecosystem
3. Desert ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem is a complex community of plants, animals and micro-organisms and their
interaction with the abiotic environment.
Forest is generally found in undisturbed areas receiving moderate to high rainfall. Forest
occupies 40% of world’s land area and in India only 19% of its total land area.
Trees are the key component of this ecosystem. The trees help to make a special
environment that supports all kinds of animals and plants exist in the forest. They clean the air, cool
the hot days and conserve heat at night, and act as an excellent sound absorbers. Humans are an
integral part of many forest ecosystems as the interaction is more.
India is not only famous for its diverse wild lives but also for the dense and vast forest region.
Indian climate supports the variety of flora and fauna. In India, forest is the second largest land use
next to agriculture. Being a mega biodiversity country, the nation possesses high level of endemic
species.
Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem

Forest is characterized by the
 presence of tall and dense trees
 large animal and vegetal biodiversity
 warm temperature and sufficient rainfall
 highly nutrient soil
 poor light penetration
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 23 of 65
 streams in some locations
Structure and function of Forest Ecosystem

The forest ecosystem consists of both biotic and abiotic components.
 Abiotic components: Non-living components present in the forest ecosystem. This includes
the basic inorganic and organic compounds such as, soil, minerals, rocks, water, nutrients,
etc. and physical components such as sunlight, air, temperature, climate, pH. The important
functions are
o sun light is essential for photosynthesis and maintains the temperature in that area.
o other components are essential for the plants growth.
 Biotic components: The living components present in the forest ecosystem. It is classified
as
o Producers (Autotrophs): Plants are the producers in forest ecosystem. It consists of
different types of herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers, creepers, weeds, etc. These plants
prepare their own food and stored in the body. The stored energy is transferred to the
consumers.
o Consumers: These are animals which consumes either the plants (herbivores) or
animals (carnivores) or both (omnivores). The consumers eat the plants and lower
level animals and thereby the energy is transferred among the entire ecosystem.
 Primary Consumers (Herbivores): These are the animals that feed on plants
which feed directly on producers. Eg: grasshoppers, butterflies ants, beetles,
rabbit, deer, squirrel, mice, elephant, giraffe, etc.
 Secondary Consumers (Carnivores and omnivores): These are the animals
that feed on primary consumers. Eg: birds, frog, snake, bears, fox, owl, etc.
 Tertiary Consumers (Carnivores): These are secondary carnivores and feed
on secondary consumers. Eg: wolf, eagle, tiger, lion, etc.
o Decomposers: These are microorganisms that decompose the dead matter into
simple chemicals which are once again take part in the material cycling. Eg: Bacteria,
fungi, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 24 of 65
Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other
non-woody plants with few or no trees, shrubs and herbs in the area. Grasslands form a variety of
ecosystems that are located in different climatic conditions ranging from near desert to hill slopes of
the extremely moist evergreen forests.
Grassland occupies 20% of earth’s surface. Limited grazing improves the grassland further
without deterioration. Overgrazing leads to degradation of grasslands resulting in desertification.
In India, the grasslands are usually found around the river plains, the Indo-Gangetic and The
Brahmaputra plains in the north, The Narmada plain in Gujarat, etc. Grasslands of India are home to
some of the most endangered and endemic species of animals. Certain species of plants are also
found in grasslands only. Grasslands play a major role in the economy of the country as these are
used as pastures for domestic grazing animals.
Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystem

 It is charcterized by low or uneven rainfall and semi-arid climate.
 Vegetation dominated by grasses.
 Generally lack of nutrients in the soil.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 25 of 65
 Grasslands are home for a huge variety of grazing animals.

 Rainfall and soils is insufficient to support the growth of trees.
Structure and function of Grassland Ecosystems

 Abiotic components: Non-living components present in the grassland ecosystem and these
are the major nutrients for the grasses. These include basic inorganic and organic
compounds present in the soil and the atmosphere. Apart from that the temperature, sunlight,
water, etc.
 Biotic components: Living components of an ecosystem. Relatively low density of largest
grazing animals but have huge population of rodents and invertebrates.
o Producers: In grassland, the producers are mainly grasses and their role is to
produce food. These are grazed by the herbivorous animals. Eg: Grasses, shrubs,
lichens, herbs, etc.
o Consumers: The consumers are classified as
 Primary Consumers: The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly
on grasses. Eg: cows, sheep, deer, rabbit, buffaloes, insects, some termites,
millipedes etc.
 Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores that feed on primary
consumers. Eg: fox, jackals, snakes, frogs, lizard, birds etc.
 Tertiary Consumers: These are feed on the secondary and primary
consumers. Eg: hawks, vulture, eagles, etc.
o Decomposers: The organic matter present in the grassland is decomposed by the
microbes, fungi, aerobic and anaerobic soil bacteria, etc. They release the minerals
back into the soil thus making the soil fertile.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 26 of 65
Keystone Species
A keystone species is an organism that helps to define an entire ecosystem. Without this
keystone species, the ecosystem would be different or cease to exist.
The keystone species can also be a plant. For example mangrove trees serve as a
keystone species in many coastlines by firming up the shorelines and reducing erosion. They also
provide a safe haven and feeding area for small fish.
Elephant, the biggest mammal on land is also a keystone species in African savanna
grasslands. These savanna grasslands are the home for lot of grazing animals such as zebras,
buffaloes and antelopes. Elephant destructs the growth of trees and young saplings in the
grassland and prevents these grasslands to become a forest in future.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 27 of 65
Other keystone species
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 28 of 65
Desert Ecosystem
Desert is an area with intense heat radiation, heavy winds and little moisture with less than
25 cm annual rainfall. High temperature during the daytime and persistent winds accelerate water
evaporation and transpiration of water vapour from plants.
Deserts occupy 1/3rd of the land's surface area.
 Hot Deserts: In hot desert ecosystem, it is generally cloudless skies, highest temperatures
(even upto ~ 57.7 ºC). These deserts are found in the tropical and sub-tropical regions.
Ex: Sahara Desert, Great Australian Desert, Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert,
Mojave Desert in Eastern California, etc.
 Cold Deserts: In contrast, the cold deserts have mildly hot summers and extremely cold
winters. These deserts are found in temperate regions at higher latitudes such as plateaus,
mountainous areas in the temperate regions of the world. They generally experience low
temperature and long winters. The average temperature ranges from -2 to -4 ºC in winter.
The precipitation is higher in cold deserts and snowfall is common in winter.
Ex: Atacama (Coasts of Peru and Chile), Gobi (Northern China and Southern Mongolia),
Great Basin (Western United States), Iranian (Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan)
Characteristics of Desert Ecosystems

 High evapotranspiration and low rainfall.
 Air is dry and the climate is hot.
 Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm.
 Soil is very poor in nutrients and organic matter and hence the vegetation is poor.
 Existence of sand dunes depends upon the direction of wind.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 29 of 65
Structure and Functions of Desert Ecosystems

 Abiotic components: Due to high temperature and very low rainfall, the organic substances
are poorly present in the soil. The other abiotic components are sand, heat, oasis, etc.
Desert oasis
 Biotic components: Living components present in the desert ecosystem. Despite of the
harsh climatic pattern, the desert ecosystem also exhibits a remarkable biological diversity. A
large number of plant and animal species present in the deserts due to their morphological,
anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations.
o Producers: Even though life is scarce in the desert, few producers exist and provide
food for the organisms which are habituating the intense heat. Succulents plats with
thick fleshy plants store water for the producers. Plants such as shrubs, short grasses,
desert gourds, varieties of cactus, cassava, agaves, sotols, ocotillo, creosote bush,
etc. Short life cycle plants such as poppies, daisies and fruit yielding plants such as
date, Desert Palm trees etc. is also present in desert.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 30 of 65
prickly pears Euphorbia tortilis Saguaro

(sappathi kalli) (thirugu kalli)
Desert Gourds Cassava Agaves
Sotols Ocotillo (Desert coral) Creosote Bush
Poppies Daisies Khejri

(king of Indian Thar desert)
o Consumers: These include animals such as insects, reptiles, etc. These animals
make dig holes in the ground to live in.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 31 of 65
 Primary Consumers: These animals eat only plants and plant products. The
variety of succulent plants present in the desert provides both the nutrition and
water to these animals. Ex: ants, insects, rats and mice, reptiles, hares, camel,
rabbit, kangaroo rat, desert iguana, insects, mule deer, cactus wren, etc.
 Secondary Consumers: Secondary consumers feed on the primary
consumers. Ex: Animals like cold-blooded animals such as snakes, insect-
eating lizards, and tarantulas (spider), fennec fox, road runner (chaparral
cocks), shrew, lizards, rattle snakes, mongoose, scorpions, etc.
 Tertiary Consumers: Tertiary consumes are the large predators which feed on
both the secondary and primary consumers. Ex: owl, eagle, striped hyena, sand
cat, fox, hawks and eagles, saharan cheetah, horned viper, hawk, etc.
o Decomposers: Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of dead organic matter,
decomposers are poor in desert ecosystem. The decomposers decompose the dead
animals and release the minerals to the soil and air. Ex: desert mushrooms, bacteria,
and worms.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 32 of 65
Aquatic Ecosystems
In aquatic ecosystem, water is the main source of the habitat. It is the largest portion of the
biosphere that includes both freshwater and marine ecosystems. Here the organisms depend on
one another and the water environment for nutrients and shelter.
In contrast to terrestrial ecosystem, carbon dioxide and oxygen are present in the dissolved
form. Depending upon the quality and nature of water, the aquatic ecosystem are categorized into
 Freshwater Ecosystem: Lake and pond ecosystems, river and stream ecosystems
 Marine Ecosystem: Ocean ecosystems, Estuarine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystems
Planet Earth is having less than 3 % fresh water and less than half of it is available as a liquid
in the form of freshwater ecosystems. It contains very small amount of dissolved salts compared to
sea water. Freshwater ecosystems are also the important centers of biodiversity as it supports a
wide range of plants and animals.
Plants and animals living in freshwater ecosystems cannot to be adopted to live in saltwater
ecosystems because of the differences in the salt content. Freshwater ecosystems are vulnerable to
pollution due to natural and anthropogenic activities.
The basic types of freshwater ecosystems are
1. Standing water ecosystems (Lentic): Ponds and Lakes.
2. Running water ecosystems (Lotic): Streams and Rivers.
3. Wetland ecosystems: Areas where the soil is saturated with water. Ex: swamp, marsh
lands, mangrove forest, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 33 of 65
Lakes and Pond Ecosystem

Lakes and ponds are standing water bodies. Lakes are giant permanent water bodies
whereas the ponds are temporary and only seasonal. The surface water layer is populated with
phytoplanktons. Algae are the major autotrophs present in lakes and ponds, which derives energy
from the sun.
The lake and ponds consists of the following zones. Bases on these zones the number of
organism varies in ponds and lakes.
 Littoral zone: The littoral zone is the near shore area where sunlight penetrates all the way
to the sediment and allows the aquatic plants to grow. Due to this, some rooted plants are
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 34 of 65
available in this zone. Large numbers of these plants are the food for algae and invertebrates
in addition to the fish and other organisms that habituates in the water.
 Limnetic zone: The limnetic zone is the open water area where the light does not penetrate
till the bottom of this zone. The rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration in the
depth at which the intensity of sunlight penetration is ~1 %. The community present in this
zone is composed only of planktons (diverse groups of organisms that are living in the water),
nektons (swimming aquatic organisms) and neustons (organisms that float on the top of
water or live just below the surface of water). This zone is absent in small and shallow ponds.
 Profundal zone: This is the deep bottom zone and is beyond the penetration of sunlight. This
zone is absent in ponds.
 Benthic zone: The bottom sediment that has soil layer abundant with organisms. Most of the
organisms in the benthic zone are invertebrates (do not possess a skeleton of bone) or small
crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp).
Structure and function of lake and pond ecosystem

 Abiotic component: The non-living components present in the ecosystem. Clay, soil, water,
dissolved salts, sunlight are the important abiotic components present in lake and pond
ecosystems. Most of the inorganic and organic substances are present in the bottom soil or
dissolved in the water.
 Biotic components: The living components of this ecosystem. Since lake is large and
permanent ecosystem. Hence it consists of large number organisms compared a pond that is
a temporary, small and shallow water body.
o Producers: It includes both submerged and floating plants. The floating plants get the
sunlight directly whereas the submerged plants get the sunlight that is penetrated
through water. The carbon dioxide is obtained from the dissolved CO2 in water
(through the stomata in leaves) for the photosynthesis. Ex: algae and other aquatic
plants such as azolla, hydrilla, potamogeton, pistia, wolffia, lemna, eichhornia,
nymphaea, jussiaea, etc. These are either floating or suspended or rooted at the
bottom.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 35 of 65
o Consumers: The number of consumers and the size of population depend on the
quality of the water in the lake or pond.
 Primary consumers: Primary consumers such as tadpole larvae of frogs,
fishes, Zooplankton, other small aquatic animals, etc. consume the green plants
and algae as their food.
 Secondary consumers: The herbivorous aquatic animals are the food for the
secondary consumers. Ex: Frogs, small fishes, water snakes, crabs, etc.
 Tertiary consumers: The carnivores like insects and fishes and feeding on
herbivores. Ex: Insects, larger fishes, and other carnivorous animals such as
loons, grebes, herons, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 36 of 65
o Decomposers: They decompose the dead plants and animals. Ex: Microorganisms
such as bacteria, fungi, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 37 of 65
River and Stream Ecosystem

Rivers and streams are the flowing freshwater ecosystems that forms at a source and flows
through various regions in one direction and finally reaches the sea or another river. In streams, the
water always flows downhill, whereas in rivers the water flows from the higher to lower altitudes.
Generally the velocity of water current is high. But in the deep water, the velocity of water current is
less and thereby the silt and other loose materials tend to settle at the bottom.
The water at the source is generally cooler, clearer and has high dissolved oxygen content
than at the mouth. Towards the mouth, the water becomes muddy by the sediments it carries from
the upstream and opaque to sunlight. As a result of this, there is less diversity of flora in the water.
The amount of dissolved oxygen is also reduced due to the presence of more impurities and hence
fishes that require less oxygen such as catfish, carp, etc. can be found near the mouth.
Structure and function of stream and River ecosystem

 Abiotic component: The abiotic components present in stream and river ecosystem are
organic and inorganic nutrients, temperature, light, pH, dissolved gases, sediments, etc.
 Biotic components: The living components of present in the ecosystem. Plants and animals
have adapted to live within the water flow conditions.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 38 of 65
o Producers: Algae is the most significant producer in the ecosystem. Since most of
them float freely, they are unable to maintain large populations in the fast flowing
water. Plants are found in area with low water currents. Plants such as mosses attach
themselves with solid objects whereas some free floating plants such as duckweed,
water hyacinth, etc., are moving along with water. The rooted plants are found in areas
with reduced water current and sediments. The water currents provide oxygen and
nutrients to the plants. Plants such as phytoplankton, algae, water grasses and
amphibious plants also found in river stream ecosystem.
o Consumers: All the consumers are specially adapted to different rates of water flow.
Snails and other burrowing animals can withstand the rapid flow of the hill streams
whereas the water beetles and skaters can live only in slower moving water.
 Primary consumers: They feed on the plants and other producers present in
the ecosystem. Ex: Water insects, snails, small fishes, invertebrates, etc.
 Secondary consumers: They feed on the primary consumers. Ex: fishes,
turtles, birds, frogs, toads, etc.
 Tertiary consumers: These are the large fishes feeding on fishes, eels, trout
and birds, alligators, giant sea cow.
o Decomposers: They decompose the dead plants and animals. Ex: Microorganisms
like bacteria, fungi. Various bacteria and fungi like actinomycetes are the decomposers
found in this ecosystem.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 39 of 65
Marine or Ocean Ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are the aquatic ecosystems with high levels of dissolved salts. The
physical and biological characteristic of the entire ecosystem is not the same.
Marine ecosystem is a complex living system in the ocean environment. Two third of the
Earth surface is covered with marine waters. In some places the ocean is deeper than the height
of Mount Everest’s (depths ~32,800 feet in Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean).
Melting of polar ice caps causes the rise in the sea level which affects the shape of the
ocean. This causes a widespread change in the distribution of marine environments such as coral
reefs. Variations in the characteristics of the marine environment create different habitats and
influence what types of organisms will inhabit them.
The marine organisms are not distributed evenly throughout the oceans. The availability of
light, depth of ocean, proximity to land, topographic complexity, etc., affect the marine habitats.
Zones of ocean
Because sunlight is the primary source of energy for photosynthesis plants that live in water
must live close enough to the surface to receive at least one percent of the incoming solar energy.
This layer of water is called as the euphotic zone. In clear tropical waters the euphotic zone may
extend to a depth of 80 m.
In clear water the layer beneath the euphotic zone is this disphotic zone which may extend
as deep as 800 m. The dim blue light that penetrates this zone is not sufficient to sustain
photosynthesis. The rate of respiration exceeds the rate of photosynthesis.
These two zones, the euphotic and the disphotic zones, make up the photic zone. Marine
organisms are abundant in the photic zone, especially in the euphotic portion.
Most of the warm water in the ocean lies beneath the photic zone in the lightless, black ocean
region called the aphotic zone. Organisms, such as the tripod fish and some species of sea
cucumbers and brittle stars, remain in darkness all their lives.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 40 of 65
Structure and function of Marine or Ocean ecosystem

 Abiotic components: Nonliving components of such as sea water, the ions such as chloride
(Cl−), sodium (Na+), sulphate (SO42−), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), and potassium (K+).
Around 99 % by weight of the above ions are present compared to other ions. In addition to
this, dissolved inorganic carbon, bromide, boron, strontium, fluoride, inorganic phosphorus
and nitrogen compounds and the dissolved atmospheric gases such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide, light, temperature, etc.
 Biotic components: Marine organisms have evolved a wide variety of unique physiological
and morphological features that allow them to live in the sea. Marine organisms of all sizes
are influenced by ocean current, which can determine the range of a species.
o Producers: The phytoplanktons are the major primary producers in the marine
ecosystem. Other producers include seaweeds (type of macroalgae) and seagrasses
(only flowering plant in marine environments).
o Consumers: The physical and chemical properties of seawater has influence on the
size of the organisms. The seawater is viscous to very small animals such as ciliates
but not to large animals such as tuna. Some organisms are able to inhabit the sea
water as cold as −2 °C as the proteins in their blood act as an antifreeze. Some
organisms can tolerate the changes in salinity also.
 Primary consumers: These are herbivores and feed directly on the producers.
Zooplanktons are the wide spread herbivorous consumer in the marine
ecosystem.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 41 of 65
 Secondary consumers: These feed on the herbivores. Ex: jellyfish, small

fishes, crustaceans, squid, squirt, etc.
 Tertiary consumers: These are the carnivorous animals. Generally they feed
on small fishes. Ex: larger fishes, some species of squid, octopus, predators
such as sharks, tuna, dolphins, whale, seals, walruses, stingray, etc.
o Decomposers: Decomposers are mainly the bacteria that break down dead
organisms and releases the nutrients to support the producers as well as the
consumers that feed through the organic materials in the water.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 42 of 65
Estuarine Ecosystem
An estuary is a place where a river or a stream opens into the sea (mouth of the river). It is
a partially enclosed coastal area of brackish water (salinity varies between 0-35 ppt) with one or
more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. At the
estuaries, freshwater carrying fertile silt and runoff from the land mixes with the salty sea water.
Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments.
Examples of estuaries are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes, lagoons and deltas.
All the plants and animals in the estuaries are subjected to variations in salinity to which they
are adapted. Estuaries are greatly influenced by tidal action. They are periodically washed by sea
water once or twice a day based on the number of tides.
They are the most productive water bodies in the world because of the mixing of freshwater
and saline water zone where organisms from both the ecosystems meet. This is because of the
wide-ranging species from the adjacent ecosystems being present in the ecotone. They help to
maintain the biodiversity by providing a diverse range of unique habitats that are critical for the
survival of many species. Many commercially important species of fish, shellfish, etc. use estuaries
as nurseries to spawn and allow the juveniles to grow.
Estuaries are most heavily populated areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the
world’s population living along estuaries and the coast. Estuaries store and recycle nutrients, traps
sediment and form a buffer between coastal catchments and the marine environment.
Ex.: Adyar in Fore Shore Estate, Cooum Estuary (Napier Bridge), Manakudy estuary, Pandiyar river
estuary, Punnaikayal, Palayakayal, Kayalpattinam, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 43 of 65
The Adyar River: Adyar is a well-known river in Tamil Nadu and originates from
Chembarambakkam Lake. The river lets itself into the Bay of Bengal to form the Adyar Estuary (in
Fore Shore estate). The river has a length of 42.5 km and gives way to the estuarine ecosystem in
Chennai. Lots of people take to sports like fishing and boating at the place.
Cooum River: The river Kosasthalaiyar originates near a village named Pallipet in Tiruvallur
district. In the Kesavaram village, it branches out into two rivers namely, Kosasthalaiyar and
Cooum. It is only about 72 km long and flows through Poonamallee and enters through
Arumbakkam and passes through Choolaimedu, Chetpet, Egmore and Chindadripet. Near to
Egmore, the river divides and the Southern and the Northern arms join together near the Naiper
Bridge. The river finally joins the Bay of Bengal below the Naiper Bridge.
Structure and function of Estuarine Ecosystem

 Abiotic components: Based on the local geology and climate, a rich array of habitats such
as salt marshes, mangrove forests, mudflats, tidal streams, rocky intertidal shores, and
barrier beaches, etc. surrounds estuaries.
 Biotic components: The populations of plants and animals present in estuarine ecosystem
are specially adapted to the environment because of the constant changes in salinity. As a
result of this many unique organisms are present in estuaries.
o Producers: Salt marshes are covered with salt-tolerant plants such as cordgrass and
mangrove trees grow in oxygen-poor soils. Other plants such as marsh grasses, sea
weeds, sea grasses, phytoplankton, etc.
o Consumers: Oysters are found in estuaries because they are able to adapt to the
changing environment. In addition to this, zooplankton, wood borers, fishes, shellfishes
and crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters, brine shrimp, copepods, ostracods and
mantis shrimp.
Animals from land, sea and fresh water comes to the estuary for feeding,
breeding, spawning. Since food is abundant and easy to access, it attracts varieties of
birds including gulls, ducks, wading birds, etc.
Many species of shark use estuaries as pupping grounds and these young
depends on the estuary for food and shelter until they are ready to move towards the
ocean.
o Decomposers: Microorganisms decompose the complex organic matter into simple
compounds and that enters into the nutrient cycling. Ex: bacteria, fungi, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 44 of 65
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 45 of 65
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety and variability among the living organisms and the ecosystem in
which they occur.
Biodiversity refers to every living organism, including plants, bacteria, animals, and humans.
Earth’s biodiversity is threatened by human consumption and other activities. Pollution, climate
change, population growth, etc. are the threats to biodiversity. These threats caused an exceptional
rise in the rate of extinction of species. Scientists estimate that half of all species on Earth will be
wiped out within the next century. Hence conservation is necessary to preserve the biodiversity and
protect endangered species and their habitats.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 46 of 65
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 47 of 65
Significance of biodiversity
 Biosphere is vital for a healthy biosphere and supports lives. All animals and human depend
on plants, microorganisms and animals for their food, medicine, etc.
 Biodiversity stabilise the proper functioning of biosphere. It protects the fresh air, clean water,
productive land, etc.
 It is also important for forestry, fisheries, agriculture, etc., which depend on various biological
resources.
 Loss of biodiversity is a serious economic and social issue for any country.
Causes for the Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity loss refers to the decline or disappearance of biological diversity. As per the
United Nations (UN) in 2019, out of a total of 8 million species, 1 million species are in the danger of
extinction. Some researchers remark this as the sixth mass extinction in the history of the planet.
The biodiversity has declined at an alarming rate in recent years due to human activity.
 Farmers prefer hybrid seeds and hence many original plant species have become extinct.
 For the production of drugs, pharmaceutical companies collect the wild plants. Because of
this so many medicinal plants have become extinct.
 Tropical forest is the main source of world medicine. But every year these forests disappear
due to agriculture, mining, logging and other developmental activities.
 Climate change also impacts the loss in biodiversity at various levels.
 Soil pollution and deforestation have a negative impact on biodiversity.
 Invasive species are the second biggest cause of loss of biodiversity in the world. These
species act as predators, compete for food, hybridise with native species, introduce parasites
and diseases, etc.
 The overexploitation of natural resources also has an impact on the biodiversity.
Classification of Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers a large variety of living species that developed over a long period of time
and the species are adapted to the wide range of ecological habitats that exist on earth. Based on
the types of species, these are classified as
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 48 of 65
 Genetic Diversity: Genetic Diversity refers to the range of different genetic characters
within a species. It is caused by the variation of genes within the species. Individual species
have large number of varieties due to the combination of genes.
Eg: Varieties of Rice Varieties, Banana, grapes, orange, apple etc.
Species Diversity: It is the number of various species present in an ecosystem and the relative
abundance of all of those species. Here the diversity is in between different species. Each species
interact with each other in an ecosystem.
Eg: Plant species, animal species, fruit species, bird species, microorganisms, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 49 of 65
 Ecosystem Diversity: Ecosystem diversity is the variety of different ecosystems within an

area. There is a diversity of habitats, communities and ecological process within the
ecosystem. The biotic components interact with one another and with the abiotic
components. Hence the area is large with different ecosystem.
Eg: River Ecosystem, Forest Ecosystem, etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 50 of 65
Values of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the most precious gift to the mankind. Since all the organisms are interlinked
and interdependent in an ecosystem, the value of biodiversity is enormous. The various uses of
biodiversity are classified as follows
Direct values
 Consumptive use values
 Productive use values
Indirect Values
 Social Values
 Ethical Values
 Aesthetic values
 Optional Values
1. Consumptive use values: This is related to the natural products that are consumed directly
as food, fodder, timber, fuel wood, medicine, etc. Around the World, everyday humans use at
least 40,000 species of plants and animals in various forms. Some group of people still
depends on wild species for food, shelter, clothing, etc. Tribal people completely depend on
the forests for their daily needs.
A large number of wild plants are consumed as food. About 90% of present day food
crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants.
About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts for
medicines. Drugs such as penicillin (antibiotic) derived from the fungus penicillium,
tetracycline (antibiotic) from bacterium, quinine (malarial drug) from the bark of cinchona tree,
digitalin (effective for heart ailments) derived from foxglove, vinblastine and vincristine
(anticancer drugs) derived from periwinkle (catharanthus) that possesses anticancer
alkaloids. A large number of marine animals also possess anti-cancer properties which are
yet to be explored.
Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are the products of fossilized
biodiversity. Firewood directly consumed as a fuel by the tribes and local villagers.
2. Productive use values: The products that are harvested for commercial marketing. Most of
the current agricultural crops originated from wild varieties. Animal products such as tusk of
elephants, musk of musk deer, silk from silk worm, wool from sheep, fur and skin of animals,
etc. are having very good commercial values. Many industries such as paper industry,
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 51 of 65
plywood industry, railway sleeper industry, silk industry, textile industry, ivory-works, leather
industry, pearl industry, etc., depends on biodiversity
3. Social Values: The social value of biodiversity includes social life, custom, religious, cultural
and spiritual values. Plants such as peepal, banyan, neem, tulsi, lotus, etc. are still
worshipped. Many animals such as cow, snake, bull, mouse and birds such as peacock also
has social importance. River Ganga is consider as holy river, which also having greater
importance in the society.
4. Ethical Values: This value is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. It is related to
the biodiversity conservation of protecting all forms of life and they have the right to exist on
earth. Humans are only a small part of the Earth’s biodiversity. The morality and ethics teach
us to preserve all forms of life and not to harm any life unnecessarily. Human activites such
as hunting of animals, polluting the environment, etc., must be stopped through proper
education and awareness.
Even though some of the species are not having any direct value to us, their existence
make us feel happy. Animal such as kangaroo, zebra, giraffe, etc. exist in nature and there is
an ethical value attached to each species.
5. Aesthetic values: The beauty of our planet Earth is due the biodiversity and it enhances
the quality of life and existence. Eco-tourism is the major source of income for many
countries. The natural surroundings with the diversity of flora and fauna have added
aesthetic values to many places.
6. Option Values: Option value is the value of knowing the biological resources exist on the
biosphere that is presently unknown. It may prove to be an effective option in the future.
There is a possibility to find a potential cure to AIDS or cancer from the existing marine
ecosystem or a tropical rainforests, etc. Thus the potentials of biodiversity is need to be
known.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 52 of 65
 Endemic Species: Any species whose range is restricted to a limited geographical area
(found only in a particular region).
Ex: Asiatic Lion, Sangai Deer, Lion Tailed Macaque, Kashmir Stag, Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills,
Purple Frog, Nilgiri Blue Robin, Golden monkey, Indian Wolf, Red Fox, royal penguins, polar
bears, etc.
Nepenthes, the insectivorous pitcher plant, is the only Indian native endemic species
populated in Meghalaya
These are affected by habitat loss and fragmentation because of draining and filling of
inland wetlands. Pollution is also playing a key role in the declination of endemic species.
About 62% amphiians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats. Different
species of monitor lizard, reticulated python are some important endemic species of our
country.
 Endangered Species: An endangered species is an animal or plant that is under the risk of
extinction. The number of species has been reduced to a critical level and if it is not protected
and conserved, it is in the immediate danger of extinction.
The National Endangered Species Day is celebrated each year on the 3rd Friday of
May across the country to raise awareness about the endangered species of flora and fauna.
o Ex: Animals: Asiatic Lion, Bengal Tiger, Snow Leopard, Nilgiri Tahr, Kashmiri Red
Stag
o Blackbuck, One-horned rhinoceros
o Birds: Red Headed Vulture, White Bellied Heron, Siberian Crane, Green Peacock
o Plants: sandal wood tree
Endangered species are affected by manmade pollution, over exploitation of the

natural resources, poaching of wild life, Climate change that makes the environmental
conditions not suitable for the species.
In India, nearly 450 plant species have been identified in the categories of
endangered, threatened or rare. Existence of about 150 mammals and 150 species of birds
is estimated to be threatened while an unknown number of species of insects are
endangered.
A few species of endangered reptiles, birds, mammals and plants are given below:
o Reptiles: Green sea turtle, tortoise, python
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 53 of 65
o Birds: Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian Hornbill, Siberian
o Carnivorous Mammals: Indian wolf, red fox, red panda, tiger, leopard, Indian, lion,
golden cat, desert cat
o Primates: Hoolock gibbon, capped monkey, golden monkey
o Plants: A large number of species of orchids, Rododendrons, medicinal plants like
Rauvolfia serpentina, the sandal, wood tree santalum, cycas beddonei etc
The Zoological Survey of India reported that Cheetah, Pink headed duck and mountain
quail have already become extinct from India.
A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous decline

due to overexploitation or habitat destruction.
Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk are
categorized as rare species.
 Extinct Species: Organisms that have become extinct, either in the wild or completely
disappeared from Earth for 50 years at a stretch.
Ex: Dinosaurs, Dodo, Passenger pigeon
In India: Cheetah (Acionyx jubatus), Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensisi), pink
headed duck, (Rhodonessa caryophyllaceai) Himalayan quail (Ophrysia supercililios)
 Invasive Species: An invasive species is a non-native living organism in an ecosystem and

harms the ecosystem.
These species can harm the environment, the economy, or even human health.
Ex: Lantana, parthenium, water hyacinth, Seemai karuvelam (Prosopis juliflora), African
apple snail, catla catla fish.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 54 of 65
Biogeographic classification of India
Unity in diversity
The term unity in diversity relates to the state of togetherness or integrity despite the
presence of infinite diversity (harmony and unity between dissimilar individuals or groups).
Unity in diversity is the concept where the individual or social differences in physical
attributes, skin color, castes, creed, cultural and religious practices, etc. are not looked upon as a
conflict. Rather, these differences are looked upon as varieties that enrich the society and the
nation as a whole.
Our country can be divided into ten major regions based on the geography, climate and
pattern of vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects
and other invertebrates that live in them. Each of these regions contain a variety of ecosystems
such as forests, grass lands, lakes, rivers, mountains and hills which have specific plant and
animals species.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 55 of 65
India’s Biogeographic Zones are given below:

1. The cold mountainous snow covered Trans-Himalayan region of ladakh
2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam
and other north eastern States.
3. The Terai, the low land where the Himalayan rivers flow into the plains
4. The Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains.
5. The Thar Desert of Rajastan
6. The semi-arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu
7. The North eastern States of India
8. The Western Ghats in Maharastra, Karnataka and Kerala
9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands
10. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests and mangroves.
Reason for rich biodiversity in the tropics

 The tropics have a more stable climate.
 Warm temperature and high humidity.
 There is an opportunity for many species to co-exists.
 There is no single species domination
 Rate of out crossing to be higher in tropics.
India is the second largest nation containing 5% of Worlds’ biodiversity and 2% of Earth’s
surface. India is the mega diversity nation because it is rich in flora and fauna. There is a high
demand for Indian species in abroad.
More than 2000 medicinal plants are in India to cure many diseases. Example: Tulsi and
neem, turmeric is anti-carcinogenic.
Commercial value incluse Indian sandal wood, Indian tobacco, Mushrooms, etc.
Ornamental plants and more than 100 species of microorganisms of Indian soil are more
valuable in foreign countries.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 56 of 65
Red Data Book

The Red Data Book is the list established for documenting rare and endangered species of
animals, plants and fungi as well as some local sub-species that exist within the territory of the
state or country. This book provides central information for studies and monitoring programmes on
the rare and endangered species and their habits. It gives the warning signal for those species
which are endangered and if not protected them, they will become extinct in near future.
The purpose of preparation of Red list
 Provide awareness to the degree of threat to biodiversity.
 Provide global index on already decline of biodiversity.
 Identification of species at high risk of extinction.
 Help in conservation action.
 Information about international agreements.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), is a network of environmental
organizations founded in October 1948 in France, to promote nature conservation and the
ecologically sustainable use of natural resources. Its headquarters is in Switz.
IUCN Red List India (As of March 2019)
 Critically Endangered Mammals
o Himalayan Brown/Red Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus)
o Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania)
o Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis)
o Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana)
o Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira)
o Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi)
o Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)
o Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
o Kashmir stag/hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu)
 Endangered Mammals
o Tigers (including Bengal Tiger)
o Asiatic Lion (Included Gir Lions)
o Red Panda
o Dhole/Asiatic wild dog or Indian wild dog (Cuon alpinus)
o Eld’s deer/thamin or brow-antlered deer (Panolia eldii)
o Golden langur (Trachypithecus geei)
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 57 of 65
o Himalayan / White-bellied Musk Deer

o Hispid hare/ Assam rabbit (Caprolagus hispidus)
o Hog deer
o Lion-tailed macaque/ wanderoo (Macaca silenus)
o Nilgiri tahr
o Kharai Camel-India’s swimming camels
Hotspots of Biodiversity
Hotspots are the geographical areas which possess high endemic species. To recognize as
a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two criteria
 It must have a high percentage of endemics plant life found nowhere else on the planet.
 It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation and must be threatened.
Ex: Eastern Himalayas, Western Ghats, the Indo-Burma region and the Sunderland (Includes
Nicobar group of Islands).
Area of Hot spot
 It covers less than 2% of World area.
 There are 50,000 endemic species in world.
 It must contain at least 0.5 % of endemic species.
 About 405 terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrate are endemic species found in hot spots.
 These are area of high diversity.
 These area threatened by many human activities.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 58 of 65
Threats to Biodiversity
The negative impacts of human activity cause a rapid loss to the biodiversity. Scientists
have assessed more than 47,000 species and found that 36 % of these are threatened with
extinction. In addition the extinction rates are estimated between 50 and 500 times higher. The
current rate of biodiversity loss has led many to suggest that the Earth is currently experiencing a
sixth major extinction event, one greater than that which resulted in the extinction of the
dinosaurs. However, unlike past extinction events, which were caused by natural disasters and
planetary changes, this one is being driven by human actions.
Various threats to Indian Biodiversity are
1. Habitat Loss
Habitat loss occurs when a particular area is converted to an unusable habitat. Industrial
activities, agriculture, aquaculture, mining, deforestation, water extraction, etc., are the major causes
for habitat loss.
Factors influencing habitat loss
(i) Loss of habitat due to deforestation activities
(ii) Wetlands, estuaries, mangroves, etc., are destroyed due to draining, filling and pollution
which cause huge biodiversity loss.
(iii) Habitats fragmented for the construction of dams, agricultural activities also increase the
biodiversity loss. Dividing the habitats into small and scattered patches leads to threaten
the wild lives.
(iv) For the production of hybrid seeds, the wild plants are used as raw material.
(v) Many pharmaceutical companies collect wild plant for the production of drugs. Therefore
several medicinal plant species are on the verge of extinction.
(vi) Illegal trade on wild life also reduces the biodiversity and leads to habitat loss.
(vii) Forest fire also affects the habitats of plants and animals.
(viii) Development activities such as construction of roadways, railways etc., affects the habitat.
Habitat Fragmentation: Fragmentation of habitat is of destroying a natural habitat (in any
ecosystem) and left with smaller unconnected areas. This occurs naturally, as a result of
fire or volcanic eruptions but is normally due to human activity such as developmental
projects and urban expansion.
For example, construction of a roadway within the mountain divides it into two
fragments. For the wild lives living in the mountain, the road is an obstacle and affecting
their lives.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 59 of 65
Reddiarpatti bypass in Tiunelveli district
Nowadays eco-bridges are constructed to enhance wildlife connectivity that is

disrupted due to habitat fragmentation. These eco-bridges include underpass tunnels,
viaducts, overpasses, canopy bridge, tunnels and culverts, green roofs, etc.
Ecobridge in Singapore Ecobridge in Uttarakhand
2. Poaching of Wildlife
Poaching is another major threat to biodiversity. Poaching is the illegal hunting, capturing,
and often killing of wild animals. Poaching is a major threat to numerous wild lives in worldwide and
is an important contributor to the biodiversity loss.
Hunting has been practiced as a hobby for a long period of time. Generally hunter starts
with the smaller animals and move onto the larger ones. Many designated hunting areas are
present all over the world. But apart from hobby, hunting becomes illegal for the following
activities.
 Subsistence poaching: Killing of animals for food
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 60 of 65
 Commercial poaching: Killing animals for commercial activities and Illegal trade of animal
parts, meat and pelts.
 It includes hunting for meat on a larger scale for the purposes of selling.
 Capture of live animals for export as pets.
 Killing certain creatures for reaping the part. Ex.: elephants for ivory, rhinoceros for
horn, lions and tigers for skins and bones, bears for paws and bile, , etc.
 Animals such as Bears, tigers, rhinos, pangolin are hunted for folk medicines.
Remedy Measures to control poaching
 Buying and selling of wildlife animal parts and products should be banned.
 Poaching can be stopped by enforcing stringent laws.
 The public needs to be educated on the importance of the wild animals, impacts of poaching,
etc.
 More wildlife rangers and scouts need to be recruited and they will help to protect the
endangered animals.
 Trade of animal parts and selling of wildlife as exotic pets should be curbed.
 The animals that are on the verge of extinction can be protected at sanctuaries.
 Demarcation of wild life zoning will restrict the trespassers and developmental activities.
 Harmless and undetectable trackers need to be used to track poaching, logging, and other
illegal wildlife activities.
3. Human-Wildlife Conflicts (HWC)

Human-wildlife conflict occurs when animals pose a direct and frequent threat to the
livelihood or safety of people. These conflicts may result when wildlife damage crops, threaten, kill
or injure people and domestic animals. The major cause for the human-wildlife conflict is
increasing human population adjacent to the wildlife habitats or encroaching the wildlife habitats.
As the human population increases and the demand for resources are soaring, the frequency and
intensity of HWC increases. As a result, the animal species which are unable to adapt to altered
habitats may invade the borderline habitats.
Conflict between human and animals is one of the major threats for the continued survival of
many species in different parts of the world. It’s also a significant threat to the local human
populations too.
People lose their crops, livestock, property and sometimes their lives. The animals, many of
which are already threatened or endangered, are often killed in revenge or to prevent future
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 61 of 65
conflicts. Human wildlife conflicts challenge the human welfare, health, safety and have economic
and social cost.
Frequently occurring human-wildlife conflict animals are Asian leopards, bears and wolves,
elephants, jaguars and spectacled bears, tigers, etc.
These are considered as the major root causes for human wildlife conflict.
 Agricultural expansion
 Human settlement
 Overgrazing by livestock
 Deforestation
 Illegal grass collection
 Poaching
Remedial Measures
 Proper compensation for animal induced damage should be given.
 Adequate food and water should available in the forest zones. Cropping pattern can also be
changed near the forest border.
 Creating zones for both human and animals and protecting the key areas of the wild life.
 Consumers across the World should use wildlife friendly products.
 Solar power fencing can be erected to prevent the entry of wildlife to crop fields or villages
thereby the damage for human and human property and to wildlife is reduced.
 Developmental and construction activities must be stopped around the forest region.
 Involving the society such as international organizations, governments, NGOs, communities,
consumers and individuals, etc. to prevent the conflict between the wildlife and human.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 62 of 65
Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, restoration of wildlife and natural

resources. Through the conservation of biodiversity, the survival of many species and habitats are
safeguarded from the man made threats. In addition to this, the valuable natural resources are
protected for the future generations and the functions of ecosystems are also maintained for a
sustainable life.
Types of Biodiversity Conservation
1. In-situ Conservation (within the natural habitat)
2. Ex-situ Conservation (outside the natural habitat)
In-situ Conservation
In-situ conservation involves the protection of flora and fauna within the natural ecosystem. It
protects the endangered plants or animal species in its natural habitat and defending the species
from predators.
Important in-situ conservation practices are
 Biosphere reserves
 national parks
 wildlife sanctuaries
 gene sanctuary
Biosphere Reserves: Biosphere reserves are large protected area of usually more than 5000
sq.km. The inner zone is undisturbed and legally protected area. In the buffer zone some research
and educational activities are permitted. In the outermost zone, cropping, forestry, recreation, fishery
and other activities are allowed.
There are 18 biosphere reserves in India.
Eg: Sunderbans (WB), Gluf of Mannar (TN), Nilgiri (Karantaka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu).
Role of Biosphere Reserves
 It gives a long term protection for the evolving ecosystem.
 It protects endangered species and maximum number of species and communities.
 It serves as a site of recreation and tourism
 It is useful for educational and research purposes.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 63 of 65
National Parks: A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the benefit of the wildlife.
These are usually small reserves spreading in an area of 100 to 500 sq. km and the boundaries
are confined. Activities such as forestry, grazing, private ownership rights are not allowed.
There are 101 national parks in India
Eg: Gir National park (Gujarat- Indian Lion), Periyar (Kerala- Tiger, Elephant), Silent Valley
National Park (Kerala), Mukurthi National Park (Tamil Nadu - keystone species, the Nilgiri Tahr)
Role of a National Parks
 Used for tourism without affecting the environment.
 It is used to protect, propagate and develop the wildlife.
Wildlife Sanctuaries: A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the conservation of only
animals. Boundaries of the sanctuaries are not well defined and controlled tourist activities are
allowed. Human activities such as harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products and private
ownership rights are allowed without affecting the well-being of animals.
At present, there are 553 wildlife sanctuaries in India
Eg: Mudumalai (Tamil Nadu - Tiger, Elephant), Vedanthangal (Tamil Nadu - Water birds)
Koonthankulam Bird Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu - breeding water birds)
Gene Sanctuary: Gene sanctuary is an area where the plants conserved. It is the area of great
genetic diversity that is protected from human interference.
It is a very good method of in situ conservation. The maintenance and establishment is a
difficult task. In India, the first gene sanctuary was setup in the Garo Hills of Assam for wild relatives
of citrus species.
Ex: In India two gene sanctuaries - One for citrus family and other for pitcher plant
Advantages of in-situ conservation

 It is a cost-effective method and convenient to conserve biodiversity
 In this type of arrangement, many living organisms can be conserved simultaneously
 Since the organisms can stay in their natural ecosystem, they are allowed to evolve to
better environmental conditions
 Species gets adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 64 of 65
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation

 Large surface area of the earth is required to preserve the biodiversity.
 Maintenance of the habitats is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution.
Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation involves breeding and maintenance of endangered species of flora and
fauna outside their natural habitat. In this method, there is a little or no competition for food, water
and space between animal species.
Ex.: zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks and others.
Methods of Ex-situ Conservation
 National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi: Agricultural and
horticultural crops are preserved by cryogenic technique using liquid Nitrogen (−196 °C).
Varieties of rice, pearl millet, Brescia, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli,
tobacco etc., have been preserved
 National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR), Haryana: It preserves the
semen of domesticated bovine animals.
 National Bureau of Fish genetic Resources (NBFGR), Allahabad: It preserves of genetic
material of rare fishes.
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
 The arrangement provides for all the essential life-sustaining conditions like food, climate,
veterinary care. Etc. Hence the survival of endangered species is increasing.
 Animals are assured food, water, shelter and security hence it has longer life span.
 Artificial breeding methods can be used to successful breeding and create many more off
springs thus saving many endangered species.
 Carried out endangered species do not have any changes of survival in the world.
 Species is protected from poaching and population management is very effective.
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation:
 It is expensive method.
 Freedom of wildlife is lost.
 Animals cannot survive in natural environment.
 It can be adopted only for few selected species.
*****************************
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 65 of 65

Ecosystem and Biodiversity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ecosystem and Biodiversity

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ecosystem and Biodiversity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

B.Tech.

Even Semester Mar – Jun 2023

Module-2 Ecosystem and Biodiversity 8

Structure (or) Components of an Ecosystem

i. Biotic components: The living components present in an ecosystem is called as biotic

 Herbivores (Primary consumers) Plant eaters - Eg. Cow, Elephant, Giraffe

Energy flow in an ecosystem

Significance of food chain

Types of Food Chains

Significance of Food Web

Bioaccumulation is the accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a particular organism.

Food Chain Food Web

1. Pyramids of Numbers: The pyramid of numbers represents the number of individual

Stages of Ecological Succession

3. Competition: As the numbers of individuals increases due to multiplication and

Types of Terrestrial Ecosystem

Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem

 streams in some locations

Structure and function of Forest Ecosystem

Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystem

 Grasslands are home for a huge variety of grazing animals.

Structure and function of Grassland Ecosystems

Other keystone species

Characteristics of Desert Ecosystems

Structure and Functions of Desert Ecosystems

prickly pears Euphorbia tortilis Saguaro

Desert Gourds Cassava Agaves

Sotols Ocotillo (Desert coral) Creosote Bush

Poppies Daisies Khejri

Lakes and Pond Ecosystem

Structure and function of lake and pond ecosystem

River and Stream Ecosystem

Structure and function of stream and River ecosystem

Marine or Ocean Ecosystem

Structure and function of Marine or Ocean ecosystem

 Secondary consumers: These feed on the herbivores. Ex: jellyfish, small

Structure and function of Estuarine Ecosystem

Causes for the Loss of Biodiversity

 Ecosystem Diversity: Ecosystem diversity is the variety of different ecosystems within an

Endangered species are affected by manmade pollution, over exploitation of the

A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous decline

 Invasive Species: An invasive species is a non-native living organism in an ecosystem and

Biogeographic classification of India

India’s Biogeographic Zones are given below:

Reason for rich biodiversity in the tropics

Red Data Book

o Himalayan / White-bellied Musk Deer

Reddiarpatti bypass in Tiunelveli district

Nowadays eco-bridges are constructed to enhance wildlife connectivity that is

Ecobridge in Singapore Ecobridge in Uttarakhand

3. Human-Wildlife Conflicts (HWC)

Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, restoration of wildlife and natural

Advantages of in-situ conservation

Disadvantages of in-situ conservation

You might also like