AMERICA’S CUP YACHTS - RECENT DESIGN DEVELOPMENTS

Peter van Oossanen, Van Oossanen & Associates, The Netherlands

SUMMARY

In this paper a review is presented of recent trends in the design of America’s Cup Class (ACC) yachts , in particular
with respect to the design of the canoe body and the appendages. These trends are presented as a logical result of the
continuing search for more speed. For example, it is shown that the search for designs with better all-round performance
has resulted in narrower hull forms. Likewise, the quest to find higher speeds sailing upwind, at relatively large angles of
heel, has resulted in the adoption of extremely U-shaped sections.

After critically examining the America’s Cup Class Rule, an overview of some notable design trends and innovations
during the 1992 to 2003 period is presented. More recent developments in the design of ACC yachts, both those that are
apparent to the trained eye and some that are perhaps not so apparent, are then examined. Aspects of the canoe body and
the appendages, to which a lot of attention is now focused, are discussed.

Many experienced designers are of the opinion that further design innovations, leading to a significant jump in
performance, are no longer possible within the constraints of the existing ACC Rule. This topic is also discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION those seriously wanting to leave no stone unturned in the

search for a performance edge - still a very intensive
The use of the America’s Cup Class (ACC) Rule for the design project, requiring considerable man-power and
design of the yachts for the America’s Cup events in budget.
1992, 1995, 2000 and 2003, has led to a very specific
yacht, both with respect to its dimensions and its After critically examining the America’s Cup Class Rule
geometric details. Although the trained eye will have in paragraph 2, this paper first gives an overview of some
acknowledged differences between the boats in the 2003 notable design trends and innovations during the 1992 to
event, the untrained eye will not have noticed many 2003 period in paragraph 3. More recent developments in
significant differences. The present-day ACC yacht is the design of ACC yachts, both those that are apparent to
about 24.5 m long, about 3.6 m wide on the deck, the trained eye and some that are perhaps not so
displaces about 25000 kg, has a fin keel to which is apparent, are then examined. Aspects of the canoe body
attached a long torpedo-like bulb with a mass of about and the appendages, to which a lot of attention is now
20000 kg, to which are fitted high aspect ratio winglets. focused, are covered in paragraphs 4 and 5. The
A single, relatively deep rudder, with a very small chord, possibility of identifying further design innovations,
completes the configuration, as shown in figure 1. leading to a small or large jump in performance, is then
discussed in paragraph 6. Conclusions and final remarks
America’s Cup yachts are today designed by a large team are listed in paragraph 7.
of qualified persons, in number ranging from 4 to more
than 12 or so. In these teams the yacht designer-naval The mast, rig and sails are not addressed in this paper.
architect usually plays an important role in ensuring that There are others associated with the design of ACC
the many elements of the yacht are integrated into the yachts that are more capable to address these topics.
overall design in a way leading to optimum performance,
while hydrodynamicists, aerodynamicists, people fluent
in the process of applying and understanding
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software,
structural engineers, sail and spar designers, etc, all play
an important role in researching the many detailed
aspects of the design.

Most designers and specialists involved in the design of

this type of yacht are likely to agree that it is now no
longer possible to define design improvements leading to
major performance gains. Only relatively small
performance improvements remain to be identified
within the configuration that is now almost universally
adopted. While this may seem comforting to some
competing for the America’s Cup because of the fact that Figure 1: Tank testing model of a typical 2003 ACC
it is not very likely that a design team today will design a yacht
yacht totally “off the pace”, it is at the same time - for
2. THE AMERICA’S CUP CLASS RULE - 19.3) will allow an LBG value approaching 20.3 and,
usually, a value of LBG is chosen of about 20.2, yielding
In this paragraph the main design constraints as listed a value of L of about 22.2. Table 1 shows the effect on L
and described in the America’s Cup Class Rule are when LBG approaches the value 20.4.
discussed. Version 4.0 of the Rule (see the list of
references in paragraph 8) is adopted for this purpose The rated sail area S is defined as:
because of the unavailability of version 5.0, at the time of
preparing this paper.
⎝
( 8
)
S = SM ⎛⎜1 + 0.001 SM 1 2 − 16.9 ⎞⎟
⎠
The main formula of the Rule requires a trade-off where:
between length of the canoe body, sail area, and
displacement, as follows:
SM = MSA +
(I ⋅ J )
2
L + 1.25 ⋅ S 1 2 − 9.8 ⋅ DSP 1 3
≤ 24 metres in which:
0.679
In this formula: SM = measured sail area;
MSA = mainsail area;
L = rated length; I = height of foretriangle;
S = rated sail area; J = base of foretriangle.
DSP = displacement in cubic metres in the
so-called measurement condition. The maximum value of SM without appreciable penalty,
is about 182 = 324 m2. This follows from the same
Rated length is defined as: consideration as described above for L, see table 2.

( )
L = LM 1 + 0.01(LM − 21.2)8 + FP + DP + WP + BP The displacement DSP is simply the mass of
displacement in kg divided by 1025 and, in salt water
in which:
with a density of 1025 kg/m3, corresponds to the volume
LM = LBG + G of displacement in m3. The minimum value of DSP
without penalty is 16000/1025 = 15.61 m3, and the
where: maximum value of DSP without penalty is 25000/1025 =
24.39 m3.
LM = measured length;
LBG = length between girth stations;
G = girth component of LM;
FP = freeboard penalty; Table 1: The effect on rated length L on increasing the
DP = draft penalty; length between girths stations LBG
WP = weight penalty; Increment in L for 0.1
BP = beam penalty. LBG (m) L (m) increase in LBG (m)
19.8 21.701 0.101
The length between girth stations LBG is measured at a 19.9 21.804 0.103
height of 200 mm above the measured waterline MWL. 20.0 21.913 0.109
MWL is the plane of flotation of the yacht in sea water 20.1 22.037 0.124
with a density of 1025 kg/m3 in the measurement 20.2 22.195 0.158
condition. 20.3 22.422 0.227
20.4 22.778 0.356
The girth G is the sum of a transverse girth measurement
at the forward girth station FGS, situated at the forward
extremity of LBG, and at the aft girth station AGS,
Table 2: Table 2. The effect on rated sail area S on
situated at the aft extremity of LBG. The hull form is
increasing measured sail area SM
nowadays shaped so as to be able to adopt the minimum
values of 0.3 m at the FGS and 1.6 m at the AGS, Increment in S for 0.1
without penalties. Accordingly we can write: SM (m) S (m) increase in SM (m)
LM = LBG + 1.9 metres 17.5 17.500 0.100
17.6 17.601 0.101
and 17.7 17.703 0.102

( )
17.8 17.808 0.105
L = (LBG + 1.9) 1 + 0.01(LBG − 19.3)8 17.9 17.918 0.110
18.0 18.039 0.121
This relationship is today strictly adhered to so as to be 18.1 18.178 0.139
able to maximum LBG. The 8th power of the term (LBG
 Figure 2: Graphical representation of the main formula of the ACC Rule.

With few exceptions, ACC yachts that have either raced Velocity Prediction Program (VPP) and some model tank
in the Luis Vuitton Cup or in the actual America’s Cup, test data to analyse 85 different designs. Effects of
are positioned in one specific corner of the ACC Rule. length, displacement and sail area were looked at in
This is the corner where rated length L is maximum, detail. Most of these 85 yachts, understandably, did not
rated sail area ( S ) is maximum, and displacement DSP rate according to the formula that was subsequently
is maximum, without appreciable penalties. These drawn up. Knowing how difficult it is to develop a VPP
values, as seen above are about 22.2, 18.0 and 24.39 that is able to rate the performance of a wide range of
respectively. Substituting these in the ACC rating designs fairly, it is not surprising that the developed
formula gives a value of 23.976, which requires little expression was found to be biased towards one corner of
fine-tuning to obtain 24 metres. the design space.

The main formula of the ACC Rule is graphically Nevertheless, the existing ACC Rule has well-served the
represented in figure 2. America’s Cup event ever since its introduction. The
resulting ACC yacht has allowed for close racing and a
In both Cup venues to date (San Diego in 1992 and 1995, supremely good performance to windward. Altogether 82
in predominantly light winds, and Auckland in 2000 and ACC yachts have been built up to 2003.
2003, in a wide range of wind conditions), the best
performing designs were in this corner of the Rule. It is The ACC Rule allows for a wide range of appendage
clear that the group of designers and racing rule configurations. Nothing is specified in this regard except
developers, responsible for the first version of the ACC that there may be only 2 movable (i.e. rotatable)
rule and this rating formula (developed in 1988 and appendages. The axis of rotation of each movable
1989), in which sail area, length and displacement are appendage must be in the symmetry plane of the yacht at
traded-off, failed to develop an equitable formula in an angle not exceeding 45 degrees to the vertical. It is
which more than one combination of these 3 factors leads further stipulated that appendage rotation must not
to similar performance in certain wind conditions. The influence the righting moment or the fore and aft trim of
Wolfson Unit (see the list of references) was tasked to the yacht. It is also required that appendages are attached
develop this rule formula by the America’s Cup Class to the canoe body in a narrow region, 250 mm wide from
Technical Committee, charged with developing a new the forward end of the measurement trim waterline to a
class of yacht for the America’s Cup event to replace the point 0.25 x LBG further aft, and in a region 500 mm
International Twelve Metre Class that had been used for wide, aft of that, to the aft end of LBG, both regions
this purpose for so long. The Wolfson Unit used a being positioned symmetrically along the centre line. It is
in this region only that the canoe body may have hollows these differences are more significant. The TNZ bow
(and then only in conjunction with fitting an appendage). retains most of these characteristics, while generating a
Different types of appendage configurations have been longer waterline length when heeled and a more effective
adopted on ACC yachts. Over the years, however, a curve of sectional areas in connection with reducing
majority of the design teams have opted for the wave drag.
traditional fin keel with trim tab, to which are fitted a
long bulb and winglets. A single, conventional rudder 3.3 TOPSIDES FLARE
completes the appendage configuration.
Early ACC boats had considerable topsides flare. Again,
Other notable limitations in the ACC Rule is a maximum the reasoning for this was that it was necessary to
overall beam, without penalty, of 5.5 m, a maximum maximize stability. Today, we realize that topsides flare
draft without penalty of 4 m (in the measurement increases both viscous and wave resistance when the
condition), a minimum set of freeboards, a set of leeward side of the canoe body is heeled into the water.
prescribed construction materials, specifications on the Careful testing has shown that flare such as incorporated
size and position of the cockpit, hatches and other on the 1992 and some 1995 designs is more harmful to
openings, etc. performance than the reduction in stability associated
with little or no such flare.
3. OVERVIEW OF SOME NOTABLE DESIGN
TRENDS DURING 1992 - 2003 3.4 APPENDAGE CONFIGURATIONS

3.1 WATERLINE BEAM The appendage configuration universally adopted for

2003 was that of the standard fin keel with trim tab, with
The most marked design trend over the years has been bulb and winglets, often denoted as the T-keel
that of a reducing waterline beam. Early ACC designs configuration. Only the second British yacht - that has
had waterline beam values of between 4.0 and 4.5 been quoted as “being off the pace” - had a different
metres. Now, this typically varies between 3.3 and 3.5 appendage set. In 1992, the tandem keel was popular
metres. It is remarkable that it took till the year 2000, for (used by New Zealand and Australia) but although NZL
the majority of the competing teams to discover this. 20 was fast, narrowly missing out on winning the Louis
Most experts will agree that America3’s successful Vuitton Cup, this concept was not to re-appear again (not
defence of the Cup in 1992 was for a large part due to counting the keel of GBR 78 which has been reported to
having discovered the importance of a smaller waterline have a tandem keel). Since then, the conventional T-keel
beam. Il Moro di Venezia (ITA 25), the Italian configuration has been used, with the exception of the
challenger, was markedly beamier than the defending yacht used by the first Swiss entry in the America’s Cup
yacht (USA 23). America3’s huge research effort in 2000 (see reference 4) and the second British boat in
(probably the biggest ever undertaken in America’s Cup 2003. An overview of the appendage sets used on ACC
history, see reference 3) was not successful in pin- yachts to date is shown in Figure 3.
pointing the optimum value. It was the New Zealanders
(NZL 32 and NZL 38) and the Australians (the ill-fated 4. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CANOE
AUS 35), in the 1995 event, that homed in on the correct BODY DESIGN
value for the first time.
4.1 IMPROVEMENTS WITH RESPECT TO
The search for stability was considered paramount in the REDUCING HYDRODYNAMIC RESISTANCE
early years of ACC design. The opinion amongst the
designers that participated in formulating the ACC Rule The present search for the optimum canoe body is
in 1988 and 1989 was that beam should be maximized, concentrated on relatively small geometric details.
not minimized, and the 5.5 metre limit, still part of the Optimum length, beam and displacement values are well
Rule, was then formulated. established. With the exception of beam, these values
appear to be little influenced by wind speed or venue. For
3.2 BOW SHAPE the conditions prevailing at San Diego (predominantly
light conditions) and at Auckland (predominantly
Where bow shape in 1992 varied from the typical moderate to heavy conditions), the choice of waterline
destroyer-type bows of the IOR and IMS Classes, to the length and displacement are basically the same. Design
so-called spoon bow with a significant overhang, similar details are now focused on deriving a shape that will
to that of the International Metre Classes, the bow generate the least hydrodynamic resistance in the heeled
geometry now seems to be settled in favour of that first condition while retaining the required stability, and the
introduced by Team New Zealand (TNZ) in 2000 on best interaction with the appendages to generate the
NZL 57 and NZL 60. The spoon bow is recognized to be highest effective appendage span, producing minimum
more effective in generating slightly lower wave drag induced drag.
values in specific Froude number regions, due to
differences in trim and sinkage. When sailing in waves,
 one with sections as used in 1992, and an ACC yacht
typical of the 2000-2003 crop, both scaled to the same
LBG length. The associated change in heeled waterline
length is shown in figure 5.

The hull of a sailing yacht with moderate to heavy

displacement will sink further into the water at speeds in
excess of a Froude number of about 0.30, because of the
presence of a relatively deep wave trough amidships.
When the yacht has bow and stern overhangs such as
ACC yachts have, extra waterline length is thereby
created. This fact, amongst others, warrants a detailed
study of the curve of sectional areas, i.e. the distribution
of volume along the length. Model test results indicate
that it pays to distribute volume from the middle of the
boat to the bow and stern region, more so than what
would be considered normal in the case of other design
classes. The TNZ bow allows such a volume distribution
more effectively in the bow region. The “Hula” as
adopted by TNZ in 2003 (to be discussed further below)
and bustles, as adopted in the International Metre
Classes, allow such a volume distribution more
effectively in the aft-body region.

The ACC type of bow and stern overhangs, together with

the typical U-shaped sections utilized today, with little or
no topsides flare, will allow a 2003 ACC yacht to sail to
windward at boat speeds as high as 10 knots. This
corresponds to a Froude number, based on the static
waterline length at zero heel, in excess of 0.38. Other
classes of yachts with similar length-displacement ratios,
will not exceed Froude number values of about 0.34
Figure 3: Types of appendages used on ACC yachts to when sailing to windward at an optimum VMG point-of-
date (configurations used for experimentation sail.
purposes and not for racing are not shown).
The sum of all of these improvements, including those
associated with the appendages, sail fabric and sail and
rig design, between 1992 and 2003, have led to an
increase in boat speeds, sailing to windward, of about 0.7
knots.

It is also interesting to note that, because of the above-

mentioned canoe body features, the modern ACC yacht
is now actually more hydrodynamically efficient sailing
at relatively large angles of heel than when sailing
upright. The reduction in resistance with heel is the
primary reason for this. In figure 6, this decrease in
resistance of a modern ACC canoe body is shown.

Figure 4: Body plan of two canoe bodies, one with

4.2 IMPROVEMENTS WITH RESPECT TO
section shapes as adopted in 1992, and one INCREASING EFFECTIVE APPENDAGE
typical of the present ACC design, revealing SPAN
how the ACC yacht has evolved.
Attention is now also focused on the influence of the
The search for the optimum canoe body shape in heeled shape of the canoe body on the effective span of the
conditions is totally a result of the priority placed on appendages and how the effective span (also termed
performance upwind. To achieve a long waterline length effective draught) can be maximized. The effective span
when heeled, U-shaped sections are now utilized over the is related to side force and the associated induced drag,
total length of the hull. This can be seen in figure 4 in as follows.
which the body plans of two canoe bodies are overlaid,
 ρ = density of water;
V = velocity of yacht;
AL = lateral area of side-force producing
body (canoe body, keel and rudder);
CL = lift coefficient associated with the
total lift produced on canoe body,
keel and rudder = L / (½ ρV2AL);
L = total lift produced on canoe body,
keel and rudder = SF / cos(φ);
SF = total side force;
φ = heel angle;
1+σ = (aerodynamic) induced drag factor
accounting for the fact that the span-
wise loading is not elliptical;
AR = geometric aspect ratio of total lifting
surface (canoe body, keel and
rudder).

It follows that:

ρ V 2C DI AL = ρ V 2C L2 (1 + σ ) L
1 1 A
RI =
2 2 π AR
The geometric aspect ratio can be written as:
Figure 5: Waterlines at 15, 20, 25 and 30 degrees of heel
of the two canoe bodies shown in figure 4, 2
Tmax
revealing the longer (and more symmetrical) AR =
waterlines associated with the narrower and
AL
more U-shaped canoe body.
where Tmax is the maximum draught of the hull (for ACC
yachts this is 4 metres in the measurement trim
condition). Substituting this, and re-writing the equation
in terms of side force, we obtain:

(1 + σ )
2
⎛ SF ⎞
RI = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ cos(φ ) ⎠ π ρ V 2T 2
1
max
2

The factor 1 + σ, for airplane configurations varies

between 1.2 and 1.4. For the underwater configuration of
an ACC yacht, this usually varies between 1.2 and 2.0,
depending on geometry and Froude number (the amount
of wave-making in particular).

Usually, an effective draught is defined as:

Figure 6: The resistance of a typical 2000-2003 ACC
canoe body, at 3 speeds, from 0 to 30 degrees Tmax
Te =
of heel (Froude numbers are based on static 1+ σ
waterline length).
so that:
2
The induced drag can be written as: ⎛ SF ⎞ 1
RI = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
1 ⎝ cos(φ ) ⎠ π 1 ρ V 2T 2
RI = ρ V 2C DI AL 2
e
2
in which the induced drag coefficient is: A good value for the effective draught of an ACC yacht,
at maximum speeds sailing to windward, is anything in
C DI = C L2
(1 + σ ) excess of 3.0 metre. Effective draught decreases with
π AR increasing heel angle and increasing Froude number.
Side force augmentation due to trim tab and rudder angle
In these equations: increases effective draught substantially. Particularly the
trim tab is very efficient in increasing the side force
without a significant increase in induced drag.

The effect of the canoe body on the level of the induced

drag is a complex matter, requiring studies using both
CFD and model testing. The keel fin generates additional
lift on the canoe body and the canoe body generates
additional lift on the keel fin. The induced drag
associated with these lift carry-over components is
different, one being more efficient than the other. When
keel draft is limited such as on an ACC yacht, the
optimum canoe body is now recognized to be relatively
deep and flat-bottomed in the vicinity of the keel fin, and
in front thereof.
Figure 8: Effect of a moderate bustle, such as the
“Hula”, on the curve of sectional areas of a
Here we must make the observation that both tests in a modern ACC.
wind tunnel and in the towing tank are required to be
able to determine the level of the induced drag at specific
heel and leeway angles, and specific settings of the trim 4.3 THE EFFECT OF A BUSTLE
tab and rudder. This is because in the towing tank it is
difficult to subtract the inevitable change in wave The bustle1, first developed by Olin Stephens for the
resistance from the total increase in resistance that occurs Twelve Metre “Intrepid” in 1967 (see references 6 and
when the side force is increased on the model (see 7), consists of the addition of volume to the canoe body
reference 5). In the wind tunnel the real level of the between the keel and the rudder, thereby obtaining a
induced drag can be ascertained (i.e. separate from the curve of sectional areas with less hollow in the aft-body,
increase in wave resistance), and a good design will increasing the effective waterline length. The “Hula” (an
attain effective draught values in excess of 3.3 metre (at acronym for “hull appendage”), as fitted to the aft-body
maximum speeds when sailing to windward). For this of NZL 81 and NZL 82, is in fact a bustle. Figure 8
purpose the complete underwater configuration shows the influence of an appendage such as the Hula on
(preferably on a large scale to avoid scale effects the curve of sectional areas.
associated with Reynolds number differences between
model and full-scale) needs to be modelled in the wind Unlike the International Metre Class Rules, it is difficult
tunnel. A photograph of the set-up used in the wind to add an effective bustle to the canoe body of an ACC
tunnel for the study of the appendages of SUI 59 is yacht. This is because the ACC Rule requires that the
shown in figure 8. hull has no hollows anywhere (except in conjunction
with fitting an appendage) and that the slope of the
buttock, 250 mm from the centre plane, between the aft
end of the measurement waterline plane and the aft girth
station, shall not be greater than 12.5 degrees to the
horizontal. The Hula was contrived to be an appendage,
in that it was separated from the hull by the slightest of
gaps, and only attached to the hull within the 500 mm
band centred along the centre line, allowed for the
attachments of appendages in that area of the canoe
body.

For a bustle to lead to an improvement in resistance it

needs to be properly integrated in the sectional area
curve, and the effects on prismatic coefficient and the
longitudinal centre of buoyancy need to be studied. The
change to the area curve required is approximately as
indicated in figure 8. It is hoped that the new version of
the ACC Rule (version 5.0), to be used for the next
America’s Cup, will not allow this type of an

1
The maritime meaning of the word “bustle” has not yet
Figure 7: Photograph of the set-up in the wind tunnel (at
half scale) of the underwater configuration of
been acknowledged by dictionaries. According to the
SUI 59. dictionary a bustle is: “a pad or framework formerly
worn by women on the back part of the body below the
waist to fill out the figure”.
“appendage” again. Most designers see this as an was not the case.
unhealthy development. After all, the Hula is not an
appendage, as such. The people that drafted the first The determination of the optimum bulb length and shape
version of the Rule intended for the canoe body to have a is one of the most difficult subjects left to tackle. This is
smooth and convex shape, without “irregularities” such apparent when viewing the bulbs used by the 3 fastest
as bustles and “bumps”. If the 12.5 degree buttock boats (SUI 64, USA 76 and NZL 82). They are
limitation is considered to be too severe, it could perhaps significantly different, revealing that the 3 different
be modified. This too is unlikely however since the design teams have arrived at different conclusions (see
parties responsible for drafting the new version of the figure 9). The difficulty of assessing the amount of
Rule have a vested interest in the Rule basically staying viscous drag of a particular bulb is compounded by the
unaltered. fact that a significant amount of laminar flow exists on
the forward part. During model testing, the boundary
4.4 THE HULL VANE layer on the bulb is stimulated to become turbulent at a
location at which it is thought that, on the full scale,
The author has, on and off for the last 10 years, been natural boundary layer transition will take place. This
working on an alternative approach to favourably location is difficult to determine accurately without
influence the flow around the aft-body. This approach actual full-scale observations. Most CFD tools will also
consists of fitting a wing transversely below the hull in not allow calculation of this location. It follows that an
the region where the flow is directed upwards and accurate determination of the trade-off between viscous
inwards the most. Besides favourably affecting the wave and wave bulb drag is a complex issue.
resistance, this device, when its dimensions and shape
are well chosen, also develops a modest thrust force, Other effects need to be considered before a significantly
depending on the steepness of the buttocks in that region. longer bulb can be adopted, such as the performance at
lower speeds (when wave resistance is less dominant),
This concept was tested in the tank by the author in 1990, the slightly greater viscous resistance during
in 1995 and on an ACC model in 2001. The manoeuvring (caused by the increase in local speeds at
configuration in 2001 yielded a lower overall drag for all the front and back of the bulb) and the associated loss of
tested speeds, particularly at angles of heel. A patent for laminar flow, the greater longitudinal inertia, the increase
this concept has been applied for and obtained. Research in complexity of the already critical keel - bulb structure,
into the optimum integration of this concept in the design etc. These effects might not weigh up against the few
of different hull forms is currently underway. good points, such as the decrease in wave resistance, the
slight lowering of the centre of gravity of the bulb, and
The hull vane is an appendage but because of its the slight increase in the aspect ratio of the fin keel.
influence on the characteristics of the canoe body (a total
change in the wave profile along the canoe body in that
region), it has been included in this paragraph rather than
in the following.

5. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN
APPENDAGE DESIGN

5.1 BULBS

The most talked-about development in 2003, on the

subject of appendages was the TNZ bulb. This bulb was
significantly longer (and hence more slender) than the
bulbs used thus far. The reason for this choice is not
altogether clear. It has been suggested that a longer, more
slender bulb will lead to a reduction in wave resistance.
According to our studies, this reduction in wave
resistance is rather modest and only greater than the
associated increase in viscous resistance (due to the
increase in wetted area), at Froude numbers associated
with sailing downwind, not upwind. Initially, our studies
revealed that a much longer bulb would also be
beneficial upwind but, on correcting our viscous
resistance stripping method for those appendages that are Figure 9: Approximate profile shape of the bulbs
adopted on SUI 64, USA 76 and NZL 82.
situated below the middle of the canoe body for the
excess flow speed associated with the displaced volume
of the canoe body and wave trough, we found that this
5.2 LATERAL FIN AREA the interference of boundary layers (at the
junction of canoe body and the keel fin for
The lateral area of the keel fin has gradually diminished example);
over the last 2 Cup events. This has been the result of • The optimum taper ratio of the keel fin in
more effective trim tabs, which are now operated at connection with obtaining the best lift-carry over
appreciably higher angles. from keel fin to canoe body and vice versa;
• Optimum bulb size and shape, notwithstanding
Some designers have cut it very fine in this regard, the progress that has been made in the last few
choosing areas which are perhaps a little too small. SUI years;
64's good upwind ability has in part been attributed to its • Ways to diminish the wave drag associated with
keel fin being greater than those of its competitors. the appendages;
• Winglet position and winglet size and shape,
5.3 WINGLETS AND WINGLET POSITION again, notwithstanding the significant amount of
work done in this area already.
The position of the winglets on the bulb is still being
debated amongst experts. Of the 3 fastest boats in the last For all of these topics very significant research efforts are
Cup, SUI 64 and NZL 82 adopted positions required.
corresponding to the trailing edge of the keel fin, while
USA 76 chose the more traditional location at the trailing It is the author’s belief that for further design innovation
edge on the bulb. to be successful, it is necessary to explore other
appendage configurations. The positioning of the major
Model tests indicate that, generally, at moderate speeds appendage in the middle of the boat leads to a significant
and moderate levels of side force, the position at the increase in wave and viscous drag. It is in this region that
trailing edge of the bulb is to be preferred while, at the flow speed around the hull is highest and the distance
higher speeds and higher levels of the side force, the (of the bulb for example) to the water surface is least.
location at the trailing edge of the keel fin is to be There are some promising alternative options yet to be
preferred. fully researched. One of these is the twin-keeled yacht
such as our design for SUI 59. The wave resistance of
When the winglets are situated aft on the bulb, there is this boat was considerably lower than that of the present
the additional benefit of generating some thrust crop of boats, at the expense of additional viscous drag
associated with the pitching motion of the yacht in (and a lack of manoeuvrability).
waves. The further the winglets are positioned away from
the centre of the pitching motion (usually considered to However, teams that are likely to adopt an innovative
be the centre of gravity) the greater the possibility design approach are possibly not to meet with success.
becomes to generate this thrust force. This effect has The America’s Cup design strategy nowadays is that
been overrated however because the increase in viscous every aspect of the (conventional) design needs to be
drag (associated with the loss in laminar flow on the covered in a more thorough way than the competitors are
winglets at greater angles of incidence of the flow) will likely to cover these aspects. Only teams that lack
negate some, if not all, of this thrust. resources (budget and manpower) are likely to adopt an
innovative approach because of the realization that a
5.4 RUDDERS more middle-of-the-road approach is not possible.
Having been involved in a number of such campaigns,
Rudder area has now also decreased to an absolute the author is aware of all the pitfalls associated with such
minimum level. Geometric aspect ratio’s have increased a campaign, nearly always resulting in the failure to “get
to values never used before on sailing yachts, with the it right” in some crucial area.
associated danger of stall at moderate rudder angles.
7. CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL REMARKS
6. ARE FURTHER DESIGN INNOVATIONS
POSSIBLE? In this paper some of the aspects involved in designing
America’s Cup yachts are discussed. The subjects
While research is still required to perfect the design of covered are by no means complete. Many more details
the typical 2003 ACC yacht, particularly in many are also part of the design process. The whole process is
detailed areas, it is the author’s belief that, within the complex, requiring efficient management, besides
present configuration, the 2003 ACC yacht will be relatively large budgets and high-level expertise. In fact,
difficult to significantly improve upon. For the present it the author’s experience that the success of a particular
style of yacht, with its T-keel and winglets, the areas that design effort is as much associated with the management
can probably be improved are those associated with the thereof than it is with the dedication, experience and
following: insight of the technical design staff. Lack of a rigorous
discipline and insight in all aspects of the design work,
• Fillet geometry, to reduce the drag resulting from on the part of the design team manager, in most cases
results in “chaos”, with design team members applying Australia in 1983 (see reference 8) can be attributed to a
themselves as they want to, with little regard to the “total “break-through” design concept. All other successful
picture”, and the need for the whole team to share in the campaigns can be attributed to smaller design
responsibility of the work being carried out. improvements and, particularly, to better sailors.

At present, the “conventional” ACC yacht, with its U- 8. LIST OF REFERENCES

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