MECE 5204 Viscous flow in pipes

Turbomachines

PART 1: VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify and understand various characteristics of the flow in pipes
• discuss the main properties of laminar and turbulent pipe flow and appreciate their
differences
• calculate losses in straight portions of pipes as well as those in various pipe system
components
• apply appropriate equations and principles to analyze a variety of pipe flow situations
• predict the flowrate in a pipe by use of common flowmeters
• Understand various velocity and flow rate measurement techniques and learn their
advantages and disadvantages.

Introduction
Fluid flow is classified as external or internal, depending on whether the fluid is forced to
flow over a surface or in a conduit.
The transport of a fluid (liquid or gas) in a closed conduit (commonly called a pipe if it is
of round cross section or a duct if it is not round) is extremely important in our daily
operations. Such applications range from the large, pipeline that carries crude oil e.g.
(from Chad to Cameroon), water pipes in our homes and the distribution system that
delivers the water from the city well to the house, and irrigation pipes that bring water
in farms.
The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as
hydrodynamics. Hydraulics is a subcategory of hydrodynamics that deals with liquid
flows in pipes and open channels. In this line, Applied Hydraulics is concerned with the use
of fluids to perform mechanical tasks. Example of such tasks are Hydraulic machines
consisting of machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do simple work, e.g. pump and turbines.
In this chapter we consider internal flow where the conduit is completely filled with the
fluid, and the flow is driven primarily by a pressure difference. In this context, we will
focus on the application of basic principles of fluid mechanics to the transportation of
incompressible flow of viscous fluids in pipes and ducts.

1.1 Laminar and turbulent flow

Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The highly
ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar. The
flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar. The
highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent. The flow of low-viscosity

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fluids such as air at high velocities is typically turbulent. A flow that alternates
between being laminar and turbulent is called transitional. Osborne Reynolds (1842–
1912), a British scientist and mathematician, was the first to distinguish the difference
between these two classifications of flow.
After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds discovered that the
flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the
fluid. This ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a
circular pipe as
𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
where 𝑉 is the average velocity of the flow in the pipe, 𝐷 is a characteristic length of the
geometry (e.g. the diameter of a pipe), 𝜌 the fluid density, and 𝜇 the kinematic fluid
viscosity.
For flow through noncircular pipes, the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic
diameter 𝐷ℎ defined as
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷ℎ =
𝑝
Where 𝐴𝑐 is the cross sectional area of the pipe, and 𝑝 is its wetted perimeter.
- For a cylindrical pipe of diameter 𝐷, the hydraulic diameter is
4(𝜋𝐷2 /4)
𝐷ℎ = =𝐷
𝜋𝐷
- For a rectangular duct of dimensions 𝑎 and 𝑏, the hydraulic diameter is
4(𝑎𝑏) 2𝑎𝑏
𝐷ℎ = =
2(𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎 + 𝑏)
which reduces to 𝑎 for a square duct.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not depend only on the
geometry and flow conditions, it also depend on the degree of disturbance of the
flow by surface roughness, pipe vibrations, and fluctuations in the upstream flow.
For general engineering purposes, the following values are appropriate for flow in
pipes under most practical conditions:
- The flow is laminar if 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2100
- The flow is turbulent if 𝑅𝑒 > 4000
- For Reynolds numbers between these two limits, the flow may switch
between laminar and turbulent conditions in a random fashion (transitional
flow)

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1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed flow

Any fluid flowing in a pipe has to enter the pipe at some location. The region of flow
near where the fluid enters the pipe is termed the entrance region as illustrated. The
profile of the fluid velocity at successive cross sections of the pipe is shown. Theses
profiles show how the fluid velocity gradually change from a uniform profile (at the
entrance of the pipe) to a parabolic fully developed profile. The justification of the
non-uniform velocity profiles exhibit by the fluid as it enters the pipes is as follows:
when the fluid enters into the pipe with a uniform velocity profile, because of the no-
slip condition, the fluid particles in the layer in contact with the wall of the pipe come
to a complete stop. This layer also causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers to
slow down gradually as a result of friction. To make up for this velocity reduction, the
velocity of the fluid at the midsection of the pipe has to increase to keep the mass flow
rate through the pipe constant.

Figure: Entrance region, developing flow, and fully developed flow in a pipe system.
The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by
fluid viscosity are felt is called the velocity boundary layer or just the boundary layer.
A virtual boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two regions: the boundary
layer region, in which the viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant, and
the irrotational (core) flow region, in which the frictional effects are negligible and
the velocity remains essentially constant in the radial direction. Flow in the entrance
region is called hydrodynamically developing flow since this is the region where the
velocity profile develops. The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity
profile is fully developed and remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully
developed region. The flow is said to be fully developed when the normalized
temperature profile remains unchanged as well. Hydrodynamically fully developed
flow is equivalent to fully developed flow when the fluid in the pipe is not heated or

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cooled since the fluid temperature in this case remains constant throughout. The
necessary condition for observing fully developed flow in a pipe is that the pipe
should be sufficiently long (relative to the entry length) so that the entry effect are
negligible.

1.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in pipes

1.3.1 Laminar Flow in horizontal pipes
Consider the steady, laminar, incompressible flow of fluid with constant properties in the
fully developed region of a long, straight, constant diameter circular pipe. We assume the
flow is fully developed, i.e. the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) each fluid particle moves at a constant axial velocity along a streamline and
the velocity profile 𝑢(𝑟) remains unchanged in the flow direction,
(ii) There is no motion in the radial direction, and thus the velocity component in
the direction normal to the pipe axis is everywhere zero,
(iii) There is no acceleration since the flow is steady and fully developed.
Forces acting on the fluid element are the net pressure force on
surfaces perpendicular to the flow, and the shear stresses on
faces tangential to the flow. By applying a momentum balance
to the differential volume element, we have

2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑃(𝑧) − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑃(𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑧𝜏(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)

+ 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑧𝜏(𝑟) = 0
which indicates that in fully developed flow in a horizontal pipe,
the viscous and pressure forces balance each other. Dividing by
2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑧 and rearranging, we have
𝑃(𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 𝑃(𝑧) 𝑟𝜏(𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 𝑟𝜏(𝑧)
𝑟 + =0
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟
Taking the limits as 𝑑𝑟, 𝑑𝑧 → 0, we have
𝑑𝑃 𝑑(𝑟𝜏)
𝑟 + = 0.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟
With the shear stress 𝜏 = −𝜇𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑟, where 𝜇 is the fluid viscosity, substitution gives
𝜇 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑃
(𝑟 ) = .
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑧
The equality must hold for any value of 𝑟 and 𝑧, and an equality of the form 𝑓(𝑟) =
𝑔(𝑧) can be satisfied only if both 𝑓(𝑟) and 𝑔(𝑧) are equal to the same constant. Thus
we conclude that the pressure gradient along the pipe 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑧 =constant. This is the
well-known principle of separation of variables often used in mathematical analysis.
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To obtain a relationship giving the pressure gradient along the pipe in terms of the
shear stress at the walls of the pipe (wall shear stress), we write the force balance
on a volume element of radius 𝑅 and thickness 𝑧. Here, as the fluid velocity tends to
decrease as we approach the wall in any direction, the wall shear stress 𝜏𝑤 is
opposite to the fluid velocity. The equilibrium condition of the fluid element gives
𝜋𝑅2 𝑃(𝑧) − 𝜋𝑅2 𝑃(𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 2𝜋𝑅𝑑𝑧𝜏(𝑅) = 0
Dividing by 𝜋𝑅𝑑𝑧 and rearranging, gives
𝑃(𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 𝑃(𝑧)
𝑅 + 2𝜏(𝑅) = 0
𝑑𝑧
Taking the limits as 𝑑𝑧 → 0, we have
𝑑𝑃 𝜏(𝑅) −2𝜏𝑤
= −2 =
𝑑𝑧 𝑅 𝑅
As 𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑧 is constant, the wall shear stress 𝜏𝑤 is also constant because the flow is
fully developed.
To obtain expression for the fluid velocity, we integrate twice the relation
𝜇 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑃
(𝑟 ) =
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥
hence
1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑢(𝑟) = ( ) 𝑟 + 𝑐1 ln 𝑟 + 𝑐2
4𝜇 𝜕𝑧
Because the velocity must be finite at the center of the cylinder, 𝑐1 must the zero.
Applying the no-slip condition at the wall (𝑟 = 𝑅), 𝑢 = 0. Hence
𝟏 𝝏𝒑
𝑢(𝑟) = ( ) (𝒓𝟐 − 𝑹𝟐 )
𝟒𝝁 𝝏𝒛
Thus, the cross section velocity is parabolic. To obtain a relationship between the
volume flow rate 𝑄 passing through the tube and the pressure gradient, we consider a
flow through a differential, washer-shape ring. Since 𝑢 is constant on this ring, the
volume rate of flow through the differential area 𝑑𝐴 = (2𝜋𝑟)𝑑𝑟 is

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢(2𝜋𝑟)𝑑𝑟
and therefore,
𝑅
𝜋𝑅4 𝜕𝑝
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑢(2𝜋𝑟)𝑑𝑟 = − ( )
8𝜇 𝜕𝑧
0

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More practically, this relation can be expressed in terms of the pressure drop, Δ𝑝, which
occurs over a length 𝐿 along the tube. Since the flow is directed toward negative
pressure gradients, we set
𝜕𝑝 ∆𝑝
=− ;
𝜕𝑧 𝐿
hence
𝝅𝑫𝟒 ∆𝒑
𝑸=
𝟏𝟐𝟖𝝁𝑳
The above results confirm the following properties of laminar pipe flow. For a horizontal
pipe the flowrate is (a) directly proportional to the pressure drop, (b) inversely
proportional to the viscosity, (c) inversely proportional to the pipe length, and (d)
proportional to the pipe diameter to the fourth power.
This flow, the properties of which were first established experimentally by two independent
workers, G. Hagen 11797–18842 in 1839 and J. Poiseuille (1799–1869) in 1840, is termed
Hagen–Poiseuille flow. The above equation is commonly referred to as Poiseuille’s law. This
poiseille’s law specifies that for a given flow rate, the pressure drops and thus the required
pumping power is proportional to the length of the pipe and the viscosity of the fluid, but it
is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius(or diameter) of the pipe .
Therefore, the pumping power requirement for a laminar-flow in piping system can be
reduced by a factor of 16 by doubling the pipe diameter. Of course the benefits of the
reduction in the energy costs must be weighed against the increased cost of construction
due to using a larger-diameter pipe.
In terms of the average velocity vavg = 𝑄/𝜋𝑅2 , the Poiseuille relation becomes
𝑅2 ∆𝑝
vavg =
8𝜇𝐿
The maximum velocity occurs at the center of the tube and is given by
𝑅2 𝜕𝑝 𝑅 2 ∆𝑝
v𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − ( ) = = 2vavg
4𝜇 𝜕𝑧 4𝜇𝐿
Note that the velocity distribution can be written in terms of the maximum velocity as
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑢(𝑟) = v𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − 2 ) = 2vavg (1 − 2 )
𝑅 𝑅

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1.3.2 Laminar flow in slanted pipes: Effect of gravity

The adjustment necessary to account for nonhorizontal
pipes, as shown, can be easily included by replacing the
pressure drop, ∆𝑃 by the combined effect of pressure and
gravity, ∆𝑃 − 𝛾𝐿 sin 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the angle between the
pipe and the horizontal. (Note that 𝜃 > 0 if the flow is
uphill, while 𝜃<0 if the flow is downhill).
From the above free-body diagram and applying the force
balance along the axis of the cylinder, we have
2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑃(𝑧) − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑃(𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑧𝜏(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)
+ 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑧𝜏(𝑟) − 2𝜋𝑟𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑧 sin 𝜃 = 0,
and after division by 2𝜋𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑧 and taking the limits as
𝑑𝑟, 𝑑𝑧 → 0, we have
𝑑𝑃 𝑑(𝑟𝜏)
𝑟 + − 𝑟𝛾 sin 𝜃 = 0.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟
Which results in the differential equation
𝜇 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑃
(𝑟 ) = + 𝛾 sin 𝜃.
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑧 = −∆𝑃/𝐿, it fallows that all of the results for the horizontal pipe are valid
provided the pressure gradient ∆𝑃 is adjusted for the elevation term, that is, ∆𝑃 is replaced
by ∆𝑃 − 𝛾𝐿 sin 𝜃 so that the average velocity is
𝑉𝑐 (∆𝑝 − 𝛾𝐿 sin 𝜃 )𝐷 2
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = =
2 32𝜇𝐿
and the volume flowrate is
𝜋𝐷 4 (∆𝑝 − 𝛾𝐿 sin 𝜃)
𝑄=
128𝜇𝐿
It is seen that the driving force for pipe flow can be either a pressure drop in the flow
direction, ∆𝑝 or the component of weight in the flow direction, −𝛾𝐿 sin 𝜃. If the flow is
downhill, gravity helps the flow (a smaller pressure drop is required; sin 𝜃 < 0). If the flow
is uphill, gravity works against the flow (a larger pressure drop is required; sin 𝜃 > 0).
Pressure Drop and Major Head Loss
A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop ∆𝑃 since it is directly
related to the power requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow. We note that 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑥
is constant along the pipe; hence between any two points along the pipe,
𝑑𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
= = .
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝐿
From the expression of the average velocity, we can express ∆𝑃 as

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8𝜇𝐿vavg 32𝜇𝐿vavg
∆𝑃 = =
𝑅2 𝐷2
∆𝑃 is the pressure drop along the flow direction due to viscous effects. It represents an
irreversible pressure loss, and it is sometimes called pressure loss. In practice, it is
convenient to express the pressure loss for all types of fully developed internal flows
(laminar or turbulent flows, circular or noncircular pipes, smooth or rough surfaces,
horizontal or inclined pipes) as
2
𝐿 𝜌Vavg
∆𝑃 = 𝑓
𝐷 2
2
Where 𝜌Vavg /2 is the dynamic pressure and 𝑓 is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor,
named after the French engineer Henry Darcy (1803–1858) and the German Julius
Weisbach (1806–1871), the two engineers who provided the greatest contribution to
its development. The frictions factor is a coefficient that takes into account the effects
of the geometry of the pipe and its roughness.
From the above relation, the friction factor can be expressed as
𝐷
∆𝑃 ( )
𝑓= 𝐿
2
𝜌Vavg
2
And since the pressure drop is related to the wall shear stress by the relation
2𝜏𝑤 𝐿 𝐿
∆𝑃 = = 4 𝜏𝑤 ,
𝑅 𝐷
the Darcy friction factor in terms of the wall shear stress becomes
𝐷
𝐿 ( ) 8𝜏 𝑤
𝑓 = 4 𝜏𝑤 𝐿2 =
𝐷 𝜌Vavg 𝜌V2avg
2
For laminar flows, the Darcy friction factor can be written terms of the Reynolds number
by equating
2
32𝜇𝐿vavg 𝐿 𝜌Vavg
∆𝑃 = =𝑓
𝐷2 𝐷 2
Solving for 𝑓 gives
64𝜇 64
𝑓= =
ρDvavg 𝑅𝑒
This equation shows that in laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number
only and is independent of the roughness of the pipe surface (assuming, of course, that the roughness
is not extreme).

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In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are commonly expressed in terms of the
equivalent fluid column height, called the head loss ℎ𝐿 . The pressure head loss in the pipe
is the pipe head loss and is defined as
2
∆𝑃 𝐿 Vavg
ℎ𝐿 = =𝑓
𝛾 𝐷 2𝑔
The head loss ℎ𝐿 represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be raised by a pump in
order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe. The head loss is caused by viscosity, and
it is directly related to the wall shear stress. Once the pressure loss (or head loss) is
known, the required pumping power to overcome the pressure loss is determined from
Ẇpump,loss = 𝑄∆𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾ℎ𝐿 = 𝑚̇𝑔ℎ𝐿 .

Example: Laminar Flow in Horizontal and Inclined Pipes

Consider the fully developed flow of glycerin at 40°C through a 70-m-long, 4-cm-diameter,
horizontal, circular pipe. If the flow velocity at the centerline is measured to be 6 m/s,
determine (a) the velocity profile, the average velocity and the flow discharge (b) the
Reynolds number, the friction factor and the head loss (c) use the energy relation to
determine the pressure difference across the pipe. (d) What is the useful pumping power
required to maintain this flow. (e) For the same useful pumping power input, determine the
percent increase of the flow rate if the pipe is inclined 15° downward and the percent
decrease if it is inclined 15° upward. The pump is located outside this pipe section. The
density and dynamic viscosity of glycerin at 40°C are 𝜌 = 1252 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and 𝜇 =
0.3073𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠, respectively.

Example: Pressure Drop and Head Loss in a Pipe

Water at 40°F (𝜌 = 62.42 lbm/ft 3 and 𝜇 = 1.038 × 10−3 lbm/ft. s) is flowing steadily
through a 0.12-in- (=0.010 ft) diameter 30-ft-long horizontal pipe at an average velocity of
3.0 ft/s . Determine (a) the Reynolds number of the flow conclude about its nature, (b) the
friction factor and the head loss, (c) the pressure drop, and (d) the flow discharge and the
pumping power requirement to overcome this pressure drop. (e) The pressure rise
provided by a pump is often listed by a pump manufacturer in units of head. Determine the
head of water this pump needs to provide. Note that 1.0 slug = 32.174 lbm and take the
local gravity as 𝑔 = 32.174 ft/s 2 .
1.4 Major and Minor Losses in Pipe Systems
It is often necessary to determine the head loss, ℎ𝐿 , that occurs in a pipe flow so that the
energy equation can be used in the analysis of pipe flow problems. A typical pipe system
usually consists of various lengths of straight pipe interspersed with various types of
components (valves, elbows, etc.). The overall head loss for the pipe system consists of the
head loss due to viscous effects in the straight pipes, termed the major loss and denoted

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ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 , and the head loss in the various pipe components, termed the minor loss and
denoted ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 . That is
ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 + ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟
The head loss designations of “major” and “minor” do not necessarily reflect the relative
importance of each type of loss. For a pipe system that contains many components and a
relatively short length of pipe, the minor loss may actually be larger than the major loss.
1.4.1 Major Losses and the Effects of rough walls
It was not known until experiments in 1800 by Coulomb that surface roughness has an effect
on friction resistance. It turns out that the effect is negligible for laminar
pipe flow, and all the laminar formulas derived in this section are valid for rough walls also.
However, the friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness 𝜀/𝐷, which is the ratio of the mean height of
roughness of the pipe to the pipe diameter.
A fundamental difference between laminar and turbulent flow is that the shear stress for
turbulent flow is a function of the density of the fluid, 𝜌. For laminar flow, the shear stress
is independent of the density, leaving the viscosity, 𝜇 as the only important fluid property.
Although the pressure drop for laminar pipe flow is found to be independent of the
roughness of the pipe, it is necessary to include this parameter when considering turbulent
flow. For turbulent flow there is a relatively thin viscous sublayer formed in the fluid near
the pipe wall and pressure drop is a function of the wall roughness. If we introduce the
relative roughness of the pipe, 𝜀/𝐷 ≪ 1, the pressure drop along a horizontal pipe can be
written as
ℓ 𝜌𝑉 2
∆𝑝 = 𝑓
𝐷 2
where 𝑓 is the friction factor, with
𝜀
𝑓 = 𝜙 ( , 𝑅𝑒 )
𝐷
1.4.2 The Moody Chart and the Colebrook Equation
For laminar fully developed flow, the value of the friction factor 𝑓 is simply 𝑓 = 64/𝑅𝑒 ,
independent of 𝜀/𝐷. For turbulent flow, the functional dependence of the friction factor on
the Reynolds number and the relative roughness, 𝑓 = 𝜙(𝜀/𝐷, 𝑅𝑒 ) is a rather complex one
that cannot, as yet, be obtained from a theoretical analysis. Available informations are so far
are obtained from an exhaustive set of experiments and usually presented in tabular,
graphical, and functional forms obtained by curve-fitting experimental data. Most such
experiments were conducted by J. Nikuradse in 1933, followed by the works of others where
friction factor was calculated from measurements of the flow rate and the pressure drop.

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In 1939, Cyril F. Colebrook (1910–1997) combined the available data for transition and
turbulent flow in smooth as well as rough pipes into the
following implicit relation known as the Colebrook
equation:
1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
= −2.0 log ( + )
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓
This relation is valid for all turbulent flows and is
consistent with two previously derived relations dealing
with the friction factor in some limiting cases:
(i) The Prandtl equation which was derived assuming
a perfectly smooth pipe (𝜀/𝐷 → 0):
1
= 2.0 log(𝑅𝑒 √𝑓) − 0.8
√𝑓
(ii) The von Kármán equation that gives the friction
factor for fully rough turbulent flows or simply fully
turbulent flows (𝑅𝑒 → ∞):
1 𝜀/𝐷
= −2.0 log ( )
√𝑓 3.7
In 1942, the American engineer Hunter Rouse (1906–1996) verified Colebrook’s equation
and produced a graphical plot of 𝑓 as a function of 𝑅𝑒 and the product 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓. He also
presented the laminar flow relation and a table of commercial pipe roughness. Two years
later, Lewis F. Moody (1880–1953) redrew Rouse’s diagram into the form commonly used
today as the Moody chart.
The Moody chart presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a function of Reynolds
number and 𝜀/𝐷 over a wide range. Although this chart was developed for circular pipes, it
can also be used for noncircular pipes by replacing the diameter with the hydraulic
diameter.

It should also be noted that with advances in technology, newly manufactured pipes have
very small relative roughness as shown. However, after considerable use, most pipes
(because of a buildup of corrosion or scale) may have a relative roughness that is
considerably larger (perhaps by an order of magnitude) than that given.
A difficulty with its use is that it is implicit in the dependence of 𝑓; hence the determination
of the friction factor requires iteration. For the iteration process to be successful, an
acceptable approximation of the friction factor is needed. An approximate explicit relation
for 𝑓 was given by S. E. Haaland in 1983 as
1 𝜀/𝐷 1.11 6.9
= −1.8 log [( ) + ]
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒

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This explicit relation gives results within 2% of those obtained from the Colebrook relation;
hence it can serve as a good first guest for the iteration procedure when more accuracy is
needed.
Types of Fluid Flow Problems
In the design and analysis of piping systems that involve the use of the Moody chart
(or the Colebrook equation), we usually encounter three types of problems (the
fluid and the roughness of the pipe are assumed to be specified in all cases):
1. Determining the pressure drop (or head loss) when the pipe length and diameter
are given for a specified flow rate (or velocity)
2. Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are given for a
specified pressure drop (or head loss)
3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are given for a
specified pressure drop (or head loss)
Problems of the second type and third type are commonly encountered in
engineering design (in the selection of pipe diameter, for example, that minimizes the
sum of the construction and pumping costs), but the use of the Moody chart with such
problems requires an iterative approach.
Problems of the first type are straightforward and can be solved directly by using the
Moody chart.
In problems of the second type, the diameter is given but the flow rate is unknown. A
good guess for the friction factor in that case is obtained from the completely
turbulent flow region for the given roughness. This is true for large Reynolds
numbers, which is often the case in practice. Once the flow rate is obtained, the
friction factor is corrected using the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation, and the
process is repeated until the solution converges. (Typically only a few iterations are
required for convergence to three or four digits of precision.)
In problems of the third type, the diameter is not known and thus the Reynolds
number and the relative roughness cannot be calculated. Therefore, we start
calculations by assuming a pipe diameter. The pressure drop calculated for the
assumed diameter is then compared to the specified pressure drop, and calculations
are repeated with another pipe diameter in an iterative fashion until convergence.
To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and diameter calculations,
Swamee and Jain (1976) proposed the following explicit relations that are accurate
to within 2 percent of the Moody chart:
−2
𝑄2 𝐿 𝜀/𝐷 𝜈𝐷 0.9 10−6 < 𝜀/𝐷 < 10−2
ℎ𝐿 = 1.07 {ln [ + 4.62 ( ) ]} ,
𝑔𝐷 5 3.7 𝑄 3 × 103 < 𝑅𝑒 < 3 × 108

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0.5 𝜀 0.5
𝑔𝐷 5 ℎ𝐿 𝐷 3.17𝜈 2 𝐿
𝑄 = −0.965 ( ) ln [ +( ) ], 𝑅𝑒 > 2000
𝐿 3.7 𝑔𝐷 3 ℎ𝐿

4.75 0.04
1.25
𝐿𝑄2 9.4
𝐿 5.2 10−6 < 𝜀/𝐷 < 10−2
𝐷 = 1.07 [𝜀 ( ) + 𝜈𝑄 ( ) ] ,
𝑔ℎ𝐿 𝑔ℎ𝐿 5 × 103 < 𝑅𝑒 < 3 × 108

Example: Determining the Head Loss in a Water Pipe

Water at 60°F (𝜌 = 62.36 lbm/ft 3 and 𝜇 = 7.536 × 10−4 lbm/ft. s) is flowing steadily in
a 2-in-diameter horizontal pipe made of stainless steel at a rate of 0.2 ft3/s. Determine (a) the
average fluid velocity (b) the Reynolds number (c) the friction factor using the Moody chart
(d) use the Colebrook formula to determine the friction factor (e) the pressure drop and the
head loss (f) pressure drop, the head loss and the required pumping power input for flow
over a 200-ft-long section of the pipe.

1.4.3 Minor or local losses in pipe systems

Pipe systems do not consist only of straight pipes. They include the pipes themselves
(perhaps of more than one diameter), the various fittings (elbow, tee, bends, inlets, exits,
expansions and contractions) used to connect the individual pipes to form the desired
system, the flowrate control devices (valves), and the pumps or turbines that add energy to
or remove energy from the fluid. These components interrupt the smooth flow of the
fluid and cause additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they
induce. In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared to the
head loss in the straight sections (the major losses) and are called minor losses.
Although this is generally true, in some cases the minor losses may be greater than
the major losses. This is the case, for example, in systems with several turns and
valves in a short distance.
Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient 𝐾𝐿 (also called the
resistance coefficient), defined as the ratio of the pressure drop across the inserted
component to the dynamic pressure:
∆𝑃 ℎ𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟
𝐾𝐿 = =
𝜌𝑉 2 /2 (𝑉 2 /2𝑔)
where ℎ𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ∆𝑃/(𝜌𝑔) is the additional irreversible head loss in the piping
system caused by insertion of the component.
So that, when the loss coefficient for a component is available, the head loss for that
component is determined from
𝑉2
ℎ𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = 𝐾𝐿
2𝑔
The actual value of 𝐾𝐿 is strongly dependent on the geometry of the component
considered. It may also be dependent on the fluid properties.
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𝐾𝐿 = 𝜙(geometry, 𝑅𝑒 )
That is Although 𝐾𝐿 is dimensionless, it often is not correlated in the literature with the
Reynolds number and roughness ratio but rather simply with the raw size of the pipe in, say,
inches. Almost all data are reported for turbulent flow conditions. A single pipe system may
have many minor losses. In this case, the net minor loss head is obtained as the sum of
individual losses
𝑉2
ℎ𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ∑ 𝐾𝐿
2𝑔
Table of some loss coefficients is given in the annex.
Once all the loss coefficients are available, the total head loss in a piping system is
determined from
V2avg 2
𝐿 Vavg
ℎ𝐿,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ℎ𝐿, 𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 + ℎ𝐿,𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ∑ 𝐾𝐿 +∑𝑓
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
Or in terms of volume discharges as
Q2 𝐿 Q
2
ℎ𝐿,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝐾𝐿 2 + ∑ 𝑓
2A 𝑔 𝐷 2A2 𝑔
Piping systems often involve sudden or gradual expansion or contraction sections to
accommodate changes in flow rates or properties such as density and velocity. The
losses are usually much greater in the case of sudden expansion and contraction (or
wide-angle expansion) because of flow separation. By combining the equations of
mass, momentum, and energy balance, the loss coefficient for the case of a sudden
expansion is approximated as
2
Asmall
𝐾𝐿 = 𝛼 (1 − )
Alarge
where 𝛼 is the kinetic energy correction factor at the exit of the pipe, Asmall and Alarge are
the cross-sectional areas of the small and large pipes, respectively. Note that when a pipe
discharges into a reservoir, 𝐾𝐿 = 𝛼 as Alarge ≫ Asmall . No such relation exists for a sudden
contraction, and the 𝐾𝐿 values in that case must be read from a chart or table.
The losses due to expansions and contractions can be reduced significantly by
installing conical gradual area changers (nozzles and diffusers) between the small
and large pipes.
Piping systems also involve changes in direction without a change in diameter, and
such flow sections are called bends or elbows. The losses in these devices are due to
flow separation (just like a car being thrown off the road when it enters a turn too
fast) on the inner side and the swirling secondary flows that result. The losses during
changes of direction can be minimized by making the turn “easy” on the fluid by using
circular arcs (like 90° elbows) instead of sharp turns.

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Example: Gravity-Driven Water Flow in a Pipe

Water at 10°C with density 𝜌 = 999.7 𝑘𝑔/m3 , dynamic viscosity 𝜇 = 1.307 ×

10−3 kg/m. s flows from a large reservoir to a smaller one through a 5-cmdiameter
cast iron piping system of roughness 𝜀 = 0.26 𝑚𝑚, as shown. Determine (a) the
average velocity in the pipe (b) the Reynolds number of the flow (c) the net major
and minor head losses (d) Determine the elevation 𝑧1 of the free level of the first
reservoir to sustain a flow rate of 6L/s. repeat parts (a)-(d) if the cast iron pipes are
replaced by smooth plastic pipes.
Example: Head Loss and Pressure Rise during Gradual Expansion
A 6-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe expands
gradually to a 9-cm-diameter pipe. The walls of
the expansion section are angled 108 from the
axis. The average velocity and pressure of water
before the expansion section are 7 m/s and 150
kPa, respectively. Assuming the flow at sections 1
and 2 is fully developed and turbulent with α1 =
α2 = 1.06 and that the density of water is
3
𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/m , determine (a) the loss coefficient 𝐾𝐿 (b) the irreversible head loss in the
expansion and (c) the pressure in the larger-diameter pipe.

1.5 Piping Networks and Pump Selection

Most piping systems encountered in practice such as the water distribution systems in cities
or commercial or residential establishments involve numerous parallel and series
connections as well as several sources and loads. A piping project may involve the design of
a new system or the expansion of an existing system. The engineering objective in such
projects is to design a piping system that will reliably deliver the specified flow rates at
specified pressures at minimum total (initial plus operating and maintenance) cost. Once

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the layout of the system is prepared, the determination of the pipe diameters and the
pressures throughout the system, while remaining within the budget constraints, typically
requires solving the system repeatedly until the optimal solution is reached. Computer
modeling and analysis of such systems make this tedious task a simple chore.

1.5.1 Pipes in Series

Piping systems typically involve several pipes connected to each other in series
and/or in parallel. When the pipes are connected in series, the flow rate through the
entire system remains constant regardless of the diameters of the individual pipes
in the system; i.e.
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
or
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴3 𝑉3

Also, is that the total head loss through the system equals the sum of the head loss in each
pipe, including the minor losses:
ℎ𝐴→𝐵 = ℎ𝐿,1 + ℎ𝐿,2 + ℎ𝐿,3
In terms of the friction and minor losses in each pipe, we could rewrite this as
𝑉𝑗2
ℎ𝐴→𝐵,𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ℎ𝐿,1 + ℎ𝐿,2 + ℎ𝐿,3 = ∑ ℎ𝐿,𝑗 = ∑ 𝐾𝐿,𝑗
2𝑔
𝑗 𝑗
And the net major loss is
ℓ𝑗 𝑉𝑗2
ℎ𝐴→𝐵,𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = ∑ 𝑓𝑗
𝐷𝑗 2𝑔
𝑗
If the flowrate is given, it is a straightforward calculation to determine the head loss or
pressure drop (Type I problem). If the pressure drop is given and the flowrate is to be
calculated (Type II problem), an iteration scheme is needed. In this situation none of the
friction factors, 𝑓𝑖 , are known, so the calculations may involve more trial-and-error attempts
than for corresponding single pipe systems. The same is true for problems in which the pipe
diameter (or diameters) is to be determined (Type III problems).

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Example:
Given a three-pipe system connected in series where the total pressure drop across the
system is Δ𝑃 = 150 𝑘𝑃𝑎 and the elevation drop is Δ𝑧 = 5.0 𝑚. For the pipes data listed in
the table below, and in case of a flow of water with density 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/m3 and
kinematic viscosity 𝜈 = 1.02 × 10−6 m2 /s, determine (a) the total head loss across
the system (b) the relationships between the velocities 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 and 𝑉1 (c) the relation
between the friction factor 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 and the velocity 𝑉1 . (d) use an iterative technique
to find the values of the friction factors 𝑓1 ,
𝑓2 , 𝑓3 and the fluid velocities 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 . (e)
determine the Reynolds numbers and the
volume flow rate. Minor losses are
ssumed negligible.
1.5.2 Pipes in Parallel

In this system a fluid particle traveling from A

to B may take any of the paths available, with
the total flowrate equal to the sum of the
flowrates in each pipe. However, by writing
the energy equation between points A and B it
is found that the head loss experienced by any
fluid particle traveling between these
locations is the same, independent of the path
taken. Thus, the governing equations for
parallel pipes are
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 ,
and
ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿,𝐴→𝐵
where the subscripts refer to each of the pipes. Here, we neglect minor losses so that the
friction factors, 𝑓𝑖 , for each pipe depends the Reynolds numbers (𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝐷𝑖 /𝜇𝑖 ) and the
relative roughnesses (𝜀𝑖 /𝐷𝑖 ).
Again, the method of solution of these equations depends on what information is given and
what is to be calculated:
- If the total head loss is known, it is straightforward to solve for 𝑄𝑖 in each pipe and
sum them (Type I problem).
- The reverse problem, of determining the head loss ℎ𝐿 when 𝑄 is known, requires
iteration. Each pipe is related to ℎ𝐿 by the Moody relation ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 (ℓ/𝐷)(𝑉 2 /2𝑔) =
𝑓𝑄2 /𝐶 where 𝐶 = 𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷 5 /8ℓ. The head loss is related to total flow rate by

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𝑄2 𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷𝑖5
ℎ𝐿 = 2, where 𝐶𝑖 =
(∑ √𝐶𝑖 /𝑓𝑖 ) 8ℓ𝑖
Since the 𝑓𝑖 vary with Reynolds number and roughness ratio, one begins by guessing values
of 𝑓𝑖 (fully rough values are recommended) and calculating a first estimate of ℎ𝐿 . Then each
pipe yields a flow-rate estimate 𝑄𝑖 = √𝐶𝑖 ℎ𝐿 /𝑓𝑖 and hence a new Reynolds number and a
better estimate of 𝑓𝑖 . Then the process is repeated until convergence.

The analysis of piping networks, no matter how complex they are, is based on two
simple principles:
1. Conservation of mass throughout the system must be satisfied. This is done by
requiring the total flow into a junction to be equal to the total flow out of the junction
for all junctions in the system. Also, the flow rate must remain constant in pipes
connected in series regardless of the changes in diameters.
2. Pressure drop (and thus head loss) between two junctions must be the same for all
paths between the two junctions. This is because pressure is a point function and it
cannot have two values at a specified point. In practice this rule is used by requiring
that the algebraic sum of head losses in a loop (for all loops) be equal to zero. (A head
loss is taken to be positive for flow in the clockwise direction and negative for flow in
the counterclockwise direction.)

Example:
Given a three-pipe system connected in parallel
where the total pressure drop across the system
is Δ𝑃 = 150 𝑘𝑃𝑎 and the elevation drop is Δ𝑧 =
5.0 𝑚. For the pipes data listed in the table
below, and in case of a flow of water with density
𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/m3 and kinematic viscosity
𝜈 = 1.02 × 10−6 m2 /s, determine (a) the total head loss across the system (b) the
relationships between the velocities 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 and 𝑉1 (c) the relation between the friction
factor 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 and the velocity 𝑉1 . (d) use an iterative technique to find the values of
the friction factors 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 and the fluid velocities 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 . (e) determine the
Reynolds numbers and the volume flow rate. Minor losses are assumed negligible.

1.6 Flow Rate And Velocity Measurement

Almost all practical fluid engineering problems are associated with the need for an
accurate flow measurement. There is a need to measure local properties (velocity,
pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, turbulent intensity), integrated properties

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(mass flow and volume flow), and global properties (visualization of the entire flow
field).
The flow rate measurement techniques range from very crude to very elegant. The flow
rate of water through a garden hose, for example, can be measured simply by collecting
the water in a bucket of known volume and dividing the amount collected by the collection
time. A crude way of estimating the flow velocity of a river is to drop a float on the river
and measure the drift time between two specified locations. At the other extreme, some
flowmeters use the propagation of sound in flowing fluids while others use the
electromotive force generated when a fluid passes through a magnetic field
We shall concentrate in this section on velocity and volume flow measurements.

1.6.1 Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes

Pitot probes (also called Pitot tubes) and Pitot-static
probes, named after the French engineer Henri de Pitot
(1695–1771), are widely used for flow speed
measurement. A Pitot probe is just a tube with a pressure
tap at the stagnation point that measures stagnation
pressure, while a Pitot-static probe has both a stagnation
pressure tap and several circumferential static pressure
taps and it measures both stagnation and static pressures.
The Pitot-static probe measures local velocity by
measuring the pressure difference in conjunction with the
Bernoulli equation. It consists of a slender double-tube
aligned with the flow and connected to a differential pressure meter. The inner tube
is fully open to flow at the nose, and thus it measures the stagnation pressure at that
location (point 1). The outer tube is sealed at the nose, but it has holes on the side of
the outer wall (point 2) and thus it measures the static pressure. For incompressible
flow with sufficiently high velocities (so that the frictional effects between points 1
and 2 are negligible), the Bernoulli equation is applicable and is expressed as
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
Noting that 𝑧2 ≅ 𝑧1 , and that at the stagnation point 𝑉1 ≅ 0, the flow velocity 𝑉2 = 𝑉
is obtained from the above expression as
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉=√
𝜌
which is known as the Pitot formula. The pitot static tube is used to measure velocity
in both gas and liquids. However, it is important that it be properly aligned with the

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flow to avoid significant errors that may be caused by misalignment. Because of the
slow response of the fluid-filled tubes leading to the pressure sensors, it is not useful
for unsteady flow measurements.
1.6.2 Obstruction Flowmeters: Orifice, Venturi, and Nozzle Meters
Consider incompressible steady flow of a fluid in a horizontal pipe of diameter 𝐷 that
is constricted to a flow area of diameter 𝑑, as shown. The mass balance equation
between a location before the constriction constriction (point 1) and the location
where constriction occurs (point 2) are written as

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 →
𝐴2
𝑉1 = ( ) 𝑉2
𝐴1
Or
𝑉1 = (𝑑2 /𝐷2 )𝑉2
and the Bernoulli equation gives
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ = +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

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Combining and solving for

the velocity 𝑉2 gives
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉2 = √
𝜌[1 − (𝑑/𝐷)4 ]
Once 𝑉2 is known, the flow
rate Q can be determined as
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = (𝜋𝑑 2 /4)𝑉2
This simple analysis shows
that the flow rate through a
pipe can be determined by
constricting the flow and
measuring the decrease in
pressure due to the increase
in velocity at the constriction
site. Flowmeters based on
this principle are called
obstruction flowmeters and
are widely used to measure
flow rates of gases and
liquids. The theoretical
velocity is obtained by
assuming no loss, and thus it
is the maximum velocity that can occur at the constriction site. In reality, some
pressure losses due to frictional effects are inevitable, and thus the actual velocity is
less. Also, because of the contraction effect, the area of the jet is smaller than that of
the constriction. Both losses can be accounted for by incorporating a correction factor
called the discharge coefficient 𝐶𝑑 whose value (which is less than 1) is determined
experimentally. Then the flow rate for obstruction flowmeters is expressed as
2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐶𝑑 (𝜋𝑑 2 /4)√
𝜌[1 − 𝛽 4 ]
The value of the discharge coefficient 𝐶𝑑 depends on the type of obstruction, the
ratio 𝛽 = 𝑑/𝐷 and the Reynolds number of the flow.

Of the numerous types of obstruction meters available, those most widely used are
orifice meters, flow nozzles, and Venturi meters. For standardized geometries, the
experimentally determined data for discharge coefficients are expressed as:

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2.1 8
91.71𝛽2.5
Orifice meter: 𝐶𝑑 = 0.5959 + 0.0312𝛽 − 0.184𝛽 + 0.75
𝑅𝑒𝐷
6.53𝛽0.5
Nozzle meter: 𝐶𝑑 = 0.9965 − + 0.5
𝑅𝑒𝐷
Where 𝑅𝑒𝐷 is the approach Reynolds number. These relations are valid for 0.25 ,
0.25 < 𝛽 < 0.75 , and 104 < 𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 107 . Precise values of 𝐶𝑑 depend on the
particular design of the obstruction, and
thus the manufacturer’s data should be
consulted when available. Also, the
Reynolds number depends on the flow
velocity, which is not known a priori.
Therefore, the solution is iterative in nature
when curve-fit correlations are used for 𝐶𝑑 .

The third and final type of obstruction meter is the venturi, named in honor of
Giovanni Venturi, an Italian physicist who first tested conical expansions and
contractions. The discharge coefficient for a standard venturi meter is given by
Venturi meter: 𝐶𝑑 = 0.9858 − 0.196𝛽4.5
The choice of meter depends on the loss and the cost. Other flow rate measurement
devices include Ultrasonic Flowmeters, Electromagnetic flowmeters, vortex
flowmeters and Laser Doppler Velocimetry.

Example: Measuring Flow Rate with an Orifice Meter

The flow rate of methanol at 20℃ (𝜌 = 788.4 kg/m3 and 𝜇 = 5.857 × 10−4 kg/m. s)
through a 4-cm-diameter pipe is to be measured with a 3-cm diameter orifice meter

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equipped with a mercury manometer across

the orifice plate, as shown. If the differential
height of the manometer is 11 cm, determine
(a) the pressure drop across the orifice (b)
choosing as the first guess for the discharge
coefficient of the orifice 𝐶𝑑 = 0.61, find the
first approximated value of the flow rate
through the pipe (c) use iterative procedure
to determine the flow rate of methanol
through the pipe (to three significant digits)
(d) what is the average flow velocity?

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