UNIT-2

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers and a
computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data.
The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or
wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Computer Network
A computer network is a group of computers, two or more, connected to each other through a wire or a cable  or even
wireless. 

Different Types of Networks

LAN: LAN is the acronym for Local Access Network. A LAN network is a short-distance network. It connects computers
that are close together, usually within a room or a building. Very rarely, a LAN network will span a couple of buildings.
An example of a LAN network is the network in a school or an office building.

WAN: WAN stands for Wide Area Network. WANs cover a huge geographical area. A WAN is a collection of LAN
networks. LANs connect to other LANs with the help of a router. The biggest WAN in the world is, Internet. WANs are
different from LANs in that they’re not owned by a single person/organization. They also use different technology that
enables them to communicate over long distances. Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are
geographically separate.

VPN: VPN stands for Virtual Private Networks. They let you connect to your network from a remote location through
the Internet. This saves you time and money- you don’t need to set up a physical connection with your network. The
Internet acts as a medium between you and your network. For example, you can access your computer at work
through your computer at home.

MAN: MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. The network in a metro area is a MAN. They are usually more
limited in scope than WANs, but essentially work the same way.

CAN: CAN stands for Campus Area Network. The network that spans a University or College campus is a CAN. CANs
are like WANs or LANs, except they have more restrictions on them. They let students communicate with each other
as well as the administration.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

Wireless LANs, or WLANs, use radio frequency (RF) technology to transmit and receive data over the air. This
minimizes the need for wired connections.
Advantage of Networks
Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a network, files are shared by
copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another. This method of
transferring files is very time-consuming.
Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at considerable savings when compared to
buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier

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upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the individual
workstations.
Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as copy inhibit, so that you do not have to worry about
illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized
users.
Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a school is the fact that all of
the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the building.
Flexible Access. Computer networks allow employees to access their files from computers throughout the organization.
Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For
example, educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new
curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.
Sharing information: The computer can help you centralize the information and maintain control over it if you select
one computer to store the shared information and have all other computers reference the information on that
computer over the network.
Sharing hardware resources: A network allows anyone connected to the network to use printers, fax modem, scanners,
tape backup units or almost any other device that can be attached to a computer.
Sharing software resources: Administrator can centrally install and configure the software and also restrict access to the
software. It is easier than doing it on every one of the computers in an organization.
Preserving information: A network also allows for information to be backed up to a central location. It is difficult to
maintain regular backups on a number of stand-alone computers so important information can be lost easily by mistake
or by accident.
Protecting information: A network provides a more secure environment for a company's important information than
stand-alone computers. Networks provide an additional layer of security by way of passwords.
Electronic-mail (e-mail): The computer network can also help people communicate by e-mail. You can attach electronic
documents to mail message like photo, sound and video clip.
Disadvantages of Installing a Network
Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs of installation can be
prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a
technician.
Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. Many
organizations have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other computer, when the files
server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire organization may lose access
to necessary programs and files.
Cables May Break. One broken cable can stop the entire network.
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Types of Computer Networks
The computer networks can be broadly divided into Local area network, Metropolitan area network and Wide area
network.
Local Area Networks (LAN)
A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange information with each other over a shared
communication medium. Local Area Networks or LANs are usually confined to a limited geographic area, such as a single
building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but can often link hundreds of
computers used by thousands of people.
Characteristics
All the connected devices in the network share the transmission media.
Each device connected in the network can either operate standalone or in the network.
Area covered is small.
Data transfer rates are high, usually 1Mbps-100 Mbps.
Cost of setting up the network is usually low.
Each device connected in the network can communicate with any other device in the network.
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Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
A metropolitan area network is some where between a LAN and a WAN. It refers to networks which connect systems or
local area networks within a metropolitan area .A MAN can support both data and voice. Cable television network are
examples of MANs that distribute television signals.
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
WAN spread across countries and continents, satellites being one of the transmission media. A WAN is a network that
links separate geographical locations. A WAN can be a public system such as Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
or one of the various packet switched services provided by the public telecommunication authorities. Often elements of
a network are widely separated physically. Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically
separate.
Characteristics
Machines are spread over a wide geographic region.
Channels are of relatively low capacity.
Channels are relatively error-prone.
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Network Topologies and its Types
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. In
networking, the term topology refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. The geometric arrangement of
computer resources, remote devices, and communication facilities is known as network structure of network topology.

Types of Topology

Bus Topology
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server, workstations,
and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. A single network cable runs in the building or office or campus and all
nodes are linked along with this communication cable.

(Fig 2.1 Bus Topology)

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Reliable in very small networks as well as easy to use and understand.
 Is easy to extend.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
Bus configuration can be difficult to troubleshoot.
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 Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central
network hub or concentrator .Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the
data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber
optic cable.

(Fig 2.2 Star Topology)

Advantages
Easy to install and wire.
Easy to add and remove nodes.
A node failure does not bring down the entire network.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
Ring Topology
A ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU (multistation access unit)
of a ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring. In this topology
the network cable passes from one node to another until all nodes are connected in the form of a loop or ring. There is
direct point to point link between two neighboring nodes. These links are unidirectional which ensures that transmission
by a node traverses the whole ring and comes back to the node, which made the transmission.

Advantages
Ring networks offer high performance for a small number of nodes.
Ring networks can span longer distances than other types of networks.
Ring networks are easily extendable.

Disadvantages
Relatively expensive and difficult to install.
Failure of one computer on the network can affect the whole network.
It is difficult to trouble shoot a ring network.
Adding or removing computers can disrupt the network.

Tree Topology

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A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured
workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network,
and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

(Fig 2.3 Tree Topology)

Advantages
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Mesh Topology
There is a random connection of nodes using communication links. A mesh network may be fully connected or partially
connected. Fully connected networks are not very common because of the high cost. Partially connected mesh topology
is the general topology for wide area networks. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh
network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. Some WANs, most notably the Internet,
employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. Partial mesh
networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.
Advantages
Yields the greatest amount of redundancy in the event that one of the nodes fails where network traffic can be
redirected to another node.
Network problems are easier to diagnose.
Disadvantages
The cost of installation and maintenance is high.
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Transmission Media
The information usually moves from one network device to another through the medium called Cable. There are several
types of cable which are commonly used with LANsThe transmission media can be divided into two categories: guide
media and unguided media. The guided media includes cable and unguided cable includes waves through air, water or
vacuum. Coaxial and twisted pair cable are copper based and carry electrical signals and fiber optic cable use glass or
plastic fibers to carry light signals.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Coaxial Cable

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Fiber Optic Cable
Twisted pair
The most common form of wiring in data communication application is the twisted pair cable. Twisted pair is made of
insulated copper wires which have been twisted around each other to form wire pairs. The cable has four pairs of wires
inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from
adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. Twisting the wire reduces the electrical interference. Twisted pair cabling is
of two types: shielded and unshielded
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for networks .UTP is a set of twisted
pairs within a plastic sheath. The most common use for this type of cable is telephone wire. Different types of UTP
cabling are suitable for different speed communications. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. RJ stands for Registered Jack.

(Fig 2.4 RJ-45 Connector)

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

STP includes a protective sheathing around the copper wire. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments
with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often
used on networks using Token Ring topology.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has a single copper conductor at its center that actually carries the electric signals. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal mesh. The metal shield helps to block any outside
interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

(Fig 2.5 Coaxial Cable)

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector Different
types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator.
Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use
the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

(Fig 2.6 BNC Connector)

Fiber Optic Cable

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 Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by protective cladding and a durable outer sheath.
The light pulses are generated by light emitting diodes (LED).Photo diodes reconvert the light pulses to electric signals.
Data rates from 100 Mbps to over 2 GBPS are supported. It transmits light rather than electronic signals, eliminating the
problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical
interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the
effects of moisture and lighting. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens
communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber
optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify.

An optical fiber is a transparent thin fiber for transmitting light. The optical fiber can be used as a medium for
telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. Fibers can be made out of glass,
because of its lower optical absorption. The light transmitted through the fiber is confined due to total internal reflection
within the material. Fibers are generally used in pairs, with one fiber of the pair carrying a signal in each direction.
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What is Intranet

An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but available only within that organization. For large
organizations, an intranet provides easy access to corporate information for designated employees.

Extranet:  A Secure Means for Sharing Information with Partners

While an intranet is used to disseminate confidential information within a corporation, an extranet is commonly used by
companies to share data in a secure fashion with their business partners. Internet-type tools are used by content
providers to update the extranet. Encryption and user authentication means are provided to protect the information,
and to ensure that designated people with the proper access privileges are allowed to view it.

Protocols

After a physical connection has been established, network protocols define the standards that allow computers to
communicate. A protocol establishes the rules and encoding specifications for sending data. This defines how computers
identify one another on a network, the form that the data should take in transit, and how this information is processed
once it reaches its final destination
TCP/IP Protocol Suite The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of many other protocols that perform different functions. Below
is a list of some of them:

TCP - TCP breaks data into manageable packets and tracks information such as source and destination of packets. It is
able to reroute packets and is responsible for guaranteed delivery of the data.
IP - This is a connectionless protocol, which means that a session is not created before sending data. IP is responsible for
addressing and routing of packets between computers. It does not guarantee delivery and does not give
acknowledgement of packets that are lost or sent out of order as this is the responsibility of higher layer protocols such
as TCP.

Network Interface Cards

Network Interface Cards, commonly referred to as NICs, are used to connect a PC to a network. The NIC provides a
physical connection between the networking cable and the computer's internal bus. Different computers have different
bus architectures. PCI bus slots are most commonly found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are commonly
found on 386 and older PCs. NICs come in three basic varieties: 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the number of bits

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that can be transferred to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable. Most NICs are designed for
a particular type of network, protocol, and medium, though some can serve multiple networks.

Every network includes:

 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.

 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication between networked
computers and peripherals is also possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell NetWare, Unix and
Linux.

Network can be divided in to two main categories:

Peer-to-peer.
Server – based.
In peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the computers are
equal and therefore known as peers. Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and there is no one assigned to be
an administrator responsible for the entire network.

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small organizations where the users are allocated in the same
general area, security is not an issue and the organization and the network will have limited growth within the
foreseeable future.

The term Client/server refers to the concept of sharing the work involved in processing data between the client
computer and the most powerful server computer.
The client/server network is the most efficient way to provide:
Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets, Accounting, Communications and Document
management.
Network management.
Centralized file storage.
.What is a network firewall?
A firewall is a system or group of systems that enforces an access control policy between two networks. The actual
means by which this is accomplished varies widely, but in principle, the firewall can be thought of as a pair of
mechanisms: one which exists to block traffic, and the other which exists to permit traffic. Some firewalls place a greater
emphasis on blocking traffic, while others emphasize permitting traffic. Probably the most important thing to recognize
about a firewall is that it implements an access control policy.

Transmission Mode:

Simplex :
Simplex transmission: signals may travel in only one direction. A data processing device or protocol capable of
transmitting or receiving but not both. A radio technology that allows only one-way communication. The FM
radio in your car, or your TV set, could be viewed as simplex devices.

Half-Duplex

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Alternating two-way transmit and receive. When one is transmitting, other is listening, then one can transmit
after a quiet on the channel.   
 Half-duplex transmission: signals may travel in both directions over a medium

 Only one direction at a time

 A communications channel allowing alternating transmission in two directions, but not in both
directions simultaneously.

 Alternating the transmission and reception of information between users. Sometimes also referred to as
"Ping-Pong" operation.

This is the basic mode of operation of most TDD and TDMA systems, where transmission and
reception are separate in time.

Full-Duplex
Simultaneous transmit and receive at the same time. Of course, one frequency for transmitting, other for
receiving.
 Full-duplex or duplex: signals free to travel in both directions over a medium simultaneously

 Used on data networks

 Channel: distinct communication path between nodes

 May be separated logically or physically

 Operating a channel in one direction only with no ability to operate in the other direction.

 An asynchronous communications protocol allowing a communications channel to send and receive data
at the same time. For example, a telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk at once.