Chapter 2 –

Geoelectrical methods

Georg Ohm (1789-1854)

Heriot-Watt University School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society Institute of GeoEnergy Engineering
Reservoir Geophysics and monitoring Chapter 2
Chapter 2 – Geoelectrical methods
methods / Introduction
vGeoelectrical methods contain a large group of methods to differentiating the subsurface according to its
electromagnetical properties.

vMain methods used in delineating geothermal resource, hydrogeology.

Very good for fresh and salt water interface (coastal intrusion)

vOrigin in the 1920’s due to the work of the Schlumberger brothers

Zonge.com
Chapter 2 - Rocks and resistivity
vMinerals are almost always electrical insulators
vElectrical conduction occurs because of the moisture contained within the pores of the rock or soil
vResistivity depends on several parameters:
o Clay content

Su at al., 2018
o Moisture salinity
o Degree of saturation of pores
o Pore connections (number, size, shape)
Chapter 2 - Rock and resistivity
vMinerals are almost always electrical insulators
vElectrical conduction occurs because of the moisture contained within the pores of the rock or soil
vResistivity depends on several parameters:
o Clay content
o Moisture salinity
o Degree of saturation of pores
o Pore connections (number, size, shape)
vArchie (1942) proposed an empirical formula relating resistivity to porosity, degree of saturation and resistivity of the
saturating moisture
Chapter 2 - The methods

vThe resistivity method is one of the oldest geophysical survey techniques

vDeveloped early in the 1900s and was in widespread use because of its simplicity and good results
vCan be used to measure different quantities including current flow, electrical potential and electromagnetic fields
vDetermine the subsurface resistivity distribution by making measurements on the ground surface
vGround resistivity is related to various geological parameters such as
o the mineral
o fluid content
o porosity
o water saturation in the rock
vUsed in hydrogeological, mining, geotechnical, environmental and even hydrocarbon exploration
Chapter 2 - The methods
vThe basic relationship behind resistivity measurements is the Ohm’s law: I=V/R
Where I is the current through the conductor in amperes, V is the voltage in volts and R the resistance in
Ohms

vResistivity is a material property, describing the resistance of a current to flow

vResistivities of some common rocks, minerals and chemicals below:

Loke’note 1999
Chapter 2 - The methods

Resistivity of rocks
Chapter 2 - The methods

vElectrical methods include many different types of measurements and varying setups or configurations
for the different types. The most important types are:

vDirect Current (DC) methods, where current is generated and injected into the earth
through electrodes at the surface. The measured signal is the electrical field generated at
the surface.

vTransient Electro Magnetic (TEM), where current is induced by a time varying magnetic
field from a controlled source. The monitored signal is the decaying magnetic field at
surface from the secondary magnetic field.

vMagneto-Telluric MT, where current is induced by the time variations in earth's

magnetic field. The measured signal is the electromagnetic field at the surface.
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements

vMost of the configurations rely on two pairs of electrodes – one pair for current transmission and the other for
measuring the potential difference

vAir being an insulating medium, all the energy dissipates into the lower half-space of the region
vThe array is designed such that the maximum amount of energy is returned to the receiver electrodes with the
subsurface information.
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Principle
Courant transmission Potential difference
measurement, M,N

Fondasol geothecnique
between A,B

Resistivity value measured at the center

vCurrent is usually injected as a 50% duty cycle reversing square wave. That is, current is on for several seconds, off for
several seconds, on with reversed polarity, off, etc. Voltages are recorded while current is on

vThis pattern for the current source is necessary because a voltage measured when the current is off will be non-zero in
many situations. Naturally occuring potentials are called spontaneous or self potentials (SP), and they are usually caused
by electrochemical activity in the ground, SP are noise in that case
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Principle
Courant transmission Potential difference
measurement, M,N

Fondasol geothecnique
between A,B

Resistivity value measured at the center

vIt is important to recognize the difference between resistance and resistivity. If we apply Ohm's law, R=V/I, we will have
a resistance, which is in units of Ohms. This is NOT the ground's resistivity, which has units of Ohm-m. We do not want
the resistance of this circuit; we want a measure of the ground's resistance per unit volume, or resistivity.
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Principle
𝐼
vThe potential due to a point current electrode at the surface is: 𝑉 𝑟 =
!
2𝜋𝜎𝑟
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ , 𝜎 = , 𝜌 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (Ohm−m), 𝜎 conductivity
"
vThe electric potential inside the earth caused by the radial flow of current is illustrated in the diagram below:

vCan you draw the potential at the surface, where measurements are made?
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Principle
vIn a practical experiment, one electrode, A and B. And we need two electrodes to measure a potential difference. These
are M,and N electrodes of the voltmeter

+ + - -

vThe measured voltage is a potential difference △ 𝑉 = 𝑉# − 𝑉$ . The measured voltage for any arrangement of
electrodes is,Δ𝑉 = 𝐼𝜌𝐺, G is the so-called geometric factor (different kind of arrays)

Exercise: Can you give the expression of 𝐺 ?

vWith finally we have the apparent resistivity: 𝝆 = 𝜟𝑽

𝑰𝑮

vStructural anisotropy (for example, layering or fracturing) causes the simple form of Ohm's law to break down because
current flow is not necessarily parallel to the forcing electric field
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Wenner array /Spacing between electrodes remains the same a value

A M N B
a a a

N=1
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Wenner array /Spacing between electrodes remains the same a value

A M N B
a a a

N=1
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Wenner array /Spacing between electrodes remains the same a value

A M N B
a a a

N=1
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Wenner array /Spacing between electrodes remains the same a value

A M N B
2a 2a 2a

N=1

N=2
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Wenner array /Spacing between electrodes remains the same a value

A M N B
2a 2a 2a

N=1

N=2

Heriot-Watt University School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society Institute of GeoEnergy Engineering
Reservoir Geophysics and monitoring Chapter 1
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Wenner array /Spacing between electrodes remains the same a value

A M N B

F. Jones, UBC Earth and Ocean Sciences

A M N B
2a 2a 2a

N=1

N=2

N=3
Chapter 2 - The methods / DC measurements
Wenner array (on an animation)

F. Jones, UBC Earth and Ocean Sciences

Chapter 2 - DC method

Other exotic arrays exist ..

Chapter 2 - Resistivity – in short

vWenner array: good characterisation of horizontal discontinuities , robust to noise, Sass et al (2008), Lee et al.
(2008)

vDipole-dipole array: good horizontal resolution, large area to cover, higher uncertainty, Jardani et al. (2012),
Reynolds (2011)

vWenner-Schlumberger: reasonably good horizontal and vertical resolution, robust to noise, Zhang (2016),
Fressard (2016) Jessical et al. (2016)

vSchlumberger: Good vertical resolution, Panek et al (2008), Prodan et al (2015)

vPole-Dipole: Relative good horizontal coverage, relatively robust to noise, Jormard et al (2007a)
vPolo-Pole: wildest horizontal coverage, deepest depth of investigation/ poor resolution, weak to noise, Chan et al
(2012), Zerathe&Lebourg (2012)
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

- Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) -

Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
vDefinition: Tomography is imaging by sections or sectioning through the use of any kind of penetrating wave. The method
is used in radiology, archaeology, biology, atmospheric science, geophysics, oceanography, plasma physics, materials
science, astrophysics, quantum information, and other areas of science.

vAlso called imaging, but better known as ERT

vIt is about transforming the measurements into more than one dimension, Tomographic inversion is to reconstruct the
geological model that offers synthetic data matching with observed data

v2D are now standard, whereas 3D has been developed at the same time as 2D it is not routinely used (mostly due to
limitations in measuring effort and time), 4D or time-lapse ERT also exists.

vWe will come back on ‘inversion’ in the final chapter (data assimilation)
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

Field knowledge Data acquisition

Resistivity model Apparent

resistivity

Inversion method

Resistivity tomography
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

Field knowledge Data acquisition

Usually done directly
during the acquisition
on the field with a
software solution
Resistivity model Apparent
resistivity

We change the
model in terms of Optimisation
geometry, location Inversion method method
and values

Resistivity tomography
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

vTomography inversion is an ill-posed problem, due to:

o Incompleteness (model and data)
o Noise (data)
o Errors (model and data)
o Non-uniqueness of the solution (parametrisation)
vAgain we will see this in more details in the data assimilation chapter
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

Tutorial: 2D and 3D electrical imaging surveys Loke 2015

A 2-D two-layer model with a low resistivity prism in the
upper layer. The calculated apparent resistivity
pseudosections for the (a) Wenner and (b) Schlumberger
arrays. (c) The 2D model.
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

The pseudosection gives a distorted picture of the subsurface

because the shape of the contours depend on the type of array
used. The pseudosection is useful as a means to present the
measured apparent resistivity values in a pictorial form, and as
an initial guide for further quantitative interpretation. It is NOT
a true representation of resistivity.

Loke’note 1999
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

Localisation of fault

Lecture notes Norbert peter szabo

Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

Detection of cavities

Lecture notes Norbert peter szabo

Heriot-Watt University School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society Institute of GeoEnergy Engineering
Reservoir Geophysics and monitoring Chapter 1
Chapter 2 - Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

Saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifer

Lecture notes Norbert peter szabo

Chapter 2 - Resistivity – Case study

Time-lapse water infiltration survey - U.K

vAn experiment was carried out in the Birmingham (England) area where forty thousand litres of water was poured on
the ground surface using a garden hose over a period of 10 hours

vMeasurements were made before and during the irrigation of the ground surface, and after that for a period of
about two weeks

vThe subsurface consists of sand and gravel

Chapter 2 - Resistivity – Case study

Time-lapse water infiltration survey - U.K

vNon-homogeneous media
vThe subsurface distribution of the water is not
very clear from a direct comparison of the
poured water location
inversion models alone

Loke 1999
Chapter 1 - Resistivity – Case study
Time-lapse water infiltration survey - U.K

vBut if we perform a time-lapse, it becomes more

clear. (base-monitor)=changes

vAfter 5 hours, after the it shows a reduction in the

resistivity

v10 hours, pumping is stopped and the minimum in

resistivity is reached.

v12 hours after the pumping was stopped, the low

resistivity plume has spread downwards and slightly
outwards due to infiltration of the water through the
unsaturated zone

vThis effect of the spreading of the plume becomes

Loke 1999
increasingly more pronounced after 24 hours and 36
hours, due to further migration of the water
Chapter 1 - Wrap up

vTo be used in a joint interpretation (with seismic for instance)

vThe depth of the event (this is being currently addressed : CO2ReMoVe EU project, Girard et al., 2009 and 2010)
vOnshore measurement could be challenging for EM surveys (societal noise)
vSalinity and complex geochemical reactions would have to be consider for the design of the EM survey (high salinity
= high conductivity = low resistivity)
Chapter 1 -

- Self potential -
Chapter 1 -

- Self potential -

The self-potential or spontaneous polarisation (SP) method

was devised in 1830 by Robert Fox, who used copper-plate
electrodes connected to a galvanometer* to detect
underground copper sulphide deposits in Cornwall, England
*A galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument
used for detecting and indicating an electric current
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) - generality
vClassified among the cheapest geophysical method
vCoupling between electric and non-electric flows and forces in the earth. This passive method makes use of natural
currents flowing in the ground that are generated by electrochemical processes.

vSP data is generated from measurements of naturally occurring electric potentials across two electrodes placed on the
earth’s surface and the potentials measured during the survey

v It may be positive or negative

vSources of SP effects are varied: sulphide mineral, vegetation, concentration in water, fluid motion and others
vTo detect and monitor:
o Groundwater flow
o Geothermal
o Landslides
o Contaminant plumes
o CO2 injection
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) - generality
vA fluid flow in a porous media create an electrokinetic potential
vNatural ground potentials consist of two components. One component is due primarily to electrochemical processes,
the other is a variety of different processes ranging from alternating currents induced by thunderstorms and by
variations in the Earth’s magnetic field, to the effects of heavy rainfall. We could classify them into, mineral potential and
the background potential

vObserved anomalies are generally lower than 100mv

Background potentials

mineral potentials

Source Sign of the anomaly Order of magnitude (mV)

Sulfur (mineral potential) - hundreds

Coal (mineral potential) - hundreds
Quartz (mineral potential) + tens
Pegmatite (mineral potential) + tens
Bioelectricity (plants, trees) - Up to 300
Groundwater flowing + or - hundreds

Graphite (mineral potential) - hundreds

Simulation of CO2 injection, Hoverstenand Gasperikova (2003)

Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) - generality

vAlso in a simulation context it could detect at 2000m, in practise the limit is ‘much less’

Simulation of CO2 injection in a 100m thick layer at different depth,

Hoverstenand Gasperikova (2003)
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) - measurement
vEasily measured with electrodes and a Voltmeter. Two non-polarisable porous-pot electrodes are connected to a
multimeter

vTwo methods:
1. Electrodes positioned at fixed distance, moving together along staked lines
o The fixed-base method keeps a single electrode in one place without moving it. This electrode is called the base
station and acts as the reference point for all other measurements. To follow the fixed-base SP method, you simply
move the other electrode a certain distance forward (say, 10 meters) along a line and take a reading. You then
move it another 10 meters forward, so it’s 20 meters from the base station, and repeat this process until the end of
the line. The result of the survey is plotted against the distance from the base station. Strong negative anomalies
indicate mineralization.

o The fixed-base method does a good job detecting small anomalies and is more accurate than the gradient method
(described next slide). But the disadvantage is that you need a really long wire. If your measurement line is 1,000
meters, you need a 1,000-meter wire to the base station. This is cumbersome and heavy, and you have to be careful
to ensure that the insulation of the wire doesn’t get damaged.
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) - measurement
vEasily measured with electrodes and a Voltmeter. Two non- polarisable porous-pot electrodes are connected to a
multimeter

vTwo methods:
1. Electrodes positioned at fixed distance, moving together along staked lines

2. Advance separate from each other

o The gradient method starts with two electrodes: one at the starting point (point zero) and the other at whatever
spacing you have determined (we’ll say 10 meters). A reading is taken here. You then move each electrode in steps:
The electrode at 10 meters moves to 20 meters, and the electrode at point zero moves out 10 meters, and so on

o The benefit of this method is that even if you measure 1,000 meters, you only need a 10-meter wire between the
two electrodes. The issue with the gradient method is that you get an error with each reading. So when you sum all
of the gradient measurements up, it adds to the error. This tends to hide any small anomalies.
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) - remarks
vThe electrochemical potential is directly dependent upon the concentration differences and temperature (geothermal
resources, e.g. Corwin and Hoover, 1979)

vElectrical noise can also result if measurements are made too soon after heavy rain or too close to running surface
water, also a railway 1 km distant (grounded fences and equipment, and corroding scrap metal, to name but a few), bio-
electric potentials caused by vegetation

vThe ‘usual’ maximum depth of sensitivity of the SP method is around 60–100 m, depending on the depth to the
phenomenon and the nature of the overburden
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – in practise
vRecall from previous slides: The electrical conductivity (σ, the inverse of resistivity) of porous rocks therefore depends
on their porosity (and the arrangement of the pores) and on the mobility of water (or other fluids) to pass through the
pore spaces (hence dependent upon ionic mobilities and solution concentrations, viscosity (η), temperature and
pressure)

vThe potentials tend to increase in positiveness with the direction of water flow as the electric charge flows in the
opposite direction, Consequently, negative charge flows uphill ; e.g. Corwin and Hoover (1979) reported a value of
−2693 mV on the peak of Adagdak Volcano, Adak Island, Alaska (topographic effect requires a correction to be applied)

vPotentials of the order of tens of millivolts can be induced artificially through pumping groundwater (Semenov, 1980),
The hydraulic gradient is increased by water abstraction, thereby increasing the rate of water flow towards the borehole;
hence a positive anomaly is observed:

Measure SP map

Semenov, 1980
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – in practise
vAs usual, , we know very little on what is under our feet, so characterisation is difficult, non-uniqueness problem is
there as well

Self-potential anomalies associated with (A) a sphere, (B) a

dipping plate, and (C) a dipping rod

Parasnis, 1986, Telford et al., 1990

Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – exercise
Exercise: Draw the idealised corresponding SP maps, profiles (C1 and C2 are two different concentrations)

Upwelling from C2

Injection into the well

Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – Case studies

Thermal gradient and self-potential

profiles over the Dome Fault Zone,
Roosevelt Hot Springs, Utah. Arrows
denote points at which mapped faults
cross the SP survey line. From Corwin and
Hoover (1979)
Superposing effect (thermal+topography).
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – Case studies

La Fossa di Vulcano, Vulcano Island, Italy

SP anomaly coinciding with the electrically conductive zone in

the center of the crater. The observed SP anomalies are very
likely to be caused by the combination of a hot, hydrothermal
system in the center, causing hydrothermal upwelling and a
positive SP anomaly, and downward flow through ashes and
tuff materials along the flanks of the volcano
Grobbe and Barde-Carbusson, Self-Potential Studies in Volcanic Environments: A Cheap and Efficient Method for Multiscale Fluid-Flow Investigations, 2019
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – Case studies
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – Case studies

No Data

SP array average as a function of time. Characterisation of raising of

the water level in a reservoir. From Butler and Llopis (1990), Mill
Creek Dam and Reservoir, Washington, USA
Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – exercise

What can you say on this ?

Isolated image I found on the web, no info, analyze, describe ..
 Chapter 1 - Self potential (SP) – Wrap up
vExamples of application to mine shaft, earthquakes, natural dams, geothermal..
vSP can ‘see’ compositional variations and the geometry of geological structures, also possible that observed SP
potentials arise as a combination of different processes rather than as a result of a single process

vThe exact physical processes by which some are caused are still unclear, and under current research
vA correction for large survey (square km) needs to be done, no need for local survey, topography correction, along with
telluric effects, although the combination is hard to quantify

vComplications arise when two or more geological features give rise to superimposed SP anomalies (qualitative
information)

vSensitive to noise
vOld method, but CHEAP, current research are working on the improvement of a quantitative characterisation