Jimma University

College of Social sciences and Humanities

Department Of Social Anthropology

Anthropology
Anth 1012

Handout

March, 2020
 Unit One

Introducing Anthropology and Its Subject Matter

1.1 Definition, Scope and Subject Matter of Anthropology

1.1.1 Definition and Concepts in Anthropology

To begin with its etymology, the term anthropology is a compound of two Greek words,
anthropos‘ and logos‘, which can be translated as human being/mankind‘ and
reason/study/science‘ respectively. So, anthropology means reason about humans ‘or the study or
science of humankind or humanity‘. Moreover, man has two important characteristics: biological
and cultural. It is very important to understand that the biological and the cultural characteristics
are inseparable elements. Hence, if we take it literally, anthropology is the study of humans.

Anthropology is the study of people; their origins, development, and contemporary variations,
wherever and whenever they have been found. It is a broad scientific discipline dedicated to the
comparative study of humans as a group, from its first appearance on earth to its present stage of
development. Of all the disciplines that study humans, anthropology is by far the broadest in
scope.

In more specific terms, anthropology is the science which:

 Investigates the strategies for living that are learned and shared by people as members of
human social groups.
 Examines the characteristics that human beings share as members of one species (Homo
sapiens) and the diverse ways that people live in different environments.
 Analyses the products of social groups: material objects (material cultures) and non-
material creations (religion/beliefs, social values, institutions, practices, etc.).

Anthropology is an intellectually challenging, theoretically ambitious subject, which tries to

achieve an understanding of culture, society and humanity through detailed studies of
community life, supplemented by comparison. At the deepest level, it raises philosophical
questions; what makes us human? Why do some groups of people tend to be tall and lanky, while
others tend to be short and stocky? Why do some groups of people practice agriculture, while

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others hunt for a living? The ultimate goal of anthropology is to develop an integrated picture of
humankind.

Anthropology primarily offers two kinds of insight. First, the discipline produces knowledge
about the actual biological and cultural variations in the world; second, anthropology offers
methods and theoretical perspectives enabling practitioners to explore, compare, understand and
solve societal problems.

1.1.2 The Historical Development of Anthropology

Like the other social sciences, anthropology is a fairly recent discipline. It was given its present
shape during the twentieth century. The emergence of anthropology as a scientific discipline,
there are ambiguities; some would trace its roots back to the European Enlightenment, during the
eighteenth century; others would claim that anthropology did not arise as a science until the
1850s; yet others would argue that anthropological research in its present-day sense only
commenced after the First World War.

The present academic anthropology has its roots in the works and ideas of the great ancient and
Medieval Greek, Roman, and Hebrew philosophers and social thinkers. These people were
interested in the nature, origin and destiny of man, and the morality and ethics of human
relationships. While ancient Greek social philosophical thinking, were considered as the roots of
anthropology, the discipline did not emerge as a distinct field of study until the mid-nineteenth
century.

Generally speaking, anthropology as an academic discipline was born during the 19th century,
during the Enlightenment period, based on the Darwinian Theory of Evolution. Anthropologists
of the early 1900s emphasized the study of many of the indigenous peoples of non-western world
and their social and cultural features through an approach called ‘ethnography’. By the mid-
1900, anthropologists attempted to discover universal human patterns and the common bio-
psychological traits through an approach called ‘ethnology’.

In Ethiopia, professional anthropologists have been studying culture and society on a more
intensive level only since the late 1950s. Almost inevitably, the initial emphasis was on
ethnography, the description of specific customs, cultures and ways of life.

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1.1.3 Scope and Subject Matter of Anthropology

The breadth and depth of anthropology is immense; there is no time and space left as far as man
exists. In other words, the temporal dimension covers the past, the present and even the future. In
terms of the spatial dimension, anthropology studies from Arctic to Desert, from Mega polis to
hunting gathering areas. The discipline covers all aspects of human ways of life experiences and
existence, as humans live in a social group.

Foremost anthropologist, Claude Lévi-Strauss, has expressed: Anthropology has humanity as its
object of research, but unlike the other human sciences, it tries to grasp its object through its
most diverse manifestations’ (1983: 49). In short, anthropology aims to describe, in the broadest
sense, what it means to be human (Peacock, 1986). In short, anthropology aims to describe, in
the broadest sense, what it means to be human (Peacock, 1986).

1.2 Distinguishing Features of Anthropology

There are several distinguishing characteristics that identify anthropology from other disciplines.
Anthropology is unique in its scope, approach, focus and method of study.

1. Its Broad Scope

It is interested in all human beings, whether contemporary or past, ''primitive'' or '' civilized''. It is
interested in many different aspects of humans, including their phenotypic characteristics, family
lives, marriages, political systems, economic lives, technology, belief systems, health care
systems, personality types, and languages. No place or time is too remote to escape the
anthropologist's notice. No dimension of human kind, from genes to art styles, is outside the
anthropologist's attention. Indeed, Anthropology is the broad study of human kind, around the
world and throughout time.

2. Its Unique Approach

In its approach anthropology is holistic, relativistic, comparative, and focused one. Holistic, in a
sense, means that it looks any phenomena from different vantage points. Accordingly,
anthropology considers culture, history, language and biology essential to a complete
understanding of society. Anthropology seeks to understand human beings as whole organisms

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that adapt to their environments through a complex interaction of biology and culture.
Relativism, Anthropology tries to study and explain a certain belief, practice or institution or a
group of people in its own context. It does not make value judgment, i.e., it does not hold the
position that a given belief or practice is good or bad. Comparative, this perspective helps to
understand differences and similarities among human beings across time and place.

3. Emphasis on Insiders' View

Anthropologists focus on how the people themselves understand about their world, how a
particular group of people explains about the world, etc. This is what anthropologists call emic
perspective.

4. Its Research Approach

Anthropology is highly dependent on qualitative research to understand the meaning behind any
human activity. Extended fieldwork, participant observation, in-depth and key informant
interviews and focus-group discussion are qualitative research instruments to explore change and
continuities in human societies. Ethnographic fieldwork is an important strategy which
normally requires spending a year or more with research subjects and document realities
occurring across time.

5. Its Focus

Anthropology focuses on local than the big social processes. Paying great attention to local or
micro-social processes certainly helps us to better understand big changes in societies. A detailed
account of an event or a phenomenon discovers multiple realities in a community.

1.3. Misconceptions about Anthropology

Due to lack of appropriate awareness about the nature, scope and subject matter of the discipline,
different misconceptions are held about anthropology. One misconception about anthropology is
related to the area of its study. It is said that anthropology is limited to the study of "primitive"
societies. Indeed, early anthropologists focus on the study of "primitive" societies. However,
anthropologists nowadays study most advanced and most complex societies as well.

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Another misconception is that anthropologists only study the rural people and rural areas. As a
matter of fact, formative anthropologists focused on rural areas. But now, anthropologists are
also interested in the study of urban people and urban areas.

It is also wrongly misconceived that anthropology is the study/analysis of fossil evidences of the
proto-humans like that of Lucy/Dinkinesh. However, this does not mean that anthropology is all
about the study of human evolution. It studies both the biological and the cultural aspects of
humans and examines the existing human physical and biological variations and cultural
diversity.

It is also misconceived that the purpose of anthropology is to study and preserve communities far
from development and obsolete cultural practices in museums. Rather, anthropologists duties are
to support those communities' capacity to empower themselves in development processes.

1.4. The Relationship between Anthropology and Other Disciplines

Anthropology is similar with other social sciences such as sociology, psychology, political
sciences, economics, history, etc. Anthropology greatly overlaps with these disciplines that study
human society. However, anthropology differs from other social sciences and the humanities by
its broad scope, unique approach, perspective, unit of analysis and methods used.

1.5 Contributions of Anthropology

Anthropology has established for itself the task of examining all aspects of humanity for all
periods of time and for all parts of the globe. Accordingly, its contributions are immense. By
studying anthropology, we get the following benefits, among others.

First, with its emphasis on the comparative study of cultures, through the process of contrasting
and comparing, we gain a fuller understanding of other cultures and our own. In which, it can
helps us to understand the logic and justification behind group behavior and cultural practices.

Second, Anthropology also helps us understand our own ways of lives. Today it is important that
we not only know something about other peoples of the world, but also grasp how our everyday
decisions are influencing them in a multitude of ways and how others decisions are also
influencing ours.

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Through its distinctive methodology of long-term, intensive, participant-observation research,
cultural anthropology offers a unique perspective on how local cultural groups are engaging with
the processes of globalization. Cultural anthropologists are more likely to see what is actually
occurring on the ground and how the local people themselves talk about their life experiences in
a time of rapid globalization.

Because of its relativistic approach, anthropology helps us to be more sensitive to and

appreciative of cultural diversity and variability. Anthropology helps us fight against prejudice
and discriminations. It helps us fight against Ethnocentrism: the belief that one's own culture
and one's own way of life is superior to others cultural, social and material lives.

Anthropology, in its applied perspective, is also used as a tool for development. Anthropologists
are better equipped with the knowledge, skills and methods of identifying the needs and interests
of local people for the betterment and change of their lived experiences. Paying attention to local
conditions is crucial to solve community problems. For example, it is often applied in areas of
Environmental Change, Health and Nutrition, Globalization, Social Justice and Human Rights,
cultural resource management (CRM) and Cultural Dimensions of Civil and Religious Conflicts.

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 Unit Two

Sub Fields of Anthropology

2. Major Sub Fields Of Anthropology

Anthropology is often divided into four major subfields: Physical/Biological Anthropology,

Archeology, Linguistic Anthropology and Socio-Cultural Anthropology. Each sub-field of
anthropology is further divided into a number of specialization areas.

2.1. Archaeological Anthropology

Archaeological anthropology or simply archaeology studies the ways of lives of past peoples by
excavating and analyzing the material culture/physical remains (artifacts, features and eco-facts)
they left behind.

Artifacts are material remains made and used by the past peoples and that can be removed from
the site and taken to the laboratory for further analysis to get clues about values, beliefs, and
norms; in general, about the cultures of societies that existed in the past. Tools, ornaments,
arrowheads, coins, and fragments of pottery are examples of artifacts.

Features, like artifacts, are made or modified by past people, but they cannot be readily carried
away from the site. Archaeological features include such things as house foundations, ancient
buildings, fireplaces, steles, and postholes.

Eco-facts are organic and environmental remains such as soil, animal bones, and plant remains
that were not made or altered by humans; but were used by them. Eco-facts provide
archaeologists with important data concerning the environment and how people used natural
resources in the past.

Archaeology has also its own subfields or areas of specialties. The most important ones include;
Prehistoric Archaeology; investigates human prehistoric cultures. It focuses on entire period
called prehistory, between 6,000 years ago and the time of the first stone tools (the first artifacts),
around 2.5 million years ago.

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Historical Archaeology; takes advantage of the fact that about 6,000 years ago, that is, peoples
who had writing and about whom written records are available. Historic archaeologists help to
reconstruct the cultures of people who used writing and about whom historical documents have
been written.

Ethno-Archaeologists; study material culture of current societies (e.g., pottery products) to

understand the cultures (life styles) of past societies.

We Ethiopians have very glorious past. Archaeological findings in north, south, east and western
part of the country have shown our county belonged to those countries which have old
civilization.

2.2. Linguistic Anthropology

Linguistic Anthropology generally focuses on the evolution of languages by studying

contemporary human languages as well as those of the past. It studies how language is used
within a society, and how the human brain acquires and uses languages. It tries to understand
languages variation in their structures, units, and grammatical formations. It gives special
attention to the study of unwritten languages. Language is a key to explore a culture.

Linguistic anthropology is divided into four distinct branches or areas of research: Structural or
Descriptive Linguistics, Historical Linguistics, Ethno-Linguistics, and Socio-linguistics.

Structural /Descriptive Linguistics: -studies the structure of linguistic patterns. It studies

grammatical patterns of languages to identify the similarities and differences among
contemporary languages. It examines sound systems, grammatical systems, and the meanings
attached to words in specific languages to understand the structure and set of rules of given
language.

Ethno-linguistics (cultural linguistics):- examines the relationship between language and

culture. In any language, certain cultural aspects that are emphasized (such as types of snow
among the Inuit, cows among the pastoral Maasai, or automobiles in U.S. culture) are reflected
in the vocabulary. Moreover, cultural linguists explore how different linguistic categories can
affect how people categorize their experiences, how they think, and how they perceive the world
around them.

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Historical linguistics:- deals with the emergence of language in general and how specific
languages have diverged over time. It focuses on the comparison and classifications of different
languages to differentiate the historical links between them.

Socio-linguistics:- Sociolinguistics examines how the use of language defines social groups. It
investigates linguistic variation within a given language. No language is a homogeneous system
in which everyone speaks just like everyone else. One reason for variation is geography, as in
regional dialects and accents. Linguistic variation also is expressed in the bilingualism of ethnic
groups.

2.3 Socio-Cultural Anthropology

Socio-cultural anthropology studies contemporary societies and cultures throughout the world. In
the past, however, mainly social anthropologists from the Western world conducted ethnographic
fieldworks in non-Western societies in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania. Many of the
classical ethnographies of African societies produced by ethnographers from the then colonial
countries; such as Evans-Pritchard and Meyer Fortes conducted ethnographic research in the
British colonies. Currently, socio-cultural anthropologists conduct fieldworks all over the world
including in urban-industrial societies. Indigenous anthropology or anthropology at home has
also emerged as more and more anthropologists have begun doing fieldworks in their own
societies.

Society is the group of people who have similar ways of life, but culture is a way of life of a
group of people. Society and culture are two sides of the same coin. Socio-cultural anthropology
describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social, cultural and material life of contemporary
human societies. It studies the social (human relations), symbolic or nonmaterial (religious,
language, and any other symbols) and material (all man-made objects) lives of living peoples.

Socio-cultural anthropologists engage in two aspects of study: Ethnography (based on field

work) and Ethnology (based on cross-cultural comparison).

Ethnography provides a comprehensive account of a particular community, society, or culture.

It describes the features of specific cultures in as much detail as possible including local
behavior, beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics, and religion. These detailed

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descriptions (ethnographies) are the result of extensive field studies (usually a year or two, in
duration) anthropologist (ethnographer)gathers data that he or she organizes, describes, analyzes,
and interprets to build and present that account, which may be in the form of a book, article, or
film.

Ethnology is the comparative study of contemporary cultures and societies, wherever they may
be found. It examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnographic data
gathered in different societies. It uses such data to compare and contrast and to make
generalizations about society and culture. Ethnologists attempt to identify and explain cultural
differences and similarities, to test hypotheses, and to build theory to enhance our understanding
of how social and cultural systems work.

Socio-cultural anthropology uses ethnographical and ethnological approaches to answer all sort
of questions related to culture and human societies.

2.4 Physical/Biological Anthropology

Physical anthropology is a branch of anthropology that focuses on the biological aspects of

human beings. There are two major areas of research in physical anthropology: 1) human
evolution, and 2) modern human variation. The subfields of physical anthropology are closely
related to natural sciences, particularly biology. That is why it is often called biological
anthropology. It studies the biological dimensions of human beings, including biological
evolution, the physical variations between contemporary populations, and the biology and
behavior of non-human primates. Physical anthropology itself is further divided into three
special fields of study: paleoanthropology, primatology and anthropometry.

Paleoanthropology: is a subspecialty in physical anthropology which is interested in the search

for fossil remains from prehistoric times to trace the development of outstanding human
physical, social and cultural characteristics to study of human evolution.

Primatology: The study of the biology and behavior of primates, that is, the animals that most
closely resemble human beings in terms of physiological and anatomical structure (gorillas,
chimpanzees, gibbons, and orangutan etc), to ascertain the similarities and differences between
these other primates and humans.

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Anthropometry: The study of human variations within and among different populations in time
and space, human ecology, population genetics, etc makes up the central concerns of this sub-
branch of physical anthropology. These physical differences may be in terms of blood types, skin
colors, skull shape, facial shape, hair texture, and the like. Anthropometry shades some light on
how differing physical characteristics have helped human groups adapt different geographical
environments. The investigation of human variations among living populations has led to the
application of the knowledge in solving practical problems. The development of a specialty
known as forensic anthropology is one of the results of these attempts.

Forensic Anthropology is the identification of human skeletal remains for medical andlegal
purposes. Forensic anthropologists work often with other forensic specialists in aiding criminal
investigations. Forensic anthropologists attempt to determine the sex, age at death, ancestral
background, and stature of the deceased individual.

2.4.1. Evolutionary and Paleo-anthropological perspectives on human origin

One of the major questions anthropologists grapple with is the origins of humankind. The fossil
record preserves evidence of past life on Earth, tracing a progression of simple one-celled
organisms to increasingly diverse forms. How did these different forms of life emerge and new
species arise? The biological explanations for this process are the focus of this section.

Comprehensive theories of evolution concerning the evolution of life were developed only
during the 19thcentury. They were made possible through discoveries in many different areas.
Indeed, the value of evolutionary theory is its utility as a unifying explanation for a wide variety
of phenomena.

Anthropologists today rely on scientific views of evolution in order to explain human origins.
Simply put, evolution refers to a process and gradual change in specie over time. In fact,
evolution is used to describe the cumulative effects of three independent facts. Importantly,
these attributes of evolution can be observed in nature every day. They are:

 Replication: The fact that life forms have offspring;

 Variation: The fact that each offspring is slightly different from its parents, and
its siblings; and

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  Selection: The fact that not all offspring survive, and those that do tend to be the
ones best suited to their environment.

The scientific explanation of human origin and the concept of evolution are attributed to a series
of discoveries of early modern period and the works of handful of scientists in the
physical/natural sciences. One of the prominent persons in this regard is Charles Darwin (1809-
1882), a British Naturalist of the period. Charles Darwin is known for his theory of natural
selection in the evolution of species and the idea of survival of the fittest.

One of Charles Darwin‘s contributions to civilization was that he demonstrated that humanity
was part of the world of living things. For thousands of years, Western civilization, backed up by
the biblical story of creation, held humanity as a special creation fundamentally different from all
other living things. By Darwin‘s time, many were beginning to question this creationist view.
But the cultural pressure to conform to the dominant religion prevented most from saying so out
loud. Yet, Darwin‘s ideas and many others that it fertilized set the foundation for a new study:
the study of humans as living, evolving creatures in many ways no different from the rest of
animal life.

Today, anthropologists have accumulated a huge amount of data, much of it based on studies of
DNA, the molecule that shapes all Earth life, to back the claims Darwin made in 1859. In doing
so, anthropologists study humanity as a biological phenomenon by raising questions such as:

 What species are we most and least like?

 Where and when did we fist appear?

 What were our ancestors like?

 Can we learn about human behavior from the behavior of our nearest relatives, the
chimpanzees and gorillas?

 Is our species still evolving? How do modern human genetics, population growth,
and other current issues play out from a biological perspective? The answers to the
above mentioned questions are the changes through time of the properties of a living
species. That is, evolution is the foundation of the life sciences. Many kinds of life forms

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 have become extinct (like the dinosaurs), but each of today‘s living species (including
humanity) has an evolutionary ancestry that reaches far back in time.

2.4.2 Anthropological perspectives on racial types and human physical variation

People come in many colors and shapes; people of the Mediterranean, for example, are obviously
darker-skinned than those of Scandinavia, and natives of the Arctic are shorter and stockier than
the tall, lean Samburu of East Africa. Why is this? How did these variations come about, and
what do they mean for humanity as a species?

The answer comes from the study of human biology by physical anthropologists. In this section
we will see how human populations have adapted to their varying environments by the same
evolutionary process that shapes all living things from the perspective of race.

Like all living things with sensory input, humans have to classify their perceptions into some
kind of order: these things go with these others but don‘t belong in this group. Some people have
darker skin, so they‘re in the ―darker skin‖ category. Obviously, not all human beings look the
same, so humans have spent some time putting people of different colors, body shapes, and so on
into different categories sometimes called races. Unfortunately, this tendency has had some very
bad consequences for millions of human beings over the centuries.

Biologically speaking, a race is a group of organisms of the same species that share similar
physical (and genetic) attributes and specific geographic regions. In short, they‘re subdivisions of
a single species- meaning they can mate and have offspring that are healthy enough to have their
own offspring-exhibiting some characteristics reflecting their geographical origins.

This definition is pretty slippery, though, because finding good examples of distinctly different
races is difficult. The most visible non-human animal races are those of dogs. Wherever you go,
all dogs are in the same species-Canis familiaris- but they have obvious physical differences.
Strictly speaking, they‘re of different races - and even this isn‘t so strict, because these
differences come from humans selectively breeding these animals for certain characteristics, not
from their originally inhabiting very different environments. Once, all dogs (most likely first
domesticated about 20,000 years ago) were wolf-like, and their modern diversity is more a result
of human selective breeding than geographical adaptation.

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Just like any other living thing, human beings adapt to their environments through an
evolutionary process. Throughout this unit we will see the ways in which our species adapts
mainly through cultural means; that is, we survive our environments not because we‘ve adapted
to them biologically, but with artifacts and complex behavior. In this respect, it should be noted
that human bodies (human beings) have adapted to certain conditions over time.

Adaptation can be understood as a process (behavioral and/or biological) that increases the
likelihood of survival for an organism. An adaptation can be a mutation that confers an
advantage. For example, a frog that has better-camouflaged skin than its siblings has a lower
chance of being snapped up by a fish, and therefore a stronger chance to survive and have
offspring that will carry the gene for betteradapted camouflage. In humans, adaptations include
complex behavior, such as making tools. These behaviors aren‘t passed on genetically but rather
culturally.

Some of these bodily adaptations are pretty easily visible, and some are only visible when you
look very closely at the genes. Skin color—one of the most visible human characteristics - is a
good example of adaptation to a particular environment. The darkest skin appears in populations
originating in tropical zones, such as Africa and Asia. The lightest skin is traditionally found in
northern Europe because over time, natural selection favored darker skins in areas that received
extensive and more intensive sunlight, because individuals with lighter skin in these areas were
more prone to skin cancers. Darker skin, then, is an adaptation to the geographical conditions of
Africa.

What‘s the adaptive value of lighter skin? It has to do with vitamin D, of all things. Vitamin D is
a nutrient that helps human bones form properly. Without enough vitamin D, deformities like the
disease rickets, which normally includes bowed legs and a misshapen pelvis, will occur.

Humans naturally produce Vitamin D through the skin when they‘re exposed to sunlight, but
cloudier parts of the world - like northern Europe - are exposed to much less sunlight than
regions in the tropics, where the species began. As early human populations were expanding into
northern Europe around 40,000 years ago, those individuals with darker skin were less able to
manufacture Vitamin D and probably experienced a much lower birthrate than those populations
with lighter skin. Lighter skin, then, is an adaptation to the geographical conditions of Europe

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because over time, the prehistoric colonists of Europe who happened to be born with lighter skin
(simply by chance) had more offspring, who themselves carried the genes for lighter skin.

Biological adaptations aren‘t instantaneous. They take place over the span of generations, so an
African moving to Europe won‘t evolve lighter skin, nor will a European travelling to Africa
evolve darker skin (except for some tanning). A suntan is a lighter-skinned body‘s defense
mechanism - the release of dark pigmented melanin - against too much ultraviolet light.

Another example of biological adaptation in human beings is the difference of stature between
arctic (such as Inuit) and East African (such as Maasai) people. In biology, Bergmann’s rule
indicates that in colder regions, warm-blooded animals will have stockier bodies than their
counterparts from warmer regions, because stockier bodies are more efficient at retaining body
heat. In the cold Polar Regions, the Inuit have a short and stocky build; the Maasai of East Africa
have taller and more slender bodies that don‘t have to retain so much heat - they actually have to
dump excess heat in their hot environment, which is facilitated by their body shape. Body stature
in these cases is an adaptation to the geographical conditions of hot African and the cold Arctic.

The rapid physiological changes that occur in one‘s lifetime - like a mountaineer‘s adjustment to
lower oxygen levels at high altitude - are referred to as habituation or acclimatization. These
aren‟t passed on genetically to the next generation (because changes acquired during life can‘t
be encoded in the genes,) and they‘re reversible (as when the mountaineer returns to lower
elevations.)

.4.3 Human Races: The history of racial typing

Reflect your views on the following questions.

 What can you say for sure about human races?

Like all animals, humans have undoubtedly been classifying their neighbors in various ways for
a very long time.

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Some of the first records of humans classifying others as certain ―types‖ come from ancient
Egypt, where by 1350 BC you can see records of them classifying humans by skin color:
Egyptians were red-skinned, people south of Egypt were blackskinned, those living north of the
Mediterranean Sea were white-skinned, and people to the east were yellow-skinned.

By the the16th century, during the Age of Discovery, Europeans voyaging around the world
were encountering many previously unknown peoples and developing racial classifications of
their own. Because skin color was so noticeable, many racial classifications were based only on
that factor. Additionally, these unknown people weren‘t Christian and didn‘t share European
culture and values, so the Europeans labeled them Savages. In fact, they thought they could use
racial type as an indicator of just how Savage a person was. The less European-looking, of
course, the more Savage. Though most have ditched this concept today, many racial
supremacists still believe that cultural behavior correlates with skin color, nose shape, hair
texture, or what have you.

By the mid-1800s, naturalists began using a method of describing the shape of the head called
the cephalic index, a ratio measurement of the length and width of the head. Dolichocephalic
peoples had long and narrow heads (like most northern Europeans), and brachycephalic peoples
tended to have broad heads — like many southern Europeans. Not surprisingly, this
classification scheme and others like it led to many arguments about which peoples were
superior to the others.

The root problem of all this flailing around at the identification of human types was biological
determinism, the idea that physical traits were somehow linked to behavior. Many thought traits
like intellect, values, and morals were all products of one‘s race. Today, most people know
better, although some people still call for ―racial purity,‖ an impossible and destructive idea.

A similar way that everyone-including early anthropologists-had this idea all wrong was in the
application of Darwin‘s principles of biological evolution to societies. This led to a concept
known as social Darwinism, the idea that as societies and nations evolved and competed, the
morally superior societies would prevail as the lessmoral, ―savage‖ societies were weeded out;
and that this was all natural and good. Around this time debates about the superiority or

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inferiority of particular groups continued, and some began to fear that civilized (meaning
northern European

Christian) society was slowly being destroyed by ―unfit‖ peoples who, for one reason or
another, were not being weeded out.

With behavioral characteristics ―linked‖ to genetic characteristics in the minds of many

(including scientists), some in the 19th and early 20th centuries even advocated for state
regulation of marriages, family size, and whether to allow an individual to reproduce. This
practice became known as eugenics, and the Nazis took it to a terrible extreme during World
War II. In Germany, the Nazi party began to systematically kill those members of society that it
considered inferior to the northern-European Christian ideal they held. Using eugenics as the
basis for its acts, the Nazi party killed millions of Jewish people, Gypsies and others it
considered inferior in an attempt to create a master race.

The problems with the concept of a master race — aside from the obvious moral issues
surrounding eugenics — is that biological variation is necessary for the health of a population.
Basically, if all members of a population are the same, the population has no buffer against a
particularly lethal or catastrophic disease or any other major change in the species‘ selective
environment. If everyone is the same, everyone is susceptible to the same potential disaster. For
this reason, many biologists measure the overall health of a species by its very genetic diversity.
So even if a master race were possible, and one could (and would want to) manage to prevent
any interbreeding, the end result would be a genetically uniform and genetically vulnerable
population. The idea of a master race is therefore suicidal.

2.4.4 The Grand Illusion: Race, turns out, is arbitrary

Reflect your views on the following question

 Why do you think is race become an elusive concept?

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Over the years, various anthropologists have attempted to classify the human species into various
races, such as Caucasian, Black African, Asian, and so on. The problem is that the physical traits
used to identify which group an individual belonged in aren‘t binary opposites like black or
white, with no middle ground. They‘re continuous traits, meaning that a whole spectrum exists
between, say: ―black‖ and ―white‖ skin designations.

Any attempt to classify human races raises a number of questions. Although Asians look pretty
clearly different from Europeans in some respects, what do you do with people who look, well,
partly Asian and partly European? And does ―European‖ end in the Middle East, where some
African traits are present? Where does Africa even begin, genetically speaking? Who‘s going to
draw up the lines between ―black‖ and ―white‖ (and what qualifies that person for the job,
anyway)? One thorough 1972 study by Harvard anthropologist R.C. Lewontin concluded that
―Human racial classification is of no social value and is positively destructive of social and
human relations. Since such racial classification is now seen to be of virtually no genetic or
taxonomic [classifying] significance either, no justification can be offered for its continuance.‖
Bottom line: For most professional anthropologists today, human ―race‖ is an antiquated
concept. For biomedical reasons (and sometimes forensic identification of bodies), the reality of
genetic ancestry can be important, but color coded races, loaded with behavioral traits, are
basically arbitrary.

2.4.5. What Anthropologists can say for sure about Human Races?

So do human races exist? Very strictly speaking, yes. Homo sapiens sapiens does feature
geographically based differences within the species. However, you must consider two very
important points.

First, these genetic differences don‘t mean a lot, biologically. Because all healthy humans can
mate and have healthy offspring, we‘re all in Homo sapiens sapiens, biologically speaking. Not
only is it inaccurate to say ―the female species‖ when talking about significant sex differences
between males and females, but it‘s also inaccurate to say ―the African race‖ or the ―European
race‖ when speaking of deep differences in these peoples. A look at the genes shows no
significant species-level differences — only very minor visible ones such as skin color, shape of
nose, or hair texture. Biologically speaking, though, these differences aren‘t important. For most

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physical anthropologists (who‘ve spent the most time closely examining human biology), race is
nearly meaningless when applied to humanity.

Rather than talk about races, physical anthropologists more commonly talk today of ancestry, a
more general term that recognizes the reality of some geographically specific human adaptations
but doesn‘t turn them into loaded; black-and-white races.

Ancestry may be important, for example, when considering someone‘s genetic health because
different human populations have developed slightly different genetic characteristics over time.

Second - and most important - is that cultural behavior isn‘t genetically linked to those
geographical differences. This disconnect is one of anthropology‘s most important discoveries
and lessons for humanity. People from Scandinavia aren‘t reserved - or whatever other
behavioral trait you may apply to them - because it‘s in their genes to be so. It‘s not. Most of
human behavior isn‘t biologically determined or filtered in through the natural environment -
most of it is culturally learned. An infant from Japan can be raised in the Kalahari of Southern
Africa and won‘t automatically remove his shoes when going into a home unless his culture
specifically teaches him to do so. Like any human can acquire any language, any infant can
acquire any culture; it‘s culture that really drives behavior, not the genes. The ancient belief that
human races have innate behavioral traits-industrious Asians or hot-blooded Mediterraneans-is
simply wrong.

One of the main reasons the race concept really doesn‘t apply to humans is that defining human
races is almost impossible: To what race do you assign a person born from a Native American
and a native African marriage? Do you create a new race in this case? Although some of these
designations do exist, to come up with a race for every possible combination of ancestries would
be an infinite job. Plus, it would just be another exercise in drawing lines where they don‘t really
exist. And what‘s ―black‖ or ―white‖? Is a Greek person black or white? Of course, they‘re in
between. Assigning people to a race based on skin color becomes an exercise in holding up paint
chips to the skin.

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2.5. Human socio-cultural and biological diversity and similarities:

What is to be human?

s you learnt in other units of this module, anthropology is a broader discipline covering a vast
spatio-temporal dimension in the study of humanity. Anthropology is unique among most
academic disciplines both in the social and natural sciences. It is the most holistic discipline
studying human beings comprehensively.

Anthropology‘s four major branches bridge the natural sciences, the humanities and the social
sciences. They touch virtually on every aspect human beings. In this regard, the largest two
branches of anthropology: the socio-cultural and biological/physical cover the two essential
dimensions of humanity: socio-cultural and biological diversity and similarities.

Since anthropology studies humanity in its entirety, it is often called a mirror of humanity. As
Kluckhohn correctly pointed out: "Anthropology holds up a great mirror to man and lets him
look at himself in his infinite variety." In this case, anthropology helps human beings to look into
themselves by searching for answers to questions that challenge us. Some of the questions
central to humanity and anthropology are:

 What are the commonalities among humans worldwide? (That is, what does every
human culture do?)

 What are the variations among humans worldwide (That is, what things do only
some cultures do?)

 Why do these commonalties and variations exist in the first place? (In other
worlds, why aren't all human cultures the same?)

 How does humanity change through time? (Is it still evolving, and if so, how?)

 Where has Humanity been, and what can that show us about where humanity is
going? (That is, what can we learn about ourselves today, from the past?)

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In order to address these questions, we should rely on key anthropological concepts of
comparative approach (cultural relativism) and evolution. The comparative approach, which is
also known as cultural relativism, entails that cultures shouldn't be compared to one another for
the sake of saying one is better than the other. Instead cultures should be compared in order to
understand how and why they differ and share commonalties with each other. The comparative
approach or cultural relativism encourages us not to make moral judgments about different kinds
of humanity, and it examines cultures on their own and from the perspective of their unique
history and origin.

Evolution is another key concept in anthropology which, together with the cultural relativism
allows us to address the afore-mentioned fundamental questions regarding our distant origin,
current stage of growth, forms of adaptation, and predict future direction of development. By
studying evolution, the change of species through time, anthropologists treat humanity as one of
the biological species in the animal kingdom.

In this respect, human biology and culture have evolved over millions of years and they will
continue to evolve together. Human biology affects human culture; and similarly, human culture
affects human biology. One example of this is that the brain size of humans has become larger
over millions of years of evolution, and this is considered biological change. The change in
human brain has brought cultural changes in terms of increased intelligence, language and even
the emergence of writing. This is why anthropologists use the term bio-cultural to describe the
dual nature of human evolution: both biological and cultural dimensions. Human beings are
described as a bio-cultural animal. In what follows we will see the meaning of bio-cultural
evolution with practical examples.

The bio-cultural animal

As we have discussed above, humanity evolves both as a result of biological factors and cultural
factors. For this reason, anthropologists call it bio-cultural evolution. Culture, which you have
learnt at length in this module, is the set of ideas that dictate how you see and act in the world.
Although humans survive by using both their biology and cultural information, all other animals
survive mainly through their biology and by relying on instinct rather than such cultural
information.

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For example, cultural, not instinctual, information tells you certain kinds of wood are good for
making a digging stick. You don‘t know about different kinds of wood instinctually but because
detailed information about the properties of different kinds of wood was passed on to your mind
culturally — through some form of language — by your parent generation or your peers.

This difference may seem trivial, but it‘s actually very important. For example, consider the
following cultural behaviors and their possible involvement with biological evolution of our
species:

 The earliest use of stone tools corresponds with increased consumption of animal
protein. More animal protein in turn changes the hominid diet and potentially its
anatomy.

 The use of clothing (itself a cultural artifact) allows human bodies to survive in
environments they wouldn‘t normally survive in. For example, the human body is
naturally best-suited for equatorial environments, not the Arctic, but the invention of
heavy coats and other such clothing enables that body to survive Arctic temperatures.

As a result, Paleo-anthropologists are concerned with understanding how cultural, non-cultural,

and bio-cultural evolutionary factors shaped humanity through time. If this is the case, let us first
see the meaning of humanity from the anthropological perspective.

Humanity is the most common term we to use to refer to human beings. Humanity stands for the
human species, a group of life forms with the following characteristics:

 Bipedalism (walking on two legs);

 Relatively small teeth for primates of our size;

 Relatively large brains for primates of our size;

 Using modern language to communicate ideas; and

 Using complex sets of ideas called culture to survive.

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Standing on two legs and having particularly small teeth and large brains are all anatomical
characteristics, and they‘re studied by anthropologists focusing on human biological evolution.
Surviving by using a wide array of cultural information (including instructions for making a
pottery or farming tools in Ethiopia) is the use of culture. It‘s studied by other anthropologists,
and even more study the evolution of language.

Humanity is a general term that doesn‘t specify whether you‘re talking about males, females,
adults, or children; it simply means our species- Homo sapiens sapiens- at large. The term
humanity can be applied to modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) as well as some of our most
recent ancestors, placed more generally in Homo sapiens, without the subspecies (the second
sapiens) suffix. Exactly when Homo sapiens evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens is a complex
question based on when humans became anatomically modern and when they became
behaviorally modern.

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 Unit Three

Human Culture and Ties That Connect Society

3.1. Conceptualizing Culture: What Culture is and What Culture isn't

The concept of culture is central to anthropology. The term culture is not used with consistent
meanings. It is used with various meanings in common-sense. Anthropologists and sociologists
define culture in different ways.

Widely accepted and the more comprehensive definition of culture was provided by the British
anthropologist Edward B. Tylor. He defined culture as a complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society.

B. Malinowski has defined culture as cumulative creation of man". He regarded culture as the
handwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.

Robert Bierstedt says, Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and do
and have as members of society.

Culture, therefore, is moral, intellectual and spiritual discipline for advancement, in accordance
with the norms and values based on accumulated heritage. Culture is a system of learned
behavior shared by and transmitted among the members of the group.

Culture is a collective heritage learned by individuals and passed from one generation to the
other. The individual receives culture as part of social heritage and in turn, may reshape the
culture and introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding generations.

3.2 Characteristic Features of Culture

For the better understanding of the concept of culture, it is necessary for us to know its main
features. Cultural anthropologists characterize culture as follows.

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a) Culture Is Learned:

Culture is not transmitted genetically; rather it is acquired through the process of learning or
interacting with one‘s environment. This process of acquiring culture after we born is called
enculturation. Enculturation is specifically defined as the process by which an individual learns
the rules and values of one‘s culture.

b) Culture Is Shared:

In order for a society to operate effectively, the guidelines must be shared by its members.
Without shared culture members of a society would be unable to communicate and cooperate
hence confusion and disorder world result. For a thing, idea, or behavior pattern to qualify as
being cultural it must have a shared meaning by at least two people within a society.

c) Culture Is Symbolic:

Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural learning. A symbol is
something verbal or nonverbal, within a particular language or culture that comes to stand for
something else. A symbol‘s meaning is not always obvious. However, many symbols are
powerful and often trigger behaviors or emotional states. For example, the designs and colors of
the flags of different countries represent symbolic associations with abstract ideas and concepts
of nation, freedom etc.

d) Culture Is All-Encompassing:

Culture encompasses all aspects, which affect people in their everyday lives. Culture comprises
countless material and non-material aspects of human lives. Thus, when we talk about a
particular people‘s culture, we are referring to all of its man and woman- made objects, ideas,
activities whether those of traditional, old time things of the past or those created lately.

e) Culture Is Integrated:

Cultures are not haphazard collections of customs and beliefs. Instead, culture should be thought
as of integrated wholes, the parts of which, to some degree, are interconnected with one another.

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When we view cultures as integrated systems, we can begin to see how particular culture traits fit
into the whole system and, consequently, how they tend to make sense within that context.

A culture is a system; change in one aspect will likely generate changes in other aspects. For
example change in production technology may bring change in life styles of the society and
ideologies. A good way of describing this integrated nature of culture is by using the analogy
between a culture and a living organism. The physical human body comprises a number of
systems (respiratory, digestive, etc), all functioning to maintain the overall health of the
organisms.

f) Culture Can Be Adaptive and Maladaptive:

Humans have both biological and cultural ways of coping with environmental stresses. People
adapt themselves to the environment using culture. The ability to adapt to any of the ecological
conditions, unlike other animals, makes humans unique.

Sometimes, adaptive behavior that offers short-term benefits to particular subgroups or

individuals may harm the environment and threaten the group's long-term survival. Many
cultural patterns such as overconsumption and pollution appear to be maladaptive in the long
run.

g) Culture is Dynamic:

There are no cultures that remain completely static year after year. Culture is changing
constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or changing the
old ways. This is the characteristics of culture that stems from the culture‘s cumulative quality.

3.3 Aspects/Elements of Culture

Culture is reflected through the various components, there are two major basic aspects of culture;
material and nonmaterial culture.

3.3.1 Material culture

Material culture consists of human-made objects such as tools, implements, furniture,

automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and in fact, the physical substance which has been

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changed and used by man. It is concerned with the external, mechanical and utilitarian objects. It
includes technical and material equipment. It is referred to as civilization.

3.3.2 Non – Material Culture

The term culture when used in the ordinary sense means non-material culture. It is something
internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the inward nature of man. Non-material culture
consists of the words the people use or the language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and
virtues they cherish, habits they follow, rituals and practices that they do and the ceremonies they
observe. It also includes our customs and tastes, attitudes and outlook, in brief, our ways of
acting, feeling and thinking. Some of the aspects of non-material culture are listed as follows:

Values

Values are the standards by which members of a society define what is good or bad, beautiful or
ugly. Values are a central aspect of the non-material culture of a society and are important
because they influence the behavior of the members of a society.

Beliefs

Beliefs are cultural conventions that concern true or false assumptions, specific descriptions of
the nature of the universe and humanity‘s place in it. Values are generalized notions of what is
good and bad; beliefs are more specific and, in form at least, have more content.

Norms

Norms are shared rules or guidelines that define how people ought to behave under certain
circumstances. Norms are generally connected to the values, beliefs, and ideologies of a society.

Norms vary in terms of their importance to a culture, these are:

a) Folkways: Norms guiding ordinary usages and conventions of everyday life are known
as folkways. Folkways are norms that are not strictly enforced, such as not leaving your
seat for an elderly people inside a bus/taxi. They may result in a person getting a bad
look.

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 b) Mores: are much stronger norms than are folkways. Mores are norms that are believed to
be essential to core values and we insist on conformity. A person who steals, rapes, and
kills has violated some of society‘s most important mores. People who violate mores are
usually severely punished, although punishment for the violation of mores varies from
society to society.

3.4 Cultural Unity and Variations: Universality, Generality and Particularity of Culture

In studying human diversity in time and space, anthropologists distinguish among the universal,
the generalized, and the particular.

Certain biological, psychological, social, and cultural features are universal (found in every
culture), others are merely generalities (common to several but not all human groups), and other
traits are particularities (unique to certain cultural traditions).

1) Universality:

Universals are cultural traits that span across all cultures. Most are biological that distinguish us
from other species – long period of infant dependency, year-round sexuality, complex brain that
enables use of symbols and use of languages and tools. Social universals – life in groups – some
kind of family organizes on social life and depends on social interactions for expression and
continuation of the society. E.g. Incest taboo, exogamy (marriage outside one‘s group).

A great example of universality is that whether in Africa, Asia, Australia, or Antarctica, people
understand the universal concept of family.

2) Generality:

Generalities are cultural traits that occur in many societies but not all of them. Societies can
share same beliefs and customs because of borrowing, domination (colonial rule) when customs
and procedures are imposed on one culture, or Independent innovation of same cultural trait e.g.,
farming and nuclear family.

3) Particularity:

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Trait of a culture that is not widespread. Cultural particulars include the specific practices that
distinguish cultures form one another. For example all people become hungry but the potential
food sources defined as edible vary across cultures, i.e. what is appealing to eat in one society
may be considered repulsive or simply unbelievable in another ( for example donkey meat in
Ethiopia).

3.5. Evaluating Cultural Differences: Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Human

Rights

The concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism occupy key position in anthropology.
hungry but the potential food sources defined as edible vary across cultures, i.e. what is
appealing to eat in one society may be considered repulsive or simply unbelievable in another
( for example donkey meat in Ethiopia). Particularities are becoming rarer in some ways but also
becoming more obvious. Borrowed cultural traits are modified. E.g. marriage, parenthood, death,
puberty, birth all celebrated differently.

A. Ethnocentrism:

The common response in all societies to other cultures is to judge them in terms of the values and
customs of their own familiar culture. Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to see the behaviors,
beliefs, values, and norms of one's own group as the only right way of living and to judge others
by those standards. Because of ethnocentrism, we often operate on the premise that our own
society’s ways are the correct, normal, better ways, for acting, thinking, feeling and behaving.
Our own group is the center or axis of everything, and we scale and rate all others with reference
to it.

Our ethnocentrism can prevent us from understanding and appreciating another culture.
Ethnocentrism, in general, is an attitude of taking one's own culture and ways of life as the best
and the center of all and on the other hand, regarding other ethnic groups and cultures as inferior,
bad, full of errors, etc. It is the tendency to apply one's own cultural values in judging the
behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures.

B. Cultural relativism:

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We cannot grasp the behavior of other people if we interpret what they say and do in the light of
our values, beliefs, and motives. Instead, we need to examine their behavior as insiders, seeing it
within the framework of their values, beliefs and motives. The concept of cultural relativism
states that cultures differ, so that a cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning but its meaning only
within its cultural setting.

Cultural relativism suspends judgment and views about the behavior of people from the
perspective of their own culture. Every society has its own culture, which is more or less unique.
A culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values. Cultural relativism describes
a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural differences rather than condemning
other people's culture as uncivilized or backward.

Respect for cultural differences involves:

 Appreciating cultural diversity;

 Accepting and respecting other cultures;
 Trying to understand every culture and its elements in terms of its own context and logic;
 Accepting that each body of custom has inherent dignity and meaning as the way of life
of one group which has worked out to its environment, to the biological needs of its
members, and to the group relationships;
 Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among many; and
 Recognizing that what is immoral, ethical, and acceptable in one culture may not be so in
another culture.

C. Human rights:

In today's world, human rights advocates challenge many of the tenets of cultural relativism.
Many anthropologists are uncomfortable with the strong form of cultural relativism that suggests
that all patterns of culture are equally valid. What if the people practice slavery, violence against
women, torture, or genocide?

Human rights: rights based on justice and morality beyond and superior to particular countries,
cultures, and religions. The idea of human rights challenges cultural relativism by invoking a

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realm of justice and morality beyond and superior to the laws and customs of particular
countries, cultures, and religions.

Human rights include the right to speak freely, to hold religious beliefs without persecution, and
to not be murdered, injured, or enslaved or imprisoned without charge. Such rights are seen as
inalienable (nations cannot abridge or terminate them). A doctrine of universal human rights,
which emphasizes the rights of the individual over those of the community, would condemn such
killings.

Anthropologists respect human diversity. Most ethnographers try to be objective, accurate, and
sensitive in their accounts of other cultures. However, their objectivity, sensitivity and a cross-
cultural perspective got nothing to do with ignoring international standards of justice and
morality.

3.6 Culture Change

When you examine the history of a society, it is obvious that its culture has changed over time.
Some of the shared behaviors and ideas that were common at one time are modified or replaced
at another time. That is why; any anthropological account of the culture of any society is a type
of snapshot view of one particular time. The anthropologists return several years after
completing a cultural study; he or she would not find exactly the same situation, for there are no
cultures that remain completely static year after year.

Culture change can occur as a result of the following Mechanisms:

i. Diffusion The process by which cultural elements are borrowed from another society and
incorporated into the culture of the recipient group is called diffusion.

Diffusion is direct when two cultures trade with, intermarry among, or wage war on one another.
Diffusion is forced when one culture subjugates another and imposes its customs on the
dominated group. Diffusion is indirect when items or traits move from group A to group C via
group B without any firsthand contact between A and C. In this case, group B might consist of
traders or merchants geographically situated between A and C, so that what it gets from A
eventually winds up in C, and vice versa. In today's world, much international diffusion is
indirect-culture spread by the mass media and advanced information technology.

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ii. Acculturation is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups have continuous
firsthand contact. The cultures of either or both groups may be changed by this contact. This
usually happens in situations of trade or colonialism. In situations of continuous contact, cultures
have also exchanged and blended foods, recipes, music, dances, clothing, tools, and
technologies.

iii. Invention is the process by which humans innovate; creatively finding solutions to problems
is a third mechanism of cultural change. Faced with comparable problems and challenges, people
in different societies have innovated and changed in similar ways, which is one reason why
cultural generalities exist. One example is the independent invention of agriculture in the Middle
East and Mexico. Thus in both Mexico and the Middle East, agriculture led to many social,
political, and legal changes, including notions of property and distinctions in wealth, class, and
power.

vi. Globalization The term globalization encompasses a series of processes, including diffusion
and acculturation, working to promote change in a world in which nations and people are
increasingly interlinked and mutually dependent. Due to globalization long-distance
communication is easier, faster, and cheaper than ever, and extends to remote areas. The mass
media and emigrants transmit information and resources about different things and lifestyle. In a
sense such people live multi-locally-in different places and cultures at once. They learn to play
various social roles and to change behavior and identity depending on the situation.

3.7 Ties That Connect: Marriage, Family and Kinship

3.7.1 Marriage:

Almost all known societies recognize marriage. The ritual of marriage marks a change in status
for a man and a woman and the acceptance by society of the new family that is formed. The term
marriage is not an easy term to define. Frequently, anthropologists have debated whether or not
families and the institutions of marriage are universals. One interesting case is that the Nayar of
Southern India did not have marriage in the conventional sense of the term. In Nayar, there is
only a ritual husband who do not visit his wife frequently, Thus the Nayar do not have marriage
according to our definition in that there is no economic cooperation, regulation of sexual activity,
cohabitation, or expectation of permanency.

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3.7.1.1 Rules of Marriage

Societies also have rules that state whom one can and cannot marry . Every society has
established for itself some type of rules regulating mating (sexual intercourse). These
prohibitions on mating with certain categories of relatives are known as incest taboo. The most
universal form of incest taboo involves mating between members of the immediate (nuclear)
family: mother-sons, father-daughters, and brother-sisters.

Marriage is, therefore, a permanent legal union between a man and a woman. It is an important
institution without which the society could never be sustained.

3.7.1.2 Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?

In a society one cannot marry anyone whom he or she likes. There are certain strict rules and
regulations.

a) Exogamy:

This is the rule by which a man is not allowed to marry someone from his own social group.
Kottak claimed also that exogamy has adaptive value, because it links people into a wider social
network that nurtures, helps, and protects them in times of need pushing social organization
outward, establishing and preserving alliances among groups.

b) Endogamy:

A rule of endogamy requires individuals to marry within their own group and forbids them to
marry outside it. Religious groups such as the Amish, Mormons, Catholics, and Jews, also castes
in India and Nepal have rules of endogamy, though these are often violated when marriage takes
place outside the group.

c) Preferential Cousin Marriage:

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Preferential cousin marriage is practiced in one form or another in most of the major regions of
the world. Kinship systems based on lineages distinguish between two different types of first
cousins, these are:

Cross Cousins: marriage between children of siblings of the opposite sex- that is one‘s mother‘s
brothers children and one‘s father‘s sisters children.

Parallel Cousins: When marriage takes place between the children of the siblings of the same
sex. Namely the children of one‘s mother‘s sister and one‘s father brother.

d) The Levirate and Sororate

Another form of mate selection that tends to limit individual choices is those that require a
person to marry the husband or widow of a deceased kin.

The levirate- is the custom whereby a widow is expected to marry the brother (or some close
male relative) of her dead husband.

The sororate, which comes into play when a wife dies, is the practice of a widower‘s marrying
the sister (or some close female relative) of his deceased wife.

3.7.1.3. Number of spouses

Societies have rules regulating whom one may/may not marry; they have rules specifying how
many mates a person may/should have.

Monogamy: the marriage of one man to one woman at a time.

Polygamy: the marriage of a man or woman with two or more mates. Polygamy can be of two
types;

 Polygyny: the marriage of a man to two or more women at a time.

 Polyandry: the marriage of a woman to two or more men at a time
 Sororal polygyny: Marriage of a man with two or more sisters at a time. When the co-
wives are not sisters, the marriage is termed as non-sororal polygyny.

3.7.1.4 Economic Consideration of Marriage

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Most societies view as a binding contract between at least the husband and wife and, in many
cases, between their respective families as well. Such a contract includes the transfer of certain
rights between the parties involved. Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the transfer of
some type of economic consideration. These transactions, which may take place either before or
after the marriage can be divided into three categories: 1) Bride Price/wealth, 2) Bride Service
and 3) Dowry

1. Bride Price: It is also known as bride wealth, is the compensation given upon marriage by
the family of the groom to the family of the bride.

2. Bride Service: When the groom works for his wife‘s family, this is known as bride service.

3. Dowry: A dowry involves a transfer of goods or money in the opposite direction, from the
bride's family to the groom‘s family.

3.7.1.5 Post-Marital Residence

Where the newly married couple lives after the marriage ritual is governed by cultural rules,
which are referred to as post-marital residence rule.

 Patrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the relatives of the husband‘s
father.
 Matrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the relatives of the wife.
 Avunculocal Residence: The married couple lives with or near the husband‘s mother‘s
brother.
 Ambilocal/Bilocal Residence: The married couple has a choice of living with relatives
of the wife or relatives of the husband
 Neolocal Residence: The Married couple forms an independent place of residence away
from the relatives of either spouse.

3.7.2 Family

Family is the basis of human society. It is the most important primary group in society. The
family, as an institution, is universal. It is the most permanent and most pervasive of all social
institutions. The interpersonal relationships within the family make the family an endurable
social unit.

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Cultural anthropologists have identified two fundamentally different types of family structure-the
nuclear family and the extended family.

1. The Nuclear Family: Consisting of husband and wife and their children, the nuclear family is
a two-generation family formed around the conjugal or marital union. In those societies based on
the nuclear family, it is customary for married couple to live apart from either set of parents as
autonomous and independent unit (neolocal residence), nor is there any particular obligation or
expectation for the married couple to care for their aging parents in their own homes. Generally,
parents are not actively involved in mate selection for their children, and have no control over
whether or not their children remain married.

2. The Extended Family: In societies based on extended families, blood ties are more important
than ties of marriage. Extended families consist of two or more families that are linked by blood
ties. Most commonly, this takes the form of a married couple living with one or more of their
married children in a single household or homestead and under the authority of a family head. In
the case of a patrilineal extended family, the young couple takes up residence in the homestead
of the husband‘s father. In extended family systems, marriage is viewed more as bringing a
daughter into the family than acquiring a wife. When a woman marries into an extended family,
she most often comes under the control of her mother-in-law, who allocates chores and
supervises her domestic activities.

3.7.2.1 Functions of Marriage and Family

Family performs certain specific functions which can be summarized as follows:

1. Biological Function: The institution of marriage and family serves biological (sexual and
reproductive) function. Society reproduces itself through family.

2. Economic Function: Marriage brings economic co-operation between men and women and
ensures survival of individuals in a society. In small scale societies, family is a self-contained
economic unit of production, consumption and distribution.

3. Social Function: Marriage is based on the desire to perpetuate one‘s family line. In marriage,
one adds not only a spouse but most of the spouse‘s relatives to one‘s own group of kin. This
means the institution of marriage brings with it the creation and perpetuation of the family, the
form of person to person relations and linking one‘s kin group to another kin group.

4. Educational and Socialization Function: The burden of socialization (via processes of

enculturation and education) of new born infants fall primarily upon the family. In addition,
children learn an immense amount of knowledge, culture, values prescribed by society, before
they assume their place as adult members of a society.

3.7.3 Kinship

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Kinship is vitally important, because kinship and family constitute the focal points in
anthropological studies. Kinship is the method of reckoning relationship. In any society every
adult individual belongs to two different nuclear families. The family in which he was born and
reared is called ‘family of orientation’. The other family to which he establishes relation through
marriage is called ‘family of procreation’. It is a structured system of relationships where
individuals are bound together by complex interlocking and ramifying ties.

The relationship based on blood ties is called “consanguineous kinship”, the relationship based
on the desire for reproduction is called affinal relationship, and the relatives so related are called
“affinal kin”.

3.7.4 Descent

Descent refers to the social recognition of the biological relationship that exists between the
individuals. The rule of descent refers to a set of principles by which an individual traces his
descent. Succession and inheritance are related to this rule of descent. There are three important
rules of decent:

1. Patrilineal descent

When descent is traced solely through the male line, it is called patrilineal descent. A man‘s sons
and daughters all belong to the same descent group by birth, but it is only the sons who continue
the affiliation. Succession and inheritance pass through the male line.

2. Matrilineal descent

When, the descent is traced solely through the female line. It is called matrilineal descent. At
birth, children of both sexes belong to mother‘s descent group, but later only females acquire the
succession and inheritance. Therefore, daughters carry the tradition, generation after generation.

3. Cognatic Descent

In some societies individuals are free to show their genealogical links either through men or
women. Some people of such a society are therefore connected with the kin-group of father and
others with the kin group of mothers.

3.8 Culture areas and culture contact

Culture areas, refers to a cluster of related cultures occupying a certain geographical region. In
the context of Ethiopia, we may come up with different culture are in relation to subsistence.
These are plough culture, Enset culture area, and pastoral societies ‘culture area’.

A. Plough culture area

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Plough culture area represents those parts of the country where agriculture is predominantly the
means by which subsistence is eked out. Most of highland and central parts of the country serves
as the backbone of the economy is considered a plough culture.

B. Enset culture area

Enset culture area, on the other hand, covers a vast region in the southern part of country. Enset
cultivating regions of the present day SNNPRS such as the Guraghe, Sidama and Gedeo areas
constitute enset culture area. In this region, enset serves as a staple diet to the people who make
use the plant in a wide variety of forms for a living.

C. Pastoral culture area

Pastoral culture area is found in the low land areas covering a large section of the Afar in the
northwest, Somali in the southeast and Borena of southern of Ethiopia. As opposed ot the above
the cases, inhabitants of the pastoral culture area rely significantly on their herds and cattle for a
living. Mobility of people and herds is a major characteristic feature of the people occupying the
pastoral culture area.

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 Unit Four
Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups
4.1 Definition of concepts

Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or social group as minor, insignificant or

peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain groups from social interactions,
marriage relations, sharing food and drinks, and working and living together.

Who are mostly marginalized? There are marginalized social groups in every society and culture.
Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities are among marginalized groups
across the world. The nature and level of marginalization varies from society to society as a
result of cultural diversity. Religious, ethnic, and racial minorities are also among social groups
marginalized in different societies and cultures. Crafts workers such as tanners, potters, and
ironsmiths are marginalized in Ethiopia and other parts of the world.

Vulnerability refers to the state of being exposed to physical or emotional injuries. Vulnerable
groups are people exposed to possibilities of attack, harms or mistreatment. As a result,
vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection and support. For example, children
and people with disabilities need special support and protection.

Minority groups: The phrase ‘minority group’ refers to a small group of people within a
community, region, or country. In most cases, minority groups are different from the majority
population in terms of race, religion, ethnicity, and language. For example, black Americans are
minorities in the United States of America.

Hence, minority groups can be ethnic minorities, religious minorities, or racial minorities in a
given community, region or country. There are different forms of marginalization. In this unit
issues related to occupational, age and gender-based marginalization will discuss;

4.2 Gender-based marginalization

Gender-based marginalization is closely related to gender inequality. Gender inequality involves

discrimination on a group of people based on their gender. Gender inequality mainly arises from
socio-cultural norms. The manifestations of gender inequality vary from culture to culture.

Gender-based marginalization is a global problem. It involves exclusion of girls and women

from a wide range of opportunities and social services. Gender disparities in education are a good

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example. Girls in developing countries, especially those who live in remote and rural areas, are
excluded from formal education, equal employment opportunities, have no equal rights in terms
of property ownership and inheritance, are also vulnerable to gender-based violence.

There are some customary practices (gender based violence) that affect the health and wellbeing
of girls and women. These practices collectively are called harmful traditional practices (HTPs).
For example: female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and child marriage. Child marriage has
the following major harmful consequences:

 Young girls enter into marital relation when they are too young to give their consent to
get married.
 Child marriage inhibits girls' personal development; it hinders girls‘ chance to education
and future professional development.
 Child marriage exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older husbands.
 Child marriage leads to early pregnancies, which increases risks of diseases and
complications during delivery, fistula, and death of the mother or child.

4.3 Marginalized occupational groups

Marginalized occupational groups are people engaged in craftworks such as pottery, tannery, and
iron works. According to anthropological findings, there are occupational marginalized groups in
many parts of Ethiopia. The most marginalized occupational groups are tanners, potters, weavers
and ironsmiths. These craft-workers have different names in different parts of the country. Craft-
workers such as potters and tanners are considered as impure and excluded from social
interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and participation in associations and
celebrations. Crafts workers lead a life of paradoxes. They have important contributions to their
communities; however, they are marginalized by the dominant and majority groups.

4.4 Age-based vulnerability

Age-based vulnerability is susceptibility of people, especially children and older people, to

different forms of attack, physical injuries and emotional harms. For example, children and older
people are exposed to possibilities of attack, harm and mistreatment because of their age. Below
some examples will discuss.

4.4.1 Children: Discrimination and vulnerability

Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age. Both boys and girls
are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of older people. However, younger girls are
exposed to double marginalization and discrimination because of the gender. Child girls are
exposed to various kinds of harm before they reach at the age of maturity such as female genital
mutilation/cutting and early/child marriage as discussed earlier.

4.4.2 Marginalization of older persons

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Age-based marginalization also affects older people. Ageism is a widely observed social problem
in the world. Ageism refers to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against people based
on their age. Older women and men enjoyed a certain level of support and respected in the past.
This was true in many cultures of Ethiopia in the past. Things have been changing in recent
times. Older people are facing various problems as a result of modernization, globalization, and
urbanization. Older people are exposed to social exclusion because of their lower social and
economic status. Older persons are marginalized because they are considered as social burden
rather than social assets.

4.5. Religious and ethnic minorities

Religious and ethnic minorities groups also face different forms of marginalization. There are
several examples of marginalization and discrimination targeting religious and ethnic minorities
in the world. Let us mention two widely known examples.

 The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in different parts of the
world. They were targets of extermination in Germany and other Western European
countries because of their identity.
 Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted people in the world.
According to Abdu Hasnat Milton et al (2017), the Rohingya are one of the most ill-
treated and persecuted refugee groups in the world’. Recently, more than half-a-million
Rohingyas fled from their homes, which also create another vulnerability problem such
as malnutrition and physical and sexual abuse while living in refugee camps.

The problem is not limited to specific areas, regions or countries. Although the level of the
problem varies in different contexts, religious and ethnic minorities face different forms of
discrimination in many parts of the world.

4.6. Human right approaches and inclusiveness: Anthropological perspectives

All forms of marginalization and discrimination against vulnerable and minority groups
contradict the principles of human rights. Anthropology appreciates cultural diversity and
commonality. Cultural relativism is one of the guiding principles in social anthropology. It is
about the importance of understanding the values, norms, customs and practices of a particular
culture in its own context. This requires appreciating the life styles of others including their
dressing styles, food habits, beliefs, rituals and celebrations. It also requires avoiding value
judgments such as saying this custom is backward or primitive.

This does not mean that we need to appreciate every custom and practice. Anthropologists do not
support/appreciate customary practices that violate the rights and wellbeing of individuals and
groups. For example, anthropologists do not support the following harmful practices in the name
of cultural relativism: Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and Early/child marriage
Anthropologists do not support FGM and ECM for practical reasons: it violates the rights of girls

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to physical integrity, has short and long term consequences for the health of girls and women,
violates the rights of young girls to make decision about their future, destroys their chance to
education, and personal and professional development.

Unit Five
Inter-Ethnic Relations, Identity and Multiculturalism In Ethiopia
5.1 Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Identity

Ethnic Group

Notably, the term ‘ethnic group’ is attached with various meanings in different perspective, as a
result, different definitions have been proposed to define ‘ethnic group’. In this regard, earlier
conception of ethnic group was associated with Max Weber. According to Weber, an ethnic
group’ is based on the belief in common descent shared by its members, extending beyond
kinship, political solidarity vis-a-vis other groups, and common customs, language, religion,
values, morality, and etiquette (Weber, 1978).

Anderson (1983), in his part described ethnic groups as an imagined community that possesses a
character and quality. Schermerhorn (1996), on the other hand, conceptualize ethnic group as a
unit of population having unique characteristics in relation with others, binding with common
language, myth of origin, and history of ethnic allegiance. Barth (1969) further illustrated that, in
a context of inter-ethnic interaction, group distinctiveness strongly depends on identification of
self and ascription by others and members of a certain ethnic group will be evaluated in
accordance with their performance of the value standards and possession of diacritical features
designing the group against other.

By considering the various definitions provided to define ethnicity, Hutchinson and Smith‘s
(1996) identified six main features that the definition of an ethnic group, predominantly consists.
This includes;

1. A common proper name, to identify and express the “essence” of the community;

2. A myth of common ancestry that includes the idea of common origin in time and place and
that gives an ethnic group a sense of fictive kinship;

3. Shared historical memories, or better, shared memories of a common past or pasts, including
heroes, events, and their commemoration;

4. One or more elements of common culture, which need not be specified but normally, include
religion, customs, and language;

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5. A link with a homeland, not necessarily its physical occupation by the ethnic group, only its
symbolic attachment to the ancestral land, as with diaspora peoples; and

6. A sense of solidarity on the part of at least some sections of the ethnic’s population.

Ethnic Identity

Definitions of ethnic identity vary according to the underlying theory, there is no widely agreed
upon definition of ethnic identity. This indicates the confusion surrounding the topic. Typically,
ethnic identity is an affiliate construct, where an individual is viewed by themselves and by
others as belonging to a particular ethnic or cultural group. An individual can choose to associate
with a group especially if other choices are available (i.e., the person is of mixed ethnic or racial
heritage). Affiliation can be influenced by racial, natal, symbolic, and cultural factors.

Racial factors involve the use of physiognomic and physical characteristics, natal factors refer
to "homeland" (ancestral home) or origins of individuals, their parents and kin, and symbolic
factors include those factors that typify or exemplify an ethnic group (e.g., holidays, foods,
clothing, artifacts, etc.). Symbolic ethnic identity usually implies that individuals choose their
identity; however, to some extent the cultural elements of the ethnic or racial group have a
modest influence on their behavior (Kivisto and Nefzger, 1993).

On the individual level, ethnicity is a social-psychological process, which gives an individual a

sense of belonging and identity. Ethnic identity can be defined as a manner in which persons, on
account of their ethnic origin, locate themselves psychologically in relation to one or more social
systems, and in which they perceive others as locating them in relation to those systems. By
ethnic origin is meant either that a person has been socialized in an ethnic group or that his or her
ancestors, real or symbolic, have been members of the group. Locating oneself in relation to a
community and society is not only a psychological phenomenon, but also a social phenomenon;
thus, individuals locate themselves in one or another community internally by states of mind and
feelings, such as self-definitions or feelings of closeness, and externally by behavior appropriate
to these states of mind and feelings.

We can thus distinguish objective and subjective aspects of ethnic identity. Objective aspects
refer to observable behavior, both cultural and social, such as (1), speaking an ethnic language,
practicing ethnic traditions, (2), participation in ethnic personal networks, such as family and
friendships, (3), participation in ethnic institutional organizations, such as belief systems, social
organizations etc.

The subjective aspects of ethnic identity refer to images, ideas, attitudes, and feelings. These, of
course, can also be interconnected with the objective aspects. But, it should not be assumed that,
empirically, the two types are always dependent upon each other. A third-generation person may

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retain a higher degree of subjective aspect of identity than objectively visible markers. We can
distinguish at least three types of subjective aspects of identity: (1) cognitive, (2) moral, and (3)
affective.

5.2. Ethnicity: Identification and Social Categorization

All animals recognize differences between ‘self and other’. In human societies, these differences
take on enormous significance, partly because humans have individualistic personalities rather
than being clone-like automatons. Society validates that individualism by giving infants unique
names. Those names also keep track of who‘s related to whom, sometimes for generations back
into the past.

To understand themselves as a species, humans have to also understand themselves as

individuals within networks of other individuals. This unit explores identity, individual and
collective; and how societies worldwide manage to define and categorically identify different
kinds of identities, such as ethnic, racial and national identity.

5.2.1. Ethnicity: History

The English origin of the term ‘ethnicity’ is connected to the term ‘ethnic’, which is much older
and has been in use since the Middle Ages. The word is derived from the Greek term ‘ethnos’
(which in turn, derived from the Latin word ethnikos‟), which literally means a group of people
bound together by the same manners, customs or other distinctive features. In the context of
ancient Greek, the term refers to a collectivity of humans lived and acted together which is
typically translated today as ‘people’ or ‘nation’ (not political unit per say, but group of people
with shared communality). Contrary to its literal meaning however, ancient Greeks were using
the term ‗ethnos‟ in practice to refer to non-Hellenic, people who are non-Greek and considered
as second-class peoples. Likewise, in early England, it used to refer to someone who was neither
Christian nor Jewish (to refer to heathen or pagan).

In its modern sense, it was only after the end of II World War that the term widely adopted and
begins to use. Before World War II, while the term ‘tribe’ was the term of choice for pre-modern
societies and the term ‘race’ was used to refer modern societies. Due to the close link between
the term ‘race’ and Nazi ideology, after the end of WW II, the term ‘ethnic’ gradually replaced
‘race’ within both the North American tradition and the European tradition. The North American
tradition adopted ‗ethnic‘ as a substitute for minority groups within a larger society of the
nation-state (referring to the Jews, Italians, Irish and other people considered inferior to the
dominant group of largely British descent).

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Finally, the term ‘ethnicity’ after the ever-increasing influx of asylum seekers, refugees and
economic migrants to Western Europe, North America and Australia, often refers again to non-
citizens who inhabit ‘our land’, just as it did in the days of ancient Greece and Judea; that is, to
second-class peoples.

What is obvious from this short history of the term is the fact that ‘ethnicity’ contains a
multiplicity of meanings. Hence, in the following section attempts will be made to conceptualize
ethnicity and its related concepts of ethnic group and ethnic identity from different scholarly
viewpoints.

5.3 Conceptualizing Ethnicity

Quite suddenly, with little comment or ceremony, ethnicity has achieved a present status. In his
work entitled Economy and Society, first published in 1922 (1978:385-98), provided the early
and influential sociological conceptions of ethnicity and ethnic group. According to Weber,
ethnic groups are those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent
because of similarities or physical type or of customs.

Perhaps the most significant part of Weber‘s argument is that: ethnic membership does not
constitute a group; it only facilitates group formation of any kind, particularly in the political
sphere. Max Weber, emphasized, it is the effectiveness of social action and, above all, a political
aspect of group action that inspires belief in common ethnicity and transforms group membership
into a political community. For Max Weber, an ethnic group is based, on the belief in common
descent shared by its members because of similarities or physical type or of customs or both, or
because of memories of colonization and migration. And it does not matter whether or not an
objective blood relationship exists‖, but believed to exist.

The next great contribution to our understanding of ethnicity comes from the influential works of
the Norwegian anthropologist, named Frederik Barth, In his introduction, on his collection of
scholarly work entitled “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries” (1969). Barth outlined in detail a model
of ethnicity.

Barth began with what actors believe or think: ascriptions and self-ascriptions. A categorical
ascription is an ethnic ascription when it classifies a person in terms of his basic, most general
identity, presumptively determined by his origin and background. To the extent that actors use
ethnic identities to categorize themselves and others for purposes of interaction, they form ethnic
groups in this organizational sense.

Barth focused not upon the cultural characteristics of ethnic groups but upon relationships of
cultural differentiation, and specifically upon contact between collectivities thus differentiated,
'us' and 'them'. Barth's emphasis was not so much upon the substance or content of ethnicity. As
illustrated by Barth, if you like-boundaries of identification and differentiation between ethnic
collectivities it is important to recognize that 'cultural stuff',

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The cultural contents of ethnic dichotomies would seem analytically to be of two orders: (i)
overt signals or signs - the diacritical features that people look for and exhibit to show identity,
often such features as dress, language, house-form, or general style of life, and (ii) basic value
orientations: the standards of morality and excellence by which performance is judged. Since
belonging to an ethnic category implies being a certain kind of person, having that basic identity,
it also implies a claim to be judged, and to judge oneself, by those standards that are relevant to
that identity. In its most general notion, for Barth, ethnicity is seen as a ‗social organization of
culture difference’. But, the concept of ‘culture‘, in Barth‘s model unless clearly explained found
problematic one.

Barth‘s research established a foundation for understanding ethnicity in universalist rather than
in particularist terms. Since culture and social groups emerge only through interaction with
others, then ethnicity cannot be confined to minority groups only. As Jenkins (1997) and Isajiw
(2000) rightly argue, we cannot study minority ethnic groups without at the same time studying
the majority ethnicity.

In spite of the difference in scholarly views of ethnicity among anthropologists, the 'basic social
anthropological model of ethnicity' can be summarized as follows:

 Ethnicity is a matter of cultural differentiation - although, to reiterate the main theme of

social identity (Jenkins 2004), identification always involves a dialectical interplay
between similarity and difference.
 Ethnicity is centrally a matter of shared meanings - what we conventionally call 'culture' -
but is also produced and reproduced during interaction.
 Ethnicity, as identification, is collective and individual, externalized in social interaction
and the categorization of others, and internalized in personal self-identification.

5.4 Theories of Ethnicity:

Primordialism, Instrumentalism and Social Constructivism

Since the middle of twentieth century, when ethnicity as an analytical concept entered the
academic arena, a lot has been written and debated on its conceptual definitions, its
manifestations in social or group interaction, the role it plays in group mobilization for ‗common
ends‘, and so forth. Over the years, this has turned into a perennial and argumentative debate
about the nature of ethnicity/ethnic identity. This argument takes its place alongside a range of
theoretical controversies about the capacity of humans to intervene in their own lives, to
determine or to be determined. In general, the Primordialist, Instrumentalist and Constructivist
are the dominant theoretical approaches in anthropology envisaged to understand the nature and
characteristics of ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic interaction. Thus, this section will provide
a brief theoretical debates and discussions on the fundamentals of ethnicity.

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Table 1 - Three Basic Anthropological Approaches for Understanding Ethnicity

Perspective Description

Ethnicity is fixed at birth. Ethnic identification is

Primordialist
based on deep, „primordial‟ attachments to a
Approach
group or culture

Instrumentalist
Approach Ethnicity, based on people‟s “historical” and
“symbolic” memory, is something created and used
and exploited by leaders and others in the
pragmatic pursuit of their own interests.

Ethnic identity is not something people “possess”

but something they “construct” in specific social
Constructivist and historical
Approach contexts to further their own interests.

These theories broadly reflect changes of approach in anthropology over the past 20
years, i.e. the shift from cultural evolution theories, to structural-functionalist
theories, to conflict theories, and finally to postmodern theories. These changes are
related to the twin forces of modernity and globalization. Globalization started as an
economic phenomenon and end up as a phenomenon of identity. Traditional ways
people defined who they were have been undermined. Modernity has, remade life in
such a way that ―the past is stripped away, place loses its significance, community
loses its hold, objective moral norms vanish, and what remains is simply the self.”
The result of this process has been a loss of identity resulting in fragmentation and
rootlessness (anomie) at the personal level and the blurring of identities at the
collective level.
Some scholars claim that there have been irreconcilable and unbreakable barriers
between the above divergently contending, but dominant approaches of ethnicity. For

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 instance, Banks (1996) portrayed the divergences between the leading theories of
ethnicity as follows:
...the contents of ethnic identity versus its boundary, the primordial gut feeling of an
identity versus its instrumental expression, the individuals versus the group, ethnicity
as an all-inclusive general theory versus ethnicity as a limited approach to particular
problems are the polar extremes central in theories of ethnicity…. (Banks, 1996: 47).

These divergently contending models of ethnicity are discussed briefly as follows.

5.4.1. The Primordial Model of Ethnicity

The Primordialist approach is the oldest in anthropological literature. It was popular until the
mid-1970s. The roots of Primordialist thinking can be traced back to the German Romantic
philosophers, especially J.G. Herder. Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803), proclaimed the
primacy of emotions and language, and defined society a deep-seated, mythical community.
Herder envisaged that every Volk

(people) had its own values, customs, language and ‗spirit‘ (Volksgeist) and argued for the
―atavistic power‖ of the blood and soil (Blut und Boden) that bound one closely with one‘s
people (das Volk). Indeed, Primordialism is an ―objectivist or essentialist theory‖ which argues,
that ―ultimately there is some real, tangible, foundation for ethnic identification.‖

The anthropologist, Clifford Geertz (1973: 255-310), who systematized the primordial model
articulated ethnicity as a natural phenomenon with its foundations in primordial ties - deriving
mainly from kinship, locality and culture (Geertz 1963). Geertz explicitly recognizes not only the
role of culture in defining the primordial 'givens', but also that strength of such primordial bonds,
and the types of them that are important, differ from person to person, from society to society,
and from time to time (Geertz 1973: 259). Further, Geertz is perfectly clear that what matters
analytically is that ties of blood, language and culture are seen by actors to be ineffable and
obligatory; that they are seen as natural. He is also concerned with the terms in which
attachments are understood and mobilized locally; with what people believe. Geertz further
argues that in some respects these putative 'primordial attachments' are actually likely to be
stimulated and quickened by the political modernization of nation-building. In its general sense
then, it can be said that ethnicity is something given, ascribed at birth, deriving from the kin-and-
clanstructure of human society, and hence something more or less fixed and permanent (Geertz,
1963; Isaacs, 1975; Stack, 1986).

A model by Isaacs (1974) further illustrated the concept of primordial ties as a means of
explaining the power and persistence of ethnic identity, which he called ‗basic group identity‘
(Jones 1997:65–66). Isaacs‘s basic group identity was linked to ethnic identity, which was
argued to be assigned at birth and more fundamental and natural than other social links.

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Primordialist theories view human society as a conglomeration of distinct social groups. At birth
a person ―becomes‖ a member of a particular group. Ethnic identification is based on deep,
‗primordial‘ attachments to that group, established by kinship and descent. One‘s ethnicity is
thus ―fixed‖ and an unchangeable part of one‘s identity.

Anthony D. Smith (1986), one of the articulators of this perspective, in his part, theorized the
defining elements of ethnic identification as psychological and emotional, emerging from a
person‘s historical and cultural backgrounds. He illustrated that the ‗core‘ of ethnicity resides in
the myths, memories, values, symbols and the characteristic styles of particular historic
configurations, i.e., what he calls „a myth-symbol complex‟. The durability of the ethnie (ethnic
group) resides in the forms and content of the myth-symbol complex. Of pivotal importance for
the survival of the ethnie is the diffusion and transmission of the myth-symbol complex to its
unit of population and its future generations.

Smith emphasizes the ―extraordinary persistence and resilience of ethnic ties and sentiments,
once formed‖ and argues that they are essentially primordial since they are received through
ethnic socialization into one‘s ethnie and are more or less fixed. And, regards primordial ties as
the basic organizing principles and bonds of human association throughout history.

To sum, Smith concluded that, ‗primordialism‘ makes two distinct claims. Firstly, ethnicity and
ethnic attachment is ―natural and innate‖, which would never change over time, and secondly,
it is ―ancient and perennial‖ (Smith, 1986). By this, ethnicity is an ascribed status and ethnic
membership is fixed, permanent and primarily ascribed through birth.

5.4.2. Instrumentalist (Situational) Theory of Ethnicity

Proponents of this perspective (e.g., Abner Cohen, Paul Brass and Ted Gurr) advocate that in the
contexts of modern states, leaders (political elites) use and manipulate perceptions of ethnic
identity to further their own ends and stay in power. In this regard, ethnicity is created in the
dynamics of elite competition within the boundaries determined by political and economic
realities and ethnic groups are to be seen as a product of political myths, created and manipulated
by culture elites in their pursuit of advantages and power.

The instrumentalist theorists view ethnicity as situationally defined, depending on rational

calculations of advantage and stimulated by political mobilization under the leadership of actors
whose primary motives are non-ethnic. By this, ethnicity is something that can be changed,
constructed or even manipulated to gain specific political and/or economic ends.

In general, there is indeed a cultural content in an ethnic community, but the pursuit of political
advantage and/or material self-interest is the calculus, which is typically, held to inform such
behavior. Ethnicity, based on people’s “historical” and “symbolic” memory, is something created
and used and exploited by leaders and others in the pragmatic pursuit of their own interests.

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5.4.2. Instrumentalist (Situational) Theory of Ethnicity

The instrumentalist theorists view ethnicity as situationally defined, depending on rational

calculations of advantage and stimulated by political mobilization under the leadership of actors
whose primary motives are non-ethnic (Eidheim, 1971, Cohen, 1974a, and Esman, 1994). Given
this, Banks (1996) explained the instrumentalist understandings of ethnicity as an instrument of
group mobilization for political and economic ends (Banks, 1996: 40). By this, ethnicity is
something that can be changed, constructed or even manipulated to gain specific political and/or
economic ends.

Proponents of this perspective (e.g., Abner Cohen, Paul Brass and Ted Gurr) advocate that in the
contexts of modern states, leaders (political elites) use and manipulate perceptions of ethnic
identity to further their own ends and stay in power. In this regard, ethnicity is created in the
dynamics of elite competition within the boundaries determined by political and economic
realities‖ and ethnic groups are to be seen as a product of political myths, created and
manipulated by culture elites in their pursuit of advantages and power.

Abner Cohen (1974), one of the leading advocator of this perspective, in contrast to Barth,
―placed [a] greater emphasis on the ethnic group as a collectively organized strategy for the
protection of economic and political interests‖ (Jones 1997:74). Ethnic groups share common
interests, and in pursuit of these interests they develop ―basic organizational functions: such as
distinctiveness or boundaries (ethnic identity); communication; authority structure; decision
making procedure; ideology; and socialization‖ (Cohen 1974: xvi–xvii).

Accordingly, Daniel Bell (1975) and Jeffrey Ross (1982) emphasize the political advantage of
ethnic membership choice. Hence, ethnicity is "a group option in which resources are mobilized
for the purpose of pressuring the political system to allocate public goods for the benefit of the
members of a self-differentiating collectivity" (Ross, 1982). In more general terms, it refers to the
actor's pliant ascription of ethnic identity to organize the meaning of his social relationships
within the requirements of variously structured social situations (Okamura, 1981). In his
anthropological research on New York Chinatown, Enoch Wan has found that the ―Chinese
ethnicity‖ of this immigrant community is circumstantial, flexible, fluid and instrumental.

Taken to its extreme this would suggest that the ethnic group should be regarded not as a
community at all but as a rational and purposive association. A more moderate view is that there
is indeed a cultural content in an ethnic community, but that the boundaries of the group, which
has that culture, depend upon the purpose in hand. The pursuit of political advantage and/or
material self-interest is the calculus, which is typically, held to inform such behavior.

5.4.3. Constructivist Theory of Ethnicity

The basic notion in this approach is that ethnicity is something that is being negotiated and
constructed in everyday living. However, construction does not take place out of the blue. It

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depends on historical, social and the presence of ethnic raw material to be utilized. It regards
ethnicity as a process, which continues to unfold. It has much to do with the exigencies of
everyday survival (ethnicity is constructed in the process of feeding, clothing, sending to school
and conversing with children and others). Perhaps the most interesting aspect of this approach is
its subjectivist stance and the role of individual agencies and circumstances in triggering the
historical and social factors. However, this does not mean that all ―subjectivists‖ reject all
objective aspects of ethnicity. Some, in fact give them significant attention. But, they all tend to
make it dependent on the socio-psychological experience.

F. Barth is the leading figure of this approach. Barth viewed ethnic identity as an

―individualistic strategy‖ in which individuals move from one identity to another to

―advance their personal economic and political interests, or to minimize their losses‖ (Jones
1997:74). Following Barth, ethnic identity forms through boundary maintenance and interaction
between individuals. Depending on each social interaction, a person‘s ethnic identity can be
perceived or presented in various ways.

In fact, Barth himself took a rather extreme position. For practical purposes, he jettisoned culture
from the concept of ethnicity. For him, ethnic boundaries were psychological boundaries; ethnic
culture and its content were irrelevant. Overall, interaction between individuals does not lead to
an assimilation or homogenization of culture. Instead, cultural diversity and ethnic identity are
still maintained, but in a non-static form. Cultural traits and even individuals can cross over
ethnic boundaries, which in turn can transform an ethnic group over time. Ethnic group is hence
a result of group relations in which the boundaries are established through mutual perceptions
and not by means of any objectively distinct culture.

Jenkins (1997) further noted that, as far as the flow of individuals from one ethnic group to
another is possible, it is possible to argue that the boundaries of ethnicity are permeable and
osmotic (Jenkins, 1997: 53). This provoked that ethnicity is dynamic that changes through time
and space; and ethnic identities are constructed, deconstructed and reconstructed.

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 Unit Six
Customary and Local Governance Systems and Peace Making
6.1 Indigenous and local governance

Understanding of indigenous systems of governance helps us know our cultures and will also
help us enhance inter-cultural understanding. The role of indigenous governance was
indispensable before the advent of the modern state system. Anthropologists have been studying
indigenous systems of governance in Ethiopia and other parts of Africa. Indigenous systems of
governance have widely been employed to maintain social order across Ethiopian regions. The
following are some examples of indigenous systems of governance to start discussions.

The Oromo Gadaa

The Gadaa of the Oromo is one of the well-studied indigenous systems of governance.
Asmerom, a famous anthropologist, is widely known for his ethnographic studies on the Oromo
political system. Particularly focusing on the; Borena Oromo. The Gadaa is a highly celebrated
institution of governance and dispute settlement among the Oromo people. Gadaa is widely
mentioned as an egalitarian (democratic) system of governance. In the Gadaa system, political
power is transferred from one generation set (Luuba) to other every eight years. Gaada officials
such as the Abba Gaada and Abba Seera (father of law) serve for eight years and leave their
position to the new generation of Gadaa officials.

The Gaada system involves a continuous process of law making and revision. The law making
process has rooms for wider participation of the people. Gumi gaayo, a law making assembly of
the Borana Oromo, is a good example. Gumi gaayo is held every eight years to revising,
adapting, making and publicizing the customary law (seera) and custom (aadaa) of the Oromo.

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The Waliso Oromo have a law making assembly known as yaa‟iiharaa, an equivalent of
gumigaayo, held every eight years.

The Gaada is an indigenous system of governance, conflict resolution, and peacemaking. The
indigenous system of governance among the Oromo also include institutions of conflict
resolution such as the Jaarsa Biyyaa (literally: elders of the soil/land) institution.

The Gedeo Baalle

The Gedeo of southern Ethiopia have an indigenous system of governance called Baalle. The
Baalle and the Gaada system of the Oromo have some similarities. For example, both have
grading system and exercise periodic transfer of power (i.e., every eight years). The role of
religion is high in the two indigenous systems of governance. Moreover, the customary law of
the Gedeo is called Seera. The Ya‘a, the general assembly, is the highest body of the Gedeo
indigenous system of governance. The Baalle is a complex system which has three
administrative hierarchies: Abba Gada, Roga (traditional leader next the Abba Gada), and two
levels of council of elders known as Hulla Hayyicha and Songo Hayyicha. The Abba Gada is the
leader of the Baalle. The Baalle system has a body of laws called Seera.

Conflicts are resolved by the Songo hayyicha at village level. When disputes are not settled at
the village level, cases can be referred to first to the Hulla Hayyicha and finally to the Abba
Gada. In general, the Gedeo system of governance has the following major institutions: the ya‟a
(general assembly), the Seera (customary law), the Abba Gada, and council of elders.

Dere Woga of the Gamo

The Gamo are among Omotic peoples of southern Ethiopia. Unlike their neighboring people
such as Wolayta and Dawro, the Gamo did not have a centralized political system. The Gamo
people were organized into several local administrations locally known as deres. According to
anthropological findings, most of deres were governed by a ka‟o (king) and halaqa (elected
leader). The Gamo indigenous system of governance embraces the dere woga (customary law)
and the dubusha assemblies.

The highest body of the indigenous governance is the dere dubusha, a general assembly that is
responsible to make and revise customary laws, resolve major disputes that cannot be solved at

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the lower levels. The dubushas assembly has three hierarchies: 1) the dere dubusha (at the top),
sub-dere dubusha (at the middle), and guta/neighborhood dubusha (at the village level). Minor
cases and disputes are resolved by the dere cima, council of elders. Like the Oromo Gada and the
Gedeo Baalle, the indigenous governance of the Gamo is embedded in the Gamo belief system.
It is believed that telling a lie and hiding the truth, especially at dubusha assemblies, are
considered as violation of taboo, which would lead to spiritual pollution and then leads to
misfortunes including lack of fertility, illness, and death of human beings and livestock.

6.2 Intra-ethnic conflict resolution institutions

Conflicts and disputes exist in every society and community. Conflicts may arise between
individuals, groups and communities within the same ethnic group. In some cases conflicts may
involve groups from different ethnic background. Peoples across Ethiopian regions have
indigenous institutions and mechanisms of conflict resolution and peacemaking. These
institutions are parts of indigenous systems of governance.

There are different indigenous institutions of conflict resolution and peacemaking across regions
and cultures in Ethiopia. Study findings reveal variations and similarities among indigenous
institutions of conflict resolution in Ethiopia. Indigenous justice institutions and mechanisms
share several common aspects including the following:

 High involvement of elders at different stages of conflict resolution and peacemaking

process.
 Preference and respect for elders known for their qualities including experience in dispute
resolution; knowledge of customary laws, procedures, norms and values of the society;
impartiality, respect for rules and people; the ability of listening and speaking politely;
honesty and tolerance
 Indigenous dispute resolution practices focus on restoring social relationships, harmony,
and peaceful coexistence.

Indigenous justice systems also have differences in terms of hierarchies, procedures and level of
complexities. For example,

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  In some cultural settings, conflict resolution mechanisms involve several hierarchies and
complicated procedures;
 The compositions and responsibilities of council of elders also vary from society to
society. For example, different types of elders address different forms of disputes in some
cultural settings; whereas the same body of elders deals with various types of disputes in
other settings.

With some exceptions, customary/indigenous/ justice institutions include three major

components. The three components are 1) customary laws, 2) council of elders, and 3) customary
courts or assemblies.

Customary law: it refers to a body of rules, norms, and a set of moral values that serve as a
wider framework for human conduct and social interactions. The Sera of the Sidama, the dere
woga of the Gamo, the Seera Addaa of the Oromo; Ye Siltie Serra of the Siltie, Gordena Sera of
Kestane Gurage are examples of customary laws.

Council of elders: It is the second important institution of customary justice systems. The
council of elders embraces highly respected and well-experienced community members who
have a detail knowledge of the customary laws.Members of the elder‘s council are also known
for their personal qualities such as truthfulness and experience in settling conflicts. Elders often
serve their communities on voluntary basis without any payment. The number of the elders
varies based on the nature of the case. The institution of council of elders has different names in
various ethnic groups: Yehager Shimagile (Amhara), Jaarsaa Biyyaa (Oromo), Baliqenet (Siltie),
Hayyicha (Gedeo), Guurtii (Somali), Dere Cima (Gamo), Deira Cimma (Wolayita), and Cimuma
(Burji).

Customary courts are public assemblies that serve two major purposes: (a) hearing, discussing
and settling disputes, and (b) revising, adapting, and making laws. among the Siltie people, the
customary courts are called Raga System, the Gamo use the term Dubusha to refer to customary
courts.

Let us summarize the Gamo customary justice system to portray the three major structures. The
customary justice system of the Gamo people of Southern Ethiopia has the following branches:

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1) Dere Woga, customary laws, 2) Dere Cima, council of elders, and 3) Dubusha, customary
courts or assemblies.

Strengths and limitations of customary justice systems/institutions

Study findings indicate that indigenous institutions of dispute resolution have strengths and
limitations. Some of their strengths and limitations are outlined below.

Strengths of customary justice institutions

 Incur limited cost in terms of time and resources/money; elders do not request payment
for their services; fines and compensation are relatively small;
 Conflict resolution process are held in public spaces in the community; different parties
(victims, offenders and community members) participate in the process; decisions are
communicated in public;
 Decisions are easily enforced through community-based sanctions including social
exclusion; compliance ensured through blessings and the threat of curses;
 Customary systems aimed at restoring community cohesion, social relations, collective
spirit and social solidarity
 Rely on respect for elders, the tradition of forgiveness, transferring compensations,
embedded in indigenous beliefs

Limitations of customary justice institutions

 Limitations related to protecting and safeguarding women‘s rights. Indigenous justice

institutions are dominated by men. For example, the council of elders are not open to
elderly women. Women are excluded from participation at customary courts and
assemblies with a few exceptions.
 Indigenous institutions of dispute resolution and peacemaking are effective to resolve
dispute and restore peace within the same ethnic group. Their potential in resolving inter-
ethnic conflicts and restoring long-lasting peace is very limited.

6.3 Inter-ethnic conflict resolution institutions

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As noted above, one of the weaknesses of indigenous institution of peacemaking is their
limitation in resolving inter-ethnic conflicts. However, there are some examples of inter-ethnic
conflict resolution institutions in some parts of Ethiopia. Abbo Gereb is one of the indigenous
institutions that address inter-ethnic conflicts. It is a dispute resolution institution in Rayya and
Wajirat district, Southern Tigray. Abbo Gereb, literally means the father of the river Gerewo.
Abbo Gereb serves to settle disputes between individuals or groups from highland Tigray and
lowland Afar.

Ethnographic findings also reveal the existence of inter-ethnic conflict resolution mechanisms
when conflicts arise between Afar, Issa, Tigrayans and Argobba. The mechanisms of inter-ethnic
disputes have different names. It is called Xinto among the Afar, Edible among the Issa, Gereb
among the Tigrayans, and Aboroge among the Amhara

6.4 Women’s role in conflict resolution and peacemaking

Ethiopian women participate in the process of dispute settlement in exceptional cases. For
example, in some cultures, women participate in dispute settlement processes when cases are
related to marriage and women‘s issues. Despite these weaknesses, women are not completely
excluded for indigenous systems of governance, conflict resolution, and peacemaking activities.
In some societies, women use their own institutions to exercise power, protect their rights, and
actively participate in peacemaking activities.

Three examples that illustrate the role of women in conflict resolution and peacemaking in
Ethiopia are outlined below.

1. Women’s peacemaking sticks

Sidama women have two instruments of power: the Yakka and the Siqqo. The Yakka is
women‟s association or unity group. The Siqqo is a stick that symbolizes peace and women
honor. The Siqqo and the Yakka are closely associated. Mobilizing the Yakka and holding the
Siqqo, Sidama women stand for their customary rights. They do this, when a woman is beaten up
by her husband or a pregnant woman is mistreated, and if a woman is ill-treated by her husband.
For example, the Yakka leader (known as Qaritte) mobilizes the Yakka and leads them to the

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house of the man holding their Siqqo shouting and singing surround the husband and if he is
found guilty the women group imposes a fine on him. The fine could be an ox or sheep.

Oromo women also have a peace stick called Sinqee. Sinqee serves the purpose of protecting
women‟s rights and making peace. Quarrelling men stop fighting when a woman stands between
them holding her Sinqee.

Don Kachel: Agnuak women peacemaking institution

Women in many regions of Ethiopia play an important role in peacemaking. Agnuak women
have a peacemaking institution known as Don Kachel. Literally, Don Kachel means „let us all
live in peace‟. It involves a peace-making movement initiated by Jaye, a group of wise and
elderly Agnuak women. The Jaye start a peace-making movement based on information gathered
through women’s networking i.e gossips. upon receiving information about, The Jaye call the
disputing parties for a meeting to settle the dispute. A few neutral observers will also be invited
to monitor the process of the meeting. After examining the arguments of the two parties, the Jaye
give their verdict. The party that caused the conflict request for forgiveness in public and pay
some compensation. A sheep or goat is slaughtered after the conflict resolved.

Women’s institution of reconciliation: Raya-Azebo, Tigray

Elderly and highly respected women in a village in Raya-Azebo, Tigray established a

reconciliation institution called the Debarte. The Debarte plays an important role in avoiding
harms associated with the culture of revenge. A man may kill another man in a fight. To prevent
revenge from the deceased relatives, the wife of the killer requests for the Debarte intervention.
Debarte quickly start their intervention to stop the act of revenge. They went to the injured house
wearing their ‘netela’ upside down and covering their hair with black cloths to show their grief
and regret. When arriving, they utter the following words: ‘Abyetye ezgio! Abyetye ezgio!’ Oh
God help us! God help us! Getting in to the compound the Debarte kneel down and cover their
heads with the dust of the compound. They beg and persuade the relatives/family of the
murdered man to give up revenge and consider forgiveness. After getting consent from the
victim’s family, the Debarte give the way for elders who start the peace-making process.

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6.5 Legal pluralism: interrelations between customary, religious and state legal systems

Legal pluralism is an important concept in disciplines that study legal issues. It refers to the
existence of two or more legal or justice systems in a given society or country. Legal pluralism is
evident in the Ethiopian context as well. The existence of multiple ethnic groups in Ethiopia has
not only made the country home to diverse cultures but also, a place of diverse legal systems.
Multiple legal institutions, including customary laws and courts, state laws and courts, and
religious laws and courts (e.g., the Sharia Law) work side-by-side in most parts of the country.
The FDRE Constitution grants specific rights to ethnic groups the recognition of indigenous legal
systems, and provides some spaces for religious and customary laws and courts to address
personal and family cases. The following two Articles show this reality.

Legal pluralism is a pervasive phenomenon in Ethiopia. This is because a single legal system
does not have a capability to address all legal cases and maintaining peace and order.
Contemporary studies indicate that the relation between the various legal systems is
characterized by cooperation and competition. Hence, the legal sphere seems characterized by
legal hybridism indicating one cannot stand without the cooperation of the other legal systems.

In most parts of the country, especially in remote and rural areas: state/formal justice institutions,
customary justice institutions, and religious courts work side-by-side.

Unit Seven

Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices

7.1 Definition of concepts

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7.1.1 Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)

IKS is defined as technical insight of wisdom gained and developed by people in a particular
locality through years of careful observation and experimentation with the phenomena around
them. IKS is not just a set of information that is in the minds of the people, which can be simply
taped and applied. It is accessible by recall and practice. IKS is embodied in culture and is
described as an integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs and behavior. It consists of
language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, artifacts, rituals,
ceremonies, folklores and gender. This culture is passed down from one generation to the next
generation and generally it provides a holistic view of how to use natural resources based on
traditional ethical perspectives

In sum, IKS refers to a total of knowledge and practices, whether explicit or implicit, used in the
management of socioeconomic, ecological and spiritual facets of life, stored in the collective
memory and communicated orally among members of the community and to the future
generations.

7.1.2. Indigenous Knowledge

Ranging from social anthropology to agricultural engineering, Literatures on indigenous

knowledge does not provide a single definition of the concept due to their different perspective.
Indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge – knowledge that is unique to a given culture or
society. Since, every population is unique in terms of its environment, its resources, and its tools
(both physical and conceptual), IK will also be unique. IK contrasts with the international
knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and private firms. It is the
basis for local-level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education,
natural-resource management, and a host of other activities in rural communities.

In sum, indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that people in a given community have
developed over time, and that continues to develop. It is based on experience, often tested over
centuries of use, adapted to local culture and environment, dynamic and changing.

7.1.3. Special Features of Indigenous Knowledge

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Ellen and Harris (1996) identified the following special features of indigenous knowledge that
distinguish it broadly from other knowledge;

a. Local, in that it is rooted in a particular community and situated within broader cultural
traditions; it is a set of experiences generated by people living in those communities. Separating
the technical from the non-technical, the rational from the non-rational could be problematic.
Therefore, when transferred to other places, there is a potential risk of dislocating IK.

b. Tacit knowledge and, therefore, not easily modifiable.

c. Transmitted orally, or through imitation and demonstration. Codifying it may lead to the loss
of some of its properties.

d. Experiential rather than theoretical knowledge. Experience and trial and error, tested in the
rigorous laboratory of survival of local communities constantly reinforce IK.

e. Learned through repetition, which is a defining characteristic of tradition even when new
knowledge is added. Repetition aids in the retention and reinforcement of IK.

f. Constantly changing, being produced as well as reproduced, discovered as well as lost; though
it is often perceived by external observers as being somewhat static.

7.2 Significance of indigenous knowledge

Until relatively recently, the development of a community‘s conception of knowledge was

influenced primarily by the philosophy and methods of western science. ―Few, outside of some
anthropologists and historians recognized that there are numerous sciences embedded in cultures
of other peoples and civilizations throughout the world.

Today, however, both scholars and public policy makers are recognizing the importance of
various local or culture-based knowledge systems in addressing the pressing problems of
development and the environment. Indigenous knowledge is important in that people in a
community value whatever resource they get from the environment through sustainable
production systems. These communities are conscious of the need to self-reliant in capital stocks
and management skills.

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The knowledge of local people is an enabling component of development. In this regard; a large
percentage of the earth's genetic diversity has been maintained and managed through farmer's
IKS. Indigenous knowledge system enables people to develop strategies for handling household
and communal activities. For example in Ethiopia Debo and Jige are important uniting forces in
communal activities.

In general, indigenous knowledge is an important part of the lives of the poor. IK is a key
element of the social capital of the poor; their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to
produce food, to provide for shelter or to achieve control of their own lives. Furthermore, one
cannot overlook indigenous knowledge‘s ability to provide effective alternatives to Western
know-how. IK offers local people and their development workers further options in designing
new projects or addressing specific problems and wider disasters. Instead of relying on imported
Western technologies, people in the developing nations can choose from readily available
indigenous knowledge or, where appropriate, combine indigenous and Western technology.

7.3. Indigenous knowledge and development

Indigenous knowledge refers to what local people know and do, and what they have known and
done for generation’s practices that evolved through trial and error and proved flexible enough to
cope with change. Therefore, indigenous knowledge may help identify cost-effective and
sustainable mechanisms for poverty alleviation that are locally manageable and meaningful. It
increases and enhances livelihood options, revitalize agriculture, increase food security, improve
health and promote a sense of cultural pride within the community.

Indigenous knowledge is used at the local level by communities as the basis for decisions
pertaining to food security, human and animal health, education, natural resources management,
and other vital activities. Further, indigenous institutions, indigenous technology, and low-cost
approaches can increase the efficiency of development programs because IK is a locally owned
and managed resource.

Utilizing IK helps to increase the sustainability of development efforts because the IK integration
process provides for mutual learning and adaptation, which in turn contributes to the
empowerment of local communities.

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Since efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability are key determinants of the quality of
development work, harnessing indigenous knowledge has a clear development business case.
According to the 1998/99 World Development Report, knowledge, not capital, is the key to
sustainable social and economic development. Building on local knowledge, the basic
component of any country‘s knowledge system, is the first step to mobilize such capital.

In sum, Indigenous knowledge, along with western- based knowledge, helps create development
solutions that are culturally acceptable by the community. In the past, such knowledge has been
ignored and development solutions have been created that were not economically feasible or
culturally acceptable by the local community. When western scientific ideas are paired with
indigenous knowledge systems, researchers going overseas or working with local communities
can prepare an initial development plan that has a complete picture.

7.4. Preservation, challenges and limitations of IK

Indigenous knowledge, which has generally been passed from generation to generation by word
of mouth, is in danger of being lost unless it is formally documented and preserved. The loss of
IK would impoverish society because, just as the world needs genetic diversity of species, it
needs diversity of knowledge systems. The rapid change in the way of life of local communities
has largely accounted for the loss of IK. Younger generations underestimate the utility of IK
systems because of the influence of modem technology and education

If IK is not recorded and preserved, it may be lost and remain inaccessible to local people as well
as to development workers. Development projects cannot offer sustainable solutions to local
problems without integrating local knowledge. Since, IK is essential to development, it must be
gathered, organized and disseminated, just like Western knowledge. Ignoring people‘s
knowledge leads possibly to failure. Similarly, ''one should not expect all the expertise for third
world development to come from developed nations, academic institutions, multinational
corporations or NGOs.

7.5. The Erosion of Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Despite, the fact that some IK is lost as techniques and tools, currently rate of loss is accelerating
because of the following major pressures;

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 With rapid population growth; often due to in-migration or government relocation
schemes in the case of large development projects.
 The introduction of market-oriented agricultural and forestry practices focused on mono-
cropping is associated with losses in IK and IK practices, through losses in biodiversity
and cultural diversity.
 Chemical inputs seem to reduce the need to tailor varieties to difficult growing
conditions, contributing to the demise of local varieties.
 With deforestation, certain medicinal plants become more difficult to find (and the
knowledge or culture associated with the plants also declines).
 The disruption of traditional channels of oral communication. Neither children nor adults
spend as much time in their communities anymore to share knowledge.
 As IK is transmitted orally, it is vulnerable to rapid change, especially when people are
displaced or when young people acquire values and lifestyles different from those of their
ancestors.
 outsiders (for example, social, physical, and agricultural scientists, biologists, colonial
powers) ignored or maligned IK, depicting it as primitive, simple, static, not knowledge
‘or folklore’.
 Disrupted or no longer exist of traditional community networks and exchanges, has
contributed to the decline of IK system

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