Instructional Design: Pearson Custom Publishing

Instructional Design
Pearson Custom Publishing

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Custom Publishing
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ISBN 0-536-90357-3
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CONTENTS
Introduction
About the Book ..............................................................................................................................................ix
Conventions Used in the Book.....................................................................................................................xi
Chapter 1—Introduction to Instructional Design

1.1 Getting Started with Instructional Design.........................................................................................1.3
1.1.1 Definition..................................................................................................................................1.3
1.1.2 Applying Instructional Design.................................................................................................1.4
1.2 The ADDIE Model..............................................................................................................................1.12
1.2.1 Analysis ..................................................................................................................................1.13
1.2.2 Design.....................................................................................................................................1.16
1.2.3 Development ..........................................................................................................................1.19
1.2.4 Implementation.......................................................................................................................1.20
1.2.5 Evaluation...............................................................................................................................1.22
1.2.6 Variations to the ISD Process ................................................................................................1.23
Summary ....................................................................................................................................................1.25
Assignments................................................................................................................................................1.27
Lab Exercises .............................................................................................................................................1.29
Project .........................................................................................................................................................1.30
Chapter 2—Needs Assessment

2.1 Introduction to Needs Assessment......................................................................................................2.3
2.1.1 Definition of Need....................................................................................................................2.4
2.1.2 Classification of Needs ............................................................................................................2.5
2.1.3 Definition and Purpose of Needs Assessment ........................................................................2.7
2.2 Needs Assessment Process....................................................................................................................2.8
2.2.1 Stage 1: Gap Assessment.........................................................................................................2.9
2.2.2 Stage 2: Prioritization of Needs.............................................................................................2.10
2.2.3 Stage 3: Needs Analysis.........................................................................................................2.11
iii

2.2.4 Stage 4: Sharing Results........................................................................................................ 2.12
2.2.5 Instructional Goal and Goal Analysis................................................................................... 2.12
2.3 Data Collection Tools......................................................................................................................... 2.15
2.3.1 Questionnaire......................................................................................................................... 2.16
2.3.2 Interview ................................................................................................................................ 2.19
2.3.3 Focus Group........................................................................................................................... 2.23
2.3.4 Observations .......................................................................................................................... 2.24
2.3.5 Document Review................................................................................................................. 2.26
2.3.6 Deciding Which Data Collection Tool to Use ..................................................................... 2.27
2.4 Basic Excel for Store Assistants: A Case Study ............................................................................. 2.28
2.4.1 Needs Assessment ................................................................................................................. 2.28
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 2.35
Assignments............................................................................................................................................... 2.38
Lab Exercises............................................................................................................................................. 2.39
Project ........................................................................................................................................................ 2.40
Chapter 3—Learner, Task, and Context Analysis

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 3.3
3.2 Learner Analysis................................................................................................................................... 3.5
3.2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 3.5
3.2.2 Components of Learner Analysis ........................................................................................... 3.6
3.2.3 How Adults Learn ................................................................................................................... 3.9
3.2.4 Types of Learning Styles....................................................................................................... 3.14
3.3 Task Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 3.18
3.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 3.18
3.3.2 Components of Task Analysis .............................................................................................. 3.20
3.3.3 Types of Task Analysis......................................................................................................... 3.20
3.4 Context Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 3.26
3.4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 3.26
3.4.2 The Learners’ Context........................................................................................................... 3.27
3.4.3 Types of Context ................................................................................................................... 3.30
3.4.4 Data Collection Methods for Learner, Task, and Context Analysis ................................... 3.31
3.5.1 Learner Analysis.................................................................................................................... 3.32
3.5.2 Task Analysis......................................................................................................................... 3.34
3.5.3 Context Analysis.................................................................................................................... 3.35
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 3.36
Assignments............................................................................................................................................... 3.40
Lab Exercises............................................................................................................................................. 3.41
Project ........................................................................................................................................................ 3.42
iv

Chapter 4—Writing Objectives
4.1 Introduction to Objectives ...................................................................................................................4.3
4.1.1 Definition and Purpose.............................................................................................................4.3
4.1.2 Components of Objectives.......................................................................................................4.5
4.1.3 Course Objectives and Enabling Objectives...........................................................................4.8
4.2 Applying Checks and Tools .................................................................................................................4.9
4.2.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy .................................................................................................................4.9
4.2.2 Avoiding Common Pitfalls....................................................................................................4.15
4.2.3 Guidelines for Writing Objectives.........................................................................................4.17
4.2.4 Process of Writing Objectives ...............................................................................................4.18
4.3 Basic Excel for Store Assistants: A Case Study..............................................................................4.19
Summary ....................................................................................................................................................4.22
Assignments................................................................................................................................................4.24
Lab Exercises .............................................................................................................................................4.25
Project .........................................................................................................................................................4.28
Chapter 5—Structuring Content

5.1 Introduction to Structuring .................................................................................................................5.3
5.1.2 Principles of Structuring ..........................................................................................................5.6
5.1.3 Categories of Content.............................................................................................................5.16
5.2 Creating a Structure ...........................................................................................................................5.20
5.2.1 Types of Structure ..................................................................................................................5.20
5.2.2 Content-Structuring Process ..................................................................................................5.26
5.3.1 Course Map ............................................................................................................................5.32
5.3.2 Rationale for Decisions..........................................................................................................5.32
Summary ....................................................................................................................................................5.34
Assignments................................................................................................................................................5.37
Lab Exercises .............................................................................................................................................5.39
Project .........................................................................................................................................................5.42
Chapter 6—Evaluating Learning

6.1 Introduction to Evaluation...................................................................................................................6.3
6.1.1 Definition, Purpose, and Types ...............................................................................................6.4
6.1.2 Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Evaluation...........................................................6.7
6.1.3 Criteria-Based and Norm-Based Evaluation.........................................................................6.11
6.1.4 Key Decisions for Designing Tests.......................................................................................6.13
6.1.5 Current Practices in Evaluation .............................................................................................6.15
6.2 Types of Test Items .............................................................................................................................6.17
6.2.1 Multiple-Choice Questions....................................................................................................6.17

6.2.2 True/False Questions............................................................................................................. 6.22
6.2.3 Short-Answer Questions ....................................................................................................... 6.24
6.2.4 Matching-List Questions....................................................................................................... 6.26
6.2.5 Simulation Questions ............................................................................................................ 6.28
6.2.6 Fill-in-the-Blank Questions.................................................................................................. 6.29
6.2.7 Sequencing Questions ........................................................................................................... 6.31
6.2.8 Essay-Type Questions........................................................................................................... 6.32
6.3 Guidelines for Writing Test Items ................................................................................................... 6.34
6.3.1 Multiple-Choice Questions ................................................................................................... 6.34
6.3.2 True/False Questions............................................................................................................. 6.40
6.3.3 Short-Answer Questions ....................................................................................................... 6.40
6.3.4 Matching-List Questions....................................................................................................... 6.41
6.3.5 Simulation Questions ............................................................................................................ 6.42
6.3.6 Fill-in-the-Blank Questions................................................................................................... 6.43
6.3.7 Essay-Type Questions........................................................................................................... 6.43
6.4 Writing Feedback and Grading ....................................................................................................... 6.44
6.4.1 Feedback ................................................................................................................................ 6.44
6.4.2 Grading................................................................................................................................... 6.48
6.5.1 Key Decisions........................................................................................................................ 6.52
6.5.2 Test Items............................................................................................................................... 6.54
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 6.58
Assignments............................................................................................................................................... 6.60
Lab Exercises............................................................................................................................................. 6.61
Project ........................................................................................................................................................ 6.64
Chapter 7—Instructional Approach and Strategies

7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.1.1 Approach and Strategies.......................................................................................................... 7.3
7.1.2 Purpose of Instructional Strategies ......................................................................................... 7.6
7.2 Instructional Approach: Mode and Architecture............................................................................ 7.7
7.2.1 Mode of Instruction ................................................................................................................. 7.7
7.2.2 Architecture and Theories of Learning................................................................................. 7.11
7.3 Instructional Strategies...................................................................................................................... 7.17
7.3.1 Macro Instructional Strategies .............................................................................................. 7.17
7.3.2 Micro Instructional Strategies............................................................................................... 7.20
7.3.3 ARCS ..................................................................................................................................... 7.23
7.3.4 Gagne's Events of Instruction................................................................................................ 7.25
7.3.5 Learning Activities ................................................................................................................ 7.29
7.4.1 ARCS ..................................................................................................................................... 7.34
7.4.2 Events of Instruction.............................................................................................................. 7.35
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 7.37
Assignments............................................................................................................................................... 7.40
Lab Exercise .............................................................................................................................................. 7.41
vi

Project .........................................................................................................................................................7.43
Chapter 8—Writing a Storyboard

8.1 Introduction to Storyboards................................................................................................................8.3
8.1.1 Definition..................................................................................................................................8.4
8.1.2 Purpose .....................................................................................................................................8.6
8.2 Components of a Storyboard...............................................................................................................8.8
8.2.1 Course and Screen Identifiers..................................................................................................8.8
8.2.2 Visual Layout ...........................................................................................................................8.9
8.2.3 Text .........................................................................................................................................8.10
8.2.4 Graphics..................................................................................................................................8.11
8.2.5 Audio ......................................................................................................................................8.13
8.2.6 Navigation and Interactivity ..................................................................................................8.14
8.2.7 Guidelines for Writing a Storyboard.....................................................................................8.17
8.3 Guidelines for Creating Components...............................................................................................8.20
8.3.1 Visual Layout .........................................................................................................................8.20
8.3.2 Onscreen Text.........................................................................................................................8.21
8.3.3 Graphics..................................................................................................................................8.22
8.3.4 Audio ......................................................................................................................................8.24
8.3.5 Navigation and Interactivity ..................................................................................................8.24
8.4 Reviews, Templates, and Tools .........................................................................................................8.26
8.4.1 Quality Reviews of a Storyboard ..........................................................................................8.26
8.4.2 Templates for Writing a Storyboard......................................................................................8.29
8.4.3 Storyboarding Tools...............................................................................................................8.31
8.5.1 Sample Screens ......................................................................................................................8.33
Summary ....................................................................................................................................................8.36
Assignments................................................................................................................................................8.39
Lab Exercises .............................................................................................................................................8.41
Project .........................................................................................................................................................8.42
Chapter 9—Project Management

9.1 Introduction to Project Management.................................................................................................9.3
9.1.2 Phases of a Project Lifecycle ...................................................................................................9.4
9.1.3 Working with the Project Team ..............................................................................................9.7
9.2 Challenges and Guidelines.................................................................................................................9.13
9.2.1 Communicating Effectively in a Team .................................................................................9.13
9.2.2 Legal Issues ............................................................................................................................9.14
9.2.3 Interacting with SMEs ...........................................................................................................9.17
Summary ....................................................................................................................................................9.19
Assignments................................................................................................................................................9.22
vii

Lab Exercises............................................................................................................................................. 9.23
Appendix
A.1 Basic Excel for Store Assistants: A Case Study ............................................................................. A.3
A.1.1 Background Information ....................................................................................................... A.3
A.1.2 Needs Assessment ................................................................................................................. A.7
A.1.3 Learner Analysis.................................................................................................................. A.15
A.1.4 Task Analysis....................................................................................................................... A.17
A.1.5 Writing Objectives............................................................................................................... A.18
A.1.6 Course Map.......................................................................................................................... A.20
A.1.7 Evaluating Learning ............................................................................................................ A.21
A.1.8 Instructional Approach and Strategies................................................................................ A.25
A.1.9 Storyboarding ...................................................................................................................... A.28
A.2 Additional References...................................................................................................................... A.31
Glossary
Glossary....................................................................................................................................................... G.1
Index
Index ..............................................................................................................................................................I.1
viii

About the Book
This book helps students to understand the various stages of the instructional design
process and apply the process to design and develop learning materials that meet
specific training needs. Students who aspire to work in multimedia environments to
create learning materials will especially find the book useful.
A key feature of the book is a detailed discussion on various theories, models, and
principles and their application. For example, the book teaches how to apply the
Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (ADDIE) model to
build a multimedia course with the help of a case study that runs throughout the book,
illustrating every phase and step of the ADDIE model. This case study shows a sample
output of every step of the ADDIE model and also provides the rationale to make the
required decisions during each phase.
The first chapter of the book sets the context by introducing the concept of instructional
design and its applications in the different areas of education. The chapter also discusses
different modes of training, such as Instructor-led Training (ILT) and Web-based
Training (WBT).
The subsequent chapters take the student through the various steps in the instructional
design process by using the ADDIE model. Every chapter in the book focuses on one
critical aspect of analysis and design. For example, Chapter 4 talks about writing
objectives, a step in the Design phase of the ADDIE model. The last chapter talks about
the project management challenges that arise when developing a multimedia course and
provides possible solutions to them.
The book also offers ample opportunities for students to practice the knowledge and
skills gained through the lab assignments at the end of every chapter. These assignments
verify the achievement of learning objectives.
ix

x

Conventions Used in the Book
This book contains features, such as notes, tips, warnings, and references, identified by
various icons. Each of these icons presents a different type of information. Following is
the list of icons that will be used in the book.
A note provides information about the topic in context. This is

additional information related to the topic.
A tip provides an alternative method for performing a task. It can

also contain a simplified, although unconventional, method of
doing a task.
Just-a-Minute presents nice-to-know information or a quick

question that checks the learners’ understanding of the current
topic.
A warning informs you about the dire effects of an action.

Focusing on these warnings reduces the likelihood that learners
will make the same errors.
A reference provides links to Web sites or relevant books and

white papers for further study on a particular topic.
Each topic begins with objectives that inform learners about the
learning outcome of a topic.
In addition, you will come across italicized text that represents newly introduced terms.
xi

xii

Introduction to
Instructional Design 1
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
• Define instructional design
• Identify at least four areas where instructional design can
be used
• Describe features of ILT, Distance Learning, CBT, and
WBT
1.1 Getting Started
• Explain the relationship between instructional design with Instructional
and multimedia Design
• State the purpose of each phase of the ADDIE model
• List the steps in each phase of the ADDIE model 1.2 The ADDIE Model
• Explain the relationship between the phases of the
ADDIE model
• State two reasons why instructional design is a science
as well as an art
• State two advantages of the rapid prototyping approach

1.2 Introduction to Instructional Design

1.1 Getting Started with
Instructional Design
“The illiterates of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write but those
who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.”
—Alvin Toffler, Author and Futurist
Think of the last time that some one gave you directions. Did this person ask you if you
knew a landmark in the area and then provide directions related to the landmark? If so,
that was instructional design at work.
What made you like your favorite classes? Was it the teacher’s style or anecdotes? Did
the teacher take you on field trips and encourage you after hours with one-on-one help?
If so, that too was instructional design at work.
The first section of this chapter describes instructional design, where is it applied, and
the role of instructional design in multimedia. The second section of the chapter
describes Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (ADDIE), a
systematic instructional design model. This model has five phases, and the section
presents an overview of the purpose and steps in each phase.
1.1.1 Definition
Instructional design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using
learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. To examine this
further, you need to understand the key phrases in this definition.
The phrase systematic development implies that instructional design is a series of tasks
or steps. While this is true, there are countless examples of great instruction that were
completely unsystematic, relying instead on instinct and experience. Even so,
instructional design provides a valuable framework for effective instruction that
understands the needs of the student, creates instruction specifications, and evaluates
whether the instruction is effective.
The second key phrase, learning and instructional theory, is about how people learn and
the appropriate instructional strategies for different people. Research in these areas has
lead to a rich reservoir of theories and knowledge that supports instructional design.
Subsequent chapters of this book present some of these theories.
Introduction to Instructional Design 1.3

The third key phrase, quality of instruction, describes the value of the learning
experience to an individual student, those intangibles that make you remember certain
classes, but forget others. Was it the fact that you found the classes engaging, was it that
you found it easy to learn the subject, and you did not need to cram, or was it simply
because your scores in that subject were very high? Although this is not a
comprehensive list, these attributes of instruction can be called the quality of
instruction.
The term instructional specification refers to the material or output that contains the
instruction. Several terms, such as training, program, or course, are used to refer to this.
The term course will be used consistently throughout this book to refer to instructional
specifications.
! Who first used the term instructional design?

! Robert Glaser, an eminent scholar, first used the term instructional design in
1962. He put together all prevalent thought on the systematic development of
instruction and talked of an organized approach to creating instruction, calling
it instructional design.
1.1.2 Applying Instructional Design

Why learn about instructional design? Where is it applied? What does this have to do
with multimedia? These are the questions the next few pages will answer. An attempt
will also be made to understand the evolution of various applications in which it is used
and relate these applications to one another.
Instructional design is used wherever there is one person trying to learn and another
person trying to teach or instruct the learner. Any effort to create any sort of instruction
or learning material will involve some use of instructional design. For example,
instructional design is used in:
! Education
! Instructor-led training (ILT)
! Distance learning
! Computer-based training (CBT)
! Web-based training (WBT)

Education
When a teacher leads a class exploration to the countryside to study the flora and fauna,
some instructional design principles are at work. A conscious attempt to incorporate
instructional design principles and practices in schools began in the 1960s and 1970s in
the United States.
The first phase of this movement began when the former Soviet Union forged ahead in
science and technology with the launch of the Sputnik satellite. Educators in the United
States realized that they had to upgrade math and science curricula. The next phase
came in the 1970s, when there was a growing feeling that the education system was not
producing results. The Government invested in a program called the Educational
System for the 1970s, or ES70, to bring the best thinking and research into school
curricula.
As experts conducted studies and experiments in educational design, one notable
theorist, Leslie Briggs, demonstrated that an instructionally designed course could yield
up to a twofold increase over conventionally designed courses in achievement,
consistency, and speed of completion.
Did you know that in ancient times, in places like Greece and India, students set off
at a tender age to distant lands to live and learn with a master or guru?
Masters often took no fee. Students gave a fee of their own free will at the end of
their education.
Instructor-Led Training (ILT)

Instructor-led training (ILT)) refers to any learning situation in which a teacher leads a
group of learners. Schools, colleges, universities, and corporations use ILT to train
students and employees in various disciplines and job-related skills and attitudes.
For example, an instructor might show a class an instructional video about effective and
ineffective presenters and then lead the class into a discussion on what was right and
wrong with the presentations. The instructor focuses the class’s attention and discusses
the relevance of effective presentation skills. In doing so, the instructor is using several
instructional design principles.

Table 1.1 describes the features of ILT.
Feature Description
Interaction with the instructor Learners have the opportunity to interact with
instructors in the classroom.
Peer interaction Learners have the opportunity to interact with

their peers, collaborate on learning projects, and
use group discussions.
Lectures and class discussions Lectures are the primary instruction method
along with class discussions, projects, and
activities.
High cost Costs are relatively high, including instructor

fees, travel costs, venue costs, and overhead.
Learners must be on-site for the duration of the
training, and this may cause additional cost.
Table 1.1: Features of ILT
Distance Learning
Alan Chute, managing partner of AT&T’s Center for Excellence in Distance Learning
in Cincinnati, defines distance learning as a system and a process that connects learners
with distributed resources. Distance learning was once limited to correspondence
courses and home study. As early as the 1840s, shorthand courses were offered by mail.
In the 1870s, a correspondence university was founded in Ithaca, New York. Today,
you can get correspondence courses on everything from creative writing to an MBA to
engineering.
Distance learning is exploiting new developments in technology to increase student
participation and interaction. For example, satellite TV can broadcast lectures to a large,
geographically dispersed audience. Audio and video conferencing can connect students
with the instructor. New ways of ensuring interaction between the learners and
instructors and among the learners themselves are being designed.

Table 1.2 describes the advantages and disadvantages of distance learning.
Feature Description
No interaction with the instructor Most distance learning courses offer no

opportunity for face-to-face interaction with the
instructor on a regular basis. However, some
distance learning courses do organize periodic
meetings.
No peer interaction Learners do not have the opportunity to interact

with their peers, collaborate on learning projects,
or use group discussions.
Anywhere, anytime Learners in remote locations can sign up for the

courses anytime.
Anyone can register There are usually no restrictions on who should

register for a course. For some courses,
however, some prerequisite skills or knowledge
might be required.
Relatively low cost Neither instructors nor students need to spend

on traveling. Instructor fees are reduced, and
students can continue to work while taking
courses.
Table 1.2: Features of Distance Learning
! A Training Train
! In September 1995, a group of Eastern European women traveled by train
from Poland to Beijing to participate in the Fourth World Conference on
Women, sponsored by the United Nations Development Program. The women
underwent a series of seminars and skill-building workshops during the
journey. The train was equipped with a mobile satellite for on-board, online
computer training.
Computer-Based Training (CBT)

Computer-based training (CBT) delivers job skills and related knowledge through the
computer. It reinforces learning through interactive techniques, such as feedback. CBT
is also referred to as CAT (computer-aided training), CAI (computer-aided instruction),
interactive CD-ROM, and TBT (technology-based training).

CBTs were the first form of technology-based training. In the 1950s, Stanford and IBM
led an effort to offer elementary school students an opportunity to do rigorous practice
exercises on mainframe computers. CBTs are keeping pace with technological changes,
such as advances in personal computer technology, home computing, and multimedia.
Table 1.3 describes the advantages and disadvantages of CBT.
Feature Description
No interaction with the instructor Learners have no opportunity of a face-to-face

interaction with the instructor.
No peer interaction Learners do not have the opportunity to interact

with their peers, collaborate on learning projects,
or use group discussions.
Anywhere, anytime Learners in remote locations can use the

courses at anytime.
Use of multiple media Multiple media, such as text, graphics, video,

and animations, are used to communicate the
content.
Interaction with the learner Questions, quizzes, simulations, and feedback

provide interaction with the learner.
Relatively low cost Instructors do not need to be paid for travel nor
do students need to travel. Instructor fees are
reduced, and students can continue to work
while they attend classes. However, the costs
for developing CBT are high.
Table 1.3: Features of CBT
Web-Based Training (WBT)

Web-based training (WBT) uses Web-based technologies for the purpose of training.
You can use WBT to deliver complex training, such as a sales training course for a
worldwide sales team, or simple training on a Web-based Microsoft Word 2000 course.
Comparing WBT to Distance Learning and CBT

WBT differs from traditional distance learning by virtue of being Web-based. But, as
distance learning moves into Web technology to incorporate interactivity and
collaboration, the two are not very different. In fact, William Horton, author of
Designing Web-Based Training goes so far to say that WBT is just the “latest
technology to advance distance learning”.

WBT goes beyond a CBT’s traditional model of one student and one terminal. WBT
brings new possibilities for collaboration and interaction. For example, using WBT, a
professor in Boston can deliver a lecture to 2000 students in all parts of the globe at the
same time, and conduct a post-lecture discussion using an Internet chat forum. The
students could be at home, in the university, or a cyber café. WBT can also provide
real-time access to worldwide resources, such as a subject matter expert or archives. A
research student in New Zealand can talk to an expert in Toronto, access a library in
China, and scan archives in England.
Nora Sabelli, National Science Foundation, states the Internet’s main value as “allowing
students to talk to experts, exchange ideas, and tap into real-time information.”
Table 1.4 describes the features of WBT.
Feature Description
Interaction with the instructor Several WBTs offer mentoring and coaching
services, which allow learners to interact with
the instructor using e-mail messages, chat
forums, or videoconference.
Peer interaction Several WBTs offer learners the opportunity to

interact and collaborate with peers in
discussions in chat groups, collaborate on
projects, or to participate in online seminars.
Anywhere, anytime Learners in remote locations can use the

courses anytime.
Use of multiple media Multiple media, such as text, graphics, audio,

video, and animations, are used to communicate
the content.
Interaction with the learner Questions, quizzes, simulations, and feedback

provide interaction with the student.
Relatively low cost Instructors do not need to be paid for travel, nor
do students need to travel. Instructor fees are
reduced, and students can continue to work
while they attend classes. However, the costs
for developing WBT are high.
Table 1.4: Features of WBT

Multimedia
Multimedia uses a variety of methods to communicate information. For example, video,
sound effects, voices, and text can all be part of a multimedia presentation. When the
word multimedia first came to use in the 1970s, it was associated with snazzy graphics,
some loud music, and glitzy presentations. It was used in the field of entertainment, film
video production, and the print industry. Today, multimedia is used in almost every
domain.
The two most important applications of multimedia are in entertainment and training.
You have surely experienced some of the first category. Examples of multimedia in the
entertainment industry are:
! Audiovisual shows, such as product launch events
! TV shows, broadcasting, and advertising
! Computer games and video games
! Marketing presentations and product information booths
Multimedia training refers to the use of computers to train using moving pictures, sound
effects, voices, and text. All modes of training use different media. ILTs use audiovisual
presentations and graphics. CBTs and WBTs use text, graphics, audio, video, and
animation.
CBT and multimedia training are synonymous, as both refer to delivery of training by
CD-ROM. Whenever multimedia is used for developing training material, instructional
design plays a role in it.
The first use of multimedia in training dates to World War II. A large number of
people had to be trained in a very short time. To achieve this, some instructors
experimented with the use of audiovisuals to support their training. And the rest, as
they say, is history.
Integrating Training Modes

In reality, ILT, distance learning, CBT, and WBT are not being used in watertight
compartments. All four are converging. Increasingly, courses integrate these modes to
use a combination of the three. For example, ILT is used in combination with CBT or
WBT. An instructor might send a student a multimedia CBT to teach the prerequisite
skill before starting the training. Instructional design is assuming an ever-increasing role
in this challenging new environment.

These integrated modes are also called blended learning. Chapter 7 of this book
discusses this in detail.
To view demos of WBT courses, use the following links:

! www.netg.com
! www.skillsoft.com

1.2 The ADDIE Model
“There are more than 100 different ISD models, but almost all are based on the generic
ADDIE model, which stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and
Evaluation.”
—Kevin Kruse
Instructional Systems Design (ISD) is the methodology used for the systematic
development of courses, which might be ILTs, or CBTs, or WBTs. While there are
several dozens of ISD models, they are all based on the widely accepted ADDIE model.
Figure 1.1 shows the five phases of the ADDIE model.
1. ANALYSIS
4. IMPLEMENTATION 5. EVALUATION 2. DESIGN
3. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 1.1: ADDIE Model
After the Second World War, the U.S. military was looking for a systematic way of
creating training programs quickly and efficiently. These efforts resulted in the
development of some basic ISD models, which were taught at the Florida State
University. Walter Dick and Lou Carrey were at the forefront of this pioneering
work with their book, The Systematic Design of Instruction.
The five phases of the ADDIE model create a structured and effective flow that guides
and controls course development.

Each phase is discussed in detail in the pages that follow. Table 1.5 summarizes these
phases in the form of questions.
Phase Question
Analysis WHY am I teaching this course?

WHO am I teaching it to?
Design HOW am I going to teach it?
Development WHAT exactly am I going to teach?
Implementation HOW should I deliver the course?
Evaluation HOW was the course?
Table 1.5: Phases of the ADDIE Model
1.2.1 Analysis
The Analysis phase identifies the learning need, learner’s profile, tasks, and context in
which the learner works. This is the first and most critical phase because the findings
guide the entire course development process and ensure that the course fulfills a
pressing and valid instructional need.
A common pitfall for designers and analysts is to rely on their feelings and instincts
instead of gathering hard data. For example, they might have assumptions such as “I
just know what’s wrong” or “I know what they need”. With these assumptions, the team
resorts to shortcuts instead of doing a systematic study and recording information.
The Analysis phase is divided into four steps:
! Needs assessment
! Learner analysis
! Task analysis
! Context analysis
Needs Assessment
The purpose of a needs assessment is to answer the following questions:
! What is the problem?
! What is the need/learning gap?
! Is an instructional solution required?

Needs assessment involves talking to and gathering information from a range of people,
such as potential learners, who might be shop floor workers or IT professionals, their
supervisors or managers, and customers. To gather information from them, you can use
data collection methods such as questionnaires, interviews, and observations.
An example of a need is given below:
Many software developers are taking on project management roles without adequate
knowledge and skills. As a result, software projects usually suffer from various
problems, such as high cost, lack of resources, and time overruns. Management feels
that these developers need a course on project management.
Learner Analysis
The purpose of a learner analysis is to determine the current ability level of the learner,
identify learner characteristics, and make decisions about how to teach effectively so
that the course is designed to meet the needs of the learner. Learner analysis answers the
following questions:
! Who is the learner of the course?
! What are the characteristics of the learner? These characteristics include:
• Age, qualifications, current role, and years of experience
• Current knowledge/skills, confidence, and difficulties faced in the content area
• Cultural, linguistic, and experience base
After the learner analysis is complete, a key responsibility of the instructional designer
is to keep the learner in mind throughout the making of the course. This has significant
impact on key decisions related to the course. Some of these decisions are:
! Content depth and complexity
! Instructional strategies
! Examples and case studies
! Tone and language
! Test and feedback style
For example, imagine learner analysis reveals that two groups of learners need to be
trained on how to work on Microsoft Windows 2000. One group has no computer
background, but the other group has already worked with earlier Windows versions.
Think of what a big difference this will make to the course that will be designed for

each group. More specifically, think of the impact this will have on the content of the
course, examples, and tests.
Task Analysis
The purpose of a task analysis is to identify the activities that a learner performs in real
life and on the job, related to the subject of the course. It determines what exactly the
learner needs to know to perform better on the job. This helps identify the
competencies, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors needed for performing that
job. Analyzing tasks involves breaking a complex task into smaller and simpler
components.
For example, a problem-solving course is being designed for manufacturing workers.
Task analysis reveals that a shift manager in a manufacturing facility performs the
following activities:
! Provides input to prepare production budgets and reports on machine efficiencies,
downtime, yields, wastage, inventory and WIP costs, repairs, and quality
! Ensures budget is communicated and understood by all in the team
! Assists team members to troubleshoot problems on the shop floor related to
machines, material, methods, and workers
The task analysis serves as critical input to the subsequent design phase by helping
determine objectives, content, sequencing of instructions, and the teaching method.
Context Analysis
The purpose of a context analysis is to examine the conditions in which the learner
works, such as the technology used in the workplace, physical location, tools, or job
aids.
For example, imagine a course to introduce computers must be designed for both a
freelance journalist who works from home and an office assistant, who works in the
office. The former uses the computer as a standalone machine with no onsite support for
any hardware problems, and the latter uses the computer in a networked environment
with a help desk or hardware support. This difference has an impact on a number of
decisions about the course content for the two types of learners.
Various steps of the Analysis phase are covered in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 of this
book. Chapter 2 explains needs analysis, and Chapter 3 explains the learner, task,
and context analyses.

1.2.2 Design
The Design phase builds on the information from the Analysis phase and develops the
outline of the course content. The findings from the Design phase are collected and
maintained in the Design document. Members of the instructional design team go to
work to develop the course objectives, structure, test items, and instructional strategies.
The Design document serves as a reference point for all subsequent phases in the
development of the project and helps review the course and keep it on track.
The five steps in the Design phase are:
! Writing objectives
! Structuring content
! Selecting an evaluation type and writing test items
! Selecting an instructional approach and strategies
! Designing the graphical user interface
The steps in the Design phase are not necessarily followed in any one sequence.
After the objectives are written, work on the other steps is often parallel. For
example, work related to the instructional approach and strategies starts
immediately after the objectives are written.
Writing Objectives
“If you are going on a trip, you’d better know your destination before you leave or you
might head in the wrong direction. In training, the objectives are the destination. You
must identify the objectives of training up front to determine the most direct way to
reach your goals.”
—Dr. J. Marvin Cook,
Coordinator of Graduate ISD Programs, University of Maryland in Baltimore County
Objectives state the intended result of the course and the expected outcome for the
learner. They describe learner performance in terms of what the learner will be able to
accomplish at the end of the course.
Objectives help measure student performance, as well as the effectiveness of the course
as a whole. An objective is about the end instead of the means. It describes the result of
instruction rather than the process of instruction.

The task analysis is the most important input to objectives. Instructional designers
examine the tasks identified in the Analysis phase and write objectives required to fulfill
these tasks.
Some examples of objectives are:
! Identify the external parts of the given car model
! List five of the seven Quality Control (QC) tools
! Design a five minute PowerPoint presentation on theory of demand and supply from
the given material
! Train frontline supervisors on the use of seven QC tools in a one day training
program
Structuring Content
The purpose of structuring content is to sequence and establish linkages between topics.
The structure of a course determines the flow of instruction or events. In books, the
document that presents the content structure is called the Table of Contents. In a CBT or
WBT, it is called the course map, a diagram that presents a lesson-by-lesson breakdown
of topics. The course map is like a plan for the sequence of instruction.
To develop the course map, the instructional designer reviews the source materials,
interviews subject matter experts, and examines the learner analysis, tasks, and
objectives.
Selecting an Evaluation Type and Writing Test Items

Evaluation involves measuring learners’ skills, knowledge, and behavior to verify that
they are at the expected proficiency level at the end of the course. The ultimate aim of
evaluation is to collect valid, relevant, and reliable information about the learner and
make informed decisions.
Evaluation is performed using test items similar to quizzes and exams in your school
curricula. Test items help assess learner performance. The purpose of test items is to:
! Provide an opportunity for interaction
! Check and reinforce learning intermittently
! Check for mastery at the end of the course
Writing test items for a course can help verify whether the objectives are well written,
observable, and demonstrable. During this step, the instructional designer should be
able to identify and correct poor objectives.

Test items can be:
! Multiple choice questions
! Fill-in-the-blank questions
! Short answer questions
! Simulation-based questions
While the approach to evaluation is selected in the Design phase, evaluation is

actually done after the course is implemented. An exception is the formative
evaluation. To read more about this, refer to the topic 1.2.5, Evaluation, in this
chapter, and Chapter 6, Learning Evaluation.
Selecting an Instructional Approach and Strategies

Some courses use a combination of WBT and ILT, some use audio and video, and
others use simulations. There is a wide range of instructional approaches and strategies.
To make these decisions, it is important to look at the learner profile, the context, and
the type of content.
Some questions to keep in mind for designing the instructional approach and strategies
are:
! Is the course going to be learner-led or instructor-led?
! Is it going to use lots of activities or one case study or simulation?
! Is it going to be mix of WBT/ILT/CBT?
! Is the course going to be audio, video, or a mix of both? What about other media?
For example, a course about Microsoft Word 2000 should not just provide conceptual
information, but should also provide an opportunity for practice on the software with
the help of scenarios. If learners need a lot of guidance, a mix of ILT with WBT might
be more appropriate.

Designing the User Interface
In WBT and CBT, the user interface is what a learner sees on the screen and interacts
with. It enables the learner to access the content and answer test questions. In the
Design phase, decisions are made about:
! Buttons and navigational features
! Labels or names of those buttons
! Location of buttons and labels on the screen
Ideally, an artist creates the actual screen designs and these images are then inserted in
the design document.
Various stages of the Design phase are covered in Chapters 4 through 7 of this
book. Chapter 4 explains objectives, Chapter 5 covers structuring content, Chapter
6 covers evaluating learning, and Chapter 7 explains instructional approach and
strategies. The design of the user interface is beyond the scope of this book.
1.2.3 Development
The Development phase signals the start of creation or production tasks. It builds on all
previous phases to actually develop and produce the course. The different elements of
the course, such as text, graphics, audio, and video are created and integrated in this
phase.
The four steps in the Development phase are:
! Writing a storyboard
! Creating graphics and other media output
! Programming
! Construction
Writing a Storyboard
A storyboard is a visual plan of the course. It contains a description of each screen of
the course using sketches and textual descriptions. Storyboards cover all content and
flow of the course and indicate other types of graphical elements, such as video and
animation.

Key components of a storyboard are:
! Visual layout
! Graphics
! Text
! Navigation and interaction details
Creating Graphics and Other Media Output

After the storyboard is complete, the graphics for the final course are created and audio
or video is produced. Depending on the type of course, the graphics might be simple
flowcharts and figures or they might be background screens. You can also create audio,
video, and animation if necessary.
Programming
Programming for a course is done using some type of authoring tool, such as
Macromedia Authorware. You can also create templates, and then use them to make
several courses based on the same template. Programming makes it possible to build
functionality in the course. This functionality refers to the interactions, navigation, and
the use of features such as Tips, Glossary, and Help.
Construction
The last step in the Development phase is construction. All elements of the course, such
as text, graphics, audio, and video, are put together with the help of the program to
create the first version of the running course.
Writing a storyboard in covered in Chapter 8. The subsequent stages of the

Development phase are beyond the scope of this book.
1.2.4 Implementation
The Implementation phase is also called the rollout. In this phase, the course is
delivered to the target audience. For a WBT, this phase involves the launch of the
course from a Web site. For a CBT, this phase involves the delivery and distribution to
classrooms or other locations.

The steps in the implementation phase are:
! Preparing the implementation schedule
! Providing documentation to the client
! Preparing the delivery environment
! Delivering the course
Preparing the Implementation Schedule

Most organizations launch the course in two phases: alpha and beta. Although most of
the design and development work is complete by this time, the alpha launch is a good
time to catch problems. If a course is not working as planned, changes must be made
during implementation.
Providing Documentation to the Client

The second step is to prepare the documentation that contains instructions for installing
the course, using the course, and registering in the course. The objective of this step is
to prepare the audience to receive and use the course with minimum trouble.
Preparing the Delivery Environment

This step involves installing the hardware, software, and implementing support
mechanisms, such as a help desk or a toll-free number for assistance.
Delivering the Course

The last step is the actual delivery of the course. This may involve not just the physical
delivery of the course; a WBT would be run off a web server, and a CD-ROM would be
sent by mail. No matter what the delivery mode, it is important to publish the course
delivery details via the most suitable medium.
Details of the various stages of the Implementation phase are beyond the scope of
this book.

1.2.5 Evaluation
The Evaluation phase helps course developers and analysts learn if the course was
effective, met the needs of the learner, and satisfied course objectives. To evaluate the
course, you can use a course evaluation form or feedback form at the end of the course.
Evaluation can be done at three different stages:
! While the course is being developed
! After the course is delivered
! After some time has passed
The first stage is called formative, the second is called summative, and the third is
called confirmative.
Formative Evaluation
A formative evaluation is conducted at several points during the development of the
course in order to improve it. This form of evaluation provides feedback about whether
the course is achieving its objectives. The instruments used for a formative evaluation
are self-checks, progress tests, non-graded quizzes, and instructor observations.
Summative Evaluation
A summative evaluation is conducted at the end of the course to measure the degree to
which it has achieved its objectives. The instruments used are written tests and case
studies. Summative evaluation is the basis for making decisions on the continued use of
the course and disseminating the course by others.
Confirmative Evaluation
Confirmative evaluation is conducted a number of months after the course ends in order
to assess whether learners retained knowledge and skills over time. The results of
confirmative evaluation are the basis for making periodic revisions to the content of the
course.

1.2.6 Variations in the ISD Process
Most organizations do not follow the ISD process exactly as it is described in the
previous sections. They make variations to meet their specific requirements.
Variations in the ADDIE Model

Although the ADDIE model presents a logical flow of phases and steps, many
organizations make slight adjustments to the flow to suit their individual styles. The
steps in each phase of the ADDIE model are not always performed in sequence or even
in the stated phase. For example, in some organizations, creating the storyboard is
considered a part of the Design phase, while in others, writing test items is done during
the Development phase.
Customizing the ADDIE Model

The phases of the ADDIE model are not a linear progression without any possibility of
going back and forth. Figure 1.1 shows three types of arrows. The broad black arrows
show the regular progress from Analysis to Implementation.
The gray arrows show a backward movement. For example, if there is a problem
encountered in the Design phase, the instructional designer can revisit the Analysis
phase.
The two-way black arrows point from the Evaluation phase to every other phase. These
arrows imply that evaluation can be done after any phase and that the results of
evaluation can lead to revisiting any phase.
Iterative Course Development and Rapid Prototyping

Some instructional designers have found the ADDIE model far too limiting, inflexible,
and time-consuming. There are alternate development models that represent an iterative
approach to creating instruction.
The iterative approach does not separate the development process into phases such as
Analysis and Design. It recommends creating a basic working course, called a
prototype, which is evaluated by target learners. Feedback from this evaluation is
incorporated to improve the model.
The advantages of the iterative approach are obvious. Normally, the results of an
evaluation would come at the end of the development process after the Implementation
phase. Thus, the team would have already spent substantial time and energy on the
course. The limitation of this approach is that it is hard to predict and control how many

iterations it will take to complete the course. It is also difficult to control the time and
effort spent on the development.
To solve this problem, you can introduce a rapid prototyping phase as a part of the
ADDIE model. A rapid prototype is a part of the course that is put together quickly in
the Design phase. It is used to test the instructional strategies and the user interface.
This prototype is usually created after the Design phase. Similar cycles continue until
the course finds acceptance with learners and the client.
Subsequent phases of the ADDIE model are begun only after there is agreement on one
version of the prototype. This approach works well for creating CBTs and WBTs
because the screen design, interactions, and other features of CBTs and WBTs are hard
to visualize without actually seeing and testing them.
Art and Science of Instructional Design

Instructional design, like economics or visual design, can be seen as both art and
science. On the one hand, it is systematic, logical, and is based on models, theories, and
research. On the other hand, the application of these theories involves creativity.
Some parts of the instructional design process, such as needs assessment and collecting
data about learners, require the zeal and thoroughness of the scientist. Other parts, such
as creating the storyboard, examples, analogies, themes, and metaphors require
creativity.
There are no absolutes in instructional design. There is nothing that is unequivocally
right. All decisions that instructional designers make are usually affected by variables,
such as the needs of the learner, course content, or the learner’s environment. As a
result, while one decision seems the best in a given set of variables, the same is
unsuitable for another set of variables.
“Whether or not the instruction is truly effective, interesting, and engaging depends on
your ability to put on the scientist’s labcoat when analyzing the instructional goals, and
putting on the artist’s smock when creating engaging and enjoyable ways to present
information to the learner and provide him or her with meaningful practice and
feedback.”
—Curtis L Broderick, Instructional Design Consultant

Summary
! Instructional design is the systematic development of instructional specifications
using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction.
! Instructional design is applied in:
• Education
• Instructor-led training (ILT)
• Distance learning
• Computer-based training (CBT)
• Web-based training (WBT)
! CBT conveys job skills and related knowledge, is interactive, is delivered by the
computer, and provides feedback.
! WBT uses Web-based technologies for training, following the concept of anytime,
anywhere training. It also introduces new possibilities for collaboration and
interaction.
! CBT and multimedia training are synonymous, as both refer to delivery of training
by CD-ROM.
! Multimedia is defined as the use of more than one method to communicate
information. These methods include the use of graphics, audio, video, and
animation. Instructional design plays a role in any multimedia development.
! The ADDIE model is the most accepted of all ISD models. Its major phases are
Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation.
! The purpose of the Analysis phase is to collect enough information to make
informed decisions. The four steps in this phase are:
• Needs assessment
• Learner analysis
• Task analysis
• Context analysis

! In the Design phase, output from the Analysis phase is used to create a detailed
outline or plan, called the Design document. The five steps in the Design phase are:
• Writing objectives
• Structuring content
• Selecting an evaluation type and writing test items
• Selecting an instructional approach and strategies
• Designing the user interface
! The Development phase uses the Design document to guide course creation and
production. The four steps in this phase are:
• Writing a storyboard
• Creating graphics and other media output
• Programming
• Construction
! The course is launched in the Implementation phase. This is generally done in two
stages: alpha and beta.
! The alpha launch is a good time to catch problems. If a course is not working as
planned, then changes must be made during implementation.
! The Evaluation phase provides feedback on the effectiveness of the course. The
purpose is to find out whether the course met the learner’s needs and course
objectives.
! The three types of evaluation are:
• Formative
• Summative
• Confirmative
! Although the ADDIE model presents a logical flow of phases and steps, many
organizations make slight adjustments and customizations to the flow to suit their
individual styles.
! Alternate development models recommend the use of iterations and rapid
prototyping. The iterative approach recommends creating a basic working course,
called a prototype, and then refining it to make improved versions of the course
based on learner feedback. A rapid prototype is a part of the course that is put
together quickly in the Design phase.

Assignments
1. Explain the concept of instructional design in your own words. List any four areas
that use instructional design. (See objective #2)
2. Explain two features each of ILT and WBT.
3. List the steps in the Analysis and the Development phases of the ADDIE model.
4. Explore the Internet, and describe how one of the following works:
• A distance learning course
• A WBT course
You can explore various features, such as:

! How can you contact the instructor using the medium?
! How can you register for such a course?
5. Why is instructional design considered a science as well as an art? State two

reasons.
6. Explain the relationship between instructional design and multimedia.


Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
1. What is the relationship between the Analysis and Design phases of the ADDIE
model?
2. State two advantages of using the rapid prototyping approach.
3. A list of Web sites where you can see courses of WBT and e-learning is listed
below.
• http://www.netg.com/DemosAndDownloads/
• http://www.skillsoft.com/demo/default.asp
Go through at least two demos, and answer these questions:
• What was the name of the course and in which site is it available?
• What is the subject of the course?
• List at least three multimedia elements in the course. State what function these
elements serve in the course.
• How was the learning experience? How did you react as a learner to the
course? What did you like about it and what did you dislike?
• List at least three features of the course such as objectives, summary, quizzes,
questions, tips, practice exercises, demos, or simulations. Describe each
briefly.

Project
As you go through the chapters that follow, you will apply the ADDIE model to create a
small unit of instruction of your choice. This small unit will be in the form of a
storyboard. For example, after the chapter on objectives, you will write objectives for
the course that you are developing. At the end of Chapter 8, you will create a storyboard
for a topic of the course that you are creating.
Select a topic for your project. Please use the following guidelines while selecting a
topic:
! Select a topic that is interesting and familiar to you. (Some suggestions of topics
that you can work on are given here, but you can also make your own choice.)
! Select a topic in which you have the expertise to handle the subject matter.
! Check that the selected content can be taught in twenty minutes.
List of Topics
! Basic computer skills for school students
! Basic computer skills for sales trainees
! Using Internet Explorer for beginners
! Using Word for office assistants
! Sending e-mail messages using a Hotmail account
! Browsing the Internet using Internet Explorer
! Using the Yahoo! search engine to search the Internet

Needs Assessment
2
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to: 2.1 Introduction to
• Describe the purpose of needs assessment Needs Assessment
• Describe the four stages of the needs assessment process
• Identify the gap between current and required
2.2 Needs Assessment
performance Process
• Write an instructional goal statement based on a need
2.3 Data Collection
• Select appropriate data-collection tools for the Tools
needs assessment process
• Develop a questionnaire or interview protocol for 2.4 Basic Excel for
conducting a needs assessment Store Assistants: A
• Perform a needs assessment and a goal analysis Case Study


2.1 Introduction to Needs
Assessment
“Supposing is good, but finding out is better.”
—Mark Twain
Consider the following reaction of a businessperson who is attending a company
sponsored workshop:
This is the second management development program that I am attending. The
program is not bad but I still can’t figure out why I have been asked to attend
it. How is it going to help me? My manager and I agree that I need to improve
my team building and leadership skills. However, this program is all about
change management, communication skills, and problem solving. I don’t think
I have a problem with my communication or problem solving skills. I am just
wasting my time here and the company is losing money on this program. I
wish somebody had understood my need correctly.
Learners can appreciate a course and derive maximum benefit out of it only when they
find it useful to them, which is not the case in the above statement. Instructional design,
therefore, begins with assessing what learners need to learn. It signals the start of the
Analysis phase of the ADDIE model.
This chapter explains the purpose and benefits of a needs assessment, the needs
assessment process, and how to select appropriate data collection tools. The chapter also
describes ways to set instructional goals based on the results of the needs assessment
and to perform a goal analysis to determine the type of learning that will occur. In
addition, it provides a real-world example of needs assessment to illustrate its use.
Needs Assessment 2.3

Figure 2.1 highlights the Analysis phase of the ADDIE Model.
Needs assessment
Learner analysis
Task analysis
Context analysis
1. ANALYSIS
3. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 2.1: Analysis Phase of the ADDIE Model
2.1.1 Definition of Need

A need is a gap between current and desired performance. It is the difference between
what is happening and what should be happening.
A need should meet the following conditions:
! It should be significant enough to warrant correction
! It should be measurable
! It should be correctable
The following is an example of a need.
A business college offers a Project Management course. The attendance and
performance of students in this course has decreased consistently over the last three
semesters. The college wants to improve the course.
Is this need real? The need is real because it meets the following three conditions:
! The performance of students in the course is not satisfactory. Therefore, the need is
significant.
! The decrease in class attendance can be counted, and therefore, it is measurable.

! Changes in the course content, faculty, or duration will improve the attendance and
performance of the student. Therefore, the situation is correctable.
Figure 2.2 shows a need.
Figure 2.2: Need
2.1.2 Classification of Needs

The classification of needs distinguishes one type of need from another, and determines
the origin and importance of a need. Individuals, groups, corporations, and universities
initiate needs assessment to support or validate a goal or requirement. In most
organizations, needs are derived from feedback by employees and consultants, project
skill requirements, future plans, or role and competency maps of individuals.
Competency maps describe the tasks the individual has to perform and the knowledge,
skills, and attitude required for it.
Needs are broadly classified into the following types:
! Normative or organizational need
! Felt need
! Expressed or demand need
! Comparative need
! Anticipated or future need

Normative or Organizational Need
! A normative or organizational need is one in which many people have a related
competency gap or fall below the expected norm or standard. For example, a travel
services organization may determine that many of its employees have poor time
management skills and do not meet their commitments on time. The organization
may decide that employees require a course on effective time management.
An organizational need is usually a combination of more than one type of need.
These needs are not mutually exclusive.
Felt Need
Members of an organization may express a felt need, something they believe would
help them perform better. For example, team members in the accounts department may
say that learning advanced features of accounting spreadsheets will improve their
productivity.
Expressed or Demand Need

The desires of a majority of a group such as customers, employees, students, or other
stakeholders indicates an expressed need. An expressed need may arise out of the
demand for an unavailable product or service. It could also result from complaints about
unacceptable products or services. For example, a bank’s customer feedback survey
may indicate that the bank personnel are unresponsive.
Comparative Need
A comparative need is developed by examining a set of parameters or guidelines in
relation to a similar entity. For example, a business school discovers that its curriculum
does not include a popular course offered by other business schools, and as a result,
perceives the need for the additional course.
Anticipated or Future Need

Anticipated needs are the needs expected to arise in the future. For example, a snack
food manufacturer plans to reduce the size of the quality department in the future and
make all workers responsible for quality. Therefore, all workers need to be trained to
perform simple on-line quality checks on their own.

2.1.3 Definition and Purpose of Needs
Assessment
“Needs assessment is critical to effective training. Without it, you have no idea where
you ought to be going.”
—Ron Zemke, President,
Performance Research Associates
Needs assessment is the process of identifying and prioritizing gaps in performance, and
deciding whether an instructional design solution can be applied to bridge the gaps.
First, you can identify the gaps on the basis of the differences between what is and what
should be. You can then prioritize them by comparing the cost incurred by ignoring the
problem with the cost of solving the problem. Finally, you can perform a needs analysis,
to investigate the causes for the need, identify solutions, and decide whether an
instructional solution can be applied.
Needs assessment can reveal problems that are being overlooked, undetected, or
ignored. In some organizations, managers or technical personnel may believe that they
understand all the issues inherent to their part of the organization but miss large and
glaring problems that a needs assessment could reveal. For example, a candy
manufacturer was losing money because of poor staff performance and low production.
The senior management of the company, operating without a needs assessment,
assumed that installing expensive new planning software would solve the problems.
However, the problems continued until a formal needs assessment revealed that the
production team had serious communication problems, which prevented effective
production practices.
In summary, a needs assessment:
! Helps define the gap between the current and desired level of performance
! Identifies the causes for problems and possible solutions to close the gap
! Reduces the risk of spending time, effort, and money on the wrong solution
! Provides a strong foundation for the subsequent phases of the instructional design
process
! Determines how technological advancements, competitive markets, and expanding
industries affect current learning

2.2 Needs Assessment Process
“Needs assessment is a humanizing process to help make sure that we are using our
time and the learner’s time in the most effective and efficient manner possible”
—Roger Kaufman, Needs Assessment: Concept and Application
Instructional designers conduct needs assessments. A knowledgeable and experienced
coworker from an organization may also perform a needs assessment and then convey
the findings to an instructional designer. You should create a needs assessment plan at
the beginning of the process. A needs assessment plan will clarify the purpose and help
you plan for the development process. The plan should contain:
! Purpose and benefits: State the reason for the needs assessment and its benefit to the
organization
! Target audience: Describe the organization structure and functions, the average age,
educational level, work experience, roles, responsibilities, and the number of
respondents
! Data collection parameters: Present current performance, optimal performance,
attitudes about the problems, and probable causes
! Data collection tools: Provide a sample of the type of data collection technique used
in the assessment
! Logistics and process flow: Illustrate the phases of the process, timelines, people
involved, location, infrastructure, and other required resources
You can begin the needs assessment process after completing the needs assessment
plan. The four stages in the needs assessment process are:
! Stage 1: Gap assessment
! Stage 2: Prioritization of needs
! Stage 3: Needs analysis
! Stage 4: Sharing results

Figure 2.3 shows the four stages in the needs assessment process.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Gap assessment Prioritization of Needs analysis Sharing results

needs
Figure 2.3: Needs Assessment Process
2.2.1 Stage 1: Gap Assessment

In the first stage of the needs assessment process you assess current performance against
the required performance. You may be assessing skills, knowledge, attitude, and
behavior of the target group, as well as organizational goals, reactions, and opinions of
individuals regarding the current performance. At this stage, you can also assess the
constraints and opportunities related to the external and internal environments. You can
identify the needs on the basis of the gap between the current state and the required
state. An example of gap assessment is the conclusion reached by the senior
management of an insurance company that the sales force is underachieving sales
targets.
Required Performance
A salesperson is required to sell at least $50,000 worth of policies per month.
The successful salesperson is required to:
! Identify customers through a strong professional network
! Understand client needs and match them with appropriate policies
! Highlight policy features and benefits
! Build strong relationships with customers using effective communication skills
! Follow up aggressively, show perseverance, and close the sale
Current Performance
On average, a salesperson sells $30,000 worth of policies per month.
The salespersons are able to:
! Identify customers through a strong professional network
! Understand client needs
! Follow up aggressively and show perseverance

However, the sales team is unable to:
! Match customer needs with appropriate policies
! Highlight policy features and benefits
! Build strong relationships with customers
! Apply effective communication skills
! Close the sale
The difference between the required performance and the current performance is the
gap assessment of the sales team.
2.2.2 Stage 2: Prioritization of Needs

In the second stage of the needs assessment process, you must prioritize needs on the
basis of their importance and urgency to the organization’s goals. Use the following
factors to prioritize:
! Cost-effectiveness: Ensure that the cost of the solution does not outweigh the cost
of the problem.
! Executive pressure: Determine the management’s view of the problem, their
urgency, and their commitment to find a solution to it.
! Population: Find out how many people are affected by the problem to understand its
significance.
! Legal mandates: Learn whether it is mandatory to address the problem, as it might
be in the case of safety regulations.
! Customers: Find out the relationship of the problem with the existing customer
base.
In the insurance company example, you would assign priority to the knowledge of
insurance policies, their benefits, and application, as the most important and urgent need
because:
! Senior management members can train the sales team. As a result, the cost of
training will be low.
! Management wants the sales team to acquire complete product knowledge.
! A majority of the sales team is lacking in product knowledge.
! Customers will not buy the policies unless the policies meet their needs and the
advantages of the policies are highlighted to them.

Based on the preceding factors, you can ignore the least important needs and analyze
the most important needs further.
2.2.3 Stage 3: Needs Analysis

The third stage of the needs assessment process is the cornerstone of needs assessment.
In this phase, you analyze the causes for the needs and find solutions to them.
! The causes may stem from the environment or the people.
Table 2.1 lists some common causes for needs and possible solutions.
Causes for Needs Possible Solutions
Environment-Related Causes
Lack of effective communication, information, Formal, structured systems for communication,
instructions, or feedback information, instructions, or feedback
Lack of proper tools, resources, workstations, or Appropriate tools, resources, workstations, or
job descriptions job descriptions
Lack of proper incentives Corrected compensation and incentive policies
Individual-Related Causes
Lack of knowledge and skills Appropriate course
Insufficient capacity or ability Revised task
Insufficient motivation or commitment Supervision and guidance
Table 2.1: Possible Solutions for Common Causes for Needs
As indicated in Table 2.1, an instructional solution is usually recommended for

performance problems occurring as a result of gaps in competencies in people, such as
knowledge, skills, attitude, and behaviors.
Some examples of cases that need an instructional solution are as follows:
! Senior managers in a consulting firm require upgrading of their project management
skills.
! The foremen in a manufacturing unit need to become conscious of quality issues.
In the insurance company team example, the lack of effective communication and
knowledge of policy details, benefits, and applications could be some possible causes
for the low performance. The management can thus design and conduct an

appropriate course on the company’s policies.
Once you have thoroughly analyzed the existing needs, you would then identify and
share the causes and possible solutions with key members of the organization or
institution.
2.2.4 Stage 4: Sharing Results

The last stage of the needs assessment process requires you to disseminate your results
so that all the parties concerned can understand the findings of the needs assessment.
You would typically represent the results in the form of a report or presentation. The
components of a report are:
! Introduction: Describe the organization or institution where the needs assessment
process has been performed as well as the people who conducted it.
! Background: Explain why the process was initiated and by whom.
! Purpose and benefits: State the value of the needs assessment.
! Limitations: Describe the reliability and validity of data collection tools used,
interpretation of results, and assumptions made about the process.
! Tools and method: Explain the type of data collection and methodology.
! Sample size: Describe the number of people involved.
! Recommendations: Describe the results of the needs assessment—the causes for the
existing-needs, and whether the problem can be resolved by instructional design.
! Summary: Present a synopsis of the report.
You could also review the report or presentation with internal team members before
presenting it.
2.2.5 Instructional Goal and Goal Analysis

You can form an instructional goal after identifying the need and deciding to resolve the
need through instructional design. An instructional goal statement states the overall
purpose of the course and briefly describes what the learner will be able to do at the end
of the instruction.
While writing an instructional goal statement, ensure that it:
! Identifies the learners
! Describes what learners will be able to do

! Describes the context in which the skill will be applied in real life
! Describes the tools or methods available to the learner
The following is an example of an instructional goal statement for a course on
leadership:
Managers will be able to describe different styles of leadership and developmental
levels of subordinates based on the Situational Leadership model. They will go on to
identify the development levels of the employees and apply relevant leadership styles to
match the needs of the employees.
In the preceding example:
! The managers are the learners.
! They will be able to describe different styles of leadership and development levels
of their subordinates.
! They will use this knowledge to identify the development level of employees and
apply relevant leadership styles.
! They will use the Situational Leadership model as a tool.
Goal Analysis
At the center of learning theory is the idea that there are several different types or levels
of learning. Robert Gagne, for example, identifies five major categories of learning.
Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning.
Goal analysis is an analysis of the instructional goal. It considers elements such as
Gagne’s learning domains and the skills and knowledge required in the instruction to
accomplish the goal. It identifies the measurable and observable behaviors that will
mark the accomplishment of the instructional goal. Goal analysis considers the
following learning domains:
! Attitude development: Improvement in the learner’s values, attitude, and behavior
! Cognitive strategies: A structure for learning that actively promotes the
comprehension and retention of knowledge
! Intellectual skills: The ability to analyze, apply, and classify information
! Psychomotor skills: The ability for mental and physical activity
! Verbal information: Ability to list, state, or describe information
It is not necessary for a goal to contain all the learning domains. In our example,
managers who take the leadership course described earlier will be able to enhance their
intellectual skills and verbal communication. They will be able to describe the concept
of situational leadership and apply it in real life.

After you understand the learning domains, list all the steps, sub-steps, or elements that
will accomplish the goal with the help of a flow chart. Insert evaluation points between
these steps to decide whether the learner can proceed further. In addition, insert decision
points to enable the learner to choose one learning path over another.
Learner characteristics, tasks, and the context in which the learner performs them
influence goal analysis. The next chapter deals with the learner, context and task
analyses.

2.3 Data Collection Tools
You should select or design an appropriate data collection tool before you begin the
needs assessment process. You can use these tools in the first and second stages of the
needs assessment process. You can choose from many effective tools for data
collection. For each needs assessment, you need to determine the appropriate tools. It is
a good practice to use a combination of two or three data collection tools. Use data
gathered from one tool to validate or supplement data collected from another tool. For
example, use a questionnaire to collect basic data on performance problems followed by
interviews to collect more detailed information.
Consider the following factors to select a tool:
! Sample the audience’s size, background, educational qualifications, work
experience, roles, responsibilities, location, need for privacy, and language
preferences.
! Be flexible to modify the structure and use the tool to ask new, unanticipated
questions, or explore unforeseen and complex issues.
! Determine the amount of time the sample audience can devote to the process, their
ability to meet face-to-face, or by telephone, fax, or e-mail.
! Establish the timeframe within which the instructional designer should compile the
responses and complete the process.
! Assess the skills required to implement the data collection tool.
! Consider the relative ease of administering the data collection tool without
disturbing the workplace.
! Consider also the likely ease in using, tabulating, and analyzing data.
The following is a list of data collection tools:
! Questionnaire
! Interview
! Focus groups
! Observation
! Document review

2.3.1 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is the most commonly used data collection tool for needs assessment. It
consists of a printed list of questions relevant to the purpose of the needs assessment
process. Individuals are required to respond to these questions. The questions can be
closed-ended, in which the individual chooses from a set of given responses, or
open-ended, which requires essay-type responses.
Use a questionnaire to collect factual information, such as “how many accidents have
occurred in your manufacturing plant in the last year?” or opinions, such as “how
effective is the teamwork in your organization?” A questionnaire can vary in length, but
a good one should not take more than ten to fifteen minutes of the respondent’s time.
Respondents should have the freedom to reveal their identity or remain anonymous.
Use a questionnaire when:
! There are many respondents and there is not enough time for interviews
! The sample audience is geographically dispersed
! The results from another data collection tool need to be validated
! Key areas need further analysis
Advantages of Using a Questionnaire

Some advantages of using a questionnaire are:
! It is possible to cover a large and geographically dispersed sample size.
! Respondents have the option to remain anonymous.
! It is easy to tabulate and record data derived from questionnaires.
! Implementation is cost-effective and does not require many skills.
! You can use different rating scales for closed-ended questions. Some examples of
rating scales are:
• Likert scale: 1 indicates least important and 10 indicates most important.
• Graduated scale, for example, the communication flow in the organization is:
EFFECTIVE --------------------------INEFFECTIVE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Alternate response: Either/or questions. The pattern of responses indicates a
tendency towards particular behaviors and attitudes.
• Multiple-choice: Selection from one of several choices.

Limitations of Using a Questionnaire
The limitations of using a questionnaire are:
! Significant time and expertise is required in preparing a questionnaire.
! The format does not allow for any flexibility to ask new, unanticipated questions or
explore new issues, which may arise during the process.
! There is a possibility of misinterpretation of a question by respondents since
communication is only one-way.
! Considerable time and effort are required in distribution, collection, and follow-up
of questionnaires. The questionnaire return rate can be as low as 40 percent or
lower.
Guidelines for Developing a Questionnaire

The guidelines for developing an effective questionnaire are:
! Determine the audience, purpose, and information required from the questionnaire.
! Include a brief note for the respondents on the background, purpose, and
confidentiality of the exercise.
! Be brief, simple, and clear. Avoid use of jargon and lengthy questionnaires that take
too much of the interviewee’s time.
! Design questions for eliciting specific answers other than “yes” or “no”. For
example, “What software packages are useful to you on the job?”
! Design questions so that they only have one response. Do not combine two
questions into one.
! Verify reliability of the questionnaire by administering it to the same people in the
same conditions at different times. If the results are the same, the questionnaire is
reliable. Perform a pilot of the questionnaire with at least one or two members of
the sample group to check for clarity and format.
! Ensure the scoring system is simple.

Sample Questionnaire
Figure 2.4 shows a sample questionnaire.
Background: As you are aware, there is a need to enhance the computer skills
of staff members in this institution. We are trying to assess the need for a basic
computer education course here. We request that you complete this
questionnaire to help us determine the content of the course. Your answers will
be handled in the strictest confidence. Thank you for your time and assistance.
Name: ___________________ Position: ________________

Department: ____________________
Educational qualifications:____________________
Work experience (in years):________________
1. How long have you been using computers? (Circle the appropriate answer)
6 months A year A year and a half Two years More than two
years
2. What Microsoft Office applications do you normally use? (Circle the
appropriate answer)
Microsoft Word Microsoft PowerPoint Microsoft Excel Outlook Express
Internet Explorer
3. What is your current proficiency level in each of the following? Rate on a
scale of 1 to 4 where, 1 = Needs much improvement, 2 = Beginner,
3 = Moderate, 4 = Expert.
A. Word _____
B. PowerPoint _____
C. Excel _____
D. Outlook Express _____
E. Internet Explorer _____
4. What areas do you want to improve?
____________________________________________________________

______________
5. What medium of instruction would you prefer? (Circle the appropriate
answer)
Books Classroom Tutorials Videotapes Demonstrations CBTs
6. How much time can you devote to learning basic computer skills in a week?
______________
7. Are there any other programs that would be useful to you?
_____________________________________________________________
_________________
Figure 2.4: Sample Questionnaire
2.3.2 Interview
An interview is an active, two-way communication between the interviewer and an
individual or a group of individuals. It is conducted either face-to-face, over the
telephone, or using e-mail. The interviewees have the option to remain anonymous. An
interview may vary in length, but ideally it should not take more than thirty minutes.
The set of questions asked by the interviewer is called an interview protocol, which is a
list of primary and secondary questions. Primary questions are related to specific topics.
Secondary questions are probing questions associated with each primary question. The
primary question is asked first followed by secondary or probing questions until the
interviewer feels that the respondent has shared all relevant information on the subject.
The next primary question is then asked.
Interviews are of two types: structured and unstructured. Structured interviews are
formal, focused interviews with a prepared list of questions. Unstructured interviews are
informal and flexible interviews focusing on topics that evolve spontaneously during the
conversation.
Use an interview when:
! Preliminary data gathered from a questionnaire needs further probing and
exploration
! The subject matter cannot be adequately conveyed through surveys or
questionnaires
! You need to discuss the causes of problems and possible solutions

Advantages of Using an Interview
Some advantages of using an interview are as follows:
! The interviewee has an option to remain anonymous.
! The interviewer can modify the form and structure of the interview from one person
to another to explore undefined, unanticipated, and complex issues.
! Considerable data is gathered in a limited time period.
! Interviews provide the opportunity to build a rapport and personal empathy with the
interviewee.
! Direct communication reduces the chances of misinterpretation of a question.
! Observing the body language of the interviewee, such as gestures, reactions, eye
contact, and expressions, provides additional information.
Limitations of Using an Interview

Some limitations of using an interview are as follows:
! Interviews cannot be used to cover a large sample size.
! Success of the interviews depends on the questioning and probing skills of the
interviewer and his ability to record the responses effectively.
! A few respondents may find interviews intimidating or threatening and may not be
able to contribute effectively to the exercise.
! Respondents may say what they think the interviewer wants them to say instead of
what they are really feeling.
! The interviewer might be biased depending on the similarities or dissimilarities
between the interviewer and interviewee and judge the responses subjectively.
! It can be difficult to tabulate and analyze the data accurately, especially with
unstructured interviews.
! A skilled interviewer can complete as many as 12 interviews in a day.

! The first few interviews provide as much as 98 percent of the necessary
information.

Guidelines for Conducting an Interview
The guidelines for effectively conducting an interview are as follows:
! Use a comfortable and interruption free environment, such as a conference room.
! Determine the number of interviews required for a successful study. Four to six
interviews are sufficient while studying a heterogeneous group.
! Prepare for the interview by gathering information about the interviewee and the
performance problems that are immediately apparent.
! Plan whether the interview will be structured or flexible.
! Give a brief background of the needs assessment process and obtain the
interviewee’s permission before note taking or recording.
! Build a good relationship with the interviewee by listening carefully, and being
empathetic.
! Ensure that your own biases and theories do not overshadow the analysis.
! Limit the interview to thirty minutes.

Sample Interview Protocol (List of Questions)
Figure 2.5 shows a sample interview protocol.
Kyoto Motor Company would like to design a course to improve team-building skills
for its middle management staff. You are required to conduct interviews with some
of the middle management staff. Here is a sample interview protocol that you can
use.
1. Background Information:
Interviewee’s name, position, department, educational qualifications, and work
experience.
2. Information about team members:
• Who are the key people in your department and section with whom you
interact?
• How often do you interact?
• What is the nature of these interactions?
• With which cross-functional teams do you interact?
3. Shared Goals:
• Are the team members clear on their roles and responsibilities? If not, why?
• Are all the members committed to the overall team goals? If not, why?
4. Communication Systems:
• Is there a correct, proactive, open communication flow in the team? If not,
why?
• How effectively do members listen, question, respond, and empathize with
each other?
• How effectively do team members give constructive feedback to each other? If
they are not effective, why?
• Does the team use formal meetings or communication systems? If not, why?
5. Trust & Win-Win Attitude:
• Do team members trust each other and share a win-win attitude?
• How do team members resolve conflicts or make decisions together?
6. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the team?
7. What are the key concern areas/problems faced by the team?
8. What are your expectations from a program on team building?
Figure 2.5: Sample Interview Protocol

2.3.3 Focus Group
A focus group is an interactive process in which one person asks a group of people a
variety of questions. It is usually conducted in person. The group size varies, although
four to seven is considered optimal. The people in the focus group are either identified
formally, by their first and last name, or informally, by their first name. A focus group
exercise should not last for more than two hours.
As in an interview protocol, a focus group protocol consists of a set of primary
questions and secondary questions. The primary question is put to an individual in the
group. The secondary questions are then used to get others in the focus group to either
agree or disagree with the first respondent's answers. It is recommended that two people
conduct a focus group interview. One of the interviewers can take up the role of a
moderator, asking questions and encouraging others to speak. It is crucial that the
moderator build an atmosphere of sharing among the group members so that one or two
people do not dominate the discussion. The second person obtains the information from
the focus group discussion. Use a focus group when:
! Data gathered from questionnaires or interviews needs further probing and
exploration
! There is a time constraint, as a result case questionnaires, or separate interviews
cannot be used
! There is an opportunity to meet a group of people in a limited timeframe
Advantages of Using a Focus Group
The advantages of using a focus group are as follows:
! You can gather more information from a focus group in a limited timeframe than in
an interview.
! The interviewer can modify focus group questions and explore undefined,
unanticipated, and complex issues.
! Problems and controversial issues, which an individual may not be comfortable in
exploring, can be analyzed and resolved in a group. The respondents can discuss
ideas and issues with one another to reach a consensus about a problem.
! It provides an opportunity to build a rapport and personal empathy with the focus
group members.
! Observing the body language of the interviewee, such as gestures, reactions, eye
contact, and expressions, provides additional information.

! It helps check the reliability and validity of responses as you conduct the focus
group.
Limitations of Using a Focus Group

The limitations of using a focus group are as follows:
! Focus groups can be time-consuming to set up and carry out.
! You cannot interview too many people simultaneously, and the number of questions
must be limited.
! The interviewer’s skill is critical.
! Participants may be reluctant to participate if there is a wide variation in the status
and position of the respondents. Power struggles can occur.
! The interviewer may be biased and judge the responses subjectively.
! Focus groups might be difficult to schedule, especially if a management
commitment is not strong enough.
Guidelines for Conducting a Focus Group

The guidelines for conducting a focus group are similar to those for conducting an
interview.
2.3.4 Observations
Instructional designers obtain data about an organization by observing the environment
and interacting with people. They are able to collect background information on group
dynamics, organization culture, and work climate.
Use observations when:
! There is a need to supplement or validate information collected from questionnaires
and interviews
! There is a need to consider issues such as ineffective communication; utilization of
time, resources, and people; declining operational standards; or conflicts

Advantages of Using Observations
The advantages of using observations are as follows:
! It provides an idea of the work performed in a typical day in the organization or
institution.
! It is an unobtrusive process. The instructional designer may simply walk around or
strike a casual conversation with people. It minimizes the interruption of work.
! It provides a direct contact with the situation.
! Administrative costs are low if the observation is casual and relatively unstructured.
Limitations of Using Observations
The limitations of using observations are as follows:
! It is difficult to observe a large number of people.
! It may be difficult to record data.
! Individuals may feel that they are being scrutinized and alter performance.
Guidelines for Observations
The guidelines for making effective observations are as follows:
! Share the background and purpose of the exercise with everybody to alleviate
possible fears about spying.
! Describe actions with narrative statements or checklists.
! Observe without being obtrusive or asking for additional information.
! Limit the observation to just watching the individuals. Do not participate in the
work or offer suggestions, or coach the concerned individuals.
! Match the ratings of two observers to ensure that the data is valid and reliable.
The results of the observation should be shared with people before making it a part of
the needs assessment report.

2.3.5 Document Review
Organization archives often contain useful documents that you can review to help in a
needs assessment. These documents are:
! Organization history, structure charts, vision, and mission policy
! Personnel and productivity records
! Financial, planning, audit, and budget reports
! Policy handbooks
! Career development systems
! Quality-related information
! Memos and reports on various topics
Review documents when there is a need to:
! Gather background information about the culture and values of the organization
! Validate information gathered from other sources
! Understand organizational problems and their influence on the organizational and
individual competencies
Advantages of a Document Review

The advantages of a document review are as follows:
! It helps identify potential problem areas.
! It is an unobtrusive process.
! Data collection is quick and inexpensive if the data is stored, filed, and updated
regularly.
! The data has high validity because it is quantifiable and objective evidence.
Limitations of a Document Review
The limitations of using a document review are as follows:
! Documents may be restricted to authorized people only and difficult to access.
! Most documents have historical value. The designer will have to be skilled enough
to apply relevant information to current problems.
! There might be a risk of misinterpretation of documents by unskilled people. The
causes of problems and solutions may also not be clear.

2.3.6 Deciding Which Data Collection Tool to
Use
Table 2.2 helps decide which data collection tool you can select in a given situation. A
checkmark indicates the tool is recommended for use.
Factors affecting Questionnaire Interview Telephonic Interview Focus Group
selection of data
collection tool
Large sample size # $ $ $

Respondents are # $ # $
geographically dispersed
Respondents require # # # $
anonymity
Flexibility required in $ # # #
exploring unanticipated
issues
Short timeframe for $ # # #
completion of data
collection
Respondents can meet $ # $ #
face-to-face
Respondents are $ $ # $
accessible by telephone
Respondents can devote $ $ $ #
sixty minutes
Respondents can devote $ # # #
thirty minutes
Respondents can devote # # # #
fifteen minutes
Respondents can be # # # $
reached by e-mail and
fax
Table 2.2: Deciding Which Data Collection Tool to Use

2.4 Basic Excel for Store
Assistants: A Case Study
In this book, a case study is used to demonstrate the application of the ADDIE model
for developing a course. The results of each step of the phases of the ADDIE model are
presented at the end of each chapter. In this chapter, the needs assessment exercise for
the course has been carried out. To read the complete case study, you can refer to the
Appendix at the end of the book.
2.4.1 Needs Assessment

Following are the deliverables of the needs assessment process:
! Needs assessment plan
! An interview form and questionnaire
! Results of the needs assessment process
! Instructional goal
Needs Assessment Plan

Table 2.3 shows the needs assessment plan.
Components of the Description
Purpose ! Identify the gap between the current and the required
knowledge and skills of the store assistants.
! Develop an understanding of the causes for these gaps and

the problems faced.
! Decide whether the need can be resolved by an instructional

design solution.
Benefits ! The causes for the gaps in performance will be identified and
appropriate solutions will be found to eliminate them.
! Bridging these gaps will improve the effectiveness of the store

assistants on the job.

Sample audience for the The sample audience for the needs assessment process will include
needs assessment all five store managers and 30 out of 45 store assistants (including
equal numbers of men and women).
A store manager heads each store. The store managers are
approximately 30 years old on an average. They have baccalaureate
or associate degrees in Commerce and eight to ten years of
experience in the field of retail management.
The store assistants support the store manager. They are normally
18 to 20 years old with basic educational qualifications and up to one
year of work experience. Each store assistant is responsible for a
specific section of the store.
Types of data to be ! Optimal knowledge and skill levels required by the store
collected for the needs assistants
assessment
! Current knowledge and skill levels of store assistants (what are
they currently able to do, what are the problems they are
facing, and what are they unable to do)
! Problems faced as a result of lack of knowledge and skills and

causes for these problems
Data collection tools to be Interviews and questionnaires will be used. Interviews will be useful in
used for needs collecting data from store managers because:
assessment ! They will provide a firsthand account of the need and problems
faced by the store managers.
! There are only five store managers.
! It will be possible to meet all of them when they come to Dallas

for the next sales planning meeting.
A questionnaire will be used to collect data from store assistants
because:
! There are 30 store assistants and they are geographically
dispersed, so it will not be possible to meet each of them
individually.
! The questionnaire can be filled out and mailed back.
Table 2.3: Needs Assessment Plan

Interview Protocol for Store Managers
Table 2.4 shows the interview protocol to be used for interviewing store managers.
No. Question
! Name, age, location, educational qualifications, and work experience.
! What is the number of store assistants working for you?
! What is their educational qualification and background?
! How long have they been working with you?
2. Roles and Responsibilities:
! What are your responsibilities?
! What are the responsibilities of the store assistants?
3. Competencies:
! What are the competencies (knowledge, skills, attitude, and behavior)
required of the store assistants?
! What are the key competencies (knowledge, skills, attitude, and behavior) that
the store assistants are lacking?
! What are the causes for this lack of skills?
4. What are the problems faced as a result of lack of these skills?

! How does the senior management feel about these problems?
! How do the store assistants feel about these problems?
5. How can these key competencies (knowledge, skills, attitude, and behavior) be
improved further?
Table 2.4: Interview Protocol for Store Managers
Questionnaire for Store Assistants

Table 2.5 shows the questionnaire for store assistants.
Questionnaire
As you are aware, we are conducting a needs assessment in the organization. The
purpose of this process is to identify our strengths and areas for further improvement
in performing our role. We request that you complete this questionnaire to help us
understand your problems and the specific skills that you would like to improve.
Thank you for your time and assistance.
1. Name: _____________Position:________________
Location :_____________________

Educational Qualifications:_________________
2. What are your key responsibilities as a store assistant?
3. Rate yourself on the following competencies on a scale of 1 to 4, where 1 = Need

improvement, 2 = Reasonable, 3 = Good, 4 = Very Good
Knowledge about company, product, and pricing _________
Knowledge about competitor products __________
Merchandising skills __________
Product display standards __________
Customer orientation __________
Complaint handling __________
Quality orientation __________
Reporting skills using Excel __________
Computer skills, Excel and Word __________
4. How long have you been using computers (approximately)? (Circle the appropriate
answer)
6 months A year A year and a half Two years Two years or more
5. What features of Excel can you currently use? (Mark all those apply)
_____ Creating database files
_____ Basic commands
_____ Using formulas
_____ Formatting and layout
_____ Basic data analysis
_____ Advanced data analysis
_____ Presentations with charts
_____ Data summary
_____ Creating hyperlinks
6. What more would you like to learn in Excel? (Mark all those apply)
_____ Creating database files
_____ Basic commands
_____ Using formulas
_____ Formatting and layout
_____ Basic data analysis
_____ Advanced data analysis
_____ Presentations with charts

_____ Data summary
_____ Creating hyperlinks
7. What medium of instruction would you prefer? (Circle the appropriate answer)
Books Classroom Tutorials Videotapes Demonstrations CBT or WBT
8. What problems do you face in implementing your role? What are the causes for
these problems?
9. What areas would you like to improve?
Table 2.5: Questionnaire for Store Assistants
Results of the Needs Assessment Process

The following are the results of the needs assessment process:
The store assistants should be able to perform the following tasks:
! Ensure that food items related to their section are stored in the goods room in a
systematic, appropriate, neat, and hygienic manner
! Ensure that the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle is maintained while taking food
items from the goods room
! Arrange food items in a neat and attractive manner according to the company’s
display standards
! Respond effectively to customer queries and complaints
! Implement promotion schemes according to company plans
! Report daily and weekly sales correctly in the Excel sheets
Current Performance
Store assistants are able to do the following:
! Arrange food items in a neat and attractive manner according to the company’s
display standards

Gap Between Required and Current Performance
Store assistants are unable to do the following:
! Ensure that the FIFO principle is maintained while taking food items from the
goods room.
! Report daily and weekly sales correctly in Excel sheets.
Prioritized Need
The inability to report the daily and weekly sales in Excel sheets correctly is judged the
most important need for the following reasons:
! A large number of store assistants are unable to use Excel correctly.
! There is pressure and commitment from the store managers to correct this problem.
! The costs incurred as a result of the problem are much larger than the cost of
implementing a solution for it.
Problems Faced
The store assistants have no formal training in Excel or knowledge about it. They create
reports with great difficulty and resent the time and effort that is required for these
reports.
As a result, the reports are often delayed and full of errors. While compiling the reports,
the store managers find inconsistencies and errors in the reports submitted by store
assistants, so they spend a lot of time checking calculations.
The store assistants know basic commands, such as opening and closing files and
entering data because they know how to use Word. However, they are not consistent
and confident in these tasks.
They face the following problems:
! They often overwrite existing data in a cell while editing it.
! They commit errors while making data entries.
! They lose data while saving files.
! They cannot switch between sheets.
! They are unable to use simple formulae; therefore, they use a calculator for simple
additions.
! They lack knowledge, skills, or previous experience in using Excel.
! They lack sufficient time and resources to practice Excel after work hours.

Recommendation
You can design and implement a training program or course in Excel to solve the
knowledge and skill gaps.
Instructional Goal
The instructional goal for the course would be as follows:
“Store assistants will be able to enter data and perform simple mathematical
calculations using Excel 2000, which, in turn will enable them to create error-free sales
reports efficiently”.
Learning will occur in the following learning domains:
! Psychomotor skills: Entering data and performing simple mathematical calculations
will require both mental and physical activity.
! Verbal information: As a result of the course, store assistants will also be able to
describe the key features of Excel.

Summary
! A need is a gap between the current performance and required performance.
! A need is significant, measurable, and correctable.
! Needs are classified into the following types:
• Normative or organizational needs
• Felt needs
• Expressed or demand needs
• Comparative needs
• Anticipated or future needs
! Needs assessment is the process of identifying gaps in performance, prioritizing
them, and deciding whether an instruction design solution can be applied to close
the gaps.
! A needs assessment exercise serves the following purposes:
• Helps define the gap between the current and required level of performance
• Identifies the causes for problems and possible solutions to close the gap
• Reduces the risk of spending time, effort, and money on the wrong solution
• Provides a strong foundation for the subsequent phases of the instructional
design process
• Determines how technological advancements, competitive markets, and
expanding industries affect current learning
! The needs assessment process can be broadly classified into the following stages:
• Stage 1: Gap assessment: It involves comparing the actual performance of
individuals with the required or optimal performance and identifying the gaps.
• Stage 2: Prioritization of needs: It involves examining needs on the basis of
their importance to the organization’s goals, realities, and constraints and
selecting those needs that must be addressed.
• Stage 3: Needs analysis: It involves analyzing the various causes of the
prioritized needs and finding solutions to them.
• Stage 4: Sharing results: It involves disseminating the problem statement and
recommendations to key members of the organization.

! An instructional goal or outcome is the overall purpose of the instructional solution.
It describes what the learner will be able to do at the end of the instruction.
! A complete instructional goal statement should:
• Identify the learners
• Describe what learners will be able to do
• Describe the context in which the skill will be applied in real life
• Describe the tools available to the learner
! Goal analysis considers elements, such as learning domains, skills, and knowledge
needed to accomplish the goals.
! The three learning domains are:
• Attitude development
• Psychomotor skills
• Verbal information
! The five most commonly used tools for data collection are:
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Observations
• Document reviews
! A questionnaire consists of a printed list of questions relevant to the purpose of the
needs assessment process. Individuals are required to respond to these questions.
! An interview is an active, two-way communication between the interviewer and an
individual or a group of individuals. It is conducted face-to-face, over the telephone,
or via e-mail.
! A focus group is an interactive process in which one person asks a group of people
a variety of questions.
! Observation of environment and informal interaction with people helps collect
background information on group dynamics, organization culture, and work
climate.

! Document review involves reviewing documents in the organization archives, such
as records on organization history, structure charts, vision, and mission policy. This
review also involves personnel and productivity records, financial reports, policy
handbooks, career development systems, quality-related information, memos, and
reports on various topics.

Assignments
1. Define the terms need and needs assessment.
2. Describe the purpose of needs assessment.
3. Draw a flowchart to represent the stages in the needs assessment process and
explain any two stages in detail.
4. Read each of the following cases carefully. State which data collection tool
you will use in each case and why.
a) Ruffles is a snack food company based in California. It has a sales team of
1,000 people in sales offices throughout the country. The organization
would like you to perform a needs assessment to identify the learning
gaps in selling skills. You are required to collect information from
approximately 100 geographically dispersed sales managers. Meeting
their monthly sales targets is of prime importance to them. They are hard
pressed for time and cannot spare more than 15 minutes.
b) Toy World is a small toys manufacturing company. Issues related to
teamwork and communication affect the performance of the company’s
supply chain team. This has become a complex and sensitive issue in the
company. The company would like you to analyze this performance
problem. The seven key members of the supply chain team are meeting at
the head office for a day. They can spend a maximum of 90 minutes with
you.
c) Digital World is an electronic goods manufacturing company. The Human
Resource (HR) Management team feels that the senior members of the
organization are not using the performance management system of the
organization effectively to develop their team members and enhance their
performance. As a result, HR would like you to perform a needs
assessment to find out how this problem can be resolved. There are five
senior managers heading various departments. It is important for you to
have the opportunity to ask them unanticipated questions, probe answers
further, and get more leads to the problem.

Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
1. Read the following scenario. Identify the gap between the current situation and the
required situation.
The teachers of a high school in a rural area have been using the traditional
whiteboard to teach students. The school has decided to upgrade its classroom
teaching aids. It has installed a computer and an LCD projector in each of its
classrooms. The computers run Microsoft XP and Netscape. The management
would like the faculty to make optimal use of this software. The faculty is
happy with the new features. The new features will help the faculty teach
students more effectively. However, they do not know how to use the computer
in class. In addition, they do not know how to operate the projector. The
teachers have been using computers for creating Word documents, sending and
receiving e-mail, and surfing the Web for new information on their subjects.
2. Write an instructional goal statement for the following case.
The Neil and Johnson Consulting Firm employs 15 personal secretaries. They
are required to design effective, high impact presentations based on the
information given to them by the senior consultants. A needs assessment
revealed that although the secretaries could create simple presentations, they
could not create high impact and high technology presentations with the use of
features such as animations, movies, and sound.
3. Read the following scenario and recommend an appropriate data collection tool.
Develop the questions or the interview protocol.
Women’s World is a small nonprofit organization in Dallas. It works towards
developing working and nonworking women in the area of health and
education. About 300 women are members of the organization in Dallas. Out of
these, 200 are working and 150 are nonworking women. The organization
contains a staff of 30 people. Of these, five are project heads and the rest are
project partners. As part of its education program for nonworking women, the
organization would like to develop a basic computer course for them. The
project head of the team, entrusted with the task of developing the computer
course, feels that the team is unsure about the course contents. As a result, he
would like you to do a detailed needs assessment for the organization.

Project
By now, you should have already selected your project. Perform a needs assessment and
set an instructional goal for the project. In addition, identify the domain in which the
learning will occur. Consider the following:
! Decide whether the project need is significant, measurable, and correctable.
! Prepare a needs assessment plan.
! Select and develop appropriate data collection tools.
! Create a schedule for data collection and adhere to it.
! Be well prepared for each data collection session, especially interviews, and share
the overall purpose and benefits of the exercise with the sample audience in order to
receive their support.
! Give enough time to the sample audience to respond to the exercise. In the case of
questionnaires, follow up at regular intervals.
! Compile the results of data collection. Identify the gaps between the current
performance and required performance and between current learning and required
learning.
! Prioritize the important needs.
! Identify the causes for the prioritized needs and check whether they can be resolved
through an instructional solution.
! Compile a report.
! Prepare an instructional goal statement. Ensure that it has four components and that
it identifies the learning domains.
You can use the formats given in the Section 2.4 Basic Excel for Store Assistants: A
Case Study to carry out the needs assessment for this project.

Learner, Task, and
Context Analysis 3
• Describe the various components of learner analysis
• Describe the purpose of learner, task, and context
analyses
• Differentiate between the three schools of learning: 3.1 Introduction
behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism
• Define the three learning styles of the VAK model:
3.2 Learner Analysis
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic
3.3 Task Analysis
• Differentiate between Kolb’s four learner styles:
diverger, assimilator, accommodator, and converger
3.4 Context Analysis
• Describe the four steps in a task analysis procedure
• State the advantages and limitations of hierarchical task 3.5 Basic Excel for
analysis Store Assistants: A
• Describe the components of a context: physical, Case Study
technical, socio-cultural, resources, and constraints
• Differentiate between the types of context:
preinstructional, instructional, and postinstructional
• Perform learner, task, and context analysis for a specific
course and learner segment

3.2 Learner, Task, and Context Analysis

3.1 Introduction
“Learning is but an adjunct to oneself.”
—William Shakespeare, Love’s Labour’s Lost
“I joined this course because I want to learn how to repair my car. I want the instructor
to understand that apart from reading about car parts, I want to repair cars and pick up
the techniques through practice.”
“Most of the students in my acting classes have acted in plays, but I am attending this
kind of course for the first time. I do not know the basics. I wish the teacher would start
with the basics first and then move on to the complex concepts. I feel so out of place in
the class!”
“I am going to Japan for a year. I wish there were short courses available on business
etiquette, and the Japanese language. The only course available is a six-month long
certificate program on the history of Japan. If only somebody would design a course
with those topics.”
Each learner has a different set of reasons for taking a course. Learners handle
information, perform tasks, and apply skills differently in the work environment.
Instructional designers need to analyze learners, tasks, and context before designing a
course. The analyses are part of the Analysis phase of the ADDIE model, as depicted in
Figure 3.1.
Needs assessment
Learner analysis
Task analysis
Context analysis
1. ANALYSIS
3. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 3.1: Analysis Phase of the ADDIE Model
Learner, Task, and Context Analysis 3.3

The first section of the chapter is Learner Analysis, which covers learner characteristics,
the motivation to learn, and the process of learning. The second section covers task
analysis, which means understanding the activities a learner must perform to achieve the
goals. The third section, Context Analysis, is about the physical, social, cultural, and
technical environment in which the learners perform after completing the course.

3.2 Learner Analysis
Instructional design has made a transition from traditional teaching methods to
learner-led and need-based training that changes learners’ behavior. Instructional
designers must make the learners responsible for their learning. To promote
responsibility and evoke interest and attention in the learners, instructional designers
need to design from the point of view of the learners. Analyzing the needs of the
learners provides critical input to the course design.
3.2.1 Introduction
Learner analysis is the process of collecting information on the characteristics or traits
that affect the learning process of the learner and using that information to form course
objectives. Instructional designers refer to learner analysis as audience analysis.
Purpose
The purpose of learner analysis is to:
! Determine the ability, competence, knowledge, and skills learners possess before
taking the course. For example, learners are able to use computers, type letters in
Microsoft Word, and send e-mail messages.
! Identify dominant learner characteristics and behavior. For example, learners may
prefer performing, listening, or seeing.
! Decide on the following instructional parameters:
• Media: Should the course be delivered through CBT, online, or in a classroom?
• Instructional strategy: What teaching environment will be most effective, such
as a Webcast about a product or a kiosk with an interactive touch screen?
• Instructional events: How to involve learners and make the course interesting,
such as through case studies, activities, exercises, games, and role-playing.
• Tone and language: Which language and style will work best for learners?
• Content depth and complexity: How detailed should the content be and what
details and concepts do learners need to know?

! Decide on the multiple methodologies to be used in the course to appeal to learners
with different characteristics and help the learners retain the skills taught in the
course more effectively.
Through his research, Benjamin Bloom (1976) concluded that learner

characteristics accounted for up to 75 percent of the variances in instructional
outcome.
Methods
Instructional designers conduct learner analysis using both informal and formal
methods. The methods are common to all three types of analysis. In addition, the
methods were explained in section 2.3, Data Collection Tools. Therefore, a quick note
on the methods is placed at the end of the chapter in Table 3.2.
3.2.2 Components of Learner Analysis

The components of learner analysis are:
! Demographics
! Specific entry competencies
! Motivation and attitude
Demographics
Demographics are the general characteristics of learners. In other words, the component
describes who the learners are. The aim of collecting demographic information is to
ensure that the course design caters to the general behavioral characteristics associated
with the learner group. For example, a group of teenagers may learn geography by
playing a car rally game, but a group of young mothers may respond better to an
interactive map. Demographics include the following information:
! Age
! Gender
! Educational qualifications
! Group segmentation, such as cultural, linguistic, knowledge, and experience factors

! Particular physical or mental disabilities
Specific Entry Competencies
Specific entry competencies are the skills and knowledge that the learners possess
before taking the course, such as the ability of the learners to use e-learning
technologies or navigating topics online. Specific entry competencies are also referred
to as the prerequisites of a course.
The prerequisites of a course are the subject areas/content that learners must know
before the course begins. For example, a course in medicine requires the learners to
study biology in school. Similarly, a course in music composition requires the students
to know the basic notes before they can compose a symphony.
Specific entry competencies include the following information:
! Current role: What do the learners do? For example, for a German language course
the instructional designer should know if the learner is a student enrolled in a degree
program, an executive posted to Germany for a short time period, or a tourist
planning a vacation in Germany.
! Experience: What is the learner’s practical work experience? Learners who do not
have formal educational qualifications learn through observation and practice while
working on a particular discipline. For example, an experienced mechanic may
know more about car parts than an engineer fresh out of college.
! Current knowledge/skills in the topic area: What particular knowledge and skills do
learners possess in the course topic? Do the learners know the basic concepts and
want to move to complex concepts or are the learners learning the foundation
principles in a topic?
! Difficulties faced in the content area: What does the learner find difficult in relation
to the content? What specific problems does the learner face?
! Computer skills: Is the learner familiar enough with computers to take a CBT or
WBT?
! Previous training: Did the learner ever taken a course on the same topic? The
learner’s expectations about the present course will be determined by the previous
training.
! Possible resistance to training: What are the possible barriers in the learner against
the training? What can be done to help the learner overcome the barriers? For
example, when personal computers were first introduced, mainframe users were
very resistant to their use.

Gathering the information answers questions such as:
! What do the learners know, and what do the learners need to learn?
! What skills will the course develop in the learners?
! How should the training be delivered to the learners, and what training aids should
be used?
! How and where will the learners apply the content that the learners are learning, and
how is the course expected to benefit the learners?
Categorize learners as novices, intermediaries, or experts depending on their entry

competencies. The course may need to accommodate the needs of all three types of
learners. In this case, it is useful to provide basic information for novices, advanced
activities for intermediaries, and reference links to experts for more information.
Motivation and Attitude

Motivation and attitude are the psychological makeup of learners. How learners will
respond to a course and learn effectively from the course will depend to a large extent
on their motivation and attitude. These psychological factors help an instructional
designer understand why learners want to take a particular course, what the learners
expect from the course, what the learners’ attitudes are toward instruction, and what
motivates the learners to learn.
Motivation and attitude include the following information:
! Need for the course: Why does the learner group need a course? What tasks can the
learners perform after taking the course? For example, a group of office executives
may be taking a course on time management to enhance their personal
effectiveness.
! Learning style: In what way do learners prefer to learn? Certain learners learn by
observing their personal role models. Others like to learn by going out and trying
things on their own. Certain other learners prefer to read about the topics in books
or listen to lectures.
! Motivation to learn: What motivates the learners to take up a course? In the
previous example of office executives, the motivation to attend a course may stem
from a sense of dissatisfaction with managing personal and professional life.
! Attitude towards instruction: What image of courses do the learners possess in their
minds and what questions, apprehensions, fears, and expectations do the learners
possess? Certain learners may take a course as an opportunity for new experiences,

other learners may be nervous about being under the control of the trainer. The
fears, anxieties, and questions can be:
• Why did my manager send me to the course? Am I not good enough?
• What if I am not able to learn the concepts?
• What if other learners know more than I do? How will I pass the tests in the
course?
• I prefer learning on the job. What will a classroom course teach me?
• Courses are boring. I never get what I want out of them.
• I know my job best. What can the trainer teach me?
• The world is changing rapidly. I hope the course provides me an insight into the
latest developments in my area of interest.
• I am worn out performing my job. I hope to enjoy being a student again.
An understanding of how learners, particularly adults, prefer to learn helps analyze the
motivation and attitude of the learners. Researchers tried to understand what inspires
learners, how the learners like to learn, and the stages in which the learners receive and
understand information. The theories provide a framework to understand learners'
motives and attitudes and are covered in detail in the next topic.
3.2.3 How Adults Learn

“Tell me and I forget. Show me and I remember. Involve me and I understand.”
—Chinese proverb
The premise of conducting an adult learner analysis is that learners differ in their need
to study a specific course, prefer different ways of learning, and expect to benefit from
the course. Instructional designers need to understand learners’ needs to effectively
communicate with them.
The definition of adults, however, is not strictly related to age. Malcolm Knowles
defined adulthood as the age when learners initiate the learning process instead of being
driven by instructors. The idea evolved through research and experimentation. The
disciplines that will help you understand the evolution and importance of the premise
and apply the premise to spot learner characteristics are:
! Schools of learning
! Malcolm Knowles’ Andragogy assumptions
! David Kolb’s Experiential learning cycle

Schools of Learning
There are three dominant schools of thought that trace the evolution of the theory of
learning. The schools are:
! Behaviorism
! Cognitivism
! Constructivism
Behaviorism
The behaviorist approach to learning assumes that human behavior is predictable and
structured. Learners are taken as a black box with no emphasis on their mental
processes during learning. The teacher provides a stimulus, periodic reinforcements, and
expects a certain response, which is a form of behavior.
Behaviorism evolved from the findings of Ivan Pavlov on stimulus and response. In a
series of experiments, Pavlov served food, a stimulus to a dog. The stimulus caused the
dog to elicit a response, which was to produce saliva. Pavlov provided a second
stimulus, the sound of a bell, along with the food. After several exercises, Pavlov
observed that the dog produced saliva, the desired response, with the sound of the bell
alone.
In adult learning, behaviorism means that providing reinforcements leads to
predetermined and structured responses, supported by frequent tests and a feedback
cycle.
For example, there is a teacher who needs to teach Microsoft PowerPoint to a group of
students. The teacher starts the class by setting the objectives of the course and detailing
what the students will know after taking the course. Furthermore, the teacher
communicates all PowerPoint concepts through informative lectures in a telling mode.
Cognitivism
Cognitive learning focuses on the mental models, schemes, or structures that exist in the
minds of learners based on their experiences. New learning is associated with the
models and is not always predictable. In other words, new learning fits into the existing
mental structures of the students.
Recall the example of the PowerPoint course described above. Think of a teacher who
asks the students what they know about Microsoft Word before beginning the course.
The teacher refers to the knowledge and connects the knowledge to PowerPoint. For
example, the teacher indicates that the procedure to open new files and close files is the
same in both PowerPoint and Word. This is an example of cognitivism.

Like behaviorism, cognitivism assumes that the teacher is in control of the training
process and treats the learner as a passive recipient of knowledge. The concept
necessitates that instructional designers know the learners, conduct learner analysis, and
develop an appropriate course.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a concept in which learners create new ideas based on their
experiences. The learners are active participants and are responsible for their learning.
The learners experience a concept, obtain perspectives/information from various
sources, construct a hypothesis in collaboration with their teachers and peers, and test
the hypothesis to finalize their learning.
Take the example of the PowerPoint course again. Think of a teacher who asks the
learners to open a file and explore the software, for example, to find the header and
footer feature or explore the tool bar. Later, the group discusses similarities between
Word and PowerPoint because the students are familiar with Word. The students list
five differences between Word and PowerPoint. In this case, the teacher takes the
learners from what the learners know, Word, to what the learners do not know,
PowerPoint. Here, the students participate more in the course than in the other two ways
of learning described earlier.
Constructivist learning demands that the content and activities are sequenced so that the
learners are free to control the pace of learning. Web sites with navigation tools and
links provide an environment for constructivism.
Which school of learning is best served by multimedia technology? The learning
approach that you use is derived from your learner analysis. You can use multimedia
technology to create simulations close to real-life situations and allow the learner to
experiment. Multimedia technology is aligned with the constructivist approach to
learning. However, multimedia courses should also provide synchronous methods, such
as chats, e-mail messages, and discussion boards, for intra-learner and learner-teacher
interaction.

Malcolm Knowles’ Andragogy Assumptions
Andragogy deals with the art and science of adult learning. Malcolm Knowles, a
pioneer in the discipline, writes about assumptions of adult learning. Knowles’s
assumptions form the foundation of methodologies to teach adults. The assumptions
are:
! Need to know: Before they begin to learn something, adults need to know why they
need to learn it. For example, adult learners taking a course on Macromedia’s
Authorware want to know why a particular command or function is required.
! Self-concept: Knowles defines adulthood as the stage when individuals perceive
themselves as self-directed and motivated, and want to be perceived by other
individuals in a similar light. The instructional designer needs to shift from a
teacher-directed learning process to one in which a facilitator treats learners as
adults responsible for their decisions.
! Role of learner’s experience: Adults use their experiences as a learning resource.
Adults prefer a discussion-based or problem-solving approach of learning to
instructions from their teacher. Task-based or activity-based courses are popular
with adult learners. For example, a course on automobile maintenance will succeed
if a vehicle or an interactive simulation is provided for practice. The assumption
points to the same facts as the constructivist school of learning explained earlier.
! Readiness to learn: Adults are often ready to learn information that helps them in
their lives instead of simply what they are expected to learn. Therefore, learning
needs to be based on real-life applications. For example, adult learners want to learn
about the prevention and symptoms of arthritis, but are less willing to learn about
the bone structure of the body.
Andragogy first appeared in the writing of a German teacher called Alexander

Kapp in 1833. Commenting on Plato’s education theory, Kapp contrasted
andragogy with pedagogy. Andr, meaning “man,” peda, meaning “child,” and
agogos, meaning “leading.”

David Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle
Imagine a filmmaking course that opens with the screening of a short film on water
conservation by a renowned director. Learners are asked to note the aspects of the film
the learners liked and the shortcomings found in the film. The learners share their views
with the group and the facilitator supplements the information with structured input on
the topic. The learners are asked to make a 15-minute movie and show the movie to the
group. The example is based on David Kolb’s experiential learning cycle.
Proposed by Kolb, a professor in organizational behavior, the experiential learning
cycle is similar to the constructivist school of learning, and Malcolm Knowles’ third
assumption of adult learning that states that learning comes from experience.
Figure 3.2 depicts the four stages of the experiential learning cycle.
Figure 3.2: Experiential Learning Cycle, Adapted from Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle
As you can see from Figure 3.2, the various stages of the learning cycle are:
! Concrete experience: The stage emphasizes feeling and living the experience, such
as using a spreadsheet, playing a multimedia game, or watching an audiovisual
presentation. In the example of the filmmaking course, learners went through a
concrete experience when the learners watched the film on water conservation.
! Reflective observation: Learners reflect back on the structured experience. Learners
express their views and discuss their feelings and observations about their

behaviors. Learners also observe other learners and collect information from them.
For example, students who watched the film on water conservation took notes on
the film and performed reflective observation on what they liked and disliked about
the film.
! Abstract conceptualization: Learners identify what is important to them. Learners
conceptualize general theories and goals for short-term experimentation. For
example, students who watched the film on water conservation and discussed the
film with a facilitator formed a mental model of the technique of filmmaking.
! Active experimentation: Learners apply their learning in real-life situations. For
example, students who watched the film on water conservation made and showed a
15-minute movie.
Kolb proposes that though all learners go through the same cycle to learn concepts, each
individual is engaged differently depending on the learning preferences. While some
learners may prefer watching a movie, the learners may be unable to participate in the
discussion. In this case, the maximum learning the learners derive is when the learners
are watching the movie. In addition to the Experiential Learning Cycle, Kolb proposed
four learning styles or preferences, which are covered in detail in the next section.
Research facts show that learners remember 10 percent of the information when a
facilitator tells the learners what task to perform. The learners remember 60 percent
of the information when the facilitator shows the learners how to perform the task.
The learners remember 90 percent of the information if the learners perform the
task.
3.2.4 Types of Learning Styles

Learners learn in different ways. Equally competent learners do not produce the same
results after undergoing the same course or training. Certain learners learn with music
on, while other learners find music distracting and prefer to study in silence. Certain
learners learn well in laboratories, while other learners like to read from books and
visualize. The learner preferences are called learning styles. However, not all learners
are aware of their styles. The learners only know that the learners like or dislike certain
ways of learning.
You can categorize and summarize learner styles on the basis of various models. The
VAK and Kolb’s models are discussed in this section.

VAK Model
The VAK model is the most commonly used model for understanding learning styles.
The model classifies learning styles into the following three types:
! Visual: These learners like to learn from slides, films, videos, exhibits,
demonstrations, photographs, charts, and graphs. For example, a snazzy
presentation on the Pyramids of Egypt to teach ancient Egyptian history may work
for these learners. Multimedia makes extensive use of the principle.
! Aural or auditory: These learners learn best by listening to audiotapes, lectures, or
CDs. For example, a CD on the solar system may be a good way to teach these
learners about the nine planets.
! Kinesthetic: These learners like to learn through role-plays, physical games, and
activities. For example, the best way to teach the structure of an atom to these
learners may be through an interactive model, a gadget that speaks and answers
queries, or that can be dismantled and assembled again.
David Kolb’s Model of Learning Styles

When do you think you learn best?
! When you are an active participant in an exercise and are able to listen and share
ideas with others?
! When you watch others performing a particular task and review theories related to
the topic?
! When you experiment and try out the concepts that you have in mind related to a
topic?
! When you directly perform new tasks, go through experiences, and learn through
trial and error?
If you learn using one of the ways listed above, you are a diverger, an assimilator, a
converger, or an accommodator. These are the four learner styles proposed by David
Kolb and are derived from the experiential learning cycle. They are described here:
! Divergers: These learners are sensitive and imaginative people who appreciate
feelings and values. While learning a particular concept, the learners want to be
personally involved in an activity and share their experiences with other learners.
These are individuals who feel and watch.
! Assimilators: These learners like structured models and observe and integrate their
observations into the existing theories and models. They enjoy traditional
classrooms where they can collect data, examine facts, and compare

alternatives to create mental models. These are individuals who watch and think.
! Convergers: Pragmatists, these learners test theories, apply common sense while
learning, are not always imaginative, and need to see how things work. They are
individuals who think and perform tasks.
! Accommodators: These learners are risk takers who believe in experimenting and
learning through trial and error. They enjoy challenges, and want a hands-on
approach to learning. Accommodators are individuals who perform tasks and feel.

Figure 3.3 shows Kolb’s learning styles.
Concrete Experience
(feeling)
Accommodator Diverger
Active Experimentation Reflective Observation

(doing) (watching)
Converger Assimilator
Abstract Conceptualization
(thinking)
Figure 3.3: Kolb’s Learning Styles
David Kolb developed a well-known instrument called the Learning Style

Inventory. The instrument is used by learners the world over to determine their
learning style and to find out how they deal with information and situations in every
day life. You can access the following site to learn more about the Learning Style
Inventory:
http://www.learningfromexperience.com
No two learners learn the same way. Learner characteristics influence their response to
instruction and possess an important implication for the design and format of a course.
Learners possess different ideas on how, where, when, and what to learn which may not
match with the ideas of the instructional designer. Therefore, instructional designers
vary their instruction style to match the style of the learner. You need to be flexible to
adapt the instruction style to the learning style of the learners.

3.3 Task Analysis
“It is not enough to just do your best or work hard. You must know what to work on.”
—W. Edwards Deming
Imagine the following scenario. An instructional designer needs to design a course on
the basics of computers for a group of office assistants. The designer may end up
covering concepts of Microsoft Windows, types of operating systems, and the three
basic parts of computers in the course. However, the office assistants will want to learn
specific tasks, such as sending e-mail messages, creating tables, and organizing files on
the computer systems and not just broad concepts. This is where the task analysis comes
into the picture.
3.3.1 Introduction
Task analysis sees the course in the light of the tasks that the learners are required to
perform after studying the course and what the learners need to know to perform the
tasks. In the absence of a detailed break up of tasks, the instructional designers may
focus only on topics to be taught during the course, which are not real-world
performances as illustrated in the previous example.
Definition
Task analysis is the process of breaking a complex task into small and simple
components. You analyze and specify what the learners need to know to enhance their
performance. Real-world tasks are often complex and you need to break down the tasks
to enable the learners to understand the tasks. For example, the task of a secretary, who
manages the schedule of a CEO, can be broken into a series of tasks, such as making
appointments, rescheduling meetings, and making travel arrangements.
Task analysis examines the activities of a learner in relation to the course, and
elaborates on knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors needed for a job. Taking the
secretary example forward, the tasks may involve making entries into a database and
modifying database entries. Therefore, to perform the tasks effectively, the secretary
will need to learn the skill of working with a database.
The task list should contain performance-based tasks and not just a list of topics. Tasks
begin with a verb, such as do, list, cut, write, and assemble. For example, a lab
assistant’s task list will contain items like “record the readings from a galvanometer”.

Purpose
The purpose of a task analysis is similar to a learner analysis. A task analysis helps
define the content, the course objectives, and determines the instructional strategy and
medium for the course. The biggest benefit of a task analysis is that the analysis ensures
that the objectives are not far from the real-world tasks.
Methods
The methods of task analysis are similar to the methods of learner analysis. The
methods include interviews with the sample audience, coworkers, and questionnaires. A
large amount of information needed in a task analysis is gathered during a learner
analysis. Refer to the methods in the section 2.3, Data Collection Tools. Table 3.2 also
contains a summary of the methods.
Task Inventory Analysis by C. G. Hesse and W. J. Nijhof, published in 1988,

provides an inventory of tasks performed by job incumbents that are designated by
importance, frequency, and job relevance.
Figure 3.4 depicts the procedures of a task analysis.
Figure 3.4: Procedures of Task Analysis

3.3.2 Components of Task Analysis
A task analysis should contain the following components:
! Tasks performed by the audience in connection with the subject/topic being taught
! Tasks broken into subtasks, if required
! Tasks that are not overt tasks, but are planning tasks or decision-making tasks
! Troubleshooting tasks or the problems faced while completing the tasks
! Key skills, behaviors, and attitudes required for completing the tasks
3.3.3 Types of Task Analysis

The types of task analysis are:
! Hierarchical
! Procedural
! Critical Incident
The next topic describes a hierarchical task analysis. Hierarchical task analysis (HTA) is
the most commonly used method. The other two types of task analysis are defined in
subsequent topics.
Hierarchical Task Analysis

HTA organizes tasks in a hierarchical structure, and yields three levels of tasks:
! The goal or end state, also called the system state, that the learner needs to achieve
! The main tasks that the learner must perform
! The operational tasks that must be performed under each main task
After the hierarchy is established, instruction moves from the bottom to top, that is, the
skills related to the lower level tasks are covered first, and the skills related to higher-
level tasks are built on top.

Figure 3.5 depicts a simple HTA.
Figure 3.5: HTA
Steps in HTA
These are the steps in HTA:
! Identify the tasks that a learner performs. The tasks include both physical or overt
tasks and mental or covert tasks, such as decisions or comparisons. Ensure the tasks
are as close to real life as possible. Consult more than one learner to be accurate.
! Identify the main tasks from the complete tasks list. Label the tasks according to the
job of the learner.
! Group the subtasks that fall under each main task. The skills and attitudes needed to
perform are interrelated. One subtask can reappear in multiple main tasks.
! Organize the main tasks into hierarchies. It is not possible to perform a higher-level
task without performing a lower-level task.
! At each level of tasks, identify what the learner needs to know to perform the task.
! Consult a subject matter expert to determine the accuracy of the hierarchy, and the
skills and knowledge needed to perform the tasks. The subject matter experts
(SMEs) provide a list of tasks and skills. The experiences, are firsthand accounts,
therefore the experiences prove to be a guide in difficult situations.
! Regroup the subtasks, if required, after a study of the input provided by the subject
matter expert.

An Example of HTA
An example of HTA is depicted in Figure 3.6. The task that the learner needs to perform
is to create a college magazine with several features:
Figure 3.6: Example of a HTA
Knowledge and Skills Needed at Different Levels of Tasks

After identifying the tasks and subtasks, list what the learner needs to know to perform
the tasks. Continuing with the example of the college magazine from Figure 3.6, the
following is a list of the skills required to create the college magazine. The list
determines the course content:
! Level One tasks: Framing the structure of the preface, identifying the sourcing
timeline, developing a strategy for attracting individuals to the contest page, and
selecting a prize for the contest page.
• Conceptual ability/ability to design
• Ability to visualize
• Ability to plan
• Knowledge of the audience preferences
• Previous experience of handling a college magazine

! Level Two tasks: Designing the layout of the preface page, obtaining articles from
the identified sources, developing the contest questions, and creating the layout for
the contest page.
• Knowledge of text design principles
• Aesthetic sense
! Level Three tasks: Developing the contents of the preface on the basis of the
structure, editing articles, and keeping the contest updated.
• Writing ability
• Knowledge of current affairs and college news
Advantages and Limitations of HTA

HTA provides a comprehensive view of the tasks and allows the instructional designer
to concentrate on higher-level tasks. You can convert each task into an instructional
objective. After the course, you can easily identify the problems faced by the learners.
The design of the course can be modified to achieve the course objectives.
However, HTA is time-consuming and requires the skill to develop the task analysis
profile. Another limitation is that learners often provide stereotype responses to the
structured questions, instead of real-world situations where the learners performed the
tasks.

HTA Checklist
Table 3.1 provides a checklist for a HTA.
Breadth of task analysis *
Is the number of tasks adequate? (0-5 main tasks)
Depth of task analysis *

Is there enough depth in the task analysis? (0-5 subtasks under each main
task)
Are all covert, planning, and decision-making tasks included in the task
analysis?
Consistency in grouping *
Does every level in the hierarchy contain similar types of tasks?
! Accuracy and validity of hierarchy *
! Is it necessary to perform a subordinate task for every

higher level of task?
Is the logical flow of tasks accurate?
! Validity and accuracy of skills *
! Are the tasks and skills valid for the job being
performed by the learner?
! Performance basis in task analysis *

! Do all the tasks listed in the analysis begin with an
action verb?
Table 3.1: Checklist for a HTA
Procedural Task Analysis

A procedural task analysis involves developing a sequential list of steps, both physical
and mental, that learners must perform to complete a task or achieve a goal. The steps
are arranged in a linear sequence, often in the form of a flowchart indicating the
beginning and end of the process. The instructional designer identifies what the learner
needs to know to perform each task and the identified needs become the focal point of
the instruction of the course.

Critical Incident Task Analysis
The critical incident method of task analysis is a problem-based technique that takes a
particular incident and identifies behaviors that contributed to the success or failure of
individuals. The useful behaviors indicate the current level of knowledge and skills that
are present in learners. Harmful behaviors will indicate the knowledge and skills that
were absent during the incident. For example, a task analysis for a course on fire safety
procedures in a manufacturing factory may take up an incident of a fire that occurred in
the factory in the past.
In conclusion, a task analysis provides a comprehensive view of the tasks performed by
a learner. An instructional designer should look at the content from a learner’s
perspective, make design decisions based on the learner’s knowledge and experience,
and what is expected of the learner after the course. A task analysis reduces the gap
between what the learner performs and what the course teaches.

3.4 Context Analysis
“The knowledge of the world is only to be acquired in the world and not in a closet.”
—G. K. Chesterton
A context analysis is also called an environmental analysis. Because the purpose of
training is to help learners apply what the learners learn and not merely increase their
knowledge about new concepts, context analysis plays an important role in instructional
design. For example, a course on navigating the World Wide Web using Microsoft
Internet Explorer can be useful only if the learners possess the same browser on their
computers. If learners possess a different browser, such as Netscape Navigator, the
learners will not be able to apply what was learned in the course.
3.4.1 Introduction
A context analysis is the process of collecting relevant information about the
environment, in which learners will be required to perform their day-to-day activities
after completing the course.
Purpose
A context analysis determines the circumstances in which the learners work and helps
develop the instruction so that learners can apply the learning in their work
environment. The learner can effectively apply the skills learned in the course if the
course is as close to real-life as possible. For example, if a learner uses Microsoft
Outlook Express and not the Yahoo! interface for sending e-mail messages, the
instructional designer should teach a course using Outlook Express.
Context analysis also determines the content of the course. For example, if the learners
are programmers who develop business applications, course examples should come
from business.
Methods
The methods used for collecting information for a context analysis include:
! Interviews with learners or experts
! Observing learners on their jobs
! Reading published reports about learners and their work settings

! Looking at photographs and other indicators of learners’ work settings
The methods are similar to the methods of the learner and task analysis. In addition, the
methods are explained in the section 2.3, Data Collection Tools. A summary of the
methods is also present at the end of the chapter in Table 3.2.
3.4.2 The Learners’ Context

The following components make up the idea of the learners’ context:
! Physical
! Technical
! Socio-cultural
! Resources
! Constraints
Physical Context
There are numerous examples that prove the importance of physical comfort in relation
to performance. For example, writers often prefer to work in quiet places. Researchers
found that the type of chairs used in offices affects the productivity of executives and
may be a reason for certain health problems. Aspects of the physical context are:
! The temperature conditions in the workplace
! Levels of noise
! Lighting and space in the workplace
! Furniture and facility to maintain correct posture
! Location of the workplace
! Health and safety standards
! Protective clothing and equipment
Technical Context
The technical environment in which the learner learns and later performs is important
for designers of multimedia courses. Technology is the preferred mode of teaching and
learning for a wide variety of topics, and makes the understanding of technical context
critical for designing courses. Aspects of the technical context are:

! Hardware and software:
• Speed and processor type: Large animation files will not run smoothly on slow
processors.
• Available memory space: Certain multimedia courses are so huge that there is
not enough memory space available for the courses on the learners’ computers.
• Operating systems: The instructional designer may need to produce different
versions of the multimedia course specific to different operating systems, such
as Windows 2000 or Linux.
• CD-ROM drives: CBTs require personal computers with CD ROM drives.
Alternatively, office computers may be networked so that, the CD drive of one
computer can be accessed by other computers.
• Audio and video devices: Audio and video devices should be of good quality.
• Screen resolution: High quality videos display best on high resolution screens.
• Internet connection: Dial-up connections are slower than cable or DSL.
• Bandwidth: Learners using machines with limited bandwidth require time to
download large graphics and animation. Instructional designers may need to use
simple graphics in their courses.
• Browser version: Certain sites can be viewed only in a particular version of
Internet browsers. If the browsers are outdated, the course may not be able to
run.
• Application software: Certain graphics may require packages, such as
Macromedia Flash, Shockwave, or Photoshop, which the learners may not have
on their computers.
! Other available equipment:
• Printers
• Photocopiers
• Scanners
• Speakers and headphones

Socio-Cultural Context
Aspects of the socio-cultural context are:
! Friends and peer groups with whom learners interact
! Norms and values of groups
Resources
Aspects of resources are:
! Instructional support:
• Space available for course classes
• Laboratories
• Course content
• Trainer skill
• Training aids
• Participant material
• Post-training support, such as libraries, reference material, and help from
subject matter experts
! Opportunities and incentives for use:
• Learner profiles
• Performance expectations after training
Constraints
Instructional designers need to know not only the resources but also the constraints on
the course. Prior planning can ensure that constraints do not diminish course
effectiveness. Constraints could be:
! Financial: Limited budgets
! Time-related: Limited availability of the learners or the instructors

3.4.3 Types of Context
There are three types of context:
! Preinstructional
! Instructional
! Postinstructional
Preinstructional Context
The context that exists before a course begins is called the preinstructional context. For
example, office workers in their daily routine work in the preinstructional context.
Preinstructional context determines learners’ motivation to learn and the mental makeup
with which the learners approach the course.
Instructional Context
The context that exists during the course is called the instructional context. For
example, the classroom environment, course schedules, and course content constitute
the instructional context.
Postinstructional Context
The context in which learners apply their skills after finishing the course is called the
postinstructional context. For example, art students who graduate and start working in a
graphic design firm discover that certain art courses pertain to the postinstructional
context better than other courses.
The postinstructional context, therefore, means the environment in which the learning
will be used. The context consists of the learners’ social relationships in the workplace,
the physical settings of the workplace, learners’ job profile, and opportunities for
practicing the skills learned in the course.

3.4.4 Data Collection Methods for Learner,
Task, and Context Analysis
Instructional designers use both formal and informal methods to gather data about
learners in the course of learner, task, and context analysis. The methods are covered in
detail in Chapter 2, Needs Assessment. Descriptions of both types of methods are found
in Table 3.2.
Formal Methods Informal Methods
Definition Structured methods of obtaining Quick and indirect methods that do not
learner, task, and context follow any particular structure for gathering
analysis information. information.
Advantages The methods provide firsthand, The methods can successfully provide
reliable, current, and detailed information when a dedicated group of
data on learners. learners is not available or the time for
gathering information is limited.
Limitations Most of the formal methods are The information obtained from the methods
time-consuming and require the may not always be reliable, current, and
availability of a well defined set complete.
of learners who can be actively
involved in the process of
gathering information.
Common Tools ! Surveys and ! Document reviews:

questionnaires • Individual profiles
! One-on-one interviews • Published data from
! Focused group technique organizational structure, process
! Interviews with people who flow, and departmental reports
are performing the same • Performance reports
job as learners ! Observation
! Interviews with close
associates of the sample
audience
! Standardized pretests
Table 3.2: Data Collection Methods for Learner, Task, and Context Analysis

Throughout this book, a case study is being used to demonstrate the application of the
ADDIE model for developing a course. The results of each step in the phases of the
ADDIE model are presented at the end of each chapter. Here the learner, task, and
context analyses for the course are carried out. To read the complete case study, you can
refer to the Appendix at the end of the book.
3.5.1 Learner Analysis

Certain information related to the learner analysis is from the questionnaire used for the
needs assessment. In addition, information was gathered from interviews with a sample
set of store assistants and store managers. The questions that are added in the interview
protocol are:
! How do you think this course can help you in your work?
! What are your expectations from this course?
! How do you normally like to learn something? Some options that you can provide
are as follows:
• By reading books
• By listening to others
• By experimenting in laboratory setups
• Through brainstorming and discussion
• Through exercises, demos, and activities
• By trying new things on your own
! What factors at your workplace facilitate your performance and what factors act as
roadblocks?

Learner Analysis
Table 3.3 presents the learner analysis for the store assistants at the Foodland Company.
Component Description
Current role Store assistants responsible for a section in the store
Course Basic Microsoft Excel for Store Assistants
Current skills Ability to use Word and e-mail. Ability to perform simple Excel
operations such as opening and closing Excel and entering data.
Problems faced ! The store assistants often overwrite existing data in a cell.
! The store assistants commit errors while making data entries.
! The store assistants lose data while saving files.
! The store assistants cannot switch between sheets.
! The store assistants are unable to use simple formulas and

often use a calculator to perform simple additions.
Current computer skills Familiar with working with the computer. Word, e-mail messages, and
basic Excel operations, such as opening and closing workbooks.
Age 18-20 years
Gender 15 women and 30 men
Qualification High school diplomas
Experience 0-1 year of experience of working in temporary jobs as sales

assistants or hostesses
Language ability Can understand English
Previous training None
Resistance to training Learners resist training because they may see the training as a
(probable) management tool to control them, and a way of expressing
dissatisfaction with their performance.
Need for the course Learners need working knowledge of Excel to create accurate and
error-free sales reports.
Motivation and attitude Learners are highly pressured in their jobs because of long working
towards training hours and rigorous goals. Learners’ motivation levels for learning a
new skill are low, because the learners see the training adding to
their work, not reducing it.
Learning style Learners will be provided classroom training but will like the course to

provide an opportunity to practice what is learned during the course.
In other words, they will prefer to get hands-on experience on the
software (refer to the Accommodator learning style in the chapter).
Table 3.3: Learner Analysis
3.5.2 Task Analysis

The responses to the needs assessment questionnaire in Chapter 2 are used to develop a
list of tasks that the store assistants perform. The tasks that are relevant to the course
need will be separated from the list.
Hierarchy of Tasks and Subtasks

Table 3.4 presents the tasks and subtasks of the store assistants to create the daily and
weekly sales reports in Excel.
Tasks Subtasks
Create a daily sales report ! Enter the value of the sales made in the day by product.
! Add the total sales per day per product.
! Add the total sales of all products.
! Find out which product has the maximum sales.
! Find out which product has the minimum sales.
Create a weekly sales report ! Add the totals by product for the week.
! Calculate the total sales for the week.
! Find out which product sold the maximum in the week.
! Find out which product sold the minimum in the week.
! Calculate average sales per day.
Table 3.4: Task Analysis

Key skills, behaviors, and attitudes required for the tasks relevant to the course need:
! A high school diploma
! Numerical ability
! Attention to detail
! Basic Microsoft Excel skills

3.5.3 Context Analysis
The information for the context analysis will come from the background reading
material provided for the case study, observations of learners in their workplace, and the
interview questions provided at the beginning of the learner analysis sample earlier in
the chapter.
Table 3.5 presents the context analysis.
Context Description
Physical context ! Comfortable air-conditioned workplace

! Job may require long hours of stand-up activities,
such as product demonstrations
! Long work hours and restricted holidays
! Work may occur in shifts.
Technical context ! Every store assistant has a Pentium 4 PC with a

minimum configuration and Office package.
! The computers in each store are networked.
Socio-cultural context ! Learners come from a low-income to a middle-

income background.
! Limited financial resources
! Learners will interact with student groups who are
serving as temporary employees in other
companies and may not possess higher- level job
responsibilities.
Constraints ! It is likely that only a few of the store assistants

possess computers at home and will be able to
practice class lessons at home.
! The class hours available to the store assistants
will be limited because the store assistants work
long hours. It will be difficult to pull them out of
their normal work schedule for fear of disrupting
the functioning of stores.
Table 3.5: Context Analysis

Summary
! Learner analysis is the process of finding out relevant information about the learners
for whom the course is being developed. The information consists of the
characteristics or traits that can affect the process in which a learner learns.
! The purpose of learner analysis is to:
• Determine the knowledge and skills the learners possess before taking the
course
• Identify dominant learner characteristics and behaviors
• Make instructional design decisions
! Instructional design decisions involve:
• Media for course delivery
• Instruction strategy
• Tools for involving participants
• Tone of the course
• Content depth and complexity
! Various components of learner analysis are:
• Demographics
• Specific entry competencies
• Motivation and attitudes
! Motivation and attitudes investigate:
• Need for the course
• Learner styles
• Motivation to learn
• Attitude towards instruction
! The art and science of helping adults to learn is called andragogy.
! The main assumptions of andragogy are:
• Adults need to know why they need to learn a particular topic.
• Adults perceive themselves as responsible for their own learning.
• Adults use their experiences as resources for learning.

• Adults are ready to learn information that they can apply in real-life situations.
! The three schools of learning are:
• Behaviorism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
! David Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle proposes that adults learn through their
experiences. The steps in the cycle are:
• Concrete experience
• Reflective observation
• Abstract conceptualization
• Active experimentation
! Learners learn in different ways called learner styles, such as the VAK learner
styles, which are:
• Visual
• Auditory
• Kinesthetic
! Kolb’s learning types are:
• Divergers
• Assimilators
• Convergers
• Accommodators
! Learner analysis can be achieved through formal and informal methods.
! The formal methods of learner analysis are:
• Surveys and questionnaires
• One-on-one interviews with learners
• Interviews with people who perform similar jobs
• Interviews with close associates of learners
• Standardized pretests

! The informal methods of learner analysis are:
• Performance reports
• Published data
• Observation
• Individual profiles
! Task analysis is the process of examining the tasks that a learner performs in
relation to the subject of the course and what the learner needs to know to perform
the tasks.
! Various components of task analysis are:
• Main tasks
• Subtasks
• Problems faced by learners while completing the tasks
• Key skills, behaviors, and attitudes required for completing the tasks
! The purpose of task analysis is to bridge the gap between the tasks that will be
performed by the learner and what is taught in the course.
! One type of task analysis is HTA, where tasks are organized into three levels:
• Overall task or the end goal
• Main tasks
• Groups of subtasks under the higher-level tasks
! The steps in the process of performing HTA are as follows:
• Make a comprehensive task list
• Identify main tasks
• Group subtasks
• Organize groups into hierarchies
• Identify skills and attitudes for every level
• Verify the tasks and skills with SME
! A context analysis is the process of collecting relevant information about the
environment in which the learners are required to perform their day-to-day activities
after completing the course.

! Various components of the learners’ context are:
• Physical context
• Technical context
• Socio-cultural context
• Resources
• Constraints
! The purpose of a context analysis is to design the instruction in such a way that the
course is as close to real-life as possible and equips the learners to apply the skills
learned in the course to real-life situations.
! Methods of context analysis include:
• Interviewing learners or experts
• Observing learners on their jobs
• Reading published reports
• Looking at indicators, such as photographs of workplace
! The types of learners’ context are:
• Preinstructional
• Instructional
• Postinstructional

Assignments
1. What information is to be collected while analyzing the technical
context of learners? Give examples to show how the information is relevant for
instructional design decisions.
2. The three schools of learning are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
Explain the difference between the three schools using examples to illustrate your
answer.
3. State the advantages and limitations of an HTA.
4. What are the components of the learners’ context? Give examples of each.
5. Differentiate between the three types of learners’ context using examples.
6. What are the three learning styles proposed by the VAK model? Of these three,
which is your learning style? Explain the style and illustrate with your learning
preferences.
7. A statement that describes a learner style from Kolb’s model is on the left and on
the right are the names of the learner styles from Kolb’s model. Match the
description with its respective name.
Sensitive and imaginative; feeling and watching ____ A. Accommodators
Watching and thinking; prefer structured models _____ B. Divergers
Doing and feeling; learning through trial and error _____ C. Assimilators
Thinking and doing; testing theories _____ D. Convergers

Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
Read the following scenario and answer the questions 1—3.
Anne is a 26-year-old fashion editor for a leading fashion magazine in New York. She
received a baccalaureate degree in English, then did a course in editing and has been in
the job for the last three years. Anne is a keen observer and a fast learner. Anne knows
that she needs to work hard to achieve her aspirations and is always ready to go that
extra mile in her work. That is probably the reason why her manager keeps loading her
with extra work, providing her with little time for studying the additional courses she
needs to pursue. Recently, she missed a French language evening course. Anne decided
that she needs training in time management. She registered for a two-day instructor-led
course in time management.
At the end of the course, Anne was not satisfied with the learning experience. The
lectures were long and monotonous and the instructor did not help her or the rest of the
class build on their existing experiences and knowledge. She could not relate to the
examples, as the context of the examples was that of a manufacturing environment.
Anne was bored because there was no practical training. Anne came back with a lot of
random thoughts, but no idea on how and where to apply them. She is still working
through late hours to finish her work.
1. What does the scenario tell you about Anne’s learner characteristics in relation to a
course on time management? Describe your response. You can use the format
presented in Table 3.3 for recording your observations.
2. What problems can arise if an adequate learner analysis is not performed before
developing a course? Explain with reference to Exercise 1.
3. What important decisions would you make for the design of the course mentioned
in Exercise 1 on the basis of information gathered through task analysis? Explain
with examples.
4. There are two groups of learners, homemakers and office assistants. The learners
need to undergo a course in basic computer skills so that they can use computers for
the common tasks that they perform in their day-to-day life. Write down the key
tasks and subtasks relevant to the course for each of the groups.

Project
Perform a learner analysis, task analysis, and context analyses for your project. Use the
templates given in section 3.5 Basic Excel for Store Assistants: A Case Study for writing
your answers. Keep in mind the following points while doing so:
! Cover all the learner characteristics that can affect the learners’ receptivity to the
course.
! Cover those activities in the task analysis that are relevant to your project.
! Cover all those components of learners’ context that are likely to affect the
real-world application of skills learned in your project.
! Check your task list with the learners or experts in the project area.

Writing Objectives
4

• Explain the purpose of objectives for learners and
instructional designers
4.1 Introduction to
• Describe the purpose of each component of an objective
Objectives
and the type of information it contains
• Identify Bloom’s levels for a set of course objectives 4.2 Applying Checks
• Identify the mismatches between course and enabling and Tools
objectives using Bloom’s levels
• Identify the common pitfalls in writing objectives 4.3 Basic Excel for
• List the steps in the process of writing objectives Store Assistants: A
• State the four guidelines for writing objectives
Case Study
• Write course and enabling objectives on the basis of the
analysis document

4.2 Writing Objectives

4.1 Introduction to Objectives
“Acting with an aim, is one with acting intelligently.”
—John Dewey, Educationist
This chapter explains the process of writing objectives that clearly define the purpose of
a course. The chapter defines objectives, describes the process of writing objectives, and
presents a set of tools and guidelines you can refer to when you write your own
objectives. Writing objectives signals the beginning of the second phase of the ADDIE
model. Figure 4.1 highlights the design phase of the ADDIE model.
Write objectives
Structure content
Select evaluation type and write test items
Select instructional approach and strategies
Design user interface
1. ANALYSIS
3. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 4.1: Design Phase of the ADDIE Model
4.1.1 Definition and Purpose

What are objectives? The statements at the beginning of the chapter, which informed
you about what you are going to study in the chapter, are called objectives. You may
have been introduced to objectives at the beginning of training programs, presentations,
or in the first few pages of project reports.
Writing Objectives 4.3

Definition
The Random House dictionary states, “Objectives are something that one’s efforts are
intended to attain or accomplish….” In instructional design, objectives assume a special
significance. In this context, an objective is a statement that describes the intended
result of an instruction. In other words, objectives describe the kind of performance that
learners should be capable of.
Objectives explicitly and precisely state the behavior and performance expected from a
learner at the end of a course. Their aim is to describe specific, measurable, and
observable behavior that communicates the intent of the instructional designer and the
goals of the course. The following are examples of measurable objectives:
! Open a new document in Microsoft Word 2000 using the keyboard shortcut.
! List the four formatting options available in Microsoft Word 2000.
! Print a document in the landscape mode by using the options in the Print dialog
box.
Purpose
Objectives provide a focus to the work of both instructional designers and students. For
learners, objectives define what they need to learn. Well-written objectives direct
students’ efforts appropriately, saving time and energy. Objectives provide the
following benefits to learners:
! Direct students on what to study
! Define the scope of learning
! Ensure efficient learning
Clear, concise, and carefully worded objectives also guide the instructional designer in
course development. Objectives provide the following benefits to instructional
designers:
! Define the scope
! Highlight key points
! Help make the course cohesive
! Provide a focus to the subsequent design steps
! Provide a basis for testing

Rober F. Mager is considered the father of instructional objectives. He published
his work on writing objectives in 1962.
4.1.2 Components of Objectives

An objective answers the following questions about what is expected of the learner:
! Do what?
! With what?
! How well?
The components of an objective provide the answers to these questions. Table 4.1 lists
the questions and the corresponding components.
Question Component
Do what? Performance
What action will the learner perform?
With what? Condition

What are the conditions in which the learner will perform?
How well? Criteria

What are the criteria to assess the performance?
Table 4.1: Components of Objectives
Performance
Performance is the behavior that the learner needs to undertake. An objective states the
action that the learner performs. Well-written objectives leave no confusion in the mind
of the reader. The performance component always starts with a verb. You achieve
clarity by using crisp and concise verbs. Objectives written with unclear verbs do not
provide a focus to the learner.
Read the following objectives to determine whether they are explicit:
! Appreciate the parts of a computer.
! List the four major components of a computer.
The first objective starts with a verb that does not convey what the learner needs to
perform. The key idea that must be conveyed is the action or the performance. Is
“appreciate” an action that a person performs or is it an internal feeling that occurs

in a person? If “appreciate” is a feeling then it may not be observable. Therefore
“appreciate” is not a valid objective. The second objective conveys the action that the
learner must perform. Can you observe the list, if the list is either written or verbal? If
you can observe the list, the objective is valid.
Verbs can be of two types, action verbs and passive verbs. For example, “write” is an
action verb that is specific. “Write” accurately describes a performance, and you can
observe the performance. Action verbs state an action clearly. Passive verbs leave
confusion or doubt. To check if a verb is passive or not passive, instructional designers
need to answer two questions:
! Does the verb represent a behavior or a process?
! Is the action observable?
Table 4.2 lists examples of action verbs and passive verbs.
Action verbs Passive verbs
Identify Understand
Solve Grasp
Construct Believe
Compare Internalize
Contrast Appreciate
Create Learn
Write Comprehend
Troubleshoot Know
Sequence Enjoy
List Use
Click Work
Table 4.2: Action Verbs and Passive Verbs
Condition
Conditions limit or specify a learner’s action. For example, can the learner use notes?
Can the learner use the keyboard option, the menu command, or the right-click menu to
perform an action? Can the learner perform the action with help or independently?

A condition can refer to the:
! Types of equipment, supplies, or job aids, such as computers, pens, manuals, or
reference materials
! Work environment, such as the laboratory, shop floor, or computer terminal
! Guidance available to help the learner in the action, such as notes checklists or
expert opinion
! Limitations imposed on the availability of guidance, such as performing an action
without referring to notes or manuals
The following are objectives with various conditions:
! Without referring to your notes, list the four major components of a computer.
! Draw a vertical line four inches long using the Microsoft Word 2000 drawing
toolbar.
The first example contains a single condition, which is the restriction on the use of
notes. The second example contains several conditions, such as the length of the line,
the drawing toolbar, and Microsoft Word 2000.
The number of conditions depends upon the context and the learner. In the context of a
test, the condition of not referring to notes is necessary, but if there is no test, the
condition need not be mentioned. Similarly, if a whole course is being written on
Microsoft Word 2000, and each objective is related to Microsoft Word 2000, Microsoft
Word 2000 need not be mentioned. However, if the learner is learning to draw lines
using different software, the mention of Microsoft Word 2000 is important.
Criteria
Criteria state the quality or standard of performance and can also be used to evaluate
performance. For example, criteria can include, “with a margin of error of 1%”, “within
2 hours”, and “at least two reasons”. Criteria should be relevant to the learner and the
context.
A criterion can be:
! Speed
! Accuracy, with a margin of error
! Number of mistakes permitted
! Level of productivity
! Degree of excellence

The following are examples of objectives that contain criteria:
! In two minutes, without referring to your notes, list at least three of the four
components of a computer.
! In one minute and with a single attempt, draw a vertical line four inches long using
the Microsoft Word 2000 drawing toolbar.
The first example has two criteria, “at least three components” and “in two minutes”.
Can you determine the two criteria in the second example?
Criteria should be relevant to the learner and the context. For example, in a corporate
context, the criteria in the two objectives above would be irrelevant, but they would be
acceptable in a school test.
4.1.3 Course Objectives and Enabling

Objectives
Objectives can be specific and detailed, or they can be generic and high-level. For
example, the following is a high-level objective:
! Given a set of software development and business conditions, select a software
development process.
The following are three low-level, specific objectives:
! Define the waterfall approach to software development.
! Define the prototyping approach to software development.
! Identify the conditions in which different software development approaches are
appropriate.
Detailed objectives that support a high-level objective are called enabling objectives or
enablers. Enablers contain prerequisite skills and knowledge, such as definitions,
concepts, or elementary skills. The broader objectives are called course objectives.
Course objectives specify the outcome of a course.

4.2 Applying Checks and Tools
Suppose you are presented with the following situation:
There is a list of objectives for a course on installing a garden hose. The objectives
cover the concept of a garden hose, the components, and technology, but there is no
objective on installing a garden hose.
Can you avoid this situation? Is there a tool or a check early in the instructional design
process that instructional designers can use to identify the mismatch? This section
provides a set of checks and tools to help you write clear, concise, and direct objectives.
The section is organized into four parts:
! Bloom’s taxonomy
! Common pitfalls in writing objectives
! A process to write objectives
! Guidelines for writing objectives
When Benjamin Bloom first created the taxonomy of objectives, the objective was
to provide a framework to create questions at appropriate levels for use in the
education curricula. Ever since, the taxonomy of objectives has been used by
instructional designers to frame objectives.
4.2.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom wrote the book The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Bloom’s thesis states that the intellectual levels in a performance can vary from novice
to expert. Another way of looking at the taxonomy is to view the taxonomy as different
levels of performance, or competence. The complexity of knowledge or skill required
increases with each level. For example, at the level of knowledge, simple facts or basic
concepts are required, while at the highest level, the ability to evaluate or judge is
required. This section covers all the levels in detail and suggests ways of using the
taxonomy to avoid the situation described at the beginning of the section.
How are Bloom’s levels used in instructional design? Bloom’s levels are assigned to
objectives, and that enables instructional designers to check whether their course will
meet the needs of a learner. The following paragraphs describe each level. Later, an

example illustrates the use of Bloom’s level to check the appropriateness of the
objectives for a learner.
The six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy from the lowest to the highest are:
! Knowledge
! Comprehension
! Application
! Analysis
! Synthesis
! Evaluation
The levels are cumulative. A higher level presupposes proficiency at lower levels. For
example, an objective at the application level presupposes knowledge and
comprehension.
Level 1: Knowledge
Objectives written at the knowledge level require learners to recall or recognize
information. Table 4.3 lists the types of content for which you can frame objectives at
the knowledge level. Table 4.3 also provides examples of the objectives and verbs that
you can use for the objectives at the knowledge level.
Type of content Examples Examples of verbs
! Facts or information, ! Recall the processing List, define, tell, describe,

such as dates, places, speed of a Pentium 4 show, label, collect, examine,
numerical or statistical processor. tabulate, quote, name,
information
! List the two types of air- memorize, organize, arrange,
! Categories or types conditioning systems. relate, recall, repeat,
! Match the components reproduce, state, order,
of a car with their duplicate
respective functions.
! Arrange the prime

numbers from 1 to 21 in
descending order.
Table 4.3: Knowledge Level

Verbs such as arrange appear in more than one Bloom’s level and vary according to the
learner context and conditions. The following are two examples:
! Arrange the tools in a sequence starting with the highest selling tool and ending
with the lowest selling tool.
! Arrange the tools in a sequence that starts with the least useful tool and ends with
the most useful tool.
! The first example occurs at the knowledge level because the knowledge level
involves viewing the sales data and sequencing the tools. The second example
occurs at the evaluation level because the action requires expertise.
Level 2: Comprehension
! Objectives at the comprehension level require learners to understand or grasp
concepts. In addition, learners need to restate what they have learned in their words,
translate knowledge into a new context, or interpret facts.
! Table 4.4 lists the types of content, examples, and verbs suitable for the
comprehension level.
! Concepts such as ! Summarize the three Summarize, describe,

definitions, features, and key messages of the interpret, contrast, predict,
functions lecture in one associate, distinguish,
paragraph.
! Differences estimate, differentiate, discuss,
! Differentiate between extend, classify, describe,
! Reasons glasses and contact explain, identify, indicate,
lenses in terms of their
locate, report, restate, review,
benefits and prices.
select, sort, translate
Table 4.4: Comprehension Level

Level 3: Application
Objectives at the application level require learners to apply the skills and knowledge of
the previous two levels to new situations. For example, at the knowledge level, a learner
may list the steps in a procedure, and at the comprehension level, the learner may
provide reasons for the need for each step. At the application level, the learner should be
able to use the procedure in a new context. Table 4.5 lists the types of content,
examples, and verbs suitable for the application level.
! Solving mathematical ! Calculate the sum of all Apply, demonstrate, calculate,

problems prime numbers from 1 to complete, illustrate, show,
100 using the SUM
! Procedures for function in Excel.
solve, examine, modify, relate,
performing an action change, classify, experiment,
! Insert a clip art picture discover, choose, dramatize,
! Use of guidelines and into a PowerPoint
rules employ, interpret, operate,
presentation using the
practice, schedule, sketch,
appropriate drop-down
menu. solve, use, write
Table 4.5: Application Level
Level 4: Analysis
Objectives at the analysis level require learners to break information into parts and
relate one part to another.
Table 4.6 lists the types of content, examples, and verbs suitable for the analysis level.
! Cause and effect ! Examine the reasons for Analyze, appraise, calculate,
the growth of Internet categorize, compare, contrast,
! Inferring or reaching a technology in the 90’s.
conclusion criticize, differentiate,
! Differentiate between discriminate, distinguish,
! Looking for evidence various methods examine, experiment,
and instances available in PowerPoint question, test
to insert Clipart, and
state which should be
used when.
Table 4.6: Analysis Level

Level 5: Synthesis
Objectives at the synthesis level enable learners to integrate knowledge from different
sources. For example, a synthesis objective may require learners to identify different
technologies that improve the work of office assistants. Writing a book, managing a
project, and designing an interface are examples. All three deal with multiple variables
and require original thinking. Table 4.7 lists the types of content, examples, and verbs
suitable for the synthesis level.
! Creating original work ! Create a model of an Arrange, assemble, collect,

airplane using the tool- compose, construct, create,
! Making predictions kit and manual in two design, develop, formulate,
! Solving problems that hours.
manage, organize, plan,
require creative thinking ! Write a three-page prepare, propose, set up, write
and allow multiple proposal for creating a
answers new video game using
! Forming guidelines and the given template and
rules guidelines in two days.
Table 4.7: Synthesis Level
Level 6: Evaluation
Objectives at the evaluation level require learners to judge a work based on their
knowledge, standards, or opinion, or on an expert’s opinion. For example, an evaluation
objective may require learners to evaluate an article about a particular subject for
relevance, correctness, or validity, whereas writing an article would be a synthesis
objective.

Table 4.8 lists the types of content, examples, and verbs suitable for the evaluation
level.
! Using all types of ! Review the project Appraise, argue, assess,

content at the same time report prepared by the attach, choose, compare,
participants for
! Recommending one of accuracy, clarity, and
critique, defend, estimate,
many solutions judge, predict, rate, select,
content.
support, value, evaluate, train,
! Selecting options ! Rate the following review
! Involving the use of sessions on a scale of 1
personal standards, to 5, where 1 is the
values, ideas, or highest score and 5 is
opinions the lowest score, using
the guidelines contained
in the Annexure.
! Train managers on the

Six Hats brainstorming
technique in a
classroom environment
in one day’s training
session.
Table 4.8: Evaluation Level
Checking Objectives Using Bloom’s Levels

Instructional designers assign Bloom’s levels to course objectives to verify the validity
of their work. Tables 4.9 and 4.10 show the examples presented earlier for the course
objectives and the enablers with the Bloom’s levels assigned.
Course Objectives Bloom’s Level
Given a set of software development and business conditions, 6-Evaluation

select a software development process.
Table 4.9: Example of a Course Objective

Enablers Bloom’s Level
Define the waterfall approach to software development. 2-Comprehension
Define the prototyping approach to software development. 2-Comprehension
Identify the conditions in which the different software development 2-Comprehension

approaches will be appropriate.
Table 4.10: Examples of Enablers
Note the mismatch in the Bloom’s level of the course objectives and the enablers. For
level 6 course objectives, enablers will have to be at level 2. For other objectives,
high-level objectives are required. By identifying the mismatch early in the design
process you can save a lot of extra work later.
4.2.2 Avoiding Common Pitfalls

“Knowing about objectives is essential, but it is not enough…. What is required is a
‘new think.’ This involves putting objectives into perspective, and then handling them in
a sensitive and creative manner. They should be viewed as a resource for teaching and
learning, rather than as a set of blinkers or restrainers.”
—Ivor K. Davies, Objectives in Curriculum Design
Objectives should enhance the learning experience, not limit it. Instructional designers
should be aware of the following common pitfalls:
! Writing objectives in isolation
! Writing objectives without referring to the analysis document
! Writing enablers that fail to relate to the course objective
! Writing content-driven objectives
Writing Objectives in Isolation

You must relate objectives to the work environment and tasks of a learner. For example,
a course aimed at increasing the productivity of office workers may focus on enhancing
their programming skills. However, if the office workers actually spend most of their
working hours answering e-mail messages or telephone calls, course objectives related
to programming would not be appropriate.

Writing Objectives Without Referring to the Analysis Document
Refer to the analysis document when writing objectives so that you can consider the
information collected about the problems faced by a learner, causes for the problems,
and the learner’s profile instead of depending upon assumptions or intuition.
Writing Enablers that Fail to Relate to the Course Objective

A frequent problem with objectives is that the enablers fail to relate to the course
objective. Consider the following course objective:
! Given a set of software development and business objectives, create a project plan.
Consider the following list of enabling objectives:
! Describe the five steps in scheduling a project.
! Break down the work into individual activities.
! State the guidelines for entering the activities’ duration.
! Define dependencies and list the four types of dependencies.
! State the guidelines for setting up dependencies.
! State the guidelines for assigning resources.
The enabling objectives fail to relate to the course objective. The enabling objectives
cover the prerequisite knowledge required for meeting the course objective. However,
the course objective is at the synthesis level, Bloom’s Level 5, and none of the enabling
objectives is at the same level as the course objective.
Writing Content-Driven Objectives

A learner’s need, context, and tasks should drive the objectives. Writing objectives that
work backwards to fit the available content is another pitfall. The risk is that the end
result may be detailed and accurate, but may not meet the learner’s need. For example,
the objectives may cover all the methods of creating a file, but may not prescribe the
method appropriate to the learner’s requirements.

4.2.3 Guidelines for Writing Objectives
You need to consider the following guidelines while writing objectives:
! Use action verbs, not passive verbs.
! Use a suitable number of conditions.
! List the appropriate criteria.
! Exclude information related to the process of instruction.
! Use enough detail to communicate your intent.
! Ensure that your objective is measurable.
! Write relevant objectives.
! Consult a subject matter expert (SME).
! Check that the Bloom’s level is appropriate to the learner’s need.
! Ensure that the enablers relate to the course objective.
You can use these guidelines as a checklist for writing correct and relevant objectives.

4.2.4 Process of Writing Objectives
Figure 4.2 shows a flowchart that serves as a useful tool to write objectives.
Figure 4.2: Process of Writing Objectives

In the book, a case study is used to demonstrate the application of the ADDIE model for
developing a course. The results of each step in the phases of the ADDIE model are
presented at the end of each chapter. Here the objectives of the course are derived. To
read the complete case study, you can refer to the Appendix at the end of the book.
Table 4.11 depicts the objectives of the course.
Course Objectives Enabling Objectives Bloom’s Level
Describe worksheets, ! Describe the functions of 2

workbooks, and the spreadsheets, worksheets, and
components of spreadsheets workbooks.
and the Excel workspace. ! Define spreadsheet rows, columns,
cells, labels, and values.
! Identify the Excel title bar, menu bar,

standard toolbar, formatting toolbar,
formula bar, task pane, and status
bar.
Navigate a workbook using the ! Open a workbook using the File 3

File menu and other options, menu.
such as keys and scroll bars. ! Close and update a workbook using
the File menu in the same folder and
in a new folder.
! Navigate a worksheet using the

following techniques:
• Cell selection
• Arrow keys
• Enter, Shift, and Tab
• Ctrl+ Home keys
• Scroll bar
Enter and edit labels and ! Define a label and list the features of 3
values. the label.
! Define a value and list the features of

the value.
! Enter a label and values using the

Enter button on the Formula bar.

! Edit a label and values using the
Backspace or Delete key and the
Formula bar.
Enter and edit formulas. ! Define a formula. 3
! Define functions.
! List the types of operators.
! Enter a formula by typing it into a

cell.
! Define cell references.
! Enter the formula that contains cell

references.
Move and copy data within a ! State the function of the clipboard. 3
worksheet and from one
! Differentiate between moving and
worksheet to another. copying.
! Move data from one cell to another

using the Cut and Paste commands
on the File menu.
! Move a part of the data in a cell to

another cell using the Cut and Paste
buttons on the Standard toolbar.
! Copy data using the Copy button on

the Edit menu.
! Insert a range of cells in a worksheet

using the File menu.
! Insert a row above a selected row

using the Insert option on the File
menu.
! Delete a row using the Delete option

on the File menu.
Calculate sums, averages, ! Define a function and state its 3

min, max and count value structure.
given a range of values with ! Define a range reference.
relevant functions by typing.
! Enter a SUM function into a cell.
! State the structure of a range

reference.
! Define the AUTOSUM function.
! Differentiate between the AUTOSUM

and SUM functions.

! Add a range of cells using the
AUTOSUM function.
! State the advantages of the

AUTOSUM functions.
! List four important functions other

than SUM in Excel.
! Calculate the average of a range of

values using the AVERAGE function.
! Identify the minimum of a range of

values using the MINIMUM function.
! Identify the maximum of a range of

values using the MAXIMUM function.
Table 4.11: Objectives of the Basic Excel Course for Store Assistants
The Bloom’s level assigned in the third column of the table is for the course
objectives.

Summary
! Writing objectives is the first step in the Design phase. The output from the
Analysis phase serves as input for the Design phase.
! An objective describes the intended result of any instruction and states exactly what
a learner will be able to do after the instruction.
! Objectives help learners direct and focus their learning efforts.
! Objectives help instructional designers plan instruction, scope content, and ensure
that objectives are measurable.
! An objective has three components:
• Performance
• Condition
• Criterion
! The performance component states an action that a learner must undertake.
! The performance component begins with an action verb. Action verbs represent
observable behavior.
! The condition component refers to the set of circumstances or the environment in
which a learner performs the action.
! The criteria component refers to the standards on which the performance is judged.
! Course objectives are broad and high-level objectives that encompass a range of
low-level objectives.
! Enablers are low-level objectives specific to the knowledge or skills necessary to
meet the course objectives.
! Bloom’s Taxonomy is a range of intellectual levels of increasing complexity.
! The six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy are:
• Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation

! Bloom’s levels are cumulative. Higher-level objectives assume proficiency in the
lower levels.
! Bloom’s levels identify mismatches between the objectives and a learner’s need,
and between course objectives and enablers.

Assignments
1. Describe each component of an objective in terms of the component’s purpose and
the type of information the component contains.
2. Objectives are critical for the development of learning material. Explain why
objectives are important for both learners and instructional designers. Provide two
reasons for each.
3. Writing objectives in isolation from real world tasks, writing objectives without
referring to the analysis, treating objectives as sacred, and writing enablers that do
not relate to the course objective are pitfalls in writing objectives. Discuss the
impact of these pitfalls, and the guidelines instructional designers should follow to
avoid them.
4. From the following list of objectives, identify which are valid and which are
invalid. In addition, state the reason for your decision. For the invalid objectives,
write corresponding correct objectives.
• Understand your time management related profile and pitfalls.
• Study different encoding schemes.
• Describe electromagnetic waves.
• Learn to send data to MySQL database using PERL scripts.

Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
1. From the following list of objectives, identify which objectives are valid and
which objectives are invalid. State the reason for your decision.
• Learn about the need for using seat belts while driving.
• Locate ten sites on graphic design in two hours using the Yahoo! search
engine.
• Make the Yahoo! page your home page.
• List the principles of animation.
• Understand how to use mobile phones.
2. Assign Bloom’s levels to the following set of course objectives and enablers, and
review their validity.
Course Objectives Bloom’s Level
Describe the options for creating, formatting, and modifying tables

in Word.
Enablers Bloom’s Level
List two methods of creating tables in Word.
Create a table using the Insert Table option on the Table menu.
List the methods available for inserting and deleting rows.
Insert and delete rows in a table using the Insert Rows option.
List four formatting options for tables.
Format the header and table text using the Table Autoformat
option in Word.
3. Read the following needs, learner, and task analysis for a group of sales assistants
working in the sales department of a beverage manufacturer. Write the objectives
for a course to be designed to cater to the needs of the sales assistants.

Needs analysis
Sales assistants need to learn how to make presentations to customers.
Learner analysis
Current role Sales assistants who sell beverages to

institutional and corporate buyers.
Course Making Effective Presentations
Current skills Currently do not have adequate presentation

skills. Sales assistants who are good speakers
find it easier to make presentations, but on the
whole making effective presentations is not a
current skill. However, the sales assistants have
good communication, English language, and
selling skills.
Problems faced ! Inability to respond effectively to audience

questions that are uncomfortable and
unexpected during presentations.
! Inability to attract and hold audience

interest.
! Lack of time to prepare for presentations.
! Difficulty operating an LCD.
Current Computer skills Basic skills, such as sending e-mail messages,

creating Word documents, using PowerPoint.
Age 18-20 years.
Gender 15 women and 30 men.
Qualification High school diplomas.
Experience 0-1 year of experience of working in temporary

jobs as sales assistants or hostesses.
Language ability Fluent in speaking and writing English.
Previous training received None
Resistance to training (probable) Learners are likely to resist training because

they may view the training as a method the
management is using to control them, and as a

way of expressing dissatisfaction with their
performance.
Need for the course The course will help them make better
Lab Exercises
presentations to customers.
Motivation to learn and attitude towards The learners are highly pressured in their job
instruction because of long working hours and rigorous
goals. Learners’ motivation levels are quite low
for learning a new skill, as they see the training
adding to their work, not reducing it.
Learning style The learners will be provided classroom training

but would like the course to give them an
opportunity to practice what they learn. In other
words, the learners would prefer to get hands-on
experience.
Task Analysis
• Make impromptu presentations during sales calls.
• Answer questions related to products and competition.
• Make formal sales presentations for business development.
• Create presentations in PowerPoint.
• Operate an LCD projector at formal presentations.

Project
Assume that you have completed the analysis phase of your project. Using the data you
have gathered, write objectives for your project. Follow these guidelines:
1. Follow the process flowchart in the chapter to write objectives.
2. After writing the objectives, review the chapter with the help of the guidelines
provided.
3. Remember that writing objectives is an iterative process and you can revisit your
objectives.
4. Ask another individual to review your objectives to ensure that the objectives
communicate what you had in mind. If necessary, make changes.

Structuring Content
5
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to: 5.1 Introduction to
• Identify the need for structuring content Structuring
• Describe guidelines for each of the structuring principles
5.2 Creating a
• Differentiate between various categories of content: fact,
Structure
concept, procedure, process, and principle
• Differentiate between the different types of structures: 5.3 Basic Excel for
task-centered, topic-centered, and problem-centered
Store Assistants: A
• Describe each step in the process of structuring content Case Study
• Create a course map on the basis of an analysis
document and objectives

5.2 Structuring Content

5.1 Introduction to Structuring
Look at Table 5.1. Take 30 seconds, and then try to rewrite the items in the same
order.
Canberra Apple Camel
Japan Goat Pineapple
Banana Kenya Tanzania
Horse Mango Cat
Tiger Egypt Strawberry
Table 5.1: Unordered Items
How successful were you? Look at Table 5.2 for 30 seconds, cover it, and rewrite the
items.
Place Fruits Animals
Canberra Apple Camel
Egypt Banana Cat
Japan Mango Goat
Kenya Pineapple Horse
Tanzania Strawberry Tiger
Table 5.2: Ordered Items
Which of the two tables is easier to recall? Although both tables contain the same
number of words, the second table is easier to recall because the content is classified
into categories and the words are arranged alphabetically. In other words, the second
table is more structured than the first table. The exercise brings into focus the need for
structuring content in designing courses.
Structuring Content 5.3

This chapter is about structuring content, which is a part of the Design phase. You
structure content after the objectives are written. Figure 5.1 highlights the Design
phase in the ADDIE model.
Write objectives
Structure content
1. ANALYSIS
3. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 5.1: Design Phase of the ADDIE Model

A structure is a set of interconnecting parts of a complex item that forms a framework
for the whole. In a course, by showing the structural organization and pointing out the
relationships between the various parts, you can provide better communication and
delivery of content.
To structure content for a course you need to organize the content in a way that
connects the different parts of a course to form a course map. A course map is similar
to a table of contents at the beginning of a book. Instead of chapters, though, the
course map organizes the parts of the course, such as topics, sections, or modules.

Figure 5.2 shows a sample course map.
GETTING STARTED WITH PROJECT MANAGEMENT
! Preparing for a Project
Making Key Decisions
• Selecting an Approach to Software Development
• Selecting a Metrics Approach
• Selecting a Project Scheduling Tool
• Forming a Team
Planning for Risks
• Identifying Risks
• Making a Risk Mitigation Plan
• Guidelines for Risk Management
! Planning the Project
Scheduling the Project
• Creating a GANTT Chart
• Guidelines for Scheduling
Working with People
• Enabling Teamwork
• Facilitating Effective Meetings
! Controlling the Project
Tracking the Schedule
• Reviewing Status
• Identifying Critical Problem Areas
• Making a Recovery Plan
Tracking Costs
• Identifying Cost Overruns
Figure 5.2: Sample Course Map

For sample course maps, view a demo at the following Web sites:
! http://www.netg.com/DemosAndDownloads/
! http://www.skillsoft.com/Demos
You may have to register with the sites to use the demos.
Purpose
The purpose of structuring content is different for learners and instructional designers.
Structuring has two key purposes for a learner, enabling learning and enabling access.
Structuring enables learning because structured information helps you learn quickly
and remember the information efficiently. The exercise at the beginning of the chapter
was a demonstration. You must have had similar experiences while learning from
books, or surfing the Internet, or perhaps in a training program.
Structuring also enables access. You can easily scan and access well-structured
information rather than buried information. The physical form of access is the course
map, which provides you the framework for gaining access.
Structuring provides a framework to an instructional designer for developing a course.
In addition, structuring enables the designer to ensure that all the learning objectives
are covered and that the course is organized.
5.1.2 Principles of Structuring

The principles that guide the structuring of content are:
! Chunking
! Relevance
! Labeling
! Modularity
! Sequencing
! Layering
! Hierarchy

Chunking
! Chunking is the most important of all the principles. To understand this principle,
you must first understand the concept of a chunk. Chunks are blocks of
information built around a key message. Examples of chunks that can be made for
a course called “Getting Started with Computers” are:
! How to switch on a computer.
! How to open an application.
! How to send an e-mail message.
Learners learn better when information presented to them is broken up into pieces that
are easy to assimilate. For example, it is easier to remember a number such as
542768901 if it is broken into smaller units, such as 542, 768, and 901. Therefore, it is
a good practice to break up the course content into small blocks or chunks.
Why is it easier to remember small blocks of information? Individuals have a working
memory with a limited capacity for retaining information. When the working memory
is full, overload results, and learning stops. Think of the last time you were reading a
textbook and you had to shut it because you felt an overload. The working memory of
a learner depends on the learner’s background and knowledge. Not surprisingly, chess
masters can store a phenomenal amount of information about moves.

Table 5.3 describes the guidelines for chunking.
Guideline Description
Consider learner experience. Learners’ capacity to absorb information differs

based on experience level. Form chunks
according to the experience of the learner—
small chunks for novices and larger chunks for
experts, because the capacity of a novice to
absorb information is much less than that of an
expert.
Consider content complexity. The simpler the content, the bigger the chunk
can be. Form smaller chunks for complex
information.
Focus on the key message. A chunk should contain information related to

the key message and no extraneous
information. If the chunk contains irrelevant
information, the chunk loses focus, and the key
message is diluted. For example, in the chunk
“How to switch on a computer,” information
related to the parts of the computer will dilute
the key message. If the learner needs
information related to the parts, the information
should go into a different chunk.
Refrain from dumping content. When chunking, avoid dumping all available
content. What should be covered is as important
as what should not be covered. Information
without value will confuse and irritate the
learner.
Table 5.3: Guidelines for Chunking
Relevance
The principle of relevance is related to chunking. Instructional designers should
provide only useful and relevant information in the chunks. While forming chunks,
keep in mind that they should address the question “What’s in it for me?” (popularly
called WIIFM), from the point of view of the learner.
Table 5.4 lists relevant examples and irrelevant examples of chunks for a course called
“Getting Started with Computers.” Look at the irrelevant examples. A learner who has
registered for the course “Getting Started with Computers” will not find “History” or
“Parts of a Computer” relevant. The learner will be eager to acquire hands-on
experience on the computer.

Relevant Examples Irrelevant Examples
How to turn on a computer History of computers
How to open an application Parts of a computer
How to send e-mail messages The input-output process
Table 5.4: Relevant Examples and Irrelevant Examples of Relevant Chunks
A word of caution about the irrelevant examples in Table 5.4. If the course is
about the “Theory and Evolution of Computers,” for learners with a theoretical
interest in computers, the irrelevant example chunks will become relevant.
The purpose of creating relevant chunks is to provide information to the learners so

that the learners can enhance their skills and knowledge levels.
Table 5.5 lists guidelines for creating relevant chunks.
Guideline Description
Consider real-life application. When assessing the relevance of a chunk,

decide whether or not the learner will apply the
knowledge or skill delivered by that chunk in real
life. In addition, decide whether the content is
based on hypothetical situations or real
situations.
Consider the problems faced by the learner. The learner requires help and advice on solving
problems faced in a specific area.
Consider the tasks performed by the learner. Map the chunks to correspond to the tasks
performed by the learner. A course on
implementing a burglary alert system should not
contain chunks about the features and functions
of the system.
Table 5.5: Guidelines for Relevance

Labeling
Labeling is providing an appropriate name or title to a chunk. For example, the title of
the block of information that you are reading is “Labeling,” the subsequent block is
called “Modularity,” and the previous one was called “Relevance.” The titles of topics
or sections are also labels.
The purpose of labeling is to orient the learner, make information visible, and provide
transitions.
Labels orient the learner to what is coming by leading the learner to the content, and
aiding in comprehension and retention of the content. Imagine pages with continuous
text without headings. When you see a paragraph labeled “Components of a
Computer,” you are oriented to what is coming. When you see another paragraph
labeled “Monitor,” you are reoriented and prepared for the shift in content.
Labeling also makes information visible, which contributes to accessing and retrieving
information more easily. When you go back through a text, simply reading the
headings will trigger your memory, and you may not need to read the entire text again.
Furthermore, if you are looking for specific information, scanning the titles will help
you in obtaining the information quickly.
Labels also provide natural transition from one chunk to another without the need for
transitional sentences. For example, if a topic is labeled “Benefits of QC Tools,” the
topic does not need to begin with sentences saying that the topic is about the benefits
of QC tools.

Table 5.6 describes guidelines for labeling.
Guidelines Description
Represent the complete idea. Labels should represent the complete idea in
the chunk and not a part of the idea. For
example, if a chunk contains information on
advantages and limitations, the label should not
be Advantages; it should be Advantages and
Limitations.
Be brief. Labels should be brief. Do not use complete

sentences or long phrases. A non-example is
“There Are Five Advantages to Using QC
Tools.”
Use nouns or gerund forms. Labels should be in the form of nouns, “The
Project Plan,” or gerunds, “Creating a Project
Plan.”
Use unambiguous language. Labels should be easy for learners to access

and understand. An ambiguous label used for
well-written content can mislead the learner. For
example, if a chunk contains a sample water
treatment process, a label called ”Purpose of
Water Treatment” is misleading.
Make sure labels are parallel. Labels should be parallel to one another in form
and expression. For example, if one label is
based on a task, “Creating a Project Plan,” the
rest of the labels should also indicate tasks,
such as “Updating the Project Plan” and
“Tracking the Project Plan.”
Address “What’s in it for me?” (WIIFM). Labels should address the WIIFM question that
all learners ask. Labels that address the WIIFM
question can motivate learners to read the
content. Examples are “Guidelines for
Scheduling” and “Identifying Barriers to Team
Communication.”
Table 5.6: Guidelines for Labeling

Modularity
Another principle that is becoming popular in the structuring of content is modularity.
Modularity means that content should be structured into separate chunks capable of
standing alone. A module should be self-sufficient and complete. Each modular chunk
is a standardized part or independent unit, and several chunks can be combined to
create a whole course.
The purpose of modularity is to allow learners to select the content they want to go
through and the sequence in which to go through the content. For example, if the
learner is a system administrator taking a course on adding users to a database, the
learner should be able to directly access content about adding users instead of going
through the entire content, which may include tasks such as installing and setting up
software.
Another purpose of modularity is to enable reusability of content. It is possible to reuse
chunks from one course in another course. For example, a “Basics of Networking”
chunk can be used in courses on System Administration, Networking, Basics of
Computers, and Communications. Another example would be the use of a “Visual
Design” chunk in courses such as Web Design, Multimedia, Animation, and
CorelDraw.
Table 5.7 describes guidelines for modularity.
Check for compatibility of When reusing a topic or section from one course to another,
technology and interface. check whether the courses are technically compatible. In
addition, check whether the interfaces are the same.
Avoid cross-referencing. Avoid the use of cross-references such as “In the previous
section, you learned about…” or “In Chapter 2, you learned
about the task; now you’ll learn about the guidelines…”
Cross-referencing requires that the learner be presented with
both the sections, which defeats the purpose of modularity.
Build the connections. A superficial view of modularity may imply that there should
be no connections built between different content chunks.
However, what should be avoided is cross-referencing and
not linking the chunks. For example, if one chunk is about
Scheduling Problems and another chunk is about Creating a
Project Schedule, the connections between the two chunks
should be highlighted.
Table 5.7: Guidelines for Modularity

Sequencing
A sequence is a set of components belonging next to one another on a principle of
order or as a series without gaps. Instructional designers should not only create
relevant, modular, and well-labeled chunks, but should also sequence the chunks
appropriately.
The purpose of sequencing is to use an order that enhances the learning experience. An
incorrect sequence can have a negative impact on the learning experience. For
example, if there are two chunks labeled “Installing a Server” and “Prerequisites for
Installation,” the chunk treating prerequisites should come before the installation
chunk. The purpose of appropriate sequencing is obvious for chunks about procedures
and tasks, but sequencing is equally important for conceptual information.
Table 5.8 shows guidelines for sequencing content.
Sequence tasks or procedures in the order in Sequencing of tasks and procedures in the
which they are performed. order in which they are performed is an obvious
and natural way of sequencing procedures.
Place simple concepts or simple procedures For sequencing complex concepts, start from
before the complex ones. the simplest and progress to the most complex,
introducing prerequisite concepts first.
Progress from known to unknown. Start with the concepts or skills that the learner
knows and build on the familiar to help the
learner make connections with the existing
knowledge.
Check whether the most obvious sequence is The sequence for performing a procedure is not
the best. always the best sequence for teaching.
Installing software can be one of the most
complex tasks, so it is a good idea to cover
installation after the learner has gained
familiarity with the software.
Allow learners to skip parts of the sequence. When implementing a sequence in a course,
provide appropriate flexibility to the learner. For
example, if a learner knows some parts of a
sequence, allow the learner to move to the parts
that are new.
Table 5.8: Guidelines for Sequencing

Layering
Layering involves organizing chunks into several levels or tiers of content on the basis
of depth or complexity. The first layer has the essential information or information that
will be of immediate use to the learners. The deeper layers contain information that
may be needed by a smaller percentage of the learners or information that provides the
complex concepts without immediate relevance for the learner.
Layering chunks enables each learner to find the appropriate path instead of forcing
learners to go through the entire content. Layering is useful for providing increasing
levels of detail to diverse audiences. For example, consider a course on training
employees of a hotel kitchen in the different methods of making coffee. Most
employees will need to know only about instant coffee methods, while the specialist in
the kitchen will need to learn about preparing all the 30 types of coffee served in the
coffee shop. The top layer, therefore, can contain the instant coffee methods and the
deeper layers can contain the specialist methods.
Table 5.9 shows guidelines for layering chunks.
Place the critical content in the first layer. In the first layers, place the critical ideas, that is,
the main body of knowledge that will be useful
to the learners.
Place the additional information in the deeper In the deeper layers, place the less frequently
layers. used concepts, additional or alternate methods,
common reference documents, and links to
standards, specifications, and external reports.
Table 5.9: Guidelines for Layering
Hierarchy
This principle deals with the final organization and presentation of chunks to learners.
The chunks may be relevant, well labeled, and follow the other principles of
structuring, but a defective hierarchy can be confusing. While linear structures are
possible, the most common way of organizing chunks is in a hierarchy.
A hierarchy is a structure in which not all the chunks are at the same level, but are
grouped under higher labels or titles. For example, two chunks called “Testing the
Hyperlinks” and “Testing under Different Browsers” can be grouped under “Testing a
Web Site.” A hierarchical structure can go up to any number of levels. However, there
are guidelines to follow, which are summarized in Table 5.10.

Keep it as simple as possible. Learners should find it easy to visualize and use the
course structure. Be wary of creating unpredictable
and intimidating structures. Examples of poor
structures are those that build unnatural relationships
between chunks, such as a section called
“Advantages of Web Browsers” that also covers
“Features of the Internet.”
Make the structure three levels deep. While a hierarchy can be any number of levels,
courses should be three levels deep.
Place two or more, lower-level chunks In a hierarchy, the existence of a higher-level chunk is
under a higher- level chunk. justified only if there are two or more lower-level
chunks under it.
Create a visual representation of the To help learners see the relationships of the different
structure. chunks in a hierarchy, you should create a visual
representation of the structure in a chart that looks
similar to an organizational chart.
Create no more than seven chunks at one George Miller asserted in “The Magical Number
level. Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information,” in the
Psychological Review, 1956, that learners are able to
process and retain in their short-term memory seven
plus or minus two bits of information at a time. The
implication for structuring is that you should not create
more than seven chunks at one level.
Table 5.10: Guidelines for Forming a Hierarchy

Remember that all these principles are not binding rules. They should be applied
according to the requirements of the course and the learners. For example, modularity
may be important in a course addressing hardware engineers who want to quickly
access troubleshooting information related to different machines, but not for
engineering students studying similar content. It is also useful to keep in mind that not
all principles are applicable to all content at the same time.
Several decisions about the structure for a course impact the way learners can
access the topics and sections. For example, certain courses provide learners
flexibility to skip topics, and some other courses allow learners to select the topics
in the order they require. The issues are related to navigation, which is a part of
user interface design and is covered in the book Visual Basic and GUI
Applications.

5.1.3 Categories of Content
Read the examples given in Figure 5.3.
Example 1: Using the Format Painter to Copy Styles in Word

Format Painter is a tool present on the Formatting toolbar of
Word. You can use the Format Painter by clicking the brush icon
on the toolbar. However, first you need to select the text or
content whose formatting you need to replicate. Select the
Format Painter and take the cursor to the target and click. The
same style will be copied, and your text will show the formatting
of the original text. The tool can be used to format a document
quickly. For example, if you have a heading that is 18-pt. font
size and bold, the style can be copied to all the headings using the
Format painter.
Example 2: Using the Format Painter to Copy Styles in Word
Definition and Purpose
Format Painter is a tool present on the Formatting toolbar of
Word. The Format Painter can be used to format a document
quickly. For example, if you have a heading whose format is
18-pt. font size and bold, you can use the Format painter to copy
the format to other headings.
Steps for using the Format Painter
The following are the steps for using the Format Painter:
1. Select the text with formatting style.
2. Click the brush icon on the Formatting toolbar.
3. Place the cursor on the target text and click the mouse button.
The formatting style is copied to the intended text.
Figure 5.3: Content Category Examples
Did you observe any differences between the two examples? One difference is that
content in the second passage is easy to understand. You can immediately figure out
where the definition, purpose, and steps are.

The purpose of the example is to illustrate that content can be classified into the
following categories:
! Facts
! Concepts
! Procedures
! Processes
! Principles
Did you also notice that in the previous example the concept and procedure are
presented differently? The procedure is presented in the form of steps. The
relevance of the content types is that the content types help you decide how the
content should be presented. The different instructional strategies you can use for
presenting the different types of content are covered in Chapter 7, Instructional
Approaches and Strategies.
Facts
A fact is a content category that is assumed to be true and is presented without
supporting evidence. Facts state specific information about individuals, places, and
events that exist. A fact cannot be further proven. A fact is a fact. Examples of facts
are:
! The inventor of the light bulb is Edison.
! There are five vowels in the English language.
! The capital of Indonesia is Jakarta.
The types of information that can be categorized as a fact are:
! Data
! Research findings
! Time, dates, places
! Statistics
! Specifications
Facts are useful as referential information and are essential for performing a task. For
example, it is essential for a hardware engineer to know the hard disk space required to
install certain kinds of software.

Concepts
Concepts are groups of objects, events, or symbols that share common characteristics
and are identified by a common name. Concepts can be supported by illustrations.
Examples of concepts are as follows:
! Economics is the science of the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services.
! The automatic gears in a car allow you to change gears without exerting yourself.
! Bamboo plays an important role in the economies of South East Asia.
The types of information that can be categorized as a concept are:
! Meanings of terms
! Ideas
! Definitions
! Features, functions, and benefits
Concepts are presented with the help of examples and illustrations.
Procedures
A procedure is an ordered sequence of steps performed to complete a task or to find a
solution to a problem. Procedures contain how-to information, such as:
! Steps to make a cup of coffee
! Steps to calculate the average of a set of numbers
! Steps to add a template in Microsoft Word
! Steps to draw a square using Microsoft Paint
The types of information that can be categorized as procedures are:
! Discrete sequential steps
! Directions
Procedures are presented in the form of flowcharts or numbered lists.
Processes
A process is a series of events, stages, or phases that takes place over a period of time.
Processes describe how things work instead of how you should perform the steps.

There are two types of processes:
! Business, which describes the workflow in an organization.
! Technical, which describes how certain equipment performs or what the
equipment’s nature is.
Examples of processes are:
! Obtaining approval for a proposal
! Selecting a vendor
! Processing of a check in the bank
! How a computer processes information
The types of information that can be categorized as processes are:
! How a certain object works
! Phases or stages
Processes are presented as flow charts or diagrams.
Principles
A principle is a content category that can be stated in the form of rules to guide certain
actions or explain certain changes. The rules involve cause and effect relationships
used to interpret events. They may be presented as tips, guidelines, or dos and don’ts.
Examples of principles are:
! Guidelines for writing a request for a proposal
! Dos and don’ts for creating onscreen text
! Rules for playing tennis
! Tips for baking a light and spongy cake
The types of information that can be categorized as a principle are:
! Statements that contain “must,” “should,” “should not,” and “must not”.
! Rules
! Guidelines
! Tips
! Dos and don’ts
Principles are best presented in a language that reflects the fact that the statement is a
principle.

5.2 Creating a Structure
The section describes the types of structures and the process of creating a structure.
5.2.1 Types of Structure

There are several types of structures that an instructional designer can use to organize
content. For example, a course on the basics of Microsoft Word 2000 can be structured
around the major tasks that a Word user performs, such as typing a document,
formatting, and checking spellings. The course can also be structured on the basis of
the problems that a user faces while using Word 2000, such as formatting problems,
template problems, and printing problems. The three types of structures are:
! Task-centered
! Topic-centered
! Problem-centered
To facilitate your understanding of the differences between the three types of
structures, the following examples are built around a course for introducing project
management to a group of software project managers.
Task-Centered Structure
A task-centered structure organizes content around the job-related tasks of a learner.
The structure is particularly useful for structuring a course for learners who need to
perform tasks in a specific order. In this case, the major chunks of the course are based
on the major tasks. For example, chunks in a course on installing Microsoft Windows
2000 could be “Planning for Installation,” “Installing the Components,” and
“Troubleshooting.” In task-centered structures, the unit, section or topic titles also map
to the tasks. Learners can access content on the task without having to sift through
irrelevant content.

Figure 5.4 shows a sample task-centered structure. Notice how the chunks are all
task-based and the titles of the chunks, such as “Preparing for a Project,” “Selecting an
Approach for Software Development,” and “Forming Teams,” represent tasks in the
lifecycle of a project. In addition, notice that the sequence of the chunks corresponds
to the sequence of the tasks a project manager will perform in a project.
GETTING STARTED WITH PROJECT MANAGEMENT
! Preparing for a Project
Making Key Decisions
• Selecting an Approach to Software Development
• Selecting a Metrics Approach
• Selecting a Project Scheduling Tool
• Forming a Team
Planning for Risks
• Identifying Risks
• Making a Risk Mitigation Plan
! Planning the Project
• Creating a GANTT Chart
Working with People
• Enabling Teamwork
• Facilitating Effective Meetings
! Controlling the Project
Tracking the Schedule
• Identifying Critical Problem Areas
Tracking Costs
• Identifying Cost Overruns
Figure 5.4: Example of a Task-Centered Structure

Topic-Centered Structure
The topic-centered structure organizes the content by topics, which refer to key
messages or content blocks. The information in the topics can be conceptual,
task-based, or a combination.
Topic-centered structures are suitable for content that is heavy in concepts, such as a
course on the history of computers, in which the topics may be “Mainframes,”
“Personal Computers,” and “the Internet.” Topic-centered structures are also useful
when the amount of content that needs to be covered is substantial.
Figure 5.5 shows an example of a topic-centered structure.
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT
! The Basics
Introduction
• Business Case
• What is Project Management?
Why Software Projects Fail
• Reasons for Project Failure
• Reasons for Project Success
Overview of the Project-Management Process
• What is Planning?
• What is Controlling?
• What is Closing?
! Project Planning
Approaches to Software Development
• Waterfall Approach
• Evolutionary Approach
Risk Management
• Introduction to Risk Management
• Risk Management Process
• Scheduling Procedure
• Use of an Automated Tool
People Issues
• Forming Teams

• Team Work
• Effective Meetings
! Project Tracking
Introduction to Tracking
• Overview of the Tracking Process
• Benefits of Tracking
• Effective Meetings
Tracking Process
• Status-Review Meetings
• Action Plan
Software Metrics
• Types of Metrics
• Benefits of Metrics
• Measurement of Overtime
Figure 5.5: Example of a Topic-Centered Structure
The example is for an introductory project management course. First, note the change
in the title, “Introduction to Project Management.” In the task-centered structure the
title is “Getting Started with Managing Projects.” In addition, notice the differences in
the way the chunks have been created and titled. For example, in the unit “The
Basics,” the chunks are conceptual:
! What is Software Project Management?
! Why Software Projects Fail
Notice how topics, such as “Forming Teams,” are chunked with people-related topics,
such as “People Issues.” The topic “Forming Teams” was a part of a task-related
chunk in the task-centered structure, “Making Key Decisions.”
Problem-Centered Structure
A problem-centered structure organizes the entire content around problems and
prepares learners for finding solutions. The focus of a problem-centered course is on
identifying the cause of the problems. The course also serves as a quick reference for
learners when they are working.
Problem-centered structures are useful when the content is related to troubleshooting
or if the learners have to solve problems at work. The structures are also used when the
learners are advanced, and you want to teach the learners real-life application of

knowledge or skills with a problem-centered approach. The course must be designed
around the problems that learners faced or will be facing on the job.
For example, a course addressing troubleshooting for Web administrators will focus on
diagnosing Web page uploading problems and how to deal with them. Chunks of the
course may be:
! Page Display Errors
! Page Upload Errors
! Page Download Errors
! Typos
As you can see from the previous structure, the titles of the chunks are based on
symptoms that indicate problems with the uploading and display of a web page. The
emphasis of the course will be on diagnosing problems and solving the problems. The
course is meant for hardware engineers, mechanics, and electronic engineers.

Figure 5.6 shows the structure for the course on project management, used in the
earlier examples.
MANAGING PROBLEMS IN PROJECTS
! Schedule and Budget Overruns
Schedule Overruns
• Diagnosing Causes
• Guidelines for Bringing a Project on Track
• How to Avoid Overtime
Budget Overruns
• Identifying Budget Overruns
• Guidelines for Cost Control
• Client Issues
! People Issues
Communication Issues
• Identifying Communication Gaps
• Guidelines for Resolving Communication Gaps
Conflicts Issues
• Identifying Conflicts in Teams
• Guidelines for Resolving People Issues
Figure 5.6: Example of a Problem-Centered Structure
These types of structures do not exist in watertight compartments. Courses are a mix of
the three types. Certain chunks are task-based, and certain chunks are topic-based. For
example, a project management course that contains a topic-centered structure may
also contain a chunk called “Troubleshooting.” Another mix occurs when a task-
centered course contains one topic that covers all the prerequisite concepts.

5.2.2 Content-Structuring Process
How should content be structured? Figure 5.7 lists the five steps of the structuring
process.
Figure 5.7: Process of Content Structuring
Step 1: Decide on the Type of Structure

First, decide what type of structure the course should contain. The learner and task
analyses plus the objectives will provide valuable input for making the decision. For
example, if the course is for research assistants who need to learn to surf and search
the Internet efficiently, a task-centered structure that will cover content, such as
“Searching for Links” and “Downloading Content” is a good choice. In this case, a
topic-centered structure will not directly address the needs of the learners, and a
problem-centered structure is not suitable.

Step 2: Collect Data
You must collect all the data that may be relevant to the course. There are two sources
of data, primary and secondary. Collecting primary data includes talking to SMEs and
master practitioners or industry experts, examining records of previous experience,
interviewing learners and supervisors, and using questionnaires. Secondary sources
include published books, articles, product catalogs, and organizational data such as
organization structure, process descriptions, and operating procedures. One secondary
source that is indispensable because of the range of data and easy access is the Internet.
Some guidelines that can help in collecting data are as follows:
! Note only the relevant information for the tasks the learners will perform. Do not
collect information that may burden the learner.
! Include prerequisite information.
! Include advice from master practitioners.
! Refer to existing training programs, if any.
! Ensure that the content is not obsolete.
! Assess usefulness of content.
Step 3: Create and Label Chunks

After collecting the content, you create chunks, keeping in mind the objectives of the
course. When creating and labeling chunks, use the guidelines covered in section 5.1,
Introduction to Structuring.
Mind Maps
A method that can be used for creating chunks is to create a mind map of the subject.
A mind map is the plotting of your thoughts on paper. A mind map is what you create
when you make diagrams to explain a concept to a group of learners. There are no
prescribed rules or formats, but most mind maps use arrows, lines, bullet points, text,
and circles.
The objective of mind mapping is to think freely without boundaries. Mind mapping is
similar to brainstorming. You should try to refrain from modifying, restricting, or
deleting thoughts while mind mapping. Creating a mind map is an iterative process,
which means that you can create improved versions of the mind map.

Figure 5.8 shows a partial view of a mind map in progress.
Figure 5.8: Sample Mind Map
Tony Buzan created the mind-mapping method. This method is used for
structuring, organization, decision-making, creativity, learning, and note taking.
Step 4: Identify Content Categories

After creating and labeling the chunks, categorize the chunks in terms of one of the
content categories of fact, concept, procedure, process, or principle.
The purpose of this step is to:
! Check the direction the course is taking. If the course is a task-centered course, the
course should have a number of procedures. If the course is a problem-centered
course, the course should be rich in principles in the form of tips and guidelines.
! Select appropriate instructional strategies for the chunks. For example, a concept
should be illustrated with the help of an example.

Chapter 7 of this book will cover this aspect in detail.
Figure 5.9 shows a sample mind map with content categories.
Figure 5.9: Sample Mind Map with Content Categories
Step 5: Develop a Course Map

A course map indicates a hierarchy of chunks in a course. A learner uses the course
map to select a topic. The map defines the sequence and linkages between chunks. The
course map can be detailed to a number of levels of chunks, but the course map is
detailed up to three levels deep. The three levels are referred to as Module, Section,
and Topic, with Module being the highest-level chunk and Topic the lowest-level
chunk. The levels are also referred to as Unit, Lesson, and Topic.
In books, the three levels may be referred to as Chapter, Section, and Topic or
Unit, Chapter, and Section.

To form a course map, group all related chunks under labels or titles to form topics and
sections. While there is no procedure that guides the creation of topics and sections,
what helps is the knowledge of the structuring principles.
The following are examples of how the structuring principles can help you create a
course map:
! Relevance: Check whether the topics and sections are relevant for the learner.
! Labeling: Create labels that are brief, parallel, and address the WIIFM question for
the learner.
! Sequencing: Determine whether the sequence should be from simple to complex
and what prerequisite information should be presented first.
! Layering: Decide whether layers are required and what content should be put in
which layer.
Instructional designers use a method called a structure chart to create course maps.
The designers write the title of every chunk on post-it notes and place the notes on
a chart to group related chunks into different levels. The designers draw lines to
indicate the linkages as in an organization chart.

In this book, a case study is being used to demonstrate the application of the ADDIE
model for developing a course. The results of each step in the phases of the ADDIE
model are presented at the end of each chapter. This chapter presents the course map
and key decisions made about the structure of the course. To read the complete case
study, you can refer to the Appendix at the end of the book.

5.3.1 Course Map
Figure 5.10 shows the course map for the course Basic Excel for Store Assistants.
BASIC EXCEL FOR STORE ASSISTANTS
! Getting Started with Excel
Terms and Components
• Basic Spreadsheet Terminology
• Components of an Excel Window
Operating Workbooks
• Opening and Closing Workbooks
• Navigating in a Workbook
! Creating a Basic Spreadsheet
Entering and Editing Values
• Entering Values
• Editing Values
Modifying Spreadsheets
• Copying Data
• Inserting Rows
• Deleting Rows
! Performing Basic Calculations
Calculating with Formulas
• Entering and Editing Formulas
• Moving and Copying Formulas
Calculating with Functions
• Adding with SUM and AUTOSUM
• Calculating AVG, MIN, and MAX
Figure 5.10: Course Map for the Basic Excel for Store Assistants Course
5.3.2 Rationale for Decisions

The two key decisions made for the course structure are explained in the following
paragraphs. The first is related to the type of structure, and the second is related to the
exclusion of certain content.

Decision 1: Type of Structure
The course structure is primarily a task-centered structure, because the store assistants
need to learn quickly how to use Excel for creating their reports. However, a section
entitled “Terms and Components” in the first module is topic-centered and covers
prerequisite content about using Excel.
Decision 2: Exclusion of Irrelevant Content

The second decision involves excluding content, such as formatting, printing, or
presenting. This content is not relevant to the immediate needs of the store assistants,
because the assistants do not have much time for learning, just enough to learn the
basics. For instance, the assistants do not need to format, print, or present charts. If
required, an advanced course in these areas can be created for the assistants at a later
stage. For now, the assistants simply need to enter data correctly and perform
calculations, and that is what the course focuses on.

Summary
! A structure is a set of interconnecting parts of a complex item that forms a
framework for the whole.
! Structuring has two key purposes for a learner. Structuring enables learning and
access. For an instructional designer, structuring provides a framework for
development.
! The principles that guide structuring of content are:
• Chunking
• Relevance
• Labeling
• Modularity
• Sequencing
• Layering
• Hierarchy
! Chunks are blocks of information built around a key message. Learners learn
better when information presented to them is broken down into blocks. Therefore,
it is a good practice to break up the course content into small blocks or chunks.
! The purpose of creating relevant chunks is to provide useful information to
learners and to enhance the learners’ skills and knowledge levels.
! Labeling refers to providing an appropriate name or title to a chunk. Labels orient
learners to what is coming.
! Modularity is the structuring of content in separate chunks that are capable of
standing alone. The purpose of modularity is to allow learners to select the content
that they want to go through and the sequence in which to go through it.
! Layering involves organizing chunks into several levels or tiers of content on the
basis of depth or complexity. Layering chunks enables each learner to find the
appropriate path.

! Content can be classified as:
• Facts
• Concepts
• Procedures
• Processes
• Principles
! A fact is a content category that is assumed to be true and is presented without
supporting evidence.
! A concept is a group of objects, events, or symbols sharing common
characteristics and identified by a common name. A concept can be supported by
examples.
! A procedure is an ordered sequence of steps performed to complete a task or find a
solution to a problem.
! A process is a series of events, stages, or phases that occur over a period of time.
Processes describe how things work rather than how to perform the steps.
! A principle can be stated in the form of a rule to guide certain actions or explain
certain changes.
! The three types of structures are:
• Task-centered
• Topic-centered
• Problem-centered
! A task-centered structure organizes content around the job-related tasks of
learners. It is particularly useful for structuring a course for learners who need to
perform tasks in a specific order.
! A topic-centered structure organizes the content by topics, which refer to key
messages or content blocks. The information in the topics can be conceptual,
task-based, or a combination.
! A topic-centered structure is suitable for content that is heavy in concepts, such as
a course on the history of computers, in which the topics will be “Mainframes,”
“Personal Computers,” and “the Internet.”
! A problem-centered structure organizes the entire content around problems and
prepares learners for finding solutions.
! Problem-centered structures are useful when the content is related to
troubleshooting or if the learners need to solve problems at work.

! There are five steps in the process of content structuring:
• Decide on the type of structure
• Collect data
• Create and label chunks
• Identify content category
• Develop a course map

Assignments
1. What is the purpose of structuring content? What happens when content is not
structured?
2. List four principles used for structuring content. Describe two guidelines for each
of the principles you listed.
3. Identify the content category of the following in terms of fact, concept,
procedure, process, or principle:
• The Format Painter icon is available on the Standard toolbar.
• To open a file, first go to Windows Explorer, right-click the file, and click
Open.
• Always maintain a backup of your important documents.
• Run a virus check each time you insert a floppy in your computer.
• A hologram is a three-dimensional picture made by illuminating an object
with laser light.
• In photosynthesis, plants use energy from sunlight to turn water from the soil
and carbon dioxide from air into glucose. Leaves give off oxygen. The plants
also take up minerals through their roots.
• To create a table in a Word document, click Table on the main menu, and
select Insert Table. Enter the number of columns and number of rows in the
Insert Table dialog box, and click OK.
• A database organizes data in rows and columns.
4. Differentiate between a task-centered structure and a topic-centered structure.
State what kind of course and learner each structure is suitable for.
5. List the steps in the process of structuring content. Describe each of the steps.


Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
Read the following content, and structure it by applying appropriate structuring
principles. In addition, create a course map for your course structure.
Software project management is the process of delivering a software project without
exceeding the constraints of a specified budget and cost. Management responsibilities
are about planning and controlling, while engineering responsibilities are concerned
with the technical processes in the development of the project.
The following two paragraphs describe the phases in software project management and
the difference between software project management and software engineering. You
must understand the difference between software project management and software
engineering because you may be adept at the best engineering methods and tools, and
yet your project may not succeed. Software project management differs from software
engineering in the following areas:
! Scope
! Skills
! Responsibilities
! Solutions
Software project management is composed of two phases, planning and monitoring.
To plan a project, you start with selecting a software development process. Next, you
prepare for risks and schedule the project. In the next phase, you monitor the project.
While monitoring the project, you review project status, identify problem areas, and
make a recovery plan. For improving the effectiveness of the project management
process, you can use metrics, make teams productive, and do project reviews.
Another reason for the failure of software projects is the different perceptions of
quality that you and the client may have. For example, the client’s definition of quality
may be “a response time of two seconds to queries to the system.” Your idea about the
quality of the system may be “efficient design with no redundant lines of code and
easy maintainability of the code.”
The scope of software project management is broader than the scope of software
engineering. You start managing the project before the engineering tasks begin. For
example, before you start the analysis you will prepare for risks and schedule the
project. To be better prepared for the risks that you will encounter, you should identify
risks at the start of the project and monitor them closely with the help of meetings and
reviews with your team.

Another difference between software engineering and software project management is
that the tasks require different kinds of skills. Engineering tasks need skills, such as
system design and programming. For managing a project, you need communication,
leadership, effective time and resource management, and organizational and people
skills.
It is important to identify whether a project problem is an engineering problem or a
management problem, because the solutions differ on the basis of the nature of the
problem. For example, if the client keeps changing requirements, the engineering
solution is a revised requirements document or design. However, the solution may not
work. The solution may be a management-related one. Escalating the problems to a
higher level of management at your end and the client’s end will help.
Consistent user involvement in the project will ensure that the end product meets user
requirements. For example, if the client is involved in the analysis and design stage,
the integrated system will meet the client’s requirements.
Management support allows a project to be executed with speed and efficiency. For
example, the management should help you acquire resources on schedule.
Ineffective teams are another reason for the failure of projects. Nearly 60% of all
projects fail due to lack of commitment of the team, and nearly 40% of projects fail
due to conflict within the team. For example, if two team members on the same
module do not coordinate their efforts, the lack of coordination will result in loss of
effort and time.
If you do not estimate your project accurately, you are sure to slip your schedule.
Studies have shown that 55% of all projects fail due to ineffective estimation. For
example, if you do not estimate the time for module and integration testing, you will
not obtain the time for testing.
If there is a lack of user input, the project is unlikely to meet the user’s requirements.
According to an estimate, more than 60% of software projects fail due to lack of user
input. Suppose that client representatives are not available for interviews during the
analysis phase of the project. In this case, you will not obtain the user input you need
to determine the requirements of the user.
Frequent and sudden changes in requirements by clients affect the project in an
adverse way. Most projects fail because the projects are not rescheduled after adding
the new requirements. The lack of rescheduling leads to a total collapse of the original
plan. Approximately 40% of projects fail due to frequent and sudden changes in
requirements.
If the management is not adequately committed to the project, you cannot execute it
successfully. For example, if you do not obtain support from other groups, such as the

logistics team, consultants, and resource manager, you should take the issues to your
manager.
Clear requirements freeze the scope and output of the system. The requirements also
focus the effort of the project team. For example, you should define clearly whether
Lab Exercises
the personnel information system will include one or more of the following and their
relation to one another:
! Payroll
! Training requirements
! Appraisal process
! Personnel records
! Leave records

Project
You have already written the objectives for your project. Now, create a course map for
your course. Follow these guidelines:
! Follow the process contained in the book to structure the content.
! Use a mind map to visualize the relationships between the different chunks.
! Follow the principles of structuring when structuring the content.
! Ask another individual to review your course map.

Evaluating Learning
6

6.1 Introduction to
Evaluation
• Differentiate between formative, summative, and
confirmative evaluations
6.2 Types of Test Items
• Differentiate between criteria-based and norm-based
evaluations
6.3 Guidelines for
• List various types of test items Writing Test Items
• Select the appropriate test item based on an analysis
document, objectives, and content 6.4 Writing Feedback
• Identify various types of feedback and Grading
• Write appropriate test items with feedback based on an
analysis document, objectives, and content 6.5 Basic Excel for
• Explain the relative merits of various methods of grading
Store Assistants: A
Case Study

6.2 Evaluating Learning

6.1 Introduction to Evaluation
“Life is trying things to see if they work.”
—Ray Bradbury
You have surely encountered some kind of test, such as an admission test, lab activity,
project, assignment, or final exam. All these tests evaluate whether or not learners have
mastered skills, attitudes, and knowledge being taught in the course, and whether or not
they can apply the learning to solve problems.
The ADDIE model presents the evaluation as the last phase of the instructional design
process. However, evaluation is a continuous process in instructional design. Some
basic decisions about evaluation are taken at the Design phase itself.
This chapter explains the different forms of evaluations at various stages in a course.
The stage at which evaluation is conducted depends on the purpose of the evaluation. If
the purpose is to test the skills of learners before they take the course, a pretest is used.
If the purpose is to let learners know how they are doing during the course or to
summarize the learning at periodic intervals, tests are conducted during the course. The
evaluation activity in the last phase of the ADDIE model is only one particular form of
evaluation.
Evaluation involves making decisions about various factors, such as what is to be
measured, how it should be measured, and the types of measurement tools. These
decisions are as complex and as high-end as decisions about the content of the course.
Instructional designers make these decisions during the Design phase of the ADDIE
model.
Evaluating Learning 6.3

Figure 6.1 shows the design phase of the ADDIE model.
Write objectives
Structure content
1. ANALYSIS
3. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 6.1: Design Phase in the ADDIE Model
Evaluation involves measuring skills, knowledge, and behavior of learners to check

whether or not they are at the proficiency level that a course ought to have achieved.
The ultimate aim of evaluation is to collect valid, relevant, and reliable information
about learners and to make informed decisions about their performance before and after
the course, the efficiency of the course, and the necessary corrective actions to improve
the course.
6.1.1 Definition, Purpose, and Types

“Evaluation is the collection of, analysis and interpretation of information about any
aspect of a program of education or training as part of a recognized process of judging
its effectiveness, its efficiency and any other outcomes it may have.”
—Mary Thorpe, Handbook of Education Technology

Definition
In instructional design, some terms associated with evaluation of learners are:
! Evaluation
! Assessment
! Tests
Evaluation
Evaluation is the process of determining the capability of learners, the course, or the
instructional method to achieve the instructional objectives set out at the beginning of
the course. The final output of evaluation is in the form of a quantitative measure, such
as percentile or absolute score, or in the form of a grade, such as A, B, C, or D. A
common example of evaluation is the final exam in schools and colleges. The exam
results determine whether or not students pass or fail.
Assessment
Assessment is the process of judging or measuring learners based on specific
knowledge, skills, and behavioral attributes using tests, observation, and interviews. For
example, the performance of interns in a hospital can be assessed by observing their
performance during normal hospital duties and observing their diagnostic skills while
handling particular cases. Their knowledge is also evaluated through a written
examination. Assessment and evaluation are often used interchangeably.
Some instructional designers believe that the difference between evaluation and
assessment is that of scope. Evaluation takes into account learning context, form of
the course, effectiveness of exercises, and interactivity. Assessment is concerned
only with the skills of learners. You could call assessment a part of evaluation,
which is a larger term.
Tests
Tests are the specific procedures or tools used to measure and describe the specific
knowledge, skills, and behavioral attributes of learners, in either a quantitative or a
qualitative manner. In the example of hospital interns, tests are individual tools such as
written examinations, diagnostic exercises, and an operation case study.

Purpose
Evaluation is necessary for determining whether or not the objectives of the course are
being met. It is more important in the case of Web-based courses because learners learn
alone, at their own pace, and with little or no interaction with other learners and the
instructional designer. As a result, they need to know how they are doing at various
points throughout the course. Evaluation serves different purposes for learners and
instructional designers.
For learners, evaluation does the following:
! Provides them a chance to apply their skills and check whether or not the course is
useful for them
! Provides an opportunity to practice applying the skills to actual work situations
! Guides them through the course, informs them about their progress, and
recommends appropriate learning paths for learners with different abilities
! Helps build their confidence and motivates them to learn further
! Reinforces learning
! Removes misconceptions and clarifies concepts
For instructional designers, evaluation does the following:
! Checks the progress of learners in the course regarding the skills and attitudes that
the course aims to develop at predefined stages
! Provides feedback about what part of the course is effective and what should be
improved
! Provides the basis for selecting or rejecting learners for certification in the course
Types of Evaluation
You can classify evaluation based on two criteria: the stage of the course when it is
conducted and the purpose of the evaluation.
Based on the stage of the course at which the evaluation is conducted, you can classify
evaluation as:
! Formative
! Summative
! Confirmative

Based on the purpose of the evaluation, you can classify evaluation as:
! Criteria-based
! Norm-based
The subsequent sections will handle each type of evaluation in detail.
6.1.2 Formative, Summative, and

“When the cook tastes the soup, that’s formative; when the guests taste the soup, that’s
summative.”
—Bob Stake, Evaluation Theorist
Formative Evaluation
Think of a factory that builds aircraft. First, a prototype of the aircraft is built and tested.
Then, construction of the aircraft is regularly monitored to check whether or not
everything matches the standards set earlier. This is a formative evaluation.
What Is It?
Any evaluation conducted before the course to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
the course is called a formative evaluation. It provides feedback to the instructional
designer about the likelihood of the course achieving its objectives. The instruments
used here are SME reviews, dry runs with a sample group of learners, expert
observation of pilots or drafts, and field trials of prototypes.
Why Is It Done?
A formative evaluation serves the following purposes:
! Diagnosing the strengths and weaknesses of the course early on in the Design and
Development phases: This enables the instructional designer to increase the
strengths and remove the weaknesses of the course. The instructional designer can
judge if the time spent on delivery of the course was sufficient and what revisions
the course requires.
! Testing the appropriateness of an exercise used in the course: Evaluation output can
help the instructional designer decide whether or not the exercise brings out the
relevant concepts and appeals to learners.

! Testing the accuracy of the content: The content should be correct and cover the
objectives in appropriate depth and detail.
! Testing the effectiveness of the material before the course is finally launched: The
instructional designer can check whether or not learners will find the course
material easy to comprehend and locate.
! Testing the accuracy of the tests used in the course: Responses obtained during
evaluation can help the instructional designer know whether or not the tests measure
what they intended to measure.
! Testing the appropriateness of the form of the course or the way it is presented:
Both learners and experts can provide this input.
How Soon Should It Be Done?

A formative evaluation is most useful if it is done early in the course so that corrective
actions and improvements, if required, can be taken with minimum damage to the
effectiveness of the course. If the evaluation comes at a very late stage in the design and
development of the course, it will require extra time and effort to solve problems.
What Kind of Questions Should Be Asked?

The results of a formative evaluation are used to improve the content and form of the
course. As a result, the questions used should refer to specific points and ask for specific
suggestions for improvement.
The following type of questions will not provide any specific points of improvements
and should be avoided:
! Is the site attractive?
! Is the site easy to explore?
! What do you think of the tone and language of the material?
! Rank the course on a scale of 1 to 5.
Instead, the following questions can obtain specific information:
! Is the objective of the site clear?
! Are the buttons in the site conveniently placed for easy navigation?
! Does the course content adequately cover all relevant topics?
! Does the course content meet all course objectives?
! What three recommendations would you give to improve the look and feel of the
course?

A summative evaluation is akin to the final exam that you have taken at the end of a
course of instruction. Recall the example of the aircraft factory in the previous topic.
When an aircraft is ready, a test flight is made to see whether or not the aircraft flies
successfully. This first flight would be the summative evaluation.
What Is a Summative Evaluation?

A summative evaluation is conducted at the end of the course to measure the degree to
which the course has achieved its objectives. In other words, a summative evaluation
checks whether or not learners have acquired the skills and knowledge that the course
aimed to develop. The instruments used in this evaluation are either written tests or case
studies. A summative evaluation forms the basis for deciding whether or not the course
should be used again on a large scale.
Why Is It Done?
A summative evaluation helps to do the following:
! Test the efficiency of learning. The evaluation results clarify whether or not learners
are able to reach the learning level specified in the course objectives and if there are
any gaps left even after the course.
! Decide whether or not learners should receive the certification that the course
awards
! Test the success of the course. The evaluation results indicate the extent to which
overall goals of the course were met and whether or not the results were worth the
project cost. These results also help the instructional designer decide whether or not
the course should be replicated and used elsewhere.
! Measuring the effectiveness of content. The instructional designer can find what
components of the course were the most effective.

The results of a summative evaluation are used to decide whether or not learners have
successfully completed course objectives. As a result, questions should refer to the
application of the concepts and skills taught in the course.

These questions can be:
! What are the principles of animation?
! What are the steps in the process of logging on to the network?
! Create a table in Word with five columns and two rows.
! What is the difference between the Format Painter and the Paste command?
A common form of summative evaluation is the Final Exam, also called Post-test,
which is a set of questions of various types to test the knowledge and skills of
learners after taking the course.
Recall the example of the aircraft factory in the previous topics. A few years after an
aircraft is in use, it is rechecked to see if it is still in good working condition or it needs
to be replaced with a better aircraft. This is an example of a confirmative evaluation.
What Is It?
An evaluation conducted a long time after the implementation of the course to assess
whether or not the course is able to make learners perform and retain knowledge and
skills in the long run is a confirmative evaluation.
Why Is It Done?
A confirmative evaluation helps to do the following:
! Check whether or not the course material still enables learners to meet learning
objectives.
! Check whether or not learners still retain the knowledge and skills acquired during
the course and demonstrated during a summative evaluation.
! Check whether or not there are any particular learning problems that learners may
experience. For example, should additional input be provided to those learners, or
should they be taken through repeat courses?
! Check whether or not any improvements need to be made in the course.

How Soon Should It Be Done?
Although there are no specific rules, learners should be allowed enough time—three to
six months, a year, or even more—to apply and test the concepts learned in the course
before a confirmative evaluation is conducted.

Questions used in a confirmative evaluation are used to check whether or not learners
are able to apply the concepts of the course successfully in real life. In other words,
does the course have practical applicability?
These questions can be:
! How long does it take you to find a bug in the software? (After a course on Quality
Analysis)
! If you are creating Word documents, which format options do you use? (After a
course on Microsoft Word 2000)
! How many of your projects have missed deadlines in the last six months? (After a
course on Project Management)
! How many complaints have you received from your customers about bad behavior
of sales team? (After a course on Customer Service)
6.1.3 Criteria-Based and Norm-Based

Evaluation
A teacher evaluates the exam papers of 20 students and says, “50 percent of the class
has achieved passing marks.” Another teacher evaluates the papers and says, “Sam and
Maria are in the top 10 percent of the class.”
In the first example, the teacher compared marks of each student with a standard
passing score to arrive at a decision about the performance of the students. This is a
criteria-based evaluation.

In the second example, the teacher compared the scores of students with each other, also
called the reference group, and then found which students were the top two scorers.
This is a norm-based evaluation. Table 6.1 describes both types.
Parameter Criteria-based Evaluation Norm-based Evaluation
Purpose Whether or not learners have Differentiate among learners

learned the required skills, and and separate the high
what they can do after the performers from the low
course. Learners do not performers.
compete with each other.
Score interpretation Performance of all learners is Score of each learner is

compared to some external, compared with the scores of
specific, and predefined other learners. How well a
benchmark. Learners either learner does in the course
achieve that standard or not. depends on the performance
Scores of all other learners are of other learners in the same
not taken into account. course.
Scope Tests for micro skill areas. For Tests for macro skill areas. For
example, test a programmer's example, test a programmer's
ability to create short, simple, proficiency in C++
and error-free modules or programming.
functions.
Output Scores are absolute numbers. Scores are relative, in the form
of a grade or percentile.
Merit-based listing takes place.
Questions Questions for one particular Questions for the same skill
skill are all at the same level of can be at different levels of
difficulty. difficulty.
Common forms An aptitude test or English The CGPA system, classroom

vocabulary test. tests, GRE, SAT.
Table 6.1: Criteria-based and Norm-based Evaluation
The Mastery Approach to Learning, devised by Benjamin Bloom, is a criteria-based

evaluation, which says that learners are supposed to have mastered a skill when
they can meet the standard set for that particular skill or when they can achieve the
objective set at a particular learning level (knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation). Through this approach, learners are evaluated
on the basis of their individual abilities and not their performance as compared to a
large reference group.

6.1.4 Key Decisions for Designing Tests
After determining the type of evaluation to be used, the next step is to design the
instrument or instruments for evaluation. As explained earlier, the specific instruments
used to evaluate the performance of learners are called tests.
Each type of evaluation requires the instructional designer to make the following
decisions before the actual test can be designed:
! Purpose of the test
! What the test should measure
! Test frequency
! Time available to learners for taking the test
! Use of optional questions
! Allowing repeat attempts
! Handling technical problems
! Validity and reliability of tests
Purpose of the Test

The purpose of the test should be to let learners know their progress and certify that
they have mastered a skill. Merely proving the success of the course or humiliating
learners should not be reasons to conduct a test.
What the Test Should Measure?

The test should measure only the key content taught in the relevant section of the course
and not trivial information. The rule of thumb is to ensure that all instructional
objectives are tested and that each question in the test relates to some instructional
objective. For example, “History of Egypt” becomes a key concept in a course on
Egyptian pyramids, but in a course on C++, “History of C++” is probably only
nice-to-know information that need not be tested.
Test Frequency
Decide the frequency of the tests. Frequent testing improves retention, reduces testing
anxiety, and provides more grades from which the final grade can be chosen. But
frequent testing also means investing more time in designing and grading tests.

For information about grading, see section 6.4.2, Grading, later in this chapter.
Time Available to Learners for Completing the Test

Time limits introduce challenges for learners and motivate them to think harder and
faster. But time limits can also put unnecessary pressure on some learners, especially if
they are new to the language of the test.
To decide the time limit for the test, ask yourself, “Am I testing for speed, accuracy, or
analytical ability?” Time limits are important if you are testing speed, as in the case of a
paratrooper who has to open his parachute a certain number of seconds after jumping
out of the airplane. In the case of an architect, drawing every detail of the plan to scale
requires accuracy more than speed. Keep time limits close to real-life situations the
learner is likely to face.
Use of Optional Questions

Optional questions can make a difference in the difficulty level of the test to different
learners. The learners end up attempting virtually different tests. The instructional
designer also finds it difficult to score and interpret responses.
Allowing Repeat Attempts

In general, allow learners to attempt the test again, but repeat attempts should be limited
to one or two. Otherwise, learners may keep attempting the test simply to get a better
score. If repeat attempts are allowed, learners should be given a different set of
questions for each attempt, so that they apply their learning to a new context.
You need to make a decision about the grade in case of repeat attempts. These grades
can be the most recent grade, best of all attempts, first grade, or the average of all
attempts. Whatever the choice, inform the learners about it before they attempt the test
again.
Handling Technical Problems

You may have experienced technical problems during tests you have taken in the past.
Learners using online courses may face problems, such as operating-system failure,
overloaded server, quizzes that do not accept answers, timer clocks that do not function,
or failure of the network connection. In online courses, the instructional designer needs

to make provisions for such technical problems as a part of an online course. Some
solutions could be:
! Keeping a replacement test ready
! Keeping an alternative activity ready
! Providing a facility to learners for reporting problems
! Allowing learners to take the test at a future date
! Allowing learners to take the test manually under the supervision of the
instructional designer or some other expert
Validity and Reliability of Tests

The validity of tests means that a test measures the learning set out in the course
objectives. The reliability of tests means that a test yields the same results when it is
conducted repeatedly. Tests can be made reliable by ensuring that:
! All learners take the test at the same time and with the same instructions.
! The test has questions related to every objective.
! The scoring instructions are clear and objective.
Apart from the preceding decisions, there may be some specific considerations
depending on the type of evaluation selected for a course. For example, a formative
evaluation will not really require a decision about repeat attempts because the focus
is on the strengths and weaknesses of the course instead of the skills of learners.
However, the same decision will become critical in a summative evaluation. The
instructional designer needs to exercise some discretion when using this list of
decisions.
6.1.5 Current Practices in Evaluation

In practice, evaluation is restricted to feedback systems and learner tests at the end of
the course. A formative evaluation is quite infrequent, summative evaluation is limited
to final exams, and a confirmative evaluation is done on rare occasions. The task of
developing evaluation instruments and then scoring responses has traditionally been
given to external resources such as instructional design experts, who may or may not be
available for all courses. As a result, evaluation becomes very expensive and time-
consuming. This constraint on testing has led to the use of automated or online testing.

The use of automated test systems involves:
! Planning and designing evaluation instruments
! Scoring responses
! Generating feedback for learners
“To know and not to use is not yet to know”

—Ancient Buddhist Saying
Evaluation mechanisms provide learners an opportunity to apply knowledge and judge
whether or not they have learned the required skills. The instructional designers get a
chance to check whether or not their course is able to achieve its objectives. Evaluation
is the single step that justifies the time, cost, and effort spent in designing, developing,
and running the course. It is also the only step where learners really interact with the
instructional designer. Despite the critical role evaluation plays in the instructional
design process, often little or no attention is given to it because of the time and cost it
requires. Interest in evaluation is bound to increase because managers in organizations
and learners demand accountability of training courses. A well-thought-out evaluation
mechanism will make the difference between an effective course and an erroneous,
misdirected course.

6.2 Types of Test Items
Test items are the questions and interactions used to measure learning in courses. Some
common types of test items are:
! Multiple-choice
! True/False
! Short-answer or text-input
! Matching-list
! Simulation
! Fill-in-the-blank
! Essay-type
! Sequencing
6.2.1 Multiple-Choice Questions

Test items that have a question statement and three or more options are called
multiple-choice questions. There can be one or more correct options. The learner has to
choose the correct option(s) from the list of options given in the question. Figure 6.2
shows examples of multiple-choice questions.
Example 1 (one correct option)
Which of the following is the largest continent in the world?
# Asia # Africa # Australia # Europe
Example 2 (two correct options)
Select the country that is a part of the European continent:
# India # Germany # Netherlands # Nigeria
Example 3 (one correct option)
In computer network terminology, what does topology refer to?
# Shape of the network.
# Name of specific data-terminal equipment.
# Process of transferring information.
# Communication protocol between two computers.
Figure 6.2: Multiple-Choice Questions

Multiple-choice questions often use option buttons to enable learners to select their
option. In the case of questions with more than one correct option, selection lists with
check boxes are commonly used.
Parts of a Multiple-Choice Question

A multiple-choice question has three parts:
! Question stem
! Key(s)
! Distractors
Question Stem
A question stem is the problem statement or the body of the question that poses the
problem to the learner. The stem can be a complete sentence or a sentence completed by
the question options. In Example 1 given in Figure 6.2, the stem is:
Which of the following is the largest continent in the world?
Key(s)
The test item can have one or more correct answers, called keys. They can be numbers,
full sentences, incomplete sentences, phrases, or terms. In Example 1 given in Figure
6.2, the key or the correct answer is:
Asia
Distractors
The incorrect options for a question are called distractors. In Example 1 given in Figure
6.2, the distractors or incorrect options are:
Australia, Africa, and Europe
The key(s) and distractors are together called the options of a question. These parts are
common to almost all types of questions.

Advantages
Advantages of using multiple-choice questions are as follows:
! Applicable to a wide variety of content types, objectives, and levels of learning,
from recalling terms to applying skills to solving problems to making comparisons
and decision making
! Ease of scoring: Scores are indisputable and objective
! Highly reliable because they have fixed correct answers
! Possibility of controlling the level of difficulty by varying the level of similarity
between options. That is the more similar the options, the greater the difficulty in
identifying the right answer(s).
! Suitable for all types of courses, such as CBTs, WBTs, and ILTs
Variations of Form
Multiple-choice questions can be presented in the following forms:
! Common content as a basis
! Common set of options
! Items in the analogy form

Common Content as a Basis
Present a common content base for a set of questions, such as a reading passage, table,
graph, or map, and then give several test items based on it. The items should be
independent of one another. Figure 6.3 shows an example of common content.
P, Q, R, S, and T are five sisters. P’s age is equal to the combined ages
of S and Q. Q is older than S, but younger than T. T is older than P, but
younger than R. R’s age is twice the combined ages of Q and S. S is 6
years old.
Answer the following questions with reference to the given paragraph:
Q1. If P is 14 years old, what is R’s age?

1. 14 2. 7 3. 28 4. 24
Q2. If Q is 8 years old, which of the following CANNOT be T’s age?

1. 14 2. 16 3. 20 4. 26
Q3. If Q is 8 years old and T’s age is less than 16, what is the combined
age of the 5 sisters?
1. 78 2. 56 3. 66 4. 71
Figure 6.3: Example for Common Content as Base

Common Set of Options
Give a common set of options for a set of questions, presenting the options first and
then stems. Commonly used personality tests have this format. Figure 6.4 shows a
section of this type of a test.
Answer the following questions by choosing one of the following
options:
1. Always 2. Most often 3. Frequently 4. Sometimes
5. Hardly 6. Never
Q1. I join social groups voluntarily.

Q2. I like being the center of attraction in parties.
Q3. I share my views openly with people around me.
Q4. I work best when I work alone.
Q5. I enjoy addressing large groups.
Figure 6.4: Example for Common Set of Options
Items in the Analogy Form

You can also present items in analogy form, as shown in Figure 6.5.
DIVIDE is to UNITE as
Split is to Apart
Marriage is to Divorce
Fission is to Fusion
Chasm is to Gap
Figure 6.5: Example of Items in an Analogy Form

When to Use Multiple-Choice Questions?
You can use multiple-choice questions in the following situations:
! When testing for facts, concepts, and principles
! When testing all levels of objectives except synthesis (knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, and evaluation). Synthesis level-evaluation involves asking
learners to create something new, and a multiple-choice question cannot be used for
the purpose.
Limitations
The limitations of using multiple-choice questions are as follows:
! Can be used only for evaluating factual knowledge instead of higher-level,
analytical skills
! Do not test ability to organize and express ideas
! Difficult to construct, especially valid, plausible distractors
! Results vary depending on learner characteristics such as risk taking, guess work,
and reading ability
! Risk of the stem providing clues to the correct answer
6.2.2 True/False Questions

These questions present learners with a fact or statement in the question stem. To
answer these questions, learners select one of the two options, True and False. These
questions are used when the learner has only two alternatives for an answer and needs to
use judgment skills to give a definite answer.

Figure 6.6 shows examples of true/false questions.
Example 1
The color black is a good conductor of heat.
$ True $ False
Example 2
An average female requires 1,500 calories per day.
$ True $ False
Example 3
1 kilobyte consists of 1024 bytes.
$ True $ False
Figure 6.6: True/False Questions
Advantages
True/false questions can do the following:
! Reinforce an important or confusing fact
! Break monotony and provide a respite, sometimes even a laugh
! Quick check on learner's attention to details and memory
! Test ability of learners to make judgments
! Fit all types of courses, such as WBTs, CBTs, and ILTs
Variation of Form
True/false questions do not always need to have true and false as options. Sometimes,
the instructional designer uses two opposites as the two possible answers to a question,
one of which would be correct and the other incorrect. Figure 6.7 shows an example for
this type of questions.
Lions are:
$ Herbivorous $ Carnivorous
Figure 6.7: Varying the True/False Question
Another variation could be using graphics for choices and asking the learners to click
the right graphic.

When to Use True/False Questions?
True/false questions can be used in the following situations:
! When you need to test the learner's ability to make decisions and to choose between
two alternatives. For example, deciding if a product complies with standards or
selecting the right statement from a given set of statements.
! When testing for facts, such as in Examples 2 and 3 given in Figure 6.6
Limitations
The limitations of true/false questions are as follows:
! They are considered the poorest form of tests since they can test only recall-type
knowledge. For example, Example 3 given in Figure 6.6 tests for a fact and is
pitched at the lowest Bloom level, Knowledge.
! They encourage guesswork by the learner.
True/false questions often use option buttons or check boxes for two options. You
can make the question look more interesting and fun using icons such as:
! A frowning face and a smiling face
! A thumbs up and thumbs down sign
! A check mark and an X
! On and off switches
6.2.3 Short-Answer Questions

Short-answer questions require learners to type or write an answer to a question.
Learners are presented only with a question, and they need to supply the answer to the
question. These questions are called short-answer questions because the answers are
usually limited to a few words or three to four sentences. You can use these questions to
test the ability to recall key terms taught in the course, definitions, abbreviations,
vocabulary, and commands or functions.

Figure 6.8 shows examples of this type of questions.
Example 1
! What does GATT stand for?
(Correct answer: General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs).
Example 2
! List the nine planets in the universe.
(Correct answer: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto).
! Example 3
Define the phenomenon of refraction in 2 sentences.
Figure 6.8: Short-Answer Questions
When to Use Short-Answer Questions

You can use short-answer questions in the following situations:
! When testing for expression of facts and concepts, such as defining global warming
! When testing lower levels of objectives such as knowledge and comprehension,
such as recalling business terms, expanding abbreviations, testing vocabulary, and
identifying commands
Limitations
Short-answer questions work better in ILT courses because the test engines of WBTs
and CBTs are usually not equipped to interpret answers given by different learners.
Even WBTs can use short-answer questions if the responses do not need to be
scored and if they are provided only to help learners practice expressing something.

6.2.4 Matching-List Questions
Questions in which learners are given two lists and are asked to match the items in one
list with items in other are called matching-list questions.
You can use matching-list questions in the following situations:
! Matching terms with definitions
! Matching words with opposites
! Matching questions with answers
! Matching symbols with meanings
Table 6.2 and Table 6.3 show examples of matching-list questions.
Example 1
Match the items in Column A with their opposites in Column B.
Column A Column B
Verbose Nadir
Ancient Succinct
Text Compliment
Apex Contemporary
Table 6.2: Example of a Matching-List Question
Example 2
Match the shapes in Column A with the formula to calculate their volume in Column B.
Column A Column B
3
Cube (4/3) π r
3
Cone S
2
Cylinder πr h
2
Sphere (1/3) π r h
Table 6.3: Example of a Matching-List Question

Advantages
Matching-list questions are:
! Easier to create than multiple-choice questions because the distractors are actually
correct answers for related concepts or facts
! Scored easily, accurately, and quickly
! Especially useful for testing misconceptions in closely related content
! Suitable for all types of courses, such as WBTs, CBTs, and ILTs
Variations of Form
You can use matching-list questions in the following forms:
! Click-in-picture
! Drag-and-drop
Click-in-Picture Questions
The descriptions for items are given in text form, and learners are asked to select a
pictorial option by clicking it. These questions are ideally used when learners are
required to know what objects or parts of a system look like. For example, you can use
click-in-picture questions for identifying the flags of different countries or different
traffic signs.
Drag-and-Drop questions
In drag-and-drop questions, learners are asked to select visuals and drop them into
specific locations. These questions can be used to make learners assemble parts of a
system or identify the category to which objects belong.
When to Use Matching-List Questions?

You can use matching-list questions when:
! Testing learners’ ability to recall important concepts and facts
! Testing visual recognition of objects or parts of a system
! Testing learners’ ability to put together parts of a system into a whole
! Testing learners’ ability to classify items into categories
! Testing knowledge, comprehension, and analysis levels

Limitations
Matching-list questions have the following limitations:
! They cannot be used to test the ability to organize information or create new
information.
! At least one option in the list is a sure giveaway after all others are matched.
6.2.5 Simulation Questions

Simulation questions reproduce a lifelike situation for learners and ask them to perform
a series of activities to accomplish a task in that situation. This test item is used to check
whether or not learners can apply a procedure or a set of steps to accomplish a task. If
learners can perform the task, they can presumably perform the same task in real life
and are said to have mastered the skill.
An example of a simulation is as follows:
Question: Open a document in Microsoft Word 2000 called Simple Feasts. Click the
correct option to start the process.
(next frame) Click the correct option to open the publication named Simple Feasts in
the Learner Practice folder.
(next frame) Click the correct option to open the publication Simple Feasts.
(Resultant frame feedback) You opened a document.
Advantages
Simulation questions offer the following advantages:
! They can be used to test higher-level learning, such as application of key skills
instead of mere recall of knowledge.
! They provide increased interactivity with learners.
! They check whether or not learners can apply knowledge in real-world situations.
When to Use Simulation Questions?
Simulation questions should be used in the following situations:
! When testing complex procedures where learners need to make decisions at various
steps. For example, you can use them when testing the procedure of creating system
administrative software.

! When testing higher-level skills, such as application, synthesis, and evaluation. For
example, you can use them when testing the procedure of creating an animation in
Macromedia Director MX.
! When testing skills in software applications in WBTs and CBTs. For example, you
can use them when testing the procedure of creating a 3-D graphic in Macromedia
Shockwave 3D.
Limitations
Simulation questions have the following limitations:
! They are difficult and time-consuming to create.
! Screen images increase the course file size.
! The test needs to provide different ways of performing the same task. As a result,
scoring becomes difficult.
6.2.6 Fill-in-the-Blank Questions

These questions require learners to complete a statement or a table by supplying a
missing word or term. Figure 6.9 shows examples of fill-in-the-blank questions.
Example 1
The _________ option of Microsoft Word 2000 enables you to change the
case of the selected text.
Example 2
The largest mammal in the world is _________.
Example 3
Complete the following table:
• 5 x 2 = 10
• (5 x 2) + _____ = 15
Figure 6.9: Fill-in-the-Blank Questions

Advantages
Fill-in-the-blank questions offer the following advantages:
! They engage the learner correctly.
! They are easy to score and construct.
When to Use Fill-in-the-Blank Questions
You should use fill-in-the-blank questions when:
! Testing learners for knowledge of facts and concepts
! Testing lower-level skills such as knowledge and comprehension
! Making learners apply what they know about a part of the subject to unknown
situations. That is, knowing a partial answer and then supplying the missing
information
Limitations
Fill-in-the-blank questions have the following limitations:
! They can be used only for testing recall of information. To some extent, you can use
them to test application of information, but only within a specific situation.
! If learners enter alternative responses that are also correct, scoring becomes
difficult.
Fill-in-the-blank questions are different from short-answer questions. The former

are completely objective whereas the latter are open to subjective expression by
learners.

6.2.7 Sequencing Questions
Sequencing questions describes an activity or a concept in steps, and learners are
required to arrange the steps in a logical sequence. Figure 6.10 shows some examples of
sequencing questions.
Example 1
Arrange the following planets in order of their distance from the sun.
1. Mercury
2. Uranus
3. Jupiter
4. Earth
5. Pluto
Example 2
Arrange the following activities to send an e-mail message in the correct
order.
1. Open Microsoft Outlook Express.
2. Click the Send button.
3. Write the main body of the e-mail message.
4. Type the e-mail address of the recipient.
Figure 6.10: Sequencing Questions
Advantages
Sequencing questions:
! Are easy to score in the case of factual information
! Can test misconceptions about a sequence of events, stages, or phases

Variation of Form
You can use sequencing questions as a variation of matching-list questions. Table 6.4
shows an example for this question form.
Match the step numbers in column A with the description of steps given in column B to
create a button in a pop-up menu in Macromedia Flash MX.
Column A Column B
Step 1 Create a keyframe in the Over frame.
Step 2 Create a new button symbol for menu items.
Step 3 Fill the rectangle with a different color for the

highlight color of menu items.
Step 4 Draw a filled rectangle in the Up frame of the

button symbol's Timeline.
Table 6.4: Example of Variation of Matching-List Question
When to Use Sequencing Questions?

You should use sequencing questions when testing procedures and processes.
Limitations
Some limitations of using sequencing questions are as follows:
! They tend to be giveaways if the sequences are easy to guess.
! They cannot be used to test higher levels of learning, such as synthesis and
evaluation.
6.2.8 Essay-Type Questions

Questions that require learners to apply their knowledge of a particular concept are
called essay-type questions. To answer these questions, learners often have to describe a
particular subject, explain a statement, or support their opinion, all in their own words.

Figure 6.11 shows examples for essay-type questions.
Example 1
What were the major causes of the French revolution?
Example 2
Explain why you agree or disagree with the following statement:
The Internet has revolutionized the way we communicate.
Example 3
Briefly summarize the contents of the book, The Six Thinking Hats by
Edward de Bono.
Example 4
Compare the following two methods for…
Figure 6.11: Essay-Type Questions
Essay-type questions are the most useful type of test item to test higher levels of
learning, such as synthesis and evaluation. They make learners apply existing
knowledge to new situations and context. These questions are not normally used in
WBTs and CBTs because of practical difficulties in scoring and entering responses.
These questions are more applicable in classroom situations and paper-and-pencil tests.
A recent trend in WBTs is offering mentoring services and expert guidance over
the Internet to learners. This enables you to use essay-type questions in WBTs and
CBTs, because you can use e-mail services to submit your answers to mentors and
experts for evaluation.

6.3 Guidelines for Writing Test
Items
Before choosing any test item, it is necessary to determine what you need to measure
and design a test item accordingly. Two cardinal rules for selecting the test items are to
ensure that all of them map to a course objective and that all course objectives are
evaluated with the help of a test item.
The instructional designer needs to follow certain guidelines when creating test items
that convey their objectives clearly to learners and measure the desired objectives:
! Test the critical or key content idea taught in the course. Do not test for trivial
information.
! Test only one idea.
! Test items should not teach. In other words, test items should not contain any new
terms or definitions.
! Get your test items reviewed by an expert or other knowledgeable person.
! Prepare keys or model answers in advance. These are also called cheat sheets.
Guidelines for writing specific types of test items are explained in the following
sections.
6.3.1 Multiple-Choice Questions

Guidelines for writing different parts of multiple-choice questions are explained in this
section.
Writing Stems
Some points to keep in mind when writing the question stem are as follows.
Use Standard Terminology

Use the same verb as in the objective for which the test item is being made, or use a
verb with similar meaning. The question should be framed in a language that can be
understood by learners and that has the same terminology as in the main text of the
course.

For example, if the objective is “Learners will be able to identify the factors that
influence the design of Web sites”, the question should be “Identify the factors that
influence the design of Web sites” and not “Explain the features of Web site design”.
Keep the Stem Concise

The question stem should not contain superfluous words that are not useful in selecting
an option. If any words appear in all options, these words should be included in the stem
itself. Figure 6.12 shows examples of writing stems.
Example 1A (superfluous information)
There are two basic varieties of coffee. One of them is:
$ Arabica $ Granular $ Exotica $ Regular
Example 1B
One of the varieties of coffee is:
$ Arabica $ Granular $ Exotica $ Regular
Example 2A (repeated words in options)
A word processor is used:
$ To write letters
$ To teach spelling to students
$ To generate new words out of old ones
Example 2B
A word processor is used to:
$ Write letters
$ Teach spelling to students
$ Generate new words out of old ones
Figure 6.12: Keeping the Stem Concise

In Example 2A, the word “to” is repeated in all options. This question can be reframed
by including “to” in the stem.
Avoid Clues
Avoid giving clues in the stem that would indicate the correct option. Using the same
terms in the stem and the options or using grammatical constructions that lead to the
correct option are common errors that instructional designers commit while writing test
items.
Do Not Make the Stem Negative

The stem should preferably not be negative. If there is a negative stem, it should be
emphasized. For example:
! Which of these animals is NOT an amphibian?
$ Frog $ Crocodile $ Fish $ Tortoise
Writing Options
Guidelines for writing options in multiple-choice questions are discussed in this section.
Avoid Clues
The options should not give away the right answer because of their construction. Avoid
the following common pitfalls:
! The correct option(s) should unarguably be the right option(s).
! The correct option should not be the most leading or longest option. Figure 6.13
shows an example for an inappropriate option.
Schizophrenia is the name given to the state of:
$ Indigestion
$ Unnatural sleepiness
$ Inflammation of vein
$ Mental disorder marked by disconnection between thoughts,
feelings, and actions
Figure 6.13: Giveaways

In this case, the last option is the longest one and is a sure clue.
! All wrong options should be mutually exclusive. That is, the correctness of one
should not mean the correctness of the other. Also, one incorrect option should not
lead to another incorrect option with which it overlaps. Figure 6.14 shows examples
of incorrect and correct questions.
Incorrect Example
The permissible variation in the diameter of the copper wire coming out
of an extruder is:
a. Less than 0.5%
b. Less than 1%
c. More than 5%
d. More than 6%
Correct Example
What would be the permissible variation in the diameter of the copper
wire coming out of an extruder?
a. Less than 0.5%
b. Less than 1% and greater than 0.5%
c. Between 5% and 6%
d. More than 6%
Figure 6.14: Giveaways
In the incorrect example, if option a is correct, option b is also correct. A better,

rephrased question and options are given in Correct Example.
The distracters should all be obviously wrong but not ridiculous or implausible. An
intelligent distracter would not mislead learners but would use common
misunderstandings, clichés, misconceptions, partial answers, and misused technical
terms and jargon, and mistakes that learners are likely to make.

Keep Options Parallel in Form
The options should all be parallel in form with respect to language and grammar.
Consider the following examples:
Example 1
Which of the following activities do you perform in the analysis phase?
$ Write scripts for the CBT.
$ Identifying the audience of the CBT
$ To define the objectives for the course
$ Construct the CBT.
Notice that all four options are different in their construction and language. To achieve
parallelism in options, you can write the same question as:
Which of the following activities do you perform in the Analysis phase?
$ Writing scripts for the CBT
$ Identifying audience of the CBT
$ Defining objectives for the course
$ Constructing the CBT
Example 2
Which of the following best defines Lotus Notes?
a. A networking application
b. An RDBMS
c. A flower
d. A mail program
In Example 2, option c is not parallel to the other options, which are different categories
of software.
Avoid “All of the above” as an Option

Avoid options such as “all of the above” or “none of the above” or “both a and b above”
when the learners are asked to choose the best option. However, “none of the above” is
an acceptable option in the case of factual questions. It is a good idea to refrain from
using “all of the above” as an option because if learners are sure of even one distractor,
it becomes a clue to ignore this option. Similarly, if there are even two correct options,
this option may be automatically selected.

Keep Options Concise
Include as much information as possible in the question stem and as little information as
possible in the options. For example, if the item wants to associate a term with its
definition, a better way would be to put the definition in the stem and the terms in the
options instead of the other way around.
Refer to the example given in Figure 6.13 earlier in this topic. This example has the
name of the disease in the stem and the definition in the options, which makes the
options longer.
A better way to phrase this question is:
A mental disorder marked by disconnection between thoughts, feelings, and actions is:
$ Dyspepsia $ Lethargy $ Phlebitis $ Schizophrenia
Have an Optimum Number of Options

Three or less options are considered too few, and six or more are considered too many.
The right number of options would be four to five.
One way to obtain distracters is to look at the answers given by learners in

short-answer questions from tests conducted earlier.
The guidelines specified above are applicable to all types of questions. These
guidelines will not be repeated for the other types of test items.

6.3.2 True/False Questions
Guidelines for creating true/false questions include:
! Prevent guessing: Ask more than one true/false question on a subject to check
whether or not learners have understood the key concepts taught in the course.
Present a series of true/false items to reduce guesswork by learners and add
complexity to the test. Figure 6.15 shows series of true/false questions on the
properties of carbon.
1. The atomic number of Carbon is 6.
% True % False
2. Carbon belongs to group 15 in the periodic table.
% True % False
3. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon and its compounds.
% True % False
4. Graphite is a hydrocarbon.
% True % False
Figure 6.15: Series of True/False Questions
! Use consistent terminology: The options should match the form of the question. If
the question asks to select yes/no, the options should not be true/false.
6.3.3 Short-Answer Questions

Short-answer questions should be written in a form that makes the responses easy to
score. To do this:
! The question should have a limited number of correct options. Consider the
following example:
What are the four properties of carbon?
In this question, different learners will give different answers because there are
several right answers. These types of questions cannot be scored properly in this
form.

A better short-answer question is:
Name two allotropes of carbon.
This question has limited correct options: graphite and diamond.
! The correct answer should be identified by the presence or absence of keywords
instead of the syntax or order of responses, which is likely to create difficulties in
scoring responses. In the preceding example, the keywords could be color. Graphite
is black; diamond is colorless.
! Common misspellings, synonyms, and grammatical variants should be acceptable in
place of ideal responses.
! If there are any specific requirements for the answer, they should be made clear to
learners. For example, inform learners if the answers should all be in text, numerals,
or mixed, or specify length of the answer.
It is a good idea to incorporate some basic validation procedures when accepting

the answers provided by learners. For example, flashing a warning if the answer
exceeds a word limit or if the learner enters unacceptable characters in the response.
6.3.4 Matching-List Questions

Guidelines for creating matching-list questions are discussed in this section.
Make the Question Easy to Read and to Attempt

Keep the lists to an optimal length so that both of them fit in the same frame. Otherwise,
learners need to flip frames and jump back and forth to look at the question and options.
Make it easy for the learner to match the lists by simply connecting them with a line or
dragging and dropping an item from one list to the other instead of typing the name or
the number of the matching item.
Avoid Clues
Remove the elimination effect and clues by including more options in one list than in
the other. Then, at least one of the options in the list will have no match in the other list.
Guidelines for Other Forms of Matching-List Questions

In addition to the preceding common guidelines, there are some specific guidelines to
be followed for variations of matching-list questions.

Click-in-Picture Questions
Some guidelines for click-in-picture questions are as follows:
! Use pictures that download quickly.
! Pictures should directly relate to descriptions given and should be as real as
possible.
! Pictures should be large, clear, and distinct.
Drag-and-Drop Questions
Some guidelines for drag-and-drop questions are as follows:
! The slots to which the visuals need to be dragged should be large and distinct
enough to accommodate visuals.
! Describe visuals in the options and indicate what pictures on the screen can be
moved.
6.3.5 Simulation Questions

Guidelines for creating simulation questions are discussed in this section.
Make It Easy to Interpret

Ensure that the simulation is explained clearly and learners know how they can interact
with the simulation, such as which buttons they can press. Provide the end goal to
learners along with the restrictions, such as time limit or a particular method. Provide
scoring guidelines to learners, such as what will happen if they are not able to complete
the entire procedure and whether or not they will be given any marks for the extent to
which they are able to perform the activity.
Keep Optimum Number of Steps

Keep the simulation simple. Do not involve more than five to seven steps. Test only
critical steps. Do not test steps that are repetitive or prerequisites. This may ignore some
of the steps that learners need to perform in real life but are not useful in testing a
particular skill. If there are any assumptions made for developing the simulation, such
as the presence of a particular option that is unlike the real-world situation, explain it to
learners.

6.3.6 Fill-in-the-Blank Questions
Besides following the common guidelines described earlier in this section, remember
that the blank should preferably be at the end of the stem, instead of at the beginning or
in the middle.
6.3.7 Essay-Type Questions

When writing essay-type questions, ensure that:
! The complexity of the essay-type question is not beyond the maturity level of
learners and the situations they are familiar with.
! The question is phrased in such a way that learners must not only present their
opinion on a controversial topic but must also present evidence to support that
opinion.

6.4 Writing Feedback and Grading
After learners finish taking a test, they become curious and ask: “What did I score in the
last test that I took? What did my peers score? Will I pass the test? What was wrong in
the answer that I gave? What should I be careful about when I take the test next time?”
Writing feedback and grading responses so that learners can get answers to these
questions is the next task of an instructional designer. Evaluation is not complete
without these steps.
6.4.1 Feedback
Feedback is the mechanism that informs learners whether or not their response to a
particular question is correct.
Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback that the instructional designer can provide to learners:
! Prescriptive
! Diagnostic
Prescriptive
Prescriptive feedback informs the learner only the correct response for a test item. This
type of feedback does not provide any other information to the learner, such as what
went wrong, what can be improved, and the likelihood of the same mistake being
repeated.

Diagnostic
Diagnostic feedback informs learners why their response was incorrect, helps learners
figure out the correct response themselves, and encourages them to try again. This type
of feedback clarifies any misconceptions that learners might have. Diagnostic feedback
has the following parts:
! Score achieved by the learner
! Answer provided by the learner
! The reason why the learner’s answer is incorrect
! Links or names of the original modules/topics or any other material that the learner
can review to clear up misconceptions
Consider the multiple-choice question shown in Figure 6.16.
When the remote computer disconnects from the port, you should:
% Turn off the advanced modem features
% Restart the computer
% Redial the entry
% Enable automatic redialing
Figure 6.16: A Multiple-Choice Question
If a learner selected the first option, you can provide two types of feedback. Figure 6.17
shows the prescriptive feedback.
When the remote computer disconnects the port, you should:
% Redial the entry
Feedback: You selected option 1. This is an incorrect response.
Your score: Zero
The correct response is 4.
Figure 6.17: Prescriptive Feedback

Figure 6.18 shows diagnostic feedback.
When the remote computer disconnects the port, you should:
% Redial the entry
Feedback: You selected option 1. This is an incorrect response. You
turn off the advanced modem features when the port gets disconnected
and redialing does not help.
Your score: Zero
Try again. Better luck next time.
Figure 6.18: Diagnostic Feedback
Diagnostic feedback gives learners their score and the reason why their answer is
incorrect. In addition, it reiterates important content on related problems.
When to Give Feedback

“A truth spoken before its time is dangerous.”
—Greek Proverb
You can provide feedback at various points in the course. Different learners have
different preferences regarding the stages at which they would like to receive feedback.
Feedback can be provided:
! After every question
! After a learner completes the test
! After the test is evaluated manually by an SME

Table 6.5 describes the advantages and disadvantages of giving feedback at each stage.
Stage of Feedback Advantages Limitations
After every question ! It motivates learners to ! It breaks the continuity of the

attempt the next question. test.
! It removes learners’ ! Learners who get most of
misconceptions early on in the questions right, find it a
the course so that they do waste of time to read a
not lose out on other related caption that tells them they
questions. answered correctly.
! Some learners may not be
able to pay attention to the
feedback in their anxiety to
complete the test.
After learners complete ! Learners are saved the effort ! A single misconception can
the test of reading too many screens lead learners to answer all
of feedback, particularly if related questions incorrectly.
the feedback is for the
correct answers.
! The time taken to complete
the test is reduced.
! Learners are in a more
relaxed frame of mind and
are likely to accept feedback
about their answers.
! Common mistakes
committed by learners can
be grouped, and feedback
can be provided together for
all of them.
After the test is evaluated ! It has advantages similar to ! Learners will have to be
manually by an SME those of feedback after the prepared beforehand for the
test is complete. delay in feedback because
of external evaluation.
! If the evaluators are not
available, the instructional
designer will have to arrange
for fallback options.
Table 6.5: Different Stages of Feedback

This is only a brief list of the advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
Experience, an understanding of learner characteristics, and instinct help choose an
appropriate approach.
Guidelines for Writing Feedback

Guidelines to be followed when writing feedback include:
! Phrase the feedback in acceptable language. Do not use words like “Failed” in the
case of incorrect responses. The purpose is just to let learners know that they have
entered an incorrect response, not to humiliate them.
! Give learners the freedom to use these links to access the original material later in
the course.
While feedback can be used to teach, it should be limited to the concepts taught in the
course. Do not include unnecessary information in feedback.
If the test is timed and feedback is being given during the test, be sure to do the
following:
! Stop the timer while learners are accessing the feedback.
! Make reading the feedback optional. Give learners the flexibility to skip the
feedback at that time and return to it later.
! Ensure that the feedback to one question does not give clues to answers to some
other related question.
! Ensure that the questions are independent of each other.
6.4.2 Grading
Learners not only need feedback about their performance, but they also need scores
about their performance. Assigning scores or categories to learners based on their
responses to questions in the tests is called grading. Many instructional designers prefer
to provide categories instead of scores because adult learners are assumed to be
self-directed and do not need scores to motivate them.

You can grade learner responses using different methods. These methods are:
! Real-time grading through test engines
! Grading by a program built into the course
! Submitting answers to SMEs and manual grading
! Manual grading by senior coworkers
Real-Time Grading Through Test Engines

In this method of grading, responses are evaluated in real time through a test engine that
communicates to a remote server, which interprets the answer and provides a score. An
example of this is the grading in Microsoft Certification courses.
Advantages
Advantages of real-time grading are as follows:
! Scores/grades can be provided immediately to the learner.
! The instructional designer can track learners’ performance and provide immediate
feedback.
! The procedure of grading is objective and unbiased because a computer evaluates
responses.
Limitations
The limitations of real-time grading include the following:
! There is no scope for evaluating subjective questions. It is limited to questions that
have simple, predecided, and short answers.
! It cannot work without a good network connection.
Grading by a Program Built into the Course
In this method of grading, responses are evaluated by a built-in program in the course.

Advantages
Advantages of grading by a built-in program include the following:
! Scores/grades can be provided immediately to the learner.
! The grading procedure is objective and unbiased because a computer evaluates
responses.
! Evaluation can be done even without a network connection.
Limitations
Limitations of grading by a built-in program include the following:
! There is no scope for evaluating subjective questions. Evaluation is limited to
questions that have simple, predecided, and short answers.
! The instructional designer cannot track learners’ performance and cannot provide
immediate feedback.
Submitting Answers to SMEs and Manual Grading

In this method of grading, learners submit their responses to an SME. The SME
evaluates these responses manually and provides grades/scores to learners.
Advantages
The advantages of manual grading include the following:
! Evaluation incorporates the SME’s wisdom and eliminates the mechanistic nature
of a computer program.
! Both subjective and objective questions can be evaluated through this method.
Limitations
The limitations of manual grading include the following:
! It is more time-consuming than other methods.
! It becomes cumbersome if the number of test takers is high.

Manual Grading by Senior Coworkers
In this method, responses are evaluated manually by senior coworkers of learners.
Advantages
The advantage of this method is that coworkers can provide a more realistic score based
on everyday real-life experiences.
Limitations
The limitations of manual grading by senior co-workers include the following:
! Evaluation becomes time-consuming.
! Grading can involve some amount of bias because it depends on the skill and
opinion of coworkers.

In this book, a case study is used to demonstrate the application of the ADDIE model
for developing a course. The results of each step in the phases of the ADDIE model are
presented at the end of each chapter. In this chapter, the key evaluation decisions and
sample test items for the course are covered. To read the complete case study, you can
refer to the Appendix at the end of the book.
6.5.1 Key Decisions

Table 6.6 describes the decisions and their rationale.
Decision Description and Rationale
Type of Evaluation Formative

It will be useful to conduct a formative evaluation
to find answers to the following questions:
• Does the course cover all content points
adequately?
• Are the objectives of the course clear?
• Do the evaluation exercises test the course
objectives clearly?
• Is the course written in language that is easy to
comprehend?
• Does the look and feel of the course appeal to
learners?
• What additional topics should be added to the
course?
• Can learners locate relevant content easily?
• Does the course require any additional links for
expert learners?
• What three recommendations would you give
for improving the look and feel of the course?
The preceding questions are only sample

questions.

Summative
Organize a test at the end of the course to
check whether or not the store assistants have
met objectives.
Confirmative
A month after the course, a questionnaire can
be used to find out if there are any gaps in the
skills of learners and what could be the
measures to bridge those gaps. Some tools for
this can be feedback from managers, a practice
test, and interviews with store assistants.
Criteria-based
The purpose of the course is to teach the store
assistants how to use Microsoft Excel, not to
check the comparative skills of the assistants.
As a result, criteria-based evaluation will be
used.
Purpose of the test The purpose of the test is to assess whether or

not the store assistants can enter data and do
simple mathematical calculations using
Microsoft Excel 2000 to create error-free sales
reports efficiently.
What is to be measured The test will measure the following course

objectives:
• Describe workbooks, worksheets,
components of spreadsheets, and the
Microsoft Excel workspace.
• Navigate in a workbook using the File
menu and other options, such as keys and
scroll bars.
• Enter and edit labels and values.
• Enter and edit formulas.
• Move and copy data within a worksheet
and from one worksheet to another.
• Calculate sums, averages, min, max, and
count value given a range of values with
relevant functions.
Test frequency Frequent tests are not required: one summative

and one confirmative evaluation is sufficient to
find out whether learners have achieved the
objectives. Frequent tests in a corporate

environment may become a sensitive issue with
learners, so the frequency of tests in this
environment cannot be high.
Number of questions per test The summative test should have the number of
questions required to test objectives. In this
case, a total of six questions, of which two are
based on the concepts and four on the tasks
used, will be needed.
Time available for the test Speed is not important in the summative test. As
a result, the time limit will be comfortable. A
one-hour test for six questions will be used.
Use of optional questions Learners need to master all tasks. As a result,

there is no reason to provide optional questions.
Allowing repeat attempts There is no harm in allowing learners to attempt

the summative test again because the intent of
the course is to develop the skills of learners. If
learners are not able to pass the test even after
a repeat attempt, they should take the course
again and then attempt the test.
Handling technical problems A substitute test will be developed if there is a

technical problem and the original test cannot
run.
Validity and reliability The test will be made valid by mapping all
questions directly to the objectives of the
course. Detailed instructions for evaluating the
answers will be drawn up.
Table 6.6: Decisions Related to Evaluation for the Basic Excel for Store Assistants Course
6.5.2 Test Items

Most of the questions will involve simulations to test the skills of learners because
learners need to be proficient using Microsoft Excel 2000 and not the concepts.
However, one multiple-choice question and one matching-list question will be used to
test the objectives, which are based on concepts.

Table 6.7 presents some sample questions with the corresponding objectives.
Test Item Corresponding
Objective
Match the terms in Column A with their descriptions in Column B. Identify

spreadsheet
Column A Column B
rows, columns,
Rows The intersection of a row and a column cells, labels, and
values.
Columns The names used in spreadsheet to identify the
information contained therein
Cells The horizontal groups of cells into which a spreadsheet

can be divided
Labels The data put in a spreadsheet
Values The vertical groups of cells into which a spreadsheet

can be divided
In this exercise, you will copy data from the Day 1.xls to the Wk1.xls. The file Move and copy
Day 1. xls contains one day’s sales data for Raymond, and daily data needs to data from one
be copied to Wk1.xls. Copy data from the Totals row of Day 1.xls to the Day 1 worksheet to the
row of Wk1.xls. other
In this exercise, you will perform a series of actions on worksheet WK1.xls. Calculate, by
Wk1.xls contains the week’s data for Raymond. typing, sums,
& In (II) 19, enter a function to calculate Raymond’s total sales for the week. averages, min,
max, and count
& In (I) 20, enter a function to calculate Raymond’s average sales for the
value given a
week.
range of values
with relevant
functions.
Table 6.7: Sample Questions for Summative Evaluation

You can ask the following questions to store assistants and store managers a month after
the course:
Store managers:
! What was the error rate in sales reports last month?
! How much time do store assistants take in preparing reports now?
! What is the rate of data losses in the last month?
! Can the store assistants use formulas and functions for calculations?
! Is there any other input that you think will be useful for store assistants?
! Give three suggestions to improve the content or the form of the course.
Store assistants:
! What features of Excel can you currently use?
• Creating database files
• Basic commands
• Formulas
• Formatting and layout
• Basic data analysis
• Advanced data analysis
• Presentations with charts
• Data summary
• Creating hyperlinks
! In which topic would you like to get additional training?
• Basic commands
• Formulas
• Formatting and layout
• Basic data analysis
• Advanced data analysis
• Presentations with charts
• Data summary

! Using a scale of 1–5, rate the course in terms of:
• Content coverage of objectives ____
• Look and feel of the course _____
• Interactivity ____
• Capacity to generate interest _____
Some of these questions are similar to the questions used at the time of the needs
assessment. This will facilitate comparison of learners’ skills before and after the
course.

Summary
! Evaluation is the process of determining the capability of learners, course, or an
instructional method to meet the instructional objectives set at the beginning of the
course.
! Assessment is the process of judging or measuring specific knowledge, skills, and
behavioral attributes of learners using tests, observation, and interviews.
! Tests are a specific form of systematic procedures or tools used to measure and
describe the specific knowledge, skills, and behavioral attributes of learners in
either a numerical or a qualitative manner.
! Evaluation is necessary to:
• Understand whether or not the objectives of the course are being met
• Periodically check the progress of learners through the course
• Provide or reject certification to learners
• Practice application of skills learned in the course
• Guide learners through appropriate learning paths in the course
• Build the confidence of learners and motivate them to learn further
! Any evaluation conducted before the course is implemented is called formative
evaluation.
! A formative evaluation diagnoses strengths and weaknesses of the course in the
Design and Development phase so that the strengths can be increased and the
weaknesses can be removed.
! Any evaluation conducted after the course is implemented is called a summative
evaluation.
! A summative evaluation measures the skills and knowledge level of learners after
they have taken the course and the effectiveness of the course in achieving its
objectives.
! Any evaluation conducted a long time after the implementation of the course is
called a confirmative evaluation.
! A confirmative evaluation determines whether or not the course is able to make
learners perform and retain knowledge and skills in the long run.

! When the scores of all learners are compared to some external, specific, and
predecided benchmark to measure performance in a test, the evaluation is called a
criteria-based evaluation.
! When the scores of a learner are compared with the scores of other learners to
measure performance in a test, the evaluation is called a norm-based evaluation.
! Test items are questions and interactions used to measure learning.
! Common types of test items are:
• Multiple-choice questions
• True/False questions
• Short-answer questions
• Matching-list questions
• Simulation questions
• Fill-in-the-blank questions
• Essay-type questions
• Sequencing questions
! Two cardinal rules for writing the test items are that all test items map to some
course objective and all course objectives are evaluated with the help of some test
items.
! Test items should follow certain content and language guidelines to test the
objective effectively.
! Feedback is a mechanism to let learners know whether or not their response to a
particular question is correct.
! Prescriptive feedback informs learners only the correct response for a test item.
! Diagnostic feedback informs learners why their response is incorrect and
encourages them to figure out the correct response themselves.
! Feedback can be provided at various points in the course:
• After every question
• After the complete test
• After the test is evaluated manually by a SME
! Assigning scores or categories to learners based on their responses to questions in
tests is called grading.

Assignments
1. Differentiate between formative, summative, and confirmative types of
evaluation and give an example of each.
2. Differentiate between norm- and criteria-based evaluations.
3. State four guidelines for creating all types of test items. Illustrate each
guideline by giving an example each for correct and incorrect questions.
4. What are the four methods of grading the responses of learners? Explain the
advantages and limitations of these methods.
5. Surf the Internet. Search for at least two varieties of the type of test items
discussed in the chapter, and describe them.

Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
1. Complete the following crossword using the following clues:
Across: 1: Description in limit (5,6)
2: Binary choice (4,5)
5: List of options (8,6)
6: Two columns (8,4)
7: Complete the statement or table (4,2,3,5)
Down: 1: Proceed in steps (10)
3: Describe in detail (5,4)
4: Generic interactions (10)
1
2
3 4
5
2. Identify the problems with the following set of questions, and suggest
solutions to correct them:
Question 1
Sequence the steps in the process of starting a car.
1. Press the clutch.
2. Put the car key in its slot.
3. Release the clutch.
4. As you release the clutch, press the accelerator.
5. Shift into first gear.

Question 2
Lithography is the name given to:
1. The process of printing from plate, which has been handled such that ink
sticks only to the design to be printed.
2. The art of beautiful handwriting.
3. The process of recording heart movements.
4. The process of drawing maps.
Question 3
What are the functions of a food processor?
1. Chops vegetables
2. Kneads dough
3. Uses very little electricity
4. Slices vegetables
3. The following paragraph describes two behaviors that leaders exhibit. These
are directive and supportive behaviors. Create two test items to evaluate each
of the following objectives:
• Identify the characteristics of directive and supportive leadership
behaviors.
• Identify the behavior exhibited by a leader in a specific situation.
The first objective is at Bloom’s Comprehension level, and the second objective is
at Bloom’s Analysis level. You need to consider this factor before designing the test
item.
The two types of behaviors that combine to produce a particular leadership style are
directive and supportive. A leader with directive behavior sets goals, objectives, and
targets for the team. The leader clearly defines the role that each person will play in
accomplishing the task. The leader makes resources available for followers and plans
work for them. The job priorities are clearly communicated and deadlines set. The
leader keeps a close supervision on followers and frequently checks to see if work is
done properly and on time. The leader believes in showing followers how to do a
particular task.

On the other hand, a leader with supportive behavior asks for suggestions or input on
task accomplishment. This type of leader facilitates the follower in task
accomplishment. Any time a follower has a problem in resolving an issue, a supportive
leader is ready to listen to the problems of the follower. The leader believes in
Lab Exercises
encouraging people to perform a task and when they are in doubt, the leader reassures
them that they can perform the task. This type of leader not only discusses the task with
the followers but also communicates to them the total organization’s operation. When a
task is accomplished, the leader praises the follower for performing the task
successfully.

Project
Write test items for evaluating the effectiveness of the course in your project using your
course objectives and learner description. Remember the following while doing your
project work:
! Take each objective and create test items to evaluate it.
! Use the guidelines for writing question stems and options.
! Ensure that you have a proper mix of types of test items, such as multiple choice,
sequencing, simulation, and true/false.
! After writing your test items, run through them with a friend or a classmate to check
if they are valid and reliable. Make changes if required.
You can use the formats displayed in section 6.5, Basic Excel for Store Assistants:
A Case Study, to record your answers.

Instructional
Approach and
Strategies
7
• Explain the purpose of an instructional approach and
instructional strategies in the course development process
• Select an appropriate learning mode such as ILT, CBT,
WBT, or blended, based on a learning scenario
7.1 Introduction
• Explain how the three major learning theories—behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism—influence the
architectures for learning courses 7.2 Instructional
Approach: Mode
• Select an appropriate learning architecture, such as
and Architecture
classic tutorial, hierarchical or behaviorist, guided
discovery, or exploratory, for a given learning scenario
7.3 Instructional
• Differentiate between various macro instructional
Strategies
strategies, such as directive, deductive, and generative
• Describe the micro instructional strategies and the 7.4 Basic Excel for
content type for which they are appropriate
Store Assistants: A
• Identify the learning events for effective learning with Case Study
reference to the ARCS model and Gagne’s Events of
Instruction
• Select an appropriate learning activity based on the
content type and the mode
• Select an appropriate instructional approach and
instructional strategies for a specified learning scenario

7.2 Instructional Approach and Strategies

7.1 Introduction
One crucial aspect of designing a course is how to present the content to learners. The
presentation aspect depends on decisions such as whether or not the course is delivered
as ILT or WBT and whether or not it uses simulations, case studies, role plays, or
lectures. These decisions are based on the learner profile, course content, and course
objectives. This chapter describes how to select an appropriate instructional approach
and instructional strategies. Figure 7.1 shows the Design phase of the ADDIE model.
Write objectives
Structure content
1. ANALYSIS
3. DEVELOPMENT
Figure 7.1: Design Phase in the ADDIE Model
7.1.1 Approach and Strategies

After identifying the audience for whom a course or a series of courses is intended and
the type of information to be imparted, the instructional designer must fix the mode and
architecture for imparting the instruction. What will be the mode of instruction? Will it
be instructor led, computer-based, or Web-based? Will it combine all three modes in
some way? After deciding the mode, the designer needs to handle the overall learning
architecture(s). Will the design be linear, hierarchical, or free flowing? Will learners be
Instructional Approach and Strategies 7.3

guided step-by-step, or will they be allowed to explore at will? The architectures need
not be mutually exclusive, and there can be an agreeable mix of architectures.
The instructional approach involves the selection of a suitable mode and architecture
for a course. If you apply a building metaphor to the process of learning, the
instructional approach is akin to deciding at the highest level about how the instruction
will be housed. This means deciding if there will be a block of flats or independent
bungalows, skyscrapers, or single-story structures.
Next, the designer needs to decide on instructional strategies. This means selecting the
kind of learning activities that will be accommodated within the course for which the
mode and architecture are already been fixed. The instructional designer needs to select
these activities based on the type of content, how to motivate the learner, how to retain
the learners’ interest, and how to enable the transfer of learning. Will there be a series
of lectures by instructors? Will the learners be given projects, case studies, or
role-plays? The instructional strategies need to be decided both at a macro as well as at
a micro level. At the macro level, the overall strategy for presenting information in the
course is decided. At the micro level, how to handle each chunk or discrete unit of
information is decided.
To continue the building metaphor, macro instructional strategies translate into the
design of the blocks of the building and micro instructional strategies translate into the
stones laid in individual blocks.

Figure 7.2 shows the generic decisions involved in defining the instructional approach
and strategies.
Mode
ILT CBT WBT
Blended
Architecture
Classic Tutorial Hierarchical Guided Discovery Exploratory
Macro Instructional
Strategies
Directive Deductive Exploratory
Micro Instructional
Expository Strategies Discover
Progressive Analogy/Metaphor
Scenario Strategies for Attention Simulation

• Relevance
• Confidence
• Reinforcement
• Satisfaction
Learning Activities
Figure 7.2: Decisions in Defining Instructional Approach and Strategies

Note that the process often varies in implementation. For example, if an organization is
developing a WBT for a client, the client can define the hardware or software platform
for distributing the course, which may, in turn, determine the instructional strategies. If
a firm is developing CBT, the mode of instruction is predefined.
7.1.2 Purpose of Instructional Strategies

“The acquisition of different types of knowledge and skills require different conditions
for learning (Gagné, 1985). If an instructional experience or environment does not
include the instructional strategies required for the acquisition of the desired
knowledge or skill, then effective, efficient, and appealing learning of the desired
outcome will not occur.”
—M. David Merrill,
“Instructional Strategies and Learning Styles: Which Takes Precedence?” in Robert
Reiser and Jack Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and Issues in Instructional Technology
Information is not instruction. How the instructor disseminates information is equally
important. Instructional strategies ensure that training courses are developed such that
the learner acquires the skill, knowledge, or attitude that is defined by the instructional
objective. They provide a means for sound decision making to determine the “Why?”
and “How?” of training in response to the identified training needs. Instructional
strategies play a vital role for both the learner and the instructional designer.
For a learner, appropriate instructional strategies accomplish the following:
! Make seemingly dull facts and information interesting
! Simplify complex processes and clarify difficult concepts
! Expose underlying principles
For the instructional designer, instructional strategies help do the following:
! Achieve course objectives
! Adapt the instruction to the audience for whom it is intended
! Motivate and retain the interest of learners
! Identify procedures and tools for effective transfer of learning

7.2 Instructional Approach: Mode
and Architecture
At the beginning of the Design phase, decisions need to be made regarding the mode of
the course as well as the architecture. These decisions are usually made after
completing the analysis of the learner and the context and determining the objectives of
the course. The instructional design should be adapted to the dominant learning style of
the audience, context, and the type of content. As a result, a learner analysis must be
done prior to deciding the instructional approach.
However, there are exceptions. Some decisions are made by the client, institution, or
management prior to the instructional designer starting work on a course. For example,
a client may require a WBT course for a specific need. In this case, the mode of
instruction is decided for the instructional designer.
7.2.1 Mode of Instruction

Instruction cannot be delivered in a vacuum. Decisions need to be made right at the
outset about the mode of delivery. To decide the mode of instruction, you must keep in
mind the following issues:
! The objectives of the course
! The learning styles, size, and the location of the audience
! How to maintain cost effectiveness
! The knowledge or skill to be disseminated
! The frequency of updating the information
! The time available for development and implementation

For example, to address a widely dispersed audience in different geographical locations,
a WBT may be suitable, whereas for teaching complex concepts an ILT may be more
appropriate. It is easy to update and modify a WBT, and you can use the WBT to
convey frequently updated information.
The definition and features of these modes of instruction are covered in Chapter 1.
Instructor-Led Training
ILT forms a major part of education and training. You can use it when a human face is
required for the instruction. For example, team-building courses, class lectures,
presentations, question-and-answer sessions, learner collaboration, introductory
sessions for CBT and WBT, and other instances in which learning depends on human
interaction. It can also be used to teach psychomotor skills such as cycling and sports.
Advantages of ILT
The advantages of ILT are as follows:
! ILT strategies and methods have a proven track record and are used widely.
! Effective instructors can gauge the needs of a class and adjust their teaching
accordingly.
! Effective instructors prove motivational in a way that no other mode of instruction
can.
! Instructors can answer questions appropriately when they arise. They can clarify
misunderstandings, fill the gaps, and rectify errors in the content or a learner’s
understanding of it.
! Instructors can grade activities and tests for which automated scoring is difficult.
For example, automated evaluation is difficult for full-length essays.

Disadvantages of ILT
The disadvantages of ILT are as follows:
! Some instructors do not have the requisite skills, information, or motivation.
! All learners need to be present together at a particular time and at a particular place
to benefit from a classroom instructor.
! You need to train the learners to handle real-time situations. Simulations are unable
to provide this training, at least at the same degree of difficulty as the real task.
! All learners may not get the same quality of instruction.
Computer-Based Training (CBT)
The advent of computers eliminated the need for learners to be physically present in a
classroom at a particular time. Learners can learn computer-based programs, at their
own pace and convenience. CBT uses computer systems to store and deliver
educational courses. It is appropriate for learners who find it inconvenient to assemble
in groups. You can use CBT for learning content that is not updated frequently and take
a long time to download if placed on the Web.
Advantages of CBT
The advantages of CBT are listed here:
! Instruction can be entirely self-paced.
! Instruction can be entirely stand-alone (asynchronous).
! Heavy media files can be accommodated.
! Unlike in a classroom, learners appreciate the feeling of anonymity.
Disadvantages of CBT
The disadvantages of CBT are listed here:
! There is no human interaction with the instructor or with other learners.
! Instruction cannot be periodically updated, as in the case of ILT or WBT.
! Media files, being typically heavy, require a large amount of memory on the
computer to run.

Web-Based Training
With the advent of the World Wide Web, the virtual age of instruction has arrived.
WBT utilizes Web technologies for the purpose of training. A large number of learners
can interact with each other and the instructor without having to be physically present at
the same place and at the same time. WBT is suitable for frequently updated content
because it is easy to modify.
Advantages of WBT
The advantages of WBT are listed below:
! It enables learners learn when and where they need training.
! Similar to CBT, WBT can be entirely self-paced.
! Unlike CBT, WBT enables interaction with other users and instructors. Interaction
can be synchronous as in chats or the virtual-classroom model or asynchronous,
through e-mail messages and access to Web pages at different times.
! Learners appreciate the feeling of anonymity.
! It can reduce the cost of traveling, infrastructure facilities, and lost time.
! Revising a course is easier.
Disadvantages of WBT
The disadvantages of WBT are listed below:
! Although human interaction exists, it is typically faceless.
! There can be bandwidth limitations, and heavy media files cannot be
accommodated.
! Navigation through the course needs to be relatively simple.
! Increased effort and time is required in designing WBT.
! Technical glitches can make the learning experience frustrating.
! Psychomotor skills, such as typing, dance, and playing sports, cannot be taught
using WBT.
Blended Learning
There are certain advantages and disadvantages of each of the modes of learning. Some
designers suggest a hybrid, integrated, or blended mode of learning. This type of model
can take advantage of the strengths of ILT, CBT, and WBT, and, at the same time,
avoid the pitfalls of each.

There are various permutations and combinations that you can use in hybrid or blended
learning. For example, you can begin the training with an introduction by an instructor,
who motivates and introduces the course to learners. The rest of the course can be
Web-based. You can deliver heavy graphics and media files or complex simulations
through CDs. There can be a final session in which the instructor clarifies any doubts
that arose during the WBT portion.
Take the case of a stand-alone CD that contains dynamic information that needs to be
upgraded on a regular basis. The information can be updated by an instructor or through
a Web site. You can distribute handouts of the updated material through the Web. To
interact with learners, you can use Web collaboration tools such as e-mail messages and
discussion groups or by face-to-face peer and instructor meetings.
7.2.2 Architecture and Theories of Learning

After determining the mode, the instructional designer needs to decide about the
architecture for the course. There are four types of architecture:
! Classic tutorial
! Hierarchical or behaviorist
! Guided discovery or simulation
! Exploratory
The types of architecture for courses can be linked to and are based on vast research
and theories of how learning takes place. These conform to the following three schools
of learning, which were discussed in Chapter 3:
! Behaviorism
! Cognitivism
! Constructivism
Classic Tutorial
It is believed that the classical lecturing style suffices for all audiences and all types of
information. Instruction is delivered in a linear way. Figure 7.3 shows this architecture.
Introduction Concept Summary Test
Figure 7.3: Classic Tutorial Type of Architecture

In the classic tutorial, learners start with an introduction to the lesson and then proceed
through a series of pages teaching progressively more advanced skills or concepts. At
the end of the sequence, learners encounter a summary or review of the concepts and a
test or activity to measure whether or not they accomplished the objectives of the
lesson.
The classic tutorial structure is a safe and reliable choice for the following reasons:
! It is familiar to learners.
! It is simple enough to create largely from templates.
! It is flexible enough to adapt to many purposes. It fits in well with many structured
design methodologies and instructional design formulae.
Behaviorism and the Classic Tutorial Architecture

Behaviorism, with its drill-and-practice strategies, carries forward the tradition of the
classic tutorial. Behaviorists believe that learning results in a change in the learner's
behavior. The focus of behaviorists is on the output of the learning process. Instruction
based on behaviorist theory is primarily a linear and structured process. There are
predetermined objectives and predetermined reinforcements when the objectives are
met. The steps to achieve the goal are defined up-front. The instruction is
outcome-based, and there is frequent reinforcement of concepts with examples,
interactions, and practices.
Figure 7.4 shows the architecture of a CBT or WBT implementation of the classic
tutorial.
Introduction Basic Concept Advanced Concept Summary Test
Example and Example and

Interactivity Interactivity
Practice Practice
Figure 7.4: Behaviorist Style Classic Tutorial Type of Architecture

Cognitivism and Instructional Design
Toward the beginning of the 20th century, some researchers and educationists began to
question the behaviorist approach. Although cognitive psychology can be traced back to
the ancient Greeks, this approach of understanding learning became evident in
American psychology during the 1950s. While the behaviorist approach was focused on
external behavior, cognitive science moved its focus on how the mind works. The
working process of the mind could be exploited to enhance the learning process. The
cognitive theory argued that learning essentially involved a change in the existing
cognitive models of the mind. But this is not to say that the emerging cognitive school
rejected everything behaviorism stood for. They acknowledged the behaviorist principle
of reinforcement.
Schema
A schema refers to the mental model that people have for organizing and storing
information. To enable learning, new information is related to current schemas. For
example, to teach new information, it is put in the context of an existing schema and its
similarities or dissimilarities with existing schemas are emphasized. The underlying
belief is that if information is made relevant, it is easier to absorb and apply.
Instructional design relies heavily on the cognitive theory. For example, chunking of
information into relevant chunks, sequencing chunks, and labeling them are some
examples of applying this theory. Chapter 5 discussed these topics in detail. Another
example is the use of advance organizers. Advance organizers orient and guide learners
to the learning material. They prepare a structure of the information and help learners
construct schemas of the new information. (Advance organizers are discussed further in
section 7.3)
Constructivism and Guided Discovery Architecture

Constructivism recommends a flexible approach where the learning experience of each
learner might not be the same and the methods and results of learning are not
necessarily measurable. To promote effective learning, constructivism proposes that
learning environments seek to meet the following objectives:
! As far as possible, use real tasks and realistic learning scenarios based on real tasks.
! Present real-world experiences, and refrain from a simplistic approach.
! Exploit the power of group interactions and collaboration to accelerate learning.
! Encourage learners to reflect and learn from their experiences and form their own
conclusions.

The technological advances of the 1980s and 1990s enabled designers to move toward a
more constructivist approach to instructional design. For example, the Web learning
environment enables an architecture that gives learners the freedom to choose their
learning paths and does not restrict them to linear learning paths. This architecture is
called the guided discovery architecture. It enables interactions with minimal guidance.
This architecture provides feedback from multiple and real sources.
Figure 7.5 shows the guided discovery or simulation type of architecture.
Introduction/ If Correct If Correct

Simulation Step 2 Step 3
Overview
If Incorrect If Incorrect
Help Hint Hint
Summary Test
Figure 7.5: Guided Discovery or Simulation Type of Architecture
As shown in Figure 7.5, learners are put into a simulated environment. If they go
through the correct procedure, the course moves to the second step. If the procedure is
incorrect, a hint is provided to correct the mistake. Learners can also use alternative
methods and shortcuts. If it is a WBT or a CBT, a help button is always available. In the
case of ILT, the instructor’s help is always available.
Constructivism and Exploratory Architecture

Courses designed using the constructive approach are more flexible than courses
designed using a rigid approach. The content is not specified beforehand, and the
learners determine the direction. The learners are free to explore the learning
environment themselves. This exploration is entirely free flowing except for a minimal
structure such as a table of contents. An open learning environment with a rich database
of information and examples characterizes the exploratory architecture. Assessment is
much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria.
Instead, it depends on the process and self-evaluation of learners.

Figure 7.6 shows the exploratory type of course architecture.
Introduction
Examples and Subjective

Index Home Summary
Interactivity Evaluation
Links and/
or Databases
Figure 7.6: Exploratory Type of Architecture
After a course is introduced, learners move to the CBT or WBT home page. The home
page contains many linked documents or databases that can be explored. There is also
an index to reach specific destinations. In addition, there is a course summary and
subjective evaluation based on notes, early drafts, final products, and journals.
The constructivist approach recommends learner control, but it is important for
instructional designers to keep in mind the implications that this method has for a
novice learner. As a result, it is necessary to keep in mind that different types of
learners need different learning approaches.
Adapting the Architecture

The architecture must be adapted to the learning and skill level of the audience. The
guided discovery and exploratory architectures are better suited to teach a more
experienced audience, while the classic tutorial approach is better suited to build up the
basic skills of a novice learner.
The architecture also needs to be adapted to the type of learning that needs to be
imparted. For example, the classic tutorial architecture is better suited for teaching
repetitive procedural skills, while the exploratory architecture is better suited for
teaching principle-based tasks that require a significantly different response or
adaptation each time they are performed. Classic tutorial architecture is also well suited
for abstract concepts and internal processes.
You do not need to limit yourself to a single architecture and can have a mixture of
architectures based on the diversity of the audience and the subject matter. For example,
a classic tutorial may well include some visual slides and exploration by students. On

the other hand, the guided discovery architecture may incorporate some behavioral
step-by-step exercises to strengthen or refresh procedural skills.
Peggy Ertmer and Timothy Newby observed in a June 1993 issue of Performance
Improvement Quarterly, “A behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery
of the content of a profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in
teaching problem-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in
unfamiliar situations (knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially
suited to dealing with ill-defined problems through reflection-in-action.”

7.3 Instructional Strategies
Instructional strategies are the means by which an instructional designer enables
learning. There are macro and micro instructional strategies. Macro instructional
strategies are decided at the course level and cover multiple concepts or skills. Micro
instructional strategies are specific instructional events or activities for lessons or
topics.
7.3.1 Macro Instructional Strategies

There are several ways to provide information and to employ learning strategies to
guide the learner. The macro strategies used for a course of instruction can be:
! Directive
! Deductive
! Generative
Directive Instructional Strategies
Directive strategies explicitly provide most of the events of instruction, which reduces
cognitive loading. Learners are directed by the instructor or course material to acquire
the learning instead of discovering or constructing the learning on their own. The
purpose of this approach is to conserve the capacity of the learner for acquiring new
skills and knowledge by limiting their effort in structuring the learning.
These strategies are used in the classic classroom environment, where the teacher
disseminates information. They use objectives, exercises, and defined instructional
procedures to enhance learner skills and knowledge. Directive strategies expect learners
to master the knowledge and skills delivered in the class and rely heavily on
predetermined curricula. Examples of these are textbook-based courses,
instructor-guided learning, and self-paced course material.
Deductive Instructional Strategies

The instructional designer can take a deductive approach for learners to attain skills and
knowledge. The deductive approach begins at the perceptual level and expects learners
to discover the underlying structures, principles, and concepts.
According to educational theorist David Ausubel, the route to attaining the underlying
structures, principles, and concepts can vary. He believes instructors should use devices

such as an advance organizer, in which the top-most level of underlying structures and
principles is organized for the students beforehand. This becomes the intellectual
scaffolding that learners can use to structure the ideas and facts they encounter during
their lesson.
Ausubel recognizes that there is a huge amount of information to be learned about any
given subject. As a result, the instructor must directly present a way to organize the
outlines of the information so that the learners first see the big picture. Then, the
instructor can proceed with individual activities and assignments.
Generative Instructional Strategies

Modern theory describes generative learning in terms of deeper levels of processing for
the extraction of meaning. Superior learning results from content that has been acted
upon. The content is better remembered if it is actually generated by the learner, instead
of being merely presented to the learner. This is termed as generative learning.
The four phases of generative strategies are recall, integration, organization, and
elaboration. Generative strategies use these four phases to encourage learners to think
and form new knowledge. In this method, the instructor should have the ability to
generate the necessary prompts and relevant questions that will lead learners to think,
integrate, organize, and elaborate.
You must allow the circumstances surrounding the learning situation to help you
decide which approach to learning is most appropriate. It is necessary to realize that
some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions, whereas others are
more suited to learner control of the environment.
Example of Macro Instructional Strategies

We will now look at the different strategies that can be used to teach how to handle
various customers at a call center.
Strategy 1
Students read some text on different customer types, or they are told about various
types of customers. There are questions, examples, and practice on this content. The
learners can see some actual examples. Then, they read or are told about types of
customers. There are examples and practices for all types of customers. There is a
summary and a test to see how much has been learned.

This is an example of the directive instructional strategy. It would work well in
situations where learners are meant to recall various types of customers and their
characteristics in isolation. It may not work so well when the concept needs to be
applied to other customers who are not yet been categorized.
Strategy 2
Before beginning the actual lesson, the instructor presents learners with an advance
organizer that consists of an overview of different customer types. The instructor then
provides different examples of hypothetical customers. Learners are encouraged to
reach their own conclusions about them based on the overview. The instructor asks
them about their conclusions. The instructor intervenes at crucial moments only to elicit
from learners their own understanding and application of the material. Apart from this,
the instructor intervenes as needed for better understanding.
The advance organizer improves on the presentational methods used in the directive
strategy discussed in Strategy 1. The deductive strategy enables learners to form their
own concepts regarding customers. They handle the customers based on the knowledge
that has been gained about them.
Strategy 3
Learners are introduced to different customers with different problems and attitudes.
They are asked to discover the underlying similarities and differences and make their
own categories in a creative manner. Learners can be asked to work in groups, and the
groups can occasionally share their classifications and make new labels based on them.
The instructor occasionally introduces new concepts designed to increase the learners’
frame of reference. Learners collect more examples and see if they fit into the
categories that have been developed. They are given situations and asked to handle new
customer types.
This is the generative instructional strategy in action. It enables learners to discover
facts, interpret data, and grasp the concepts that lie behind it. In this manner, they can
apply their knowledge to new concepts. The downside is that it requires intensive effort
from the learners as well as the instructor and is time-consuming.
Each of these three strategies is useful in certain circumstances. Directive strategies are
quite adequate for learning chunks of information but not for a holistic overview of the
concepts that have been learned or the application of principles. Deductive and
generative strategies, on the other hand, help the development of higher-level skills and
attitudes in learners. While deductive strategies rely more on the intervention of the

teacher or facilitator at crucial moments, generative strategies expect learners to derive
their own answers.
7.3.2 Micro Instructional Strategies

At an intellectual or philosophical level, the instructional designer can decide to use a
certain instructional design theory, or a mix of theories. However, it still needs to be
translated to fit the practical constraints of a particular lesson or topic. Instructional
designers need to use various instructional strategies at the lesson or topic level to keep
the interest of learners alive and enable learning. The instructional strategies that go
into the design of a lesson or a topic range from expository to exploratory, from the use
of analogies to the build-up of progressive displays, from concept simulations to event
simulations. Sometimes it is better to provide learners the freedom to explore, while on
other occasions, it is better to use the telling mode.
Expository
The expository strategy consists of the telling mode. Learners are told the concepts or
other content in a direct manner. There is not much interaction or doing by learners.
The expository strategy works well when an entirely new concept with few, if any,
links to prior learning is being taught.
The expository strategy would work well for the first lesson of a series. For example, if
there is a series of lessons on electricity and the learner has no prior knowledge about
electricity, then it would be a good idea to have the first lesson in an expository format.
Discovery and Problem Solving

When the learners’ prior knowledge is being built upon, it is more appropriate to allow
them to discover the concepts of a subject instead of telling them. They may also be
asked to apply their knowledge to solve problems and arrive at a new level of
understanding.
Problem-based learning takes into consideration the entire work context of learners, the
entire range of skills to be mastered, and the resources that the learners need to solve
problems. It encourages learners to form creative paths to solve problems with a
judicious use of resources. The focus is on the following tasks:
! Understanding the problem and stating it clearly
! Locating, selecting, evaluating, and using information and resources
! Forming a solution after evaluating all feasible options

You can use this method to teach lessons that come after the first of a series. For
example, if learners already know about the basics of electricity, you can teach them
about electrical circuits in a problem-solving or troubleshooting format. You can give
them circuits that have faulty fittings and ask them to rectify the faults. This will
certainly be more interesting than merely being told about the topic. It will also lead to
longer retention as well as applicability.
Exploratory
This is an interactive method of learning that uses the computer as a learning medium.
The exploratory strategy is to be distinguished from the exploratory architecture, which
is the application of the same principle, but at the higher level of course design. In this
strategy, learners explore a certain complex object with many parts and fill in the
information about the object with their own investigation.
For example, a diagram of a plant is given. When the pointer is moved over it,
close-ups of various parts along with an explanation appear. This works very well when
a part has to be shown in relation to the whole. It is also advantageous from the
viewpoint of design because it avoids clutter.
Progressive Display or Build-up

This method is also used to explore a complex object with many parts. However, it does
not reveal the object in one step but builds it up, part by part, progressively over many
screens.
For example, a part of a machine is given on the first screen, and then other parts are
added in the subsequent screens until the machine is complete. This method has the
advantage of focusing attention on a part and how it fits into the whole.
Analogy/Metaphor
Some concepts taught are highly abstract, and learners cannot relate to them. In these
situations, it is a good strategy to direct them to an everyday parallel to which they can
relate.
For example, the electrons revolving around the nucleus in the atom are analogous to
the planets orbiting around the sun. An analogy can thus be drawn between the two.
However, care must be taken that the parallel approximates the truth and is not
improbable.

Situated Learning and Scenarios
You can make learning easier by setting it in situations that learners are familiar with. If
they can relate to examples from their own life, they will learn much faster.
An example is the use of objects, animals, stories, and concepts that learners are
familiar with to teach English. It has been found that this leads to far greater retention.
Simulation
This strategy involves duplicating concepts or events to show how they work in real–
life situations.
Concept Simulation
Concept simulation involves simulating or duplicating abstract concepts or laboratory
experiments to illustrate their working. A computer is a great medium for simulating
concepts that may otherwise be too abstract to comprehend or experiments that may be
too dangerous in real-life situations.
For example, chemistry experiments involving explosives can be safely shown using
concept simulations.
Event Simulation
Event-based simulations are a good medium for representing everyday occurrences of
replicable events. They work very well for subjects that require the simulation of
scientific phenomena or on-the-job daily scenarios.
For example, you can use event-based simulations to explain earthquakes, geysers,
magnetic attraction, and activities involved in a manufacturing process.
Cooperative Learning
In cooperative or collaborative learning, learners form small groups and each group is
assigned a task. There is a noncompetitive focus, interdependence, and interaction
within groups. With an effective instructor, this model can substantially enhance
learning effectiveness and collaboration.
For example, cooperative learning can be used for a team design project such as
preparing a report on the feasibility of a new project.

Mnemonics
Facts are facts. They have to be remembered. Either you have a great memory or learn
by rote. Isn’t that so? Actually, no. There are interesting ways of memorization that can
collectively be bunched into a method called mnemonics. It can help you learn tough,
boring, or linked information in an interesting way.
For example, take a word from the plant kingdom, cryptogamae. Learners may have
made many attempts to spell this word and failed. However, learning can be made easy
through an interesting visual connect. Learners can visualize a fat boy crying because
he needs to do physical training (PT) exercises and then play a game. Hence, “cry”,
“pt”, and “game” can be connected to remember the proper spelling of the word.
Learners can also devise different ways of remembering the same word. For instance,
somebody else could remember the same word, cryptogamae, by associating it with a
scary game played by a mummy that comes out of its crypt! A series of links could
similarly be remembered through their acronyms.
Mnemonics also helps remember a sequence. For example, the phrase “My very eager
mother just showed us nine planets” can be used to remember the sequence of planets
in the solar system. In this mnemonic, the first letter of each word corresponds to the
first letter of the planet names in increasing order of their distance from the sun
(Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto).
Do not force instructional strategies at the cost of learning. You may decrease the
learner’s role and end up with glitzy technological bells and whistles that merely
dazzle rather than teach.
In the following topics, you will look at two models of learning that are valuable guides
to the use of instructional strategies at the micro level.
7.3.3 ARCS
In the 1970s, John Keller found himself in disagreement with the prevailing educational
ideology. He was a psychologist in an era when learner differences in achievement
were all attributed to learner ability. According to Keller, it was not ability so much as
motivation that was lacking in some learners. The onus was on the designer to have
built-in motivational strategies that inspired learners to go through and benefit from the

learning experience. He proposed the ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence,
Satisfaction) model, which is described as follows:
! According to Keller, the initial strategy of gaining attention should be to stimulate
the interest and curiosity of learners. This can involve the use of interesting facts or
statistics, conflict, humor, audience participation, variability, and questions.
! Learners should next be shown the relevance, or the “what is in it for me?”, of the
subject matter so that the motivation to learn increases. Providing examples and
concepts related to the learners’ previous experience and values can do this. The
instructor should explain the utility and benefits of the subject in question and
present goal-orienting statements.
! Keller says that the designer should plan strategies of instruction so that learners are
allowed to develop their confidence. The harder they try, the better they will get. It
is important to set clear performance requirements, prerequisites, and evaluation
criteria. Setting realistic expectations and providing increasing levels of difficulty of
the content are also important. The designer should provide opportunities for
practice, increased learner independence, and learner-controlled elements.
! Keller states that learners should be provided opportunities to use the newly
acquired knowledge or skills in a real or simulated setting. Reinforcement will
sustain the desired behavior and will provide true satisfaction.
To implement the ARCS model, the designer needs to ask certain questions and analyze
the answers to them. These questions involve the value of the course to learners, the
goals that they would like to achieve, their interest or the lack of it in the topic, and
their most pressing problems.
As Horace Mann has said, “A teacher who is attempting to teach without inspiring
the pupil with a desire to learn is hammering on cold iron.”

Figure 7.7 shows a variation to the ARCS model, the theory of the learning cycle,
proposed by Donna E. Walker.
Figure 7.7: Learning Cycle by Donna E. Walker
7.3.4 Gagne's Events of Instruction

Walker’s cycle is more appropriate for stand-up training sessions, and the ARCS model
is not intended to stand apart as a separate system for instructional design. Robert
Gagne, a well-known name in behaviorism and experimental psychology, introduced
Gagne’s Events of Instruction, which indicate the essential factors for effective learning
and fit in quite well with the ARCS model.
Gagne’s nine events for effective learning, with their corresponding cognitive
processes, are:
1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
Example: ARCS and Gagne’s Events of Instruction

Consider a practical activity, flying a hot air balloon, to illustrate ARCS and the nine
Events of Instruction. The intended audience is young adults with little preknowledge
of the subject. The objective is to learn how to fly a hot air balloon. How would you
teach such an activity using ARCS and Gagne’s Events of Instruction? A tentative
lesson plan is given below.
The ARCS part of the plan is as follows:
! Gain attention through the perceptual arousal of the audience. Tell them interesting
and unusual facts about balloons so that they are stimulated to learn more.
! Provide the relevance of the lesson through objectives and goals orientation. Show
the learners the appeal of a hot air balloon flying so that the motivation to learn
increases. Provide examples and concepts related to the learners’ previous
experience and values.
! Develop the confidence of learners by making them comfortable with the controls
through a step-by-step tutorial on how to manipulate them. Then, put learners in
different balloon-flying situations with increasing degrees of difficulty. Provide
feedback to ensure remedial correction as well as an increase in confidence.
Increase the degree of challenge with each interaction and assess the work.
! Finally, put learners in a real-life or simulated hot air balloon-flying situation to
provide satisfaction.
In the second part of the activity, the motivational skeleton built in the ARCS model is
fleshed out using Gagne’s Events of Instruction.

Table 7.1 lists the learning activities along with Gagne’s Events of Instruction.
Event of Activity Rationale Map to
instruction ARCS
1. Gaining Gain attention by emitting a loud hiss as of air Start by getting Attention
attention escaping. The screen is smoky. As the smoke your learners’
clears, hot air balloons of various shapes and attention through
sizes are seen on the screen. A voice over an analogy, story,
says, “What goes up must come down or a paradox,
eventually. But what makes balloons stay up giving a tantalizing
in the air so long? How can we navigate in hint of what is to
them? Is it all arbitrary or is there a method to come.
the madness?” With the last sentence, the
focus shifts to swaying balloons.
2. Informing Provide the relevance of the lesson through Tell learners what Relevance
learners of objectives and goal orientation. The previous you want to
the objective frame freezes, and displays the text “Learn achieve. The
how to make constructive use of hot air”. manner should be
based on the
audience profile.
Create
expectancy.
3. Stimulating Give historical examples of how hot air Relate the new to Relevance
recall of prior balloons were used on ceremonial occasions the familiar. This is
learning by the Chinese and how the First World War a major factor in
introduced massive zeppelins. Give some acquiring new
examples of their use, such as for wildlife knowledge.
photography in the Serengeti. Give familiar
examples about how children blow into air
balloons and then let them go, and how they
zip about as the air escapes. Then, provide
some statistics about the utility of hot air
balloons. Finally, end the section with an
incongruous utility, such as how even Romeo
would have found a hot air balloon useful. A
visual of Romeo standing under Juliet’s
balcony serenading would cut to Romeo in a
hot air balloon on the same level as Juliet and
kissing her.
4. Presenting Enable learners to gain confidence by first Describe the key Confidence
the stimulus making them comfortable with controls and points in the
then taking them through a step-by-step lesson. List the
tutorial on how to manipulate a hot air steps in the

balloon. You can use a variety of media and procedures.
techniques, with actual demonstration of
controls, maps, and small video animations to
show step-by-step procedures.
5. Providing Demonstrate the working of the balloon in Demonstrate, and Confidence

learner several simulated or actual settings, such as then allow the
guidance in dead calm conditions and high wind. learners to have
Information must be in small chunks and limited exploration.
move from the simple to the complex.
6. Eliciting Put learners in different balloon-flying Involve the Confidence

performance situations with increasing degrees of difficulty. learners in
Take learners through various situations, questioning,
such as actual placid conditions to a learning, and
simulated stormy setting. doing. This
confirms the
learning.
7. Giving Give immediate and remedial feedback based Feedback, Confidence

feedback on the scenario and the possible especially the
consequences of a certain action. These can remediation of
vary from “Bravo!“ to ”You are too high; pull incorrect steps,
on the left lever!“ Feedback for incorrect reinforces
actions must always include alternatives to learning.
remedy the mistake.
8. Assessing Assign a practical activity to learners either This makes Confidence/

the singly or in groups. You can give them learners apply Satisfaction
performance hypothetical situations and/or coordinates and what they have
ask them to fly or navigate. Check and assess learned and
the work. Define attainable goals for the provides a means
assignments so as to instill confidence in of testing the
learners. learning outcome.
9. Enhancing Put the learners in a real-life or simulated hot It will enable Satisfaction
retention air balloon-flying situation to provide learners to apply
and satisfaction. the training in a
transfer of real-world
learning environment. This
is a step towards
mastery of the
learning.
Table 7.1: Lists the Learning Activities Along with Gagne’s Events of Instruction

The mode of instruction will vary depending upon the type of learners. Architecturally,
the training uses a hierarchical build-up that suits the behavioral approach.
7.3.5 Learning Activities

To implement micro instructional strategies, the instructional designer must select
learning activities. Mere action does not count as a learning activity. Coordinated
actions that exercise learners to think, analyze, apply, and synthesize qualify as learning
activities. Learners learn by listening, seeking advice, reading relevant material,
watching presentations, examining work samples, modeling the behavior of experts,
exploring, discussing ideas, practicing skills, memorizing, and conducting research. An
instructional designer must organize learning activities that enable learners to grasp the
information or skill being imparted in the best possible manner.
Learning Activity Cycle

Learning activities consist of at least three phases. In the first phase, the instructor
makes the learners ready for the main activity. They read background material, form
teams to do the activity, and so on. The second phase consists of learners doing the core
activity itself and submitting their findings. Then, learners, individually or as teams,
think of their actions during the activity and think of future actions and plan to apply
the knowledge or skills in other settings. Figure 7.8 shows the activity cycle.
Get Ready Act Reflect
Figure 7.8: Learning Activity
Learning Activities and Categories of Content

The learning activities that will be included in a course depend, to a large extent, on the
type of content to be communicated. There are five types of content:
! Fact: Specific information or data
! Concept: A group of objects or ideas that share critical attributes
! Procedure: A sequence of steps to accomplish a task
! Principle: States a cause-and-effect relationship
! Process: A flow of events or a description of how something works

The categories of content are explained in detail in Chapter 5, Structuring Content.
Besides these five types, some experts add two more categories:
! Attitude: Emotional and interpersonal skills
! Psychomotor: Skill in muscle coordination and physical activity
A concept can be best explained by first defining it, then discussing each critical
attribute, giving concrete examples, and using analogies. In contrast, a procedure can be
best taught by guiding learners through the individual steps of the procedure and then
having learners practice them later.
The terms synchronous and asynchronous, are often used to describe individual
events and activities. The term synchronous means that all participants in the
activity need to perform their parts at the same time. Such events include chat
sessions and videoconferences. Asynchronous activities are those activities that
participants can experience whenever they want. A test with automated scoring is
asynchronous because the learner can take it at any time.
Types of Learning Activities

There are some typical well-designed activities that can function both in the classroom
and over the Web. Table 7.2 compares two forms of activities:
Activity Description of Activity in ILT Description of Activity in Content Type
WBT Best Suited
for
Role-playing Learners play roles or act out Learners at different Attitude

scenarios situations that involve emotional locations adopt different
interpersonal interaction. roles and play out emotive
interpersonal issues.
Lecture It is the traditional form of It involves Webcast using Concepts or

presentation or classroom presentation by a skilled audio and video of a facts (involving
Webcast (with instructor with frequent interaction traditional training event for queries from
interaction between learners and the distributed learners. The learners)
between instructor. form is usually a lecture,

learners and the but it can be a
instructor) demonstration, interview,
panel discussion, or just
questions and answers.
Mentoring A mentor, a more knowledgeable Through telementoring or Facts, attitude,

and mature person, is paired with a online coaching, the and processes
protégé and provides the protégé mentor helps the protégé
with guidance and knowledge. using e-mail messages,
video conferencing, and
other Web technologies.
Reading Learners read a book, manual, Learners read content on a Facts,

article, poem, report, story, paper, Web page, in CBT or WBT concepts, and
or any other relevant instructional course pages, in a virtual processes
material. library, or at a site that
contains articles with
relevant instructional
material.
Learning games Learners play stimulating games Learners engage in Processes and
with a learning purpose. computer simulations for procedures,
practicing procedures. especially
those are risky
or expensive in
real- life
situations,
psychomotor
skills
Scavenger hunts Learners visit the library and Learners hunt for and Any subject of
newspaper offices to hunt for and locate relevant information study –
locate sources of information. from the Web. suitable for
concepts,
principles,
facts,
processes, and
procedures
Brainstorming Learners discuss and brainstorm a Learners spread over a Concepts and
problem to arrive at a solution. The large area come together processes
group, as a whole or in subsets, to think about and
works together on these occasions. generate solutions to a
problem.

Drill and practice Learners practice skills and abilities Learners play simulation Procedures
again and again with the objective games in which they and
of mastering them. initially read the goals and psychomotor
instructions and go through skills
the simulation, which
consists of rapid cycles of
interaction with feedback.
Case studies Learners examine case studies of Learners study relevant Abstract,
real-life scenarios, events, or real-life scenarios, events, general
processes to get to the underlying processes, or systems to principles
processes and principles. distill the underlying
information.
Project work – Learners prepare projects Learners obtain Suitable for all
actual and virtual individually or in groups by information and put types of
researching, collecting, analyzing, together projects content
and presenting information about individually or as virtual
topical subjects. teams.
Discussion Learners discuss ideas with experts Learners discuss ideas Suitable for all
and peers. with peers and experts by types of
means of discussion content
groups, chat sessions,
online conferences, e-mail
lists, and other
collaboration mechanisms.
Hands-on Learners perform a real task. Learner may be taken to Procedures

activities the real environment and and
encouraged performance psychomotor
of a real task. skills
Table 7.2: Learning Activities

model are presented at the end of each chapter. In this chapter, the instructional
approach and the strategies used for the course are discussed. To read the complete case
study, you can refer to the Appendix at the end of the book.
Table 7.3 describes the instructional approach and strategies.
Decision Description Rationale
Mode The course will be a WBT. It will ! Instructing the entire group of employees in
be distributed over the company Microsoft Excel at the same time in classroom
intranet. There will be an conditions will hold up their work and be a waste
introduction at the beginning by of time and money. Only the introduction by the
an in-house expert. Learners instructor will be synchronous. The modules
will interact with one another distributed over the intranet will be
and with the instructors through asynchronous, and learners can view them at
e-mail services and other any convenient time.
collaboration tools. ! A CBT course is not required because Microsoft
Excel does not need heavy media support. In
addition, a CBT course would not enable
learners to collaborate as they can over the
intranet.
! Putting the course on the Internet is not required.
The company employees need to access the
course, and this can be done on the intranet.
! A face-to-face introduction will build up the
relevance of the course and the motivation of
learners. They can clarify their preliminary
doubts.
Architecture ! The architecture will be ! Because the learners are not expert in using
largely hierarchical and Microsoft Excel, a handholding approach in
behaviorist. That is, there which the degree of difficulty gradually increases
will be step-by-step is best suited. The handholding approach can
guidance as well as drills gradually taper off as learners gain confidence.
and practice. Skills will be ! A lot of drills and practice will help learners gain
taught brick-by-brick. confidence initially.
There will be a bottom-up

approach, and the course ! When the need is not to learn mechanical
content will move from the procedures but to analyze the situation and apply
simple to the complex. formulae and functions, guided discovery is more
! For content such as suitable than drills and practice.
formulae and functions,
guided discovery will be
built in.
Macro Directive Suitable where learners need to master a skill. The

Instructional learner needs to learn Microsoft Excel basics.
Strategy
Micro ! Expository and exploratory ! A combination of expository and exploratory will

Instructional ! Simulations introduce concepts and principles.
Strategy ! Simulations will help in learning procedures in
Excel.
Learning ! Case studies ! During the course, learners can be provided with
activities ! Problem-solving case studies and asked to solve problems.
! Projects ! They can be given offline projects to identify

whether or not they have satisfactorily absorbed
the learning.
Table 7.3: Instructional Approach and Strategies Used for Teaching Basic Excel
7.4.1 ARCS
Table 7.4 describes the four parts of the ARCS cycle.
Strategy Means
Attention The in-house expert can gain the learners’ attention in the introduction.
The expert can give startling statistics about the loss being incurred by
the company as a result of incorrect reports.
In a more positive manner, the instructor can point out the fact that it is
very easy to correct these mistakes, giving examples of how this will
help. To motivate learners, the instructor can tell them that increased
profit for the company could reflect in better amenities and remuneration
for everyone in the company.
Relevance The relevance of the subject can be provided by linking the new learning
to the learners' previous knowledge. Providing examples and concepts
related to the learners’ previous experience and values can do this. The
instructor can explain the utility and benefits of the Microsoft Excel
feature in question and present goal-orienting statements.

Confidence Continuous drill and practice can provide learners the much-needed
confidence in Microsoft Excel.
When learners are able to troubleshoot formulae and functions in a
simulated environment, their confidence will increase.
Satisfaction Case studies and the project will provide learners the confidence that
they can apply their new skills in a real or simulated environment.
The real satisfaction will only come on the job, as they see the training
paying off in faultless reports.
Table 7.4: Implementing the ARCS Model for Teaching Basic Excel
7.4.2 Events of Instruction

Table 7.5 lists Gagne’s Events of Instruction Mapped to ARCS.
Event of Activity Rationale Map to
instruction ARCS
1. Gaining Give startling statistics about the loss being Start by getting your Attention
attention incurred by the company due to incorrect learners’ attention
reports. through an analogy,
Point out the fact that it is very easy to correct story, or a paradox,
these mistakes, giving examples of how this giving a tantalizing hint of
will help. To motivate learners, the instructor what is to come.
can tell them that increased profit for the
company could reflect in better amenities and
remuneration for everyone in the company.
2. Informing Provide the relevance of the lesson through Tell learners what you Relevance
learners of the objectives and goal-orientation. The previous want to achieve. The
objective frame freezes, and displays the text “Using manner should be based
Microsoft Excel”. on the audience profile.
Create expectancy.
3. Stimulating The relevance of the subject can be provided Relate the new to the Relevance
recall of prior by linking the new learning to the learners' familiar. This is a major
learning previous knowledge. Provide examples and factor in acquiring new
concepts related to the learners’ previous knowledge.
experience and values to do this. Explain the
utility and benefits of the Microsoft Excel
feature in question and present goal-orienting
statements.

4. Presenting Enable learners to gain confidence by first Describe key points in Confidence
the stimulus making them comfortable with the Microsoft the lesson. List the steps
Excel features and then taking them through a in procedures.
step-by-step tutorial on how to use them. You
can use a variety of media and techniques,
with actual demonstration of features and
small video animations to show step-by-step
procedures.
5. Providing Continuous drills and practice can provide Demonstrate, and then Confidence
learner learners the much-needed confidence in allow the learners to have
guidance Microsoft Excel. limited exploration.
When the learners are able to troubleshoot
formulae and functions in a simulated
environment, their confidence will increase.
6. Eliciting Take learners through various situations, such Involve learners in Confidence
performance as simple reporting requirements to elaborate questioning, learning,
reports requiring complex calculations and and doing. This confirms
formulae. the learning.
7. Giving Give immediate and remedial feedback Feedback, especially the Confidence
feedback based on the scenario and the possible remediation of incorrect
consequences of a certain action. Feedback steps, reinforces
for incorrect actions must always include learning.
alternatives to remedy the mistake.
8. Assessing Assign a practical activity to the learners This makes learners Confidence/
the performance either singly or in groups. Check and assess apply what they have Satisfaction
the work. Define attainable goals for the learned and provides a
assignments so as to instill confidence in means of testing the
learners. learning outcome.
9. Enhancing Case studies and the project will provide It will enable learners to Satisfaction
retention and learners the confidence that they can apply apply the training in the
transfer of their new skills in a real or simulated real-world environment.
learning environment. This is a step towards
However, the real satisfaction will only come mastery of the learning.
on the job, as they see the training paying off
in faultless reports.
Table 7.5: Gagne’s Events of Instruction and Their Application

Summary
! Deciding the instructional approach and instructional strategies is a crucial step in
the Design phase. The output from the Analysis phase and the objectives for the
course serve as the input for these decisions in the Design phase.
! Instructional strategies flesh out the means by which the learning objectives for a
course will be achieved. A course without strategies is like a boat without oars on
the high seas.
! Learners need instructional strategies because they help make the learning
meaningful as well as interesting.
! Instructional designers find instructional strategies invaluable because they enable
designers to achieve the objectives for the course and enable transfer of learning.
! The instructional approach needs to be decided early in the design process. This
includes deciding the mode of instruction, which can be:
• Instructor led
• Computer-based
• Web-based
• Blended
! The learning architecture for the course can be:
• Classic tutorial
• Hierarchical or behaviorist
• Guided exploration or simulation
• Exploratory
! The macro-level strategies for a course can be:
• Directive
• Deductive
• Generative
! Instructional designers use micro-level instructional strategies, such as expository
presentation, discovery, exploratory strategy, progressive display, analogy, situated
learning or scenarios, event simulation, metaphors, cooperative learning, and
mnemonics.

! The ARCS model and Gagne’s nine Events of Instruction describe the essential
factors in motivation and learning and guide the instructional designer in selecting
suitable instructional strategies.
! The ARCS model consists of the following four strategies:
• Attention
• Relevance
• Confidence
• Satisfaction
! Gagne’s Events of Instruction include:
• Gaining attention (reception)
• Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
• Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
• Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
• Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
• Eliciting performance (responding)
• Providing feedback (reinforcement)
• Assessing performance (retrieval)
• Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

! Learning activities include coordinated actions that exercise learners to think,
analyze, and synthesize. Some learning activities include:
• Role-playing scenarios
• Lectures
• Mentoring
• Reading
• Learning games
• Scavenger hunts
• Brainstorming
• Drill and practice
• Case studies
• Experiments
• Virtual and actual projects
• Discussion
• Hands-on activities

Assignments
1. Your objective is to teach a group of young sales trainees how to create a
simple table in Microsoft Word. This group already has some experience
using Word, but they do not know how to create tables. If you were to use the
ARCS model to plan your instructional strategies, what
strategies/events/activities would you recommend for gaining attention,
establishing relevance, and helping learners gain confidence and satisfaction?
Give reasons for your answer.
2. The instructional approach and instructional strategy can make all the
difference between effective and ineffective learning. Do you agree with this
statement? Give at least two reasons for your agreement or disagreement.
3. How does behaviorism influence the classic tutorial architecture? Explain.
4. Differentiate between the directive and generative instructional strategies. Use
an example to illustrate your answer.

Lab Exercise
Lab Exercises
1. Recommend an appropriate instructional mode for the following descriptions of courses
and learners:
• Packing and labeling in an assembly line for workers on the assembly line of a snack
food company
• Product information for sales officers working in a large national insurance company
• Using the new features of Microsoft Office 2000 for all employees in a large
transnational organization
Give reasons to support your answer.
2. Recommend an appropriate architecture for the following course descriptions and learners:
• The working of a combustion engine for students of an automobile engineering course
• Using automated project scheduling tools for project managers
• Selecting an approach to the software development life cycle for experienced system
analysts
Give reasons for your choice.
3. Which micro instructional strategy will you use for teaching the following content
descriptions? Give reasons for your choice.
• Seven network protocols, their features, and specifications
• Fixing hardware problems
• Using Microsoft PowerPoint basics
• Using automated project scheduling tools for project managers
4. Read the following scenario and answer the questions that follow:
Anne is a fashion designer in a fast-growing fashion house. Her work is time-
consuming. She decides to register for a Web-based time management course from an
online university. She finds the course full of concepts and theories. Anne also feels
the need to discuss practical problems with peers and the facilitator, but there is no
way to do so. She regrets her decision to join this course and wishes she had instead
joined an instructor-led course. In the end, Anne is left with a lot of random thoughts,
but no idea of how to use them in any practical situations.

The instructional designer who designed this course has received similar feedback
from other quarters and is redesigning this course.
• Use the ARCS model to plan how you will implement these strategies, events, and
activities you selected.
• Recommend a micro instructional strategy and some activities and events that will
make the next session useful and interesting for learners.

Project
After completing the analysis phase of your project, you have already written
objectives, structured the instruction, and created test items. Now using the input that
you gathered during the analysis and design phases, write the instructional strategies for
your project. Follow these guidelines:
• Begin with the instructional mode and architecture.
• Decide the macro and micro instructional strategies.
• Use the ARCS model and Gagne’s Events of Instruction to visualize how you will
handle any one topic.
• Select appropriate learning activities for this topic.
• After writing the strategies, put yourself in the shoes of the audience and conduct a
self-review of their appropriateness.
• Remember that writing strategies is an iterative process and you can revisit your
levels.
• Review your strategies with the help of an expert as well as a sample audience.
This will give you a clear indication about whether or not they are appropriate.
You can use the tables displayed in the section 7.4, Basic Excel for Store
Assistants: A Case Study, for documenting your answers.


Writing a Storyboard
8
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: 8.1 Introduction to
Storyboards
• Explain the purpose of a storyboard
• List the components of a storyboard 8.2 Components of a
• Describe the purpose of each component of a storyboard Storyboard
• State two guidelines for describing each component of a
storyboard 8.3 Guidelines for
• State two guidelines for creating the following Creating
components in a course: visual layout, text, graphics, Components
audio, navigation and interactivity
• List the reviews essential for creating a quality 8.4 Reviews, Templates,
storyboard and Tools
• State two considerations that are a part of each type of
storyboard review 8.5 Basic Excel for
Store Assistants: A
• Define interactive storyboarding
Case Study
• Write a storyboard, given an analysis and a design
document

8.2 Writing a Storyboard

8.1 Introduction to Storyboards
The previous chapter marked the end of the Design phase. This phase arms the
instructional designer with the objectives, course map, test items, and instructional
strategies. The objectives and structure of the course define the content of the course.
The instructional strategies define the mode, such as ILT, CBT, or WBT, and the
architecture of the course. But how do all these design outputs translate into what will
appear on the screen of a computer? This crucial transition is accomplished by
visualizing on paper what each screen in the course will look like, what text and
graphics it will have, whether it will be supported by audio, and so on. These micro-
level decisions constitute the step called writing a storyboard, which is a part of the
Development phase. Figure 8.1 highlights the Development phase of the ADDIE model.
1. ANALYSIS
3. DEVELOPMENT
Write a storyboard
Create graphics and other media output
Programming
Construction
Figure 8.1: Development Phase of the ADDIE Model
Writing a Storyboard 8.3

8.1.1 Definition
“For me, the storyboard expresses, in one way or another, everything that can be
seen or heard or experienced by the end-user of the multimedia program.”
—Adrian Mallon
People from different environments use and define a storyboard differently. For a
filmmaker, a storyboard is a sequential depiction of shots. A novelist may define a
storyboard as an array of thoughts, occurrences, or events arranged in an order to clearly
narrate a story. An animator would define a storyboard as a sequence of sketches
corresponding to the desired movement of a graphic object. A storyboard for a
multimedia course can be defined as a document containing a sequential description of
events that occur in the course.
All these definitions have one attribute in common. All of them define a storyboard as a
sequential description of events.
Events broadly refer to each step of a procedure, test item, simulation, or game.
Sequential, in this context, refers to a defined navigational pattern that events follow. It
indicates how the user will advance from one event to another and in which sequence.
All these details should be clearly spelled out in a storyboard. Description refers to
providing details of the different media, such as graphics, audio, onscreen text,
interactivity, and navigation.
Form of the Storyboard

A storyboard can take any of the following forms:
! A hard copy document
! A stack of cards, with one card representing each screen
! A soft copy with a provision for accommodating electronic thumbnails or scanned
images of hand-drawn sketches
What is the difference between storyboarding and scripting, which are often used to
refer to the same process? The one crucial difference is that a script does not
contain any graphic sketches and usually contains a textual description of the
visuals, but a storyboard represents both graphic sketches as well as text.
Sample Storyboard

Figure 8.2 shows a sample storyboard.
STEPS IN THE RISK MANAGEMENT PROCESS
1. Identifying Risks
2. Prioritizing Risks
3. Making an Action Plan
4. Monitoring the Action Plan
Screen Number M2S1T1-S001
Color Specifications for the Graphic Blue and maroon
Onscreen Text Shown in the graphic itself
Audio Risk management is a four-step process. In the

first step, you identify the risks or problems that
you expect your project to encounter. You
should involve your entire team in this exercise.
In the second step, you prioritize the risks in
terms of high, medium or low. In the third step,
you create an action plan for all risks with high
and medium priority. In the fourth step, which is
ongoing, you monitor the action plan.
Animation/Video None
Interaction Click each step to learn more about it.
Hyperlinks None
Notes
Figure 8.2: Sample Storyboard

8.1.2 Purpose
Have you heard of the tale of the elephant and nine blind men? This tale is about nine
blind men who are standing around an elephant and trying to figure out what exactly it
is. One of them feels the trunk of the elephant and says that he is feeling a stick, another
touches the sides and says he can sense a wall, another feels the long tail and says that it
is a rope, and so on. But not one could sense that the object was an elephant.
Think of the storyboard as an instructional designer’s eyes or vision, and the course
being designed as the elephant. Just like the parts of the elephant for the blind men, the
elements of a course, such as text, graphics, and audio, are not a complete view of the
course. A storyboard allows instructional designers and other design team members to
visualize the various elements of the course together. More specifically, a storyboard
does the following:
! Provides a common platform for the team
! Provides a basis to the client for feedback
! Helps identify gaps and problems
A Common Platform for the Team
The production work to incorporate graphics, audio, video, and other media in the
course is done simultaneously. The isolated efforts of different individuals like
instructional designers, graphic designers, and programmers need to fall together like
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle to make the course work. Storyboards define an individual’s
deliverables and its impact on the deliverables of the other developers.
Storyboards serve as a common reference document carrying specifications of all
deliverables and how the deliverables fit into the larger picture. Imagine a scenario in
which, at the time of final integration, it is found that the animation lengths are shorter
than the dialogues they have to support, navigation is fuzzy, or the on-screen text does
not fit into the assigned area. The smallest of mismatches at this point can snowball into
massive reworking of several deliverables.
A Basis for Client Feedback
A storyboard is also important from the client’s point of view. A sufficiently detailed
storyboard can be released to obtain feedback from the client and to reduce
post-production rework. It is easier to accommodate the client’s suggestions and
corrections at this point rather than after the production is done. At this point, the time
taken to accommodate the comments is less, and the scope for discussing and exploring
new possibilities is more. Moreover, a product based on a client-approved storyboard is
less likely to go through major structural changes during subsequent client reviews.

Identify Gaps and Problems
A storyboard helps identify the following items:
! Gaps in the content
! Size of the course and the sizes of different topics and sections
! Oversight of any design issues

8.2 Components of a Storyboard
A storyboard describes the media elements and general information, such as the
identification number of the screen and the course. Some of these components are as
follows:
! Course and screen identifiers
! Visual layout
! Text
! Graphics
! Audio
! Navigation and interactivity
! Notes
8.2.1 Course and Screen Identifiers

Course identifiers are addresses within the course. If a course is compared to a
neighborhood, the course identifiers identify the location and the addresses of all
apartment blocks, markets, and other establishments. A course identifier organizes the
document and traces its version history. The title bar of the course displays information
such as the title of the course and subtitles, which are the names of a module or a
section.
A storyboard is divided into screens or frames, each having a code. This code may be a
simple alphanumeric string. For example, screen 2 of topic 1 can be coded as T01-S002.
The purpose of assigning codes to frames or screens is to facilitate the organization of
source files during production and final integration of the product. Graphic designers,
audio artists, and animators can save files related to each screen with reference to its
screen code.
Guidelines for Describing Course Identifiers in a Storyboard

The course identifier should include information such as:
! The title or subtitle of the course
! Any generic title if the course is a part of a curriculum or a series
! Reference code, if any
! Version number

Guidelines for Describing Screen/Frame Code in a Storyboard
A screen/frame code should include the following information:
! Usually, the screen code ends with a numeral. It is a good practice to add an extra
zero at the end of the code. For instance, it is better to code a screen as T01-S002.0
instead of T01-S002. If a screen is added between two existing screens, the
numbering of all subsequent screens does not need to change. For example, when a
screen is added between screens number 2 and 3, the new screen can simply be
coded T01-S002.1. The extra zero at the end of screen code accommodates up to
nine additional screens between any two existing screens.
! All files belonging to a screen should be saved with a common prefix to reduce the
chances of losing or overwriting files during integration.
8.2.2 Visual Layout

The visual layout of a screen refers to the organization of all its elements, such as
graphics, text, buttons, title bars, and navigation bars. Most courses have some
predefined screens, for example, the objectives screens, summary screens, true and false
interactions, and simulations. Predefined or not, a storyboard provides an opportunity to
depict the visual layout of the whole screen. The instructional designer works closely
with the graphics designer to illustrate the visual layout of the screens.
Corrections in visual layouts are some of the most time-consuming rework jobs. The
storyboard should be used to arrive at a consensus with the client on issues related to
visual layout. Imagine a scenario in which a constructed course comes back from a
client review with comments that translate into changes in the visual layout of the
screens. These changes may relate to changes in the size of graphic and text areas,
positioning of graphics or the navigation panel, or color schemes used throughout the
course. One comment may translate into reworking on every screen of the course.
Guidelines for Depicting Visual Layout in a Storyboard

Some guidelines to be kept in mind while depicting a visual layout in a storyboard are
as follows:
! Define the graphic and onscreen text area in a storyboard separately.
! Specify the position, size, and shape of graphic elements, such as graphic pop-ups,
buttons, title bars, and navigation panel, common across the screens.
! Depict the color schemes of the various graphics.
! Create separate visual layouts for the predefined screens.

The use of predefined screens (often called templates) varies. Some courses work
only with a predefined set of visual layouts, whereas other courses may customize
most of their screens depending on the purpose of the screen.
8.2.3 Text
Text in a storyboard remains indispensable despite the use of other media types, such as
graphics and audio. It is used to describe, to summarize, and to evaluate the
understanding of the content.
Decisions regarding the role of screen text are related to the use of audio and graphics in
the course. Text is difficult to read on the screen and demands intense focus on the
learner’s part. Because it is difficult to read long blocks of text on a screen, it is a good
idea to integrate the text with audio and graphics. For example, the text can play a
secondary role while audio plays the primary role in a storyboard. A common way of
doing this is to present the bulk of instructions by audio and use text to capture the key
points in bullets on the screen. Integrating text with graphics is another way of
presenting content.
Guidelines for Describing Text in a Storyboard

Some important guidelines for writing text in a storyboard are as follows:
! Include the final and complete version of all the components of the text, such as
bullets, text area descriptions, screen labels, and screen headings or titles.
! Record all style-related standards in a text style guide. For example, if you want to
restrict the use of colons or italics, then record that in the style guide.
! Check whether the text fits into the allotted space when working with a preset text
area on the screen.

8.2.4 Graphics
Graphics play a vital role in delivering the course content. One concern is the level of
details of a graphic that should be provided at the storyboard stage. It is a good practice
to depict the visual layout in as much detail as possible, however, it is not necessary to
show the graphics in the final state.
Graphics in a course may be in the following forms:
! Still images
! Animations
! Video clips
Still Images
Still images include individual graphic elements, compositions, background graphics,
and even buttons that appear on the screen. Graphic elements, also referred to as key
graphics, are a set of graphics that are used repeatedly throughout a course. You can use
the storyboard to get the graphic elements approved by the client. This is important
because any changes in graphic elements may result in reworking a large number of
screens.
Animation
Animation has a greater visual impact on the viewers than graphics, but more time and
resources are required to produce the desired animations. You should decide whether a
number of small animations can substitute for a long animation or whether a graphic
transition can depict a part of the animation. In WBTs, for instance, a long, heavy
animation may end up reducing a learner’s interest instead of generating it. The
instructional and graphics designers should work together closely to resolve such issues.
Videos
Video carries large overhead requirements in order for it to be effective. For example,
using video clips as part of a multimedia application can require a quality as high as that
of television sets to fulfill the expectations of the learner. Also, the learner should be
able to interrupt the video sequence at any time and to repeat parts of it. This requires a
set of controls (usually play, pause, and replay from the beginning). The learner should
also be able to cancel the video sequence at any time, and move on to the next part of
the course.
Video also needs time and careful direction if it is to present information attractively.
To make proper use of video sequences in multimedia applications, short sequences are

needed as a part of a greater whole. This is different from watching a film that usually
involves watching it from beginning to the end in a single sequence. Video sequences
should be limited to about 45 seconds because longer video sequences can reduce the
concentration of the learner.
Use video only if it is absolutely essential, such as when it is necessary to show the
proceedings of an event or the performance of a task that cannot be demonstrated in any
other way. Do not present a video clip just for the sake of it. A voice output is as
effective, and requires less storage space, than a video of someone speaking on the
screen (that is, a “talking head”).
Some key points to consider when treating each form of graphics at the storyboard stage
are given below.
Guidelines for Describing Graphics in a Storyboard

The guidelines for describing each form of graphics in the storyboard are provided in
the following topics.
Still Images
Follow these guidelines for describing still images:
! Use a separate document to present the graphic elements. This document can be
either an appendix to the storyboard or an attachment to the screen in which they
occur first.
! Add relevant descriptions to the sketches in a storyboard to make the rendering
requirements as clear as possible. For example, if a character is being used, it is
essential that the age, the gender, and the other required specifics of the character
are clearly stated. It is not necessary to specify details, such as the color of the
character’s clothing, unless it has a bearing on the content delivery. Descriptions
should have an optimum level of detail and clarity that clarifies the requirements to
the members of the development team. Otherwise, for example, vague descriptions
may send the graphics designer on a tangent, which could lead to rework at a later
stage.
! Use rough sketches indicating the basic shape, position, and proportion of elements
to depict a still image. For images that are technical in nature, such as
cross-sectional diagrams of machines or engineering blueprints, it is advisable to
attach a suitable reference to the storyboard to obtain approval from the source of
the illustration.

Animation
Follow these guidelines for describing animation segments:
! Detail the animation as a still image and illustrate only the key aspects. It is not
necessary to detail each stage of the animation. The purpose is to capture only the
basic shapes of the objects being animated.
! Calculate the estimated length of the animation. This is important if a voiceover or
several text transitions accompany the animation. At times, the superimposed audio
time determines the length of the animation. This eliminates the possibility of
mismatches, such as in situations when an animation reaches its last frame while the
accompanying description carries on.
Video
Follow these guidelines for describing videos:
! Depict video clips as still images in a storyboard in the same way as animation.
Bring out only the key aspects of the video.
! Add comments to describe special effects, sequence of shots, and camera positions
to be used.
! Specify supporting dialogue and sound effects.
8.2.5 Audio
Audio plays a supporting role in most courses. Audio narration can support the onscreen
text by providing a detailed description of the bulleted points on the screen. Research
has confirmed that the impact of audio is equivalent to that of animation. Audio
re-emphasizes the information given in a textual form and breaks the monotony of
assimilating information in only a visual mode.
Audio also enhances graphics by making them seem more realistic.
Audio may be used in the form of dialogues, special sound effects, or background
music. Sound effects can support a visual element, set a mood, or convey results of an
interaction. A ringing bell, soft music, or car horn on correct or incorrect test item
attempts are examples of sound effects.
However, producing audio is an expensive proposition. Producing attractive audio
presentation needs time and careful direction. Therefore, audio should be used
judiciously.

Guidelines for Describing Audio in a Storyboard
Some guidelines for describing audio in a storyboard are as follows:
! Write the final and complete form of the audio segment in the storyboard used for a
voiceover, a narration describing an event happening on the screen, or a dialogue
between two characters. Do not resort to shortcuts.
! Describe the gender, the mood, and the tone of the voice that should be used for the
voiceover. Mistakes in any of these decisions can result in re-recording and
reproduction of the audio, which is not only time consuming but also expensive.
! List all sound effects. State the length of the sound effect if the audio is
accompanying visual transitions or animation.
8.2.6 Navigation and Interactivity

All directions and instructions that a learner needs to access various parts of the course
or to perform the required actions on a screen are related to navigation and interactivity.
Navigation
To move and access the various parts of a course, the learners need specific instructions
or directions. Navigation within a course is usually accomplished through a navigation
panel that appears in the same position on every screen.

Table 8.1 displays the buttons and the tasks they support in a typical navigation panel.
Button Function
Menu Takes the learner to the main menu from anywhere in the course
Forward Takes the learner to the next screen—needs to be defined for each
screen
Next Takes the learner to the previous screen—needs to be defined for each
screen
Replay/Refresh Replays the currently active animation sequence or the entire content of
the active screen
Course Map Displays the structure of the course, helps to locate the position of the
learner within the course
Glossary Takes the learner to the built-in explanation of difficult terms at a glance.
The same list is referred to from various screens through hyperlinked
words
Help Takes the learner to the global Help items
Quit Takes the learner out of the course
Table 8.1: Buttons in a Navigation Panel
Besides the navigation panel, there may be requirements for navigation within a topic or
a section. This is true when the learner is provided greater control over choosing a
learning path. Such section-specific navigation is done through textual or graphical
submenus. These submenus, triggers, and resultant navigational actions are called
second level navigation and fall within the purview of interactions.
Interactivity
A basic strength of multimedia is that it allows for two-way communication. The
learners can interact with the course in the following ways:
! Searching more information by clicking a graphic area, tool tips, and mouse-overs
! Answering a test item, such as a fill-in-the-blank question or a multiple-choice
question
! Participating in a simulation, such as selecting a menu item in a software
application course

A good course is a judicious mix of these interactions. Table 8.2 lists four basic types of
interactions and the appropriate situations for their use.
Interaction Type When to Use
Click Use for standard and second-level navigation.

Use for selecting one or more textual or graphic elements for explanation
or test item.
Drag-and-Drop Use for grouping or sorting of textual or graphic elements.

Use for engaging learners in a progressive buildup activity.
Mouse-Over/Rollover Use for providing tool tips and explanations when a change of base
graphic is not desired.
Fill-in-the-Blank Use for taking numeric or textual inputs from the learner when
alternatives are not provided.
Table 8.2: Types of Interactions
The documentation of interactions has a direct bearing on the final integration of the
product. It is essential that all details of each interaction appear in the storyboard. This
provides an opportunity for testing the feasibility of each interaction and optimizing it
for visual and functional attributes. For example, a storyboard is the best point at which
to verify whether all the graphic elements involved in an interaction fit in the designated
graphic area.
Guidelines for Describing Navigation and Interaction in a

Storyboard
Some guidelines for describing navigation and interaction in a storyboard are as
follows:
! Explain the standard navigation buttons in the first screen.
! Document each interaction carefully by identifying the trigger object, such as click
or mouse-over, and the resultant action.
! Record interaction details in the form of tables.
! Use separate tables for each interaction.
! Provide a reference to all the tables in the storyboard.

Figures 8.3 and 8.4 show samples of such tables.
Figure 8.3: Table for Click and Mouse-Over Interaction
Figure 8.4: Table for Drag-and-Drop Interaction
The format of these tables is not fixed. Every development team evolves its own format,
which is adapted to meet the specific requirements of the course.
8.2.7 Guidelines for Writing a Storyboard

The guidelines presented in the previous topics were related to describing the specific
components incorporated in a storyboard. Here are some guidelines that are applicable
to the whole storyboarding process.
Involve the Team

Writing a storyboard requires a set of skills and the ability to visualize a course from all
angles. To write a good storyboard, an instructional designer requires certain
professional skills.

These are as follows:
! Instructional design
! Graphics design
! Programming
! Creative writing
! Subject-matter expertise
! Coordination skills
It is difficult to find all these skills in one person. Therefore, the graphics designers, the
programmers, and the SMEs must work together as a team.
Use Optimum Detail and Time

Though you must ensure that the storyboard captures all details of a course, it is usually
difficult to determine how much detail should be provided. Generally, sufficient details
must be provided to give the necessary information to the people who will be involved
in the production process. Providing details does not imply that the storyboard itself
should be in a perfect form. For example, the sketches can be rudimentary but
indicative. The amount of details to be provided is also a decision of the team. It is easy
to fall into the trap of spending endless time on the storyboard itself. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop suitable templates and standards for storyboards. This process is
discussed in the subsequent paragraphs.
Evolve Suitable Templates and Standards

Do not force to fit a template to your project requirements. Customize an existing
template format or create a new one to suit your project. The requirements of every
course are unique. Some courses may have one kind of interaction while others may
have a lot of simulations. Besides the template, it is also necessary to evolve the
storyboarding standards for the project. These standards are then used so that all team
members who are writing storyboards do it consistently. Otherwise, some storyboards
may have a lot of detail while others do not. Storyboards with varying standards can
make the production tasks difficult.

Make It as Complete as Possible
Use multiple strategies to create a storyboard that is as complete as possible. Add
additional comments and reminders in the notes for communicating with the graphics
designer and programmer. Treat this as the last opportunity to communicate with the
team on micro issues because after the production of graphics, audio, and other media
components begins, the micro issues are forgotten. Another way of making a storyboard
complete is to add references to other documents, such as specific interaction tables and
graphics sketches.

8.3 Guidelines for Creating
Components
The previous section covered a number of guidelines for developing the components of
a storyboard. The focus of this section is on providing practical guidelines to creating
the various components of a course. For example, what are the considerations for
creating visual layouts, or what colors and fonts are suitable for the onscreen text? The
guidelines given in this section are not exhaustive, and the development team usually
formulates course-specific guidelines.
8.3.1 Visual Layout

In the book Designing and Writing Online Documentation, William Horton lists the
inherent differences between the environments of a printed page and a screen. The
screen is smaller, it has a unique shape, and it is grainy. Given these characteristics,
learning from the screen is not necessarily a comfortable experience. The following
guidelines help in designing visual layouts that make learning comfortable:
! Consider placement impact: Some areas of the screen have more impact than others
as described in the following examples:
• The center and upper left areas of the screen have the maximum impact. This is
where the attention of the viewer rests first. Place all key content, important
graphics and objectives in these areas.
• The upper right and lower left areas have a medium impact and have less
attention-drawing capability. Place the additional information and graphics in
these areas.
• The lower right area does not have a substantial impact. Use it for placing
summary text and graphics, but not for critical or new content.
! Position elements consistently: Visualize how one screen will lead to another.
Inconsistencies in the visual layouts of consecutive screens are distracting as well as
disconcerting. Place graphic elements in the same position across screens. However,
sometimes it is a good strategy to change the position of a graphic to indicate a
change in the topic or to attract the attention of the learner.

! Use white space: Avoid crowding the screen with text or graphics. Use white space
judiciously to provide visual relief to the learner. To do this, provide adequate blank
space around the text and graphics.
! Separate text and graphics areas: Separate the text and graphics areas so that the text
does not run around the graphic. Do not place text in the graphic area and vice
versa.
! Here are some guidelines related to the use of color:
• Restrict the number of colors you use in a screen to three to five.
• Use every color consistently. For example, if the bullets are maroon and the
arrows are blue, do not use maroon for arrows.
• Make the course usable for learners who are color-blind. A basic principle for
visual design is to design in black and white. Add color for emphasis when your
design is complete. Color should never be the only visual cue for anything.
8.3.2 Onscreen Text

Some guidelines for using onscreen text, are similar to those for documentation while
others are related strictly to the computer screen.
Avoid Excessive Text

Refrain from using too much text, because whether the medium is paper or the
computer, too much text can put off learners. To avoid excessive text, try to do the
following:
! Keep the text short and crisp
! Use a direct style of communication
! Put the critical content first
! Avoid scrolling the text

Convert Text to Tables, Bullets or Numbered Lists, and
Flowcharts
Wherever possible, convert the text to tables, bullets or numbered lists, and flowcharts
to enhance comprehension and add variety in the presentation of the text. The
guidelines are as follows:
! Use tables whenever the information can be classified in categories.
! Use flowcharts for processes.
! Use bullets to present a series of ideas or points.
! Use numbered lists where sequence is important.
! Use the seven-plus-or-minus-two rule when placing items in a list or a table.
Ensure Readability
Here are some guidelines to make reading of text from the computer screen a
comfortable experience:
! Use formatting options, such as bold, capitalization, or color, judiciously.
Overusing such options has a negative impact on readability.
! Justify text on the left and leave the right ragged.
! Use formatting options for emphasizing only a part of the text and not the whole
text.
! Refrain from using italics and serif fonts.
! Limit the number of styles and sizes on the screen, using no more than two styles
and three sizes of text.
! Avoid semicolons, colons, and blinking text.
Label
Use labels frequently to orient the learner and to provide transitions from one idea to
another. Provide a label to even a small chunk of text or a question.
8.3.3 Graphics
A common problem with the use of graphics and text is that the graphics simply repeat
the message of the text and do not add any value. Some guidelines to ensure that
graphics add value are given in this section.

Consider a Graphic instead of Text
Keep in mind one of the oldest clichés in the world: “A picture is worth a thousand
words.” Use graphics to deliver an idea more effectively. For example, use a graph to
show trends or figures or a flow chart to depict the steps in a procedure. Add labels to
graphics to help the learners visualize a screen in its entirety and not as a loose
combination of text and graphics.
Use Graphic Builds

Use builds to present an idea progressively screen by screen. For example, a graphic of
a flow chart can start with the first step in the flow chart, in the second screen the
second step is added to the flowchart, and so on. This is more effective than presenting
the complete flow chart in the first screen.
Keep Graphics Small and Simple

Refrain from using large graphics that dominate the whole screen. Use small graphics or
icons. In addition, use simplified versions of graphics instead of a realistic picture, a
detailed drawing or a photograph. For example, show a keyboard with blank keys
instead of with letters on them.
Animation
Most guidelines discussed above are applicable when using animation. In addition:
! Use simple hand-drawn animation figures instead of complex figures, because the
former consume less time and fewer resources while remaining just as effective.
! Use cartoon characters in animation because they are simple, expressive, and have a
universal appeal.
! Ensure that, at any given time, only one animation segment can run. Multiple
animation segments running at the same time confuse and distract the learner.
Video
Use video only if it is essential. Video is expensive to produce. Also, displaying too
much detail usually impairs the effectiveness of the message. Some points to be borne
in mind while using a video are as follows:
! Use video to show emotion or to show an event, such as the proceedings of the
United States Senate or a historical event.
! Ensure that no video clip exceeds 30 to 45 seconds.
! Provide a replay option to the learner.

8.3.4 Audio
Use audio judiciously because it is expensive to produce. Follow these guidelines:
! Integrate audio with graphics to deliver messages effectively: One common way is
to explain a flow chart or a figure with the help of audio. Do not use audio to repeat
verbatim what is on the screen.
! Use music carefully: Some types of music do not go well with certain cultures. Use
appropriate background music to make the course an interesting learning
experience.
Research done by Mousavi in 1995 explored the various combinations of text,

audio, and diagrams (graphics). Problems presented by means of a diagram and
solutions presented in the form of audio were found to be the best combination.
8.3.5 Navigation and Interactivity

Some guidelines to help you implement navigation and interactivity are:
Navigation
Here are some of the guidelines to make the learner’s experience with navigation
smooth.
Guide the Learner

The learner should be guided in the following manner:
! Ensure that the learner does not run into situations where there is no way ahead, or
what might be called a dead end.
! Provide valid cues or instructions at every point so that the learner is never lost. A
default way of moving ahead should be available at every point.
! Provide instructions to return at every point.
! Suggest an action, but do not make it mandatory.

Use Links Judiciously
Links should be used in the following manner:
! Ensure that the links have no spelling errors.
! Check the validity of the link. Propose alternative links in case the link has become
invalid or the site has some technical problems.
! Avoid excessive linking and links to the wrong places.
! Give directions to additional material only at the end of a topic or a section and not
in the middle. This prevents breaking the flow of the topic and forcing the learner to
look for additional material.
Interactions
Some guidelines to make the interactions enriching for the learner are mentioned below.
Use Frequent Interactions

A rule of thumb is to include an interaction of some type, even if it is a simple
fill-in-the-blank or true/false question, in every 5–7 screens. But, also make sure that the
interactions do not interfere with or break the flow of a message or an idea.
Use a Variety of Interactions

Be creative in exploiting the complete range of interactions available. For example, use
simple clicks, drag-and-drop, and mouse-overs to implement a wide variety of
interactions, such as simulations and explorations of parts of a graphic.
Give Adequate Instructions

The learners should be able to attempt the interactions easily. Instructions for the
interactions should be clear and adequate, and it is usually better to provide too much
instead of too little information. Keep in mind the learners’ comfort level with the mode
of instruction, and provide more instructions to learners who are new to the mode.
Navigation and interactivity decisions are a part of designing the user interface, an
aspect that is beyond the scope of this book.

8.4 Reviews, Templates, and
Tools
Creating a good storyboard involves quality reviews, selection of appropriate templates,
and the use of proper tools. This section talks about these three topics.
8.4.1 Quality Reviews of a Storyboard

It is not enough to create a storyboard. Qualified people must review it for errors,
mismatches and completeness, and adherence to project-specific standards. The types of
reviews that are usually done for storyboards are:
! Instructional design review
! Language review
! Graphics review
! Programming review
! Subject matter or content review
! Client review
The following paragraphs list some common issues and considerations for reviews.
These issues and considerations are not an exhaustive list. Most development teams
evolve project-specific guidelines for these reviews.
Instructional Design Review

The objective of this review is to take a holistic view of the different components of the
course and check whether the course is going according to the design specifications.
The instructional designer usually does this review. A good practice is to have an
additional review done by an instructional designer who is not from the project team.
This will provide a new perspective on the storyboard. Some considerations for the
instructional design review are as follows:
! Is the visual layout appealing or cluttered? Have the guidelines for visual design
been adhered to or not?
! Do all the components deliver a consistent message? For example, are the text and
graphics integrated?
! Do screens flow from one to another?

! Does the course meet the objectives? Does the course adhere to the design
document?
! Is the message on each screen clear?
Language Review
A language review is the review of the text to be used in the course. Text does not refer
simply to onscreen text, which may include labels, small paragraphs, interactions, or
simulations, but also to the audio script, narration or dialogue, and video script. The
objective of the review is to correct the text for clarity, flow, grammar, and
typographical errors. A qualified language expert or an editor reviews the text. Some
considerations for this review are as follows:
! Does the text communicate clearly and effectively?
! Are the tone and style suitable for the learners? For example, is the language too
casual for corporate learners?
! Is the formatting consistent and as per the project standards?
! Is the text free of errors, sexist references, or any other type of offensive usage?
! Is the text compatible with the learners’ culture? For example, have the correct
spellings and metrics been used based on the culture of the audience that the course
has to cater to?
Graphic Review
A review of graphic elements as described in the storyboard is done internally, before
the storyboard is released to the client. Animation and video clips also fall within the
limits of this review. This review is done by the graphics designer or some other
suitably qualified person. The considerations for graphics review are as follows:
! Are the graphics feasible for the chosen technology and time frames? For example,
can the graphics be created in the chosen software?
! Is the level of detail in the graphic description adequate?
! Do the graphics meet the project-specific standards?
! Has the use of graphic elements been optimized? For example, in some screens, can
an element be reused instead of a new graphic?
! Has the reusability of other existing resources been considered?

Programming Review
The goal of this review is to assess the feasibility of navigation and interactions.
Qualified programmers perform this review. Some considerations for this review are
presented below:
! Are the descriptions of the navigation instructions and interactions adequate?
! Can the navigation and interactions be implemented in the chosen technology and
time frames?
! Do the navigation and interactions adhere to project-specific standards?
In many cases, both graphic and programming reviews are taken care of
simultaneously by a dedicated quality assurance team. This saves time and is less
chaotic because it avoids multiple corrected versions of documents being generated
for different reviews.
Subject Matter Expert (SME) Review

This review is more essential if the instructional designer is not very familiar with the
content area and is especially necessary in the case of high-end technical courses. Some
considerations for this review are listed here:
! Is the content adequate to meet the objectives?
! Is the content, including both text and graphics, accurate?
! Are the examples and case studies realistic?
! Are the interactions and questions suitable for the audience?
Client Review
The storyboard usually marks the first release of the course to the client. It is obviously
a very important release. It involves the client in the development phase. This spreads
some of the responsibility of the post-production work to the client and provides
leverage to discuss issues perceived to be too time-consuming and not viable.
Formal client sign-off is essential, because in the absence of a formal sign-off the issues
remain fluid and the course is susceptible to unbridled reworking. It is usually a good
idea to include the storyboard sign-off as a formal checkpoint in the project plan.
Obtaining a client sign-off often calls for an instructional designer’s selling and
persuasive skills. There is no sacred way of designing a course. Even with difficult,
coded technical subjects, the design and presentation issues remain fluid. It is essential

that the instructional designer be sure of what has gone into the storyboard so that the
design considerations can be defended, if necessary. At other times, the best internal
reviews have gone to waste when the signed-off version contains unmanageable issues.
The key is to involve other developers in the sign-off stage. The whole team may not be
physically present and devoted to the sign-off process, but any ambiguous graphic or
programming issues must be cleared with internal reviewers before being accepted.
8.4.2 Templates for Writing a Storyboard

Different template formats are used to write storyboards. Each template essentially
includes all the components mentioned in the previous sections, although the sequence
and depiction of components may differ. It is always advisable to adapt a basic template
to suit the specific requirements of the project and the comfort levels of the developers.
Some templates have additional features. For example, the template formats for WBTs
include components for keywords and one-line descriptions. The following are a few
storyboard templates.
Figure 8.5 depicts a format for documenting general information about the team and the
course.
Course Information Team Information
Course Title: SME:
Series: Instructional Designer:
Course Code: Graphic Designer:
Class/Division: Programmer:
Storyboard Number: Client Representative:
Figure 8.5: General Information Box

Figures 8.6, 8.7, and 8.8 display some sample storyboard templates.
Frame/Screen Number
Frame Type Prerequisite/Topic/subtopic/topic summary/topic

quiz/lesson summary/lesson quiz
Background visual <Sketch and description>
Dialogue
Text
Sound effect
Interaction
Previous frame
Next frame
Keywords
One-line description
Comments
Figure 8.6: Storyboard Template
<Graphic sketch and description>
Frame/screen number
Color specification for graphic
Onscreen text
Audio
Animation/Video
Interaction
Hyperlinks

<Graphic sketch and description> Screen Reference Code:
Color scheme:
Text:
Audio and controls:
Video and controls:
Interactivity:
Previous screen:
Next screen:
The attributes of the general information table are similar for most templates.
Therefore, it has been skipped for Template 2 and Template 3. A storyboard always
starts with documenting the general information and may also have a sign-off sheet
attached to it.
8.4.3 Storyboarding Tools

Today, a number of computer-based tools are available for storyboarding. One obvious
advantage of using such tools is that corrections and modifications are easy, fast, and
neat. In addition, they allow the storyboards to be handled through Web-based
communication channels, making it much easier to deal with remote clients anywhere in
the world.
What Is Interactive Storyboarding?

Many modern multimedia-authoring tools such as Authorware and Director support
interactive storyboarding. Interactive storyboarding uses a software tool to visualize and
compose each screen and each component. It is a step ahead of conventional
paper-based storyboards, but it is not hard coded as a final packaged program. It allows
a number of issues, such as screen fonts and visual layout, to be resolved. It also gives
the content writer a feel for the final course. It is sometimes difficult to visualize how
the paper version of the storyboard will look on the screen. In interactive storyboards,
you can modify, replace, and add components easily.

Adrian Mallon describes how the content writer uses interactive storyboarding:
“This involves the content-writer sitting in front of the template version of the program,
referring to a printed flow chart which illustrates the overall structure. The writer
navigates through the program as an end user would, with access to all program sections
and levels. The writer then clicks on open text fields on the screen to enter the text to
appear at the appropriate part of the screen.”
Available Storyboarding Tools

The storyboarding tools that are available are compatible with all computer operating
systems. It is interesting to note that many of these tools, Authorware for instance, are
also used for final integration of a multimedia course.
Table 8.3 presents the storyboarding tools compatible with various computer platforms
and operating systems.
Computer Platform/ Operating Compatible Storyboarding Tools
System
Windows Macromedia UPG-V Director, Linkway, Macromedia

Authorware, IBM StoryBoard Live, Apple Media Tool,
IconAuthor, Toolbox, Allen’s Quest, Corel Click &Create,
Asymetrix Toolbook, Netobject’s Fusion
Macintosh Macromedia Director, Macromedia Authorware, Apple Media

Tool, Apple Hypercard, Allegiant’s Supercard
Unix IconAuthor, Maestro, Meta Card
CD-I MediaMogul
Archimedes Genesis
Table 8.3: Interactive Storyboarding Tools Compatible with Different Computer Platforms

model are presented at the end of each chapter. This chapter presents storyboarding of
some of the screens. To read the complete case study, you can refer to the Appendix at
the end of the book.
8.5.1 Sample Screens

Figure 8.9 represents a screen used for describing the objectives of a section.
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
! Use spreadsheet terminology
! Identify the main components of the Excel window
! Use the keyboard and the mouse to explore an Excel worksheet
! Close a workbook and close Excel
Color Specification for Graphic Lead-in text: Blue

Objectives text: Maroon
Audio No audio
Interaction None
Hyperlinks None
Notes
Figure 8.9: Objectives Screen

Figure 8.10 represents a screen used for describing a simulation interaction.
Screen Number M1S1Q1-S003
Color Specification for As in the original software

Graphic
Onscreen Text In this exercise, you will perform a series of actions on the
worksheet Wk1.xls. Wk1.xls contains the week’s data for Raymond.
In I-19, enter a function to calculate Raymond’s total sales for the
week. In I-20, enter a function to calculate Raymond’s average
sales for the week. Use the menu bar options for this exercise.
Click the right option to start the procedure.
Audio No audio
Interaction Click. Details in Table no. M1S1Q1-S003-T1
Hyperlinks None
Notes
Figure 8.10: Simulation Screen

Figure 8.11 represents a screen used for describing an assessment item.
Match each term in Column A with its description in Column B.
Column A Column B
Rows The intersection of a row and column
Columns The names used in spreadsheets to identify the information

contained therein
Cells The horizontal groups of cells in a spreadsheet
Values The vertical groups of cells in a spreadsheet
Color Specification for Graphic Left column text: Blue

Right column text: Green

Font description question: Arial 21
Options: Arial 20
Audio No audio
Interaction Drag-and-drop
Hyperlinks None
Notes
Figure 8.11: Assessment Screen

Summary
! A storyboard for a multimedia course can be defined as a document containing
sequential descriptions of events that occur in the course.
! A storyboard provides a common platform for the team, provides a basis for client
comments, and helps identify gaps and problems in the course.
! The components of a storyboard are course and screen identifiers, visual layout,
text, graphics, audio, navigation and interactivity, and notes.
! Course identifiers are addresses within the course. They include information such as
the title or subtitle of the course, any generic titles, the reference code, and the
version number.
! The visual layout of a screen refers to the way all the elements of a screen, such as
graphics, text, buttons, title bars, and navigation bars, are organized.
! Some guidelines for depicting visual layout in a storyboard are as follows:
• Define the graphic and onscreen text area separately.
• Specify the position and size of graphic elements.
• Depict the color schemes.
• Create separate visual layouts for the predefined screens.
! Some guidelines for describing text in a storyboard are as follows:
• Include the final and complete version of all the components of the text.
• Record all style-related standards in a text style guide.
• Check whether the text fits into the allotted space.
! Graphics in a course may be in the form of still images, animations, and video clips.
! Still images include individual graphic elements, compositions, and background
graphics. Graphics elements are the set of graphics used repeatedly throughout a
course.
! When using animation, decide whether a number of small graphics can substitute
for a long animation sequence. Use video only if absolutely essential.
! Some guidelines for depicting still graphics are as follows:
• Present the graphic elements separately.
• Add relevant descriptions to the graphics.
• Use rough sketches.

! Some guidelines for describing animation are as follows:
• Describe the animation as still images in the storyboard.
• Illustrate key aspects of the animation.
• Calculate the length of the animation.
! Some guidelines for using video are as follows:
• Depict video as still images in the storyboard.
• Add comments to describe special effects.
• Specify supporting dialogues and sound effects.
! Audio may be used in the form of dialogues, special sound effects, or background
music.
! Some guidelines for describing navigation are as follows:
• Explain the standard navigation buttons.
• Document each interaction separately.
• Use tables to record interactions.
• Reference all tables in the storyboard.
! Some guidelines for writing a storyboard are as follows:
• Involve the team.
• Use optimum detail and time.
• Evolve suitable templates and standards.
• Make the storyboard as complete as possible.
! Some guidelines for creating visual layouts are as follows:
• Think of the placement impact.
• Position elements consistently.
• Use white space.
• Separate text and graphic areas.
• Use colors carefully.
! The reviews essential for creating a quality storyboard are instructional design,
language, graphics, programming, subject matter or content, and client.
! Different template formats are used to write storyboards. Each template essentially
includes all components, although the sequence and depiction may differ.

! Interactive storyboarding is about using a software tool to make storyboards.
Computer-based storyboarding tools facilitate modifications and allow storyboards
to be handled through Web-based communication channels, making it far easier to
deal with offshore clients.

Assignments
1. Explore the Internet to find sample courses that have different types of visual
layouts. Select two of them and draw them in a storyboard template.
2. Explore the Internet to locate any two storyboarding tools. Describe their
features.
3. Do you agree or disagree with the statement “Writing a storyboard slows
down development?” Give two reasons to justify your answer.
4. List the components of a storyboard. Describe any two components in terms
of the purpose they serve in the storyboard.
5. Briefly explain the concept of interactive storyboarding.


Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
1. You have just joined a team that is writing a storyboard for a project. Share with the
team two guidelines for describing the following components in the storyboard:
• Visual layout
• Text
• Audio
2. State two considerations that are a part of the following storyboard reviews:
• Instructional design
• SME
3. State two guidelines for creating the following components in a course:
• Visual layout
• Text
• Graphics
• Audio
• Navigation and interactivity

Project
You have completed the Design phase for your project. You have already written the
objectives, structured the instructions, created test items, and selected the instructional
strategies. Now, create a storyboard for the topic that you developed for learning
activities in the previous chapter.
Follow these guidelines:
! Select a storyboarding template.
! If possible, create your graphics. Otherwise, simply describe them.
! Create a storyboard for a topic of your project.
! Follow the guidelines that have been given in the chapter.
! Self-review your storyboard and also have it reviewed by an expert or sample
audience (a classmate or your instructor).
You can use one of the sample storyboard templates.

Project Management
9
• State the purpose of project management
• Describe the three phases of the project management 9.1 Introduction to
process in terms of their activities Project
• Describe the inter-relationships between the project Management
management process and the phases in the ADDIE
model 9.2 Challenges and
• List the role holders of a multimedia project team
Guidelines
• State two responsibilities of each role holder in the
project team
• State two communication issues and guidelines for
dealing with the issues
• Sate two guidelines for using content, text, graphics, and
URLs legally
• State two issues that arise during interaction with SMEs
and the guidelines for dealing with them

9.2 Project Management

9.1 Introduction to Project
Management
In the previous chapters we have discussed the instructional design process. Did you
notice a number of variables in the process? Some of these variables are as follows:
! The phases and the steps in the design process
! The development team consisting of people with different skills, such as
instructional design and programming
! A client or sponsor
! The use of multimedia technology
The purpose of this chapter is to help you understand the project management process,
which is used to deal with all these variables. This chapter also describes those who
participate in this process. Finally, it introduces you to some key project management
issues and suggests guidelines for dealing with them. Knowledge of all these aspects
will help you become a sensitive and informed team player.

Project management is something that you do all the time, perhaps unknowingly.
Organizing a party is a project, and buying a car is a project. The Project Management
Institute defines project management as the “knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to
manage project activities to meet or exceed stakeholder needs and expectations.” While
most of the definition is self-explanatory, the term that needs to be further explained is
stakeholder. A stakeholder is any entity who commissions the project. This can be
either the client or the sponsor.
Due to the complexity involved in the development process, project management in the
context of developing multimedia courses is different from managing any other project.
The complexity stems mainly from the nature of the product itself. As you know, a
multimedia course consists of text, graphics, audio, and several other elements that
integrate and perform the intended functions.
While the purpose of using the instructional systems development process, which is
called the ADDIE model in this book, is to ensure the quality of instruction, the purpose
Project Management 9.3

of project management is to effectively execute the instructional systems development
process.
9.1.2 Phases of a Project Lifecycle

Every project has a life, from beginning to end, called the project lifecycle, which can
be divided into three phases. Figure 9.1 depicts the three phases in the lifecycle of a
multimedia project.
Planning
Execution
Follow-up
Figure 9.1: Phases in the Project Management Process
Characteristics of the Phases

The characteristics that apply to each of the phases are listed below:
! Deliverables: A deliverable is a distinct unit of work, such as a design document or
a proposal. There are one or more deliverables at the end of each phase.
! Review: Each phase ends with a review of the performance of the project.
! Sign-off: The competent party, such as the client or sponsor, signs off on all
deliverables. This is necessary before work related to the next phase begins.
The activities in these phases run parallel to the phases and steps in the ADDIE model.
Planning
In this phase of the project management process, specifications are drawn and resources
are put together. The key deliverable at the end of this phase is the detailed project plan.
The project manager is responsible for the project plan and accepts input from other

key people on the team, such as the instructional designer and the programmer, for
creating the project plan.
The activities in the project planning phase are as follows:
! Identifying the skill set required for the project
! Selecting the right team
! Creating the project plan
! Conducting the project kick-off meeting
! Reviewing and signing off on the analysis and design deliverables at the client end
A project plan is a comprehensive document that encompasses almost everything that
might be necessary to make the project a success. Table 9.1 lists the components of a
project plan.
Project definition The title, scope, and description of the project
Client details The name and contact information of the client
Deliverables or outputs of the Final course deliverables, such as a running course, user
project manuals, Help documents, and training
Facilities and equipment Hardware, software, and network requirements
Training, knowledge, and skills The team’s requirements in terms of any training, knowledge
needed and skills upgrade required, any standards or style guides to
be used
Schedule The detailed and summary project schedule that contains

tasks and assigned resources
Risk analysis A statement of all anticipated risks to the project and

proposed solutions
Team The names of the members of the project team and their
availability in terms of full-time, part-time, and period of
availability
Approval of client/sponsor The client or sponsor approves plan
Client responsibilities A list of client responsibilities such as documents, resources,

or reviews, along with dates
Table 9.1: Components of a Project Plan

The project-planning phase overlaps with the Analysis and the Design phases of the
ADDIE model, which are completed during planning. Input from the Analysis phase
goes into the project plan. For example, the results of the needs assessment are an
important factor in the decisions about the scope of the project. In the Design phase,
prototyping is done to decide a final model, and templates to be used for development
are made.
Execution
After all critical design decisions are made, development work starts. The major
activities in this phase are development and implementation. The activities in the
execution phase of the project management process are:
! Tracking the project
! Rescheduling, if required
! Conducting mid-project status meetings
! Reviewing and signing-off at client end
! Preparing the implementation schedule
! Communicating the project status to client periodically
The Execution phase overlaps with the Development and Implementation phases of the
ADDIE model. Some key Development phase steps that are completed are the creation
of a storyboard and the production of all media components, such as graphics, audio,
and video. Some key Implementation phase steps that are completed are user testing and
rollout, or final delivery to the learners.
Follow-Up
This phase is also called the termination phase or the closing phase. The key activity in
the Follow-up phase is the post-project review meeting, wherein the entire course
development team participates and lists what went right and wrong during the project.
The objective of the meeting is not to find fault or apportion blame but to learn lessons
for the future. The team publishes a report of their findings and lessons learned.
The Follow-up phase overlaps with the Evaluation phase of the ADDIE model. The
course development team evaluates the effectiveness of the course in terms of content
and instructional strategies used.
Just as there is no one instructional systems design model, there is no such thing as one
project management process. Most organizations have developed their own project
management processes, but the major activities in the phases are the same. The phases
may also be known by different names. For example, some organizations call the

planning phase the conceptualization phase or the project initiation phase. Some
organizations even divide it into more than three phases.
Request for Proposal

Some user organizations do not create their courses in-house but outsource their
development to vendors or specialized production houses for multimedia courses. In
such a case, the user organization prepares a Request for Proposal (RFP). The RFP is a
request sent to all capable potential vendors/parties to bid for and complete the project.
An RFP document introduces the need, the learner, and the scope of the course to the
vendor. It is created after the needs assessment is completed and a portion of the initial
design process has taken place.
9.1.3 Working with the Project Team

“Development teams are notoriously eclectic bunches. The team can widely vary
between self-taught members and those with academic credentials such as degrees in
instructional design, psychology, programming, art, and other areas of study.”
—Kevin Kruse
Some years ago, it was not uncommon for only one or two people to work toward
creating a multimedia course. Even now there are small shops where roles and
responsibilities overlap, but most multimedia courseware development is done in teams,
where people hold specific roles and responsibilities. These teams are usually put
together for a specific project.
The development of a multimedia training course requires a diverse set of skills. No
single person, group, or function has all the skills. The team is similar to a film crew,
and making a multimedia course is similar to making a film. It involves everything from
animation production, resource management, programming, project management, and
instructional design to content writing. Notice that there is a mix of the hard skills (such
as programming), soft skills (such as team building), and artistic skills (such as writing).
How development teams are formed depends on the in-house capability and size of the
organization. An e-learning development organization will have all the requisite skill
sets and will also want to develop them further. Therefore, it will seek to develop a
complete team. On the other hand, a large organization may want to outsource the
development of a multimedia project.
Depending on the size and type of project, several team structures are possible. One
type is a small team with a lead instructional designer who doubles as project or team

leader, a programmer, and a multimedia person. This multimedia person is responsible
for graphics as well as the not-so-complex animations. For other special requirements,
such as audio or complex animation, the team might outsource.
Another type of team is the large team formed for a complex and sizable project.
Almost all the roles are represented in the team.
The following is a list of the role holders in a typical large project team:
! Sponsor/client
! Project manager
! Subject matter expert
! Instructional designer
! Content writer
! Graphics artists
! Programmers
! Audio and video producers
Sponsor/Client
A sponsor or client sanctions the project and sets the project specifications. Sponsors
can be either the head of the training group or a functional head. An example of the
latter is the leader of the Sales Development Team, who is responsible for training the
sales team. The sponsor/client role is critical because the involvement and support of
the sponsor is vital for the success of the team.
Table 9.2 describes the requisite skills, knowledge, and responsibilities of the
sponsor/client.
Skills/Knowledge Required Responsibilities
Organizational skills Ensures that the course meets the

Experience in the training function organization’s needs and goals
Knowledge of needs, learner characteristics Selects a vendor, if required
People skills or team management skills Ensures or manages budgets, funding, and
approvals
Communicates with other functions, such as
user groups, on behalf of the team
Interfaces between the project manager and the
management
Table 9.2: Skills/Knowledge and Responsibilities of the Client/Sponsor

Project Manager
The project manager is responsible for meeting the requirements set by the sponsor or
client in terms of budget, time, and quality. Sometimes, the sponsor takes on the role of
the project manager, too. Table 9.3 describes the requisite skills, knowledge, and
responsibilities of the project manager.
Project management skills Ensures delivery of course on time and within

Time management skills budget
Ability to manage multiple tasks Ensures that the course meets the quality
requirements set by the client/sponsor
Knowledge of instructional design
Planning, making reports, and team
Knowledge of technology issues
communication
Experience working with automated project
Finding and retaining the people with the right
management tools, such as Microsoft Project
skills
People skills
Accountable to the client or sponsor
Communication skills
Interfaces between the team and the client
Table 9.3: Skills/Knowledge and Responsibilities of the Project Manager
Subject Matter Expert (SME)

“The quality of the content will only be as good as the SME's expertise.”
—Michael Greer
The SME provides the content expertise to the course. The SME is essential because an
instructional designer usually has the skills to develop an effective course but does not
have the content knowledge. For example, an e-learning development organization that
is developing a curriculum on Oracle 9i may have skilled instructional designers but is
unlikely to have Oracle SMEs.
Who qualifies as an SME? SMEs are experts who are well known in their areas of work,
have been certified by a competent authority, have written books and papers, or have
field experience. If a course on animation basics is being created, the best SME for the
course is someone who has worked as an animator for at least 4-5 years, and not just
someone who knows the theory of animation.

Table 9.4 lists the requisite skills, knowledge, and responsibilities of the SME.
Expertise in subject areas Participates in the design process to ensure that

Ability to communicate clearly the content is well suited for the learner and the
need
Ensures content accuracy
Provides content sources such as books,
references, and information
Works with the instructional designer
Table 9.4: Skills/Knowledge and Responsibilities of the SME
Working with a SME can be a challenge. The working relationship you form with your
SME is dependent not only on how they interact with you, but how you interact with
them. The key is to form a good relationship with your SME. Section 9.2.3 examines
some of the challenges of working with an SME and offers some ways to overcome
them.
A later topic in this chapter, 9.2.3 Interacting with SMEs, will provide guidelines
for establishing positive working relationships with these key players.
Instructional Designer
The instructional designer visualizes the course as one unit in terms of all the
components, such as text, graphics, audio, and video, and designs the course
accordingly. One can also think of the instructional designer as the lead integrator of the
course. The instructional designer of a multimedia course is often compared to a film
director. In filmmaking, it is the director who plays the role of the lead integrator by
ensuring that the actors, the music, the lighting, the costumes, and the camera angles, all
deliver the desired message and effect.
Often, the instructional designer is also the lead writer and helps kick off the
development phase by writing sample storyboards. Further on in the process, the
instructional designer reviews the drafts written by other team members.

Table 9.5 lists the requisite skills, knowledge, and responsibilities of the instructional
designer.
Skills/Knowledge Required Responsibility
Instructional design Designs the course in terms of writing

Experience in designing courses objectives, structuring the content, writing test
items, and formulating instructional strategies
Analytical skills to identify needs and learning
gaps Writes sample storyboards
Ability to understand technology Interacts with SME to get the right sort of
information
Writing skills
Reviews and revises versions of the course
Works closely with the project manager, the
SME, the content writers, graphic artists, and
programmers
Table 9.5: Skills/Knowledge and Responsibilities of the Instructional Designer
Content Writer
The content writer uses the design output created by the instructional designer, such as
the objectives and the outline, and describes each supporting element in detail in the
form of storyboards. The content writer is also responsible for the final text as it appears
in a course. Table 9.6 shows the requisite skills, knowledge, and responsibilities of the
content writer.
Basic instructional design Details each component in the storyboard

Experience in writing Works closely with the instructional designer
Writing skills Coordinates with the artists and the
Creativity programmers
Table 9.6: Skills/Knowledge and Responsibilities of the Content Writer
Graphics Artist
The graphics artist is the person who visualizes and creates all the images required for
the course. Depending on the type of course being developed, a graphics artist may be
required to sketch simple flow charts, figures, backgrounds, or design a basic screen
layout that includes screen elements, such a buttons and links. Sometimes, the required

output can be animated sequences essential for simulations. Many artists have formal
training and degrees in the fine arts, but a lot of them have learned on the job.
Table 9.7 lists the requisite skills, knowledge, and responsibilities of the graphics artist.
Visualization skills Creates the graphics, animation, and screen

Sketching ability designs for the course
A keen sense of aesthetics Works closely with the content writer and the
programmer
Creativity
Knowledge of graphics software
Basic instructional design
Table 9.7: Skills/Knowledge and Responsibilities of the Graphics Artist
Programmer
While the instructional designer visualizes all the components of a course in its entirety,
the programmer puts them together to deliver a running or functional course. After the
storyboards are complete and all the elements, such as audio and video, have been
produced, the programmer puts them together with the help of an authoring tool.
Table 9.8 shows the requisite skills, knowledge, and responsibilities of the programmer.
Programming skills in authoring tools, such as Creates the first prototype

Authorware, Toolbook, and HTML Creates the final product
Knowledge of basic instructional design Fixes bugs discovered in testing
Understanding of technology Works closely with the instructional designer
and the graphics artist
Table 9.8: Skills/Knowledge and Responsibilities of the Programmer
Audio/Video Producers
These are specialized persons related to the production of audio and video. Often, this
work is outsourced to specialized production houses because development organizations
lack the skills and the equipment needed for these tasks.

9.2 Challenges and Guidelines
There are several challenges in the development lifecycle of multimedia courses: clarity
of requirements, client communication, funding, budgeting, and deadlines. The list is
endless, with most of them falling within the domain of the project manager, client, or
the sponsor. Some of these challenges that will be relevant to you as you begin
developing multimedia courses are as follows:
! Communicating effectively in a team
! Legal issues
! Interacting with SMEs
Some insights into what makes each of these challenges so critical to the project follow,
along with a few guidelines for overcoming them.
9.2.1 Communicating Effectively in a Team

Communication in any project is a challenge and can become an obstacle, especially in
delivering multimedia courses. Multimedia development projects put together diverse
people with diverse skill sets and integrate several disciplines, such as instructional
design, technology, and project management. There are several reasons why
communication is important in a multimedia project. It satisfies the need to achieve the
following objectives:
! Clarify the client’s requirements
! Arrive at a common understanding
! Inform the team of project status
! Share client communication
Some guidelines for effective communication in project teams are as follows.
Frequency
It is widely believed that there is no such thing as too much communication within
multimedia project teams. Frequent communication helps to keep the team working
toward the same goal and enables timely sharing of new information.

Mode
The mode of communication may be formal or informal. Some formal modes are
e-mails, style guides, or verbal communication in team meetings.
Meetings may be formal or informal. One common complaint about meetings is that
they are very long and disrupt the workflow of the team. A solution could be to have
five-minute stand-up meetings or huddles every morning. These can be used to quickly
share updates, status, and other critical project information.
Another useful mode is a project notice board, which can be used to display important
e-mails, the project schedule, project status, appreciation notes, and more.
Two-Way Communication
While it is important to talk and share, it is also important to listen to the voices in the
team. Two-way communication emphasizes the need for building a culture of listening
in the team. Listening carefully can prevent many problems early in the project.
9.2.2 Legal Issues

If a development team were making a course on “Scriptwriting for Films,” where would
they get the content? They would, of course, refer to books on the subject, Web sites
dedicated to cinema, and film journals. In doing so, one team member may unwittingly
copy verbatim an entire paragraph from a book, and another team member may use a
flowchart seen on a Web site. Is this acceptable?
Copying in any form to produce a course is illegal. This section will explore what
specific relevance this has for creating multimedia courses, which often involve using
content and graphics from various sources. Development teams must be aware of some
important concepts related to legal issues, such as:
! Intellectual property rights
! Copyright
! Trademarks
Intellectual Property Rights, Copyright, and Trademarks
The entire basis of the relevant legal issues is the concept of intellectual property rights
(IPR). An individual, a group, or an organization is said to possess the IPR on an

intellectual work resulting from creative effort. IPRs are protected by legislation
relating to copyrights, trademarks, patents, and design rights.
A copyright is a legal right that protects a creative work from misuse by other people.
This right also provides the owner full control over the work. An organization or an
individual can be the holder of the copyright. For example, an organization holds the
copyright for the material created by its employees.
A copyright violation occurs when a person copies or publishes a copyrighted work
without prior permission from the copyright holder. Different acts and laws in the
United States, such as the Copyright Law of 1976 and the Digital Millennium Copyright
Act (DMCA), prohibit copyright violation.
A trademark, as the term implies, is a mark. This mark may be any word, phrase,
design, sound, symbol, or color. Alternatively, it could be a group of letters or numbers,
or a combination of these. A trademark is used by an organization to mark its products
and services. It signifies that a product or service is unique to an organization. The
presence of a trademark also shows that the products or services of an organization are
different from similar products or services sold by other organizations. For example, the
trademark of the Disney Corporation is a stylized version of the signature of the founder
of the organization, Walt Disney.
A trademark is the intellectual property of an organization and should not be imitated or
used without permission. However, trademarks are often illegally used to sell fake
products. This can affect the business of the organization selling original products.
Therefore, it is essential that trademark owners take steps to discover and prosecute
users that misuse their trademark.
Guidelines for Using Content from Other Sources

Knowledge of IPR, trademarks, and copyrights is not enough to prepare development
teams to properly use content from other sources. The following paragraphs present
strategies that development teams can adopt so that they use borrowed content legally.
Digital Images
Each time an image is modified, there is a new copyright owner. Digital images may
have more than one owner. Therefore, if the image is to be used again, permission from
all the copyright owners is required.
Permission to use an image does not provide the right to alter the image. Additional
permission is needed to alter or change an image.

Web Sites
These are some guidelines to be followed while using content from Web sites:
! Ensure that the text is by the author and that its ownership does not belong to
someone else.
! Ensure that the ownership is with the author and not the employer of the author, i.e.
the owner of the Web site.
! Ensure that you obtain permission to use ideas and facts stated by someone else.
You should also obtain permission from the author of the text that you are going to
use. While obtaining permission, you should clearly state how much text you will
alter.
! Ensure that you do not use someone else’s content verbatim. If you do not get
permission to use the original text published by an author, restate the text in your
own words. Rephrasing text prevents a copyright infringement.
! Ensure that you do not use large sections of the original work verbatim. Doing so
constitutes a blatant copyright violation.
Guidelines for Using URLs

A link is a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and does not have a copyright. However,
if a Web site has a list of links based on some research and thinking, the list and its
sequence come under copyright protection.
! Ensure that you do not reproduce the entire list of URLs.
! Use links to provide additional information on the subject of the project. However,
the links should not appear to be a part of the content of your project.
For more information about copyrights, visit the following Web sites:
! http://www.ivanhoffman.com
! http://inventors.about.com
! http://fairuse.stanford.edu

You can legally purchase images or graphics from Internet sites, such as Corbis
(www.corbis.com) and Getty Images (www.gettyimages.com). Depending on their
intended use, images or graphics can be purchased in varying resolutions and sizes.
9.2.3 Interacting with SMEs

Constraints of Interacting with SMEs
There are several constraints in the process of interacting with SMEs, such as:
! Finding the right SMEs
! Getting adequate time from SMEs
! Understanding SME language
! Getting the right information from SMEs
Finding the Right SMEs

Anyone who has worked to create multimedia courses is aware of the fact that finding
the right SMEs is a very difficult task. There are three reasons for this. First and
foremost is that a limited number of people qualify as SMEs, especially in emerging
technology areas. While the first reason has to do with availability, the second is about
willingness. Very few experts are willing to take on the task of SME. The third reason is
geographical location. Sometimes, expertise in a content area is concentrated in certain
geographical areas, such as computer-related expertise in the Silicon Valley, medicine
in Boston, and so on. As a result, the ability to meet with the SME face-to-face may be
limited.
Getting Adequate Time from SMEs

Often, SMEs have busy schedules in their current responsibilities. Taking on an SME
assignment is always an additional, often lower priority, task for them. As a result,
development teams have to often wait for SME inputs till very late in their projects.
Understanding SME Language

SMEs have a deep understanding of their respective subjects. Therefore, their language
often contains a lot of technical and subject-specific jargon and assumes a certain level
of understanding of the subject. As a result, developers often find SME communication
hard to decipher and to use.

Getting the Right Information from SMEs
It is also difficult for developers to get SMEs to answer the questions they want
answered. For example, a developer’s question can be about the relevance of
technology, but the SME might continue to talk about the methods or the processes.
As Robert Focazio observed, “If you improve your questions by 10%, you improve your
productivity by 20% and that’s being conservative.”
Guidelines for Overcoming Constraints in SME Interaction

Table 9.9 lists some guidelines for overcoming constraints in interacting with SMEs.
Constraints Guidelines
Finding the right SMEs There is no real answer to this but hard work.
Getting adequate time from the SMEs Estimate how much time is expected from the
SME, in what form (meetings, reviews, phone
calls), and communicate the same to the SME.
Understanding SME language Read up on the subject matter before meeting

the SME and make a list of questions.
Getting the right information from SMEs Ask the right questions and sequence them in
an order, from the most critical to the least
critical.
Ensure that the questions are specific and not
open-ended. For example, do not ask questions
like, “What is your opinion on the DD method?”
Instead ask, “What is the advantage of the DD
method over the FF method?”
Table 9.9: Guidelines to Overcome SME Constraints

Summary
! The three phases of project management for multimedia projects are:
• Project planning
• Execution
• Follow-up
! The activities in the planning phase are identifying the skill set required for the
project, selecting the right team, creating the project plan, conducting a kick-off
meeting, and reviewing and signing off on analysis and design deliverables by the
client.
! The activities in the Execution phase are tracking the project, rescheduling (if
required), mid-project status meetings, reviews and sign-off from the client,
preparation of implementation schedule, and periodic communication of project
status to client.
! The activity in the follow-up phase is the post-project review meeting.
! A project team usually consists of the following members:
• Sponsor or client
• Project manager
• Subject matter expert
• Instructional designer
• Content writer
• Graphics artists
• Programmers
• Audio and video producers
! A sponsor or client sanctions the project and sets the project specifications.
! The project manager is responsible for ensuring that the multimedia project meets
the requirements set by the sponsor or client in terms of budget, quality, and time.
! The SME provides the content expertise to the course and is responsible for content
accuracy.
! The instructional designer visualizes the course as one unit in terms of all
components, such as text, graphics, audio, video, etc., and designs the course.

! The content writer uses the design inputs created by the instructional designer, such
as the objectives and outline.
! A graphics artist visualizes and creates all graphic images required for the course.
! A programmer puts all the components together to deliver a running course.
! Communication satisfies the need to:
• Clarify the client’s requirements
• Arrive at a common understanding
• Inform the team of project status
• Share client communication
! Guidelines for effective communication in project teams are as follows:
• Communicate frequently.
• Use both formal and informal modes of communication, such as e-mail, style
guides, and team meetings.
! IPRs are the rights that an individual, a group, or an organization possesses on an
intellectual work. IPRs are protected by legislation relating to copyright,
trademarks, patents, and design rights.
! A copyright is a legal right that protects a creative work from misuse by other
people. Both organizations and individuals can be copyright holders.
! A trademark may be any word, phrase, design, sound, group of letters or numbers,
or a combination of these.
! Guidelines for using content from other sources are as follows:
• When using a digital image, check whether the image has more than one owner
and seek permission from all the owners.
• When using content from Web sites, ensure that the text is by the author and
seek permission from the actual owner, who may be the employer in some
cases. In addition, seek permission to use ideas and facts that have been stated
by someone else, and never reproduce any content verbatim.
• When using URLs, refrain from reproducing an entire list of URLs and making
the links appear as if they are a part of the project’s content.
! The constraints of interacting with SMEs are finding an right SMEs, getting
adequate time from them, understanding their language, and getting the right
information from them.

! Some guidelines for interacting with SMEs are as follows:
• Estimate the time required for SME interaction, decide on the form of
interaction, and communicate these items to the SME.
• Read up on the subject matter before meeting the SME and make a list of
questions.
• Ask the right questions, sequence them in order from the most critical to the
least critical, and frame specific questions.

Assignments
1. What is the difference between the project management process and the ADDIE
model? Why are both important for a multimedia project?
2. What is the role of an instructional designer in a multimedia projects team? How is it
different from the role of a project manager and a content writer?
3. You have to create a course on animation. An important resource for this is a white
paper available on the Internet. You have two options: either you use content from the
article or provide a link to the article. How will you ensure that you do not use the
white paper illegally? State the guidelines that you will follow while pursuing both
options.

Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
1. Explain why project management is important for multimedia projects. Give
at least two reasons.
2. Name each phase in the project management process. List the activities in
each phase, and state the relationship of each phase to the ADDIE model.
3. List the typical members of a project management team. State the
responsibilities of each member.
4. Rick is the content writer for a course, “The Principles of Economics”. The
SME for the course is a very famous professor at an Ivy League university.
The professor has indicated that he is does not have a lot of time. What are the
guidelines that you can give Rick for interacting with the professor?
5. Dave is creating a course on Web design and has some useful books on the
subject. He has also selected some sites that he can use as samples in his
course. What advice would you give so that he uses these resources legally?


Appendix
A.1 Basic Excel for

Store Assistants: A
Case Study
A.2 Additional
References

A.2 Appendix

A.1 Basic Excel for Store
This book has demonstrated the implementation of the ADDIE model to create course
material with the help of a case study. This case study describes the training
requirements of the Foodland Company, a small chain of retail food stores. Information
about the organization as well as various stages of the ADDIE model is given below.
The case study is discussed in Chapters 2 through 8. The relevant output of each stage is
presented in these chapters. For example, the output for the needs assessment stage for
learners is presented at the end of Chapter 2, Needs Assessment. Similarly, the
objectives of the course are presented in Chapter 4, Writing Objectives.
The entire case study is presented in this section.
A.1.1 Background Information

Background information on the Foodland Company is organized into three parts:
! Operations
! Organizational structure
! Sales and marketing function
Operations
The Foodland Company is a small chain of retail food stores in the state of Texas.
Although it started a year ago, it has a very high growth rate. The head office is located
in Dallas, and there are five stores in various parts of Texas.
The company plans to expand by setting up 10 more stores in Texas as well as the
neighboring states and by hiring over 150 employees in the next two years. The stores
are rapidly gaining popularity throughout the state for the quality and freshness of their
products, pricing, and service to consumers. They are regarded as “friendly” stores that
strive to meet the daily grocery shopping needs of families.
The stores retail a wide range of products including food, snacks, drinks, bread and
bakery items, poultry, spices, condiments, and sauces. There are nearly 200 different
coded items in each store.
Appendix A.3

Organization Structure
Figure A.1 illustrates the organizational structure of the Foodland Company.
Figure A.1: Organization Structure of the Foodland Company
Sales and Marketing Function

A total of 75 employees work for the organization, of which approximately 50,
deployed in five different stores over Texas, work in marketing and sales. These 50
employees are comprised of five store managers and 45 store assistants.
The responsibility of a store manager is to take charge of a store and participate in
monthly meetings at the head office to discuss issues, concerns, sales plans, and
promotional strategies of the stores.
The average age of a store manager is approximately 30 years. Qualifications include
either a baccalaureate or an associate degree in commerce with eight to 10 years of
work experience in retail management.
Three to five store assistants form the support team of a store manager. Store assistants
are between 18 to 20 years of age with basic educational qualifications and a year’s
work experience. Among the 45 assistants, 15 are women. Each store assistant is
responsible for a specific section of the store.
A.4 Appendix

The subsequent sections describe the following:
! The responsibilities of the store assistants
! The current system for reporting data
! Formats used to report daily and weekly sales by store agents
Responsibilities of a Store Assistant

A store assistant’s responsibilities include the following:
! Arranging food items in an organized manner
! Responding to customer queries and complaints
! Implementing promotion schemes, such as setting up special sales counters
! Reporting daily sales
! Reporting weekly sales
Current System for Reporting Daily and Weekly Data

The company does not use any integrated software application for the sales and
marketing function because the company is still in the first year of inception. The store
assistants use simple and standard format spreadsheets of Microsoft Excel 2000 to
submit the daily sales data. The store manager compiles the daily and weekly reports of
the store through data received from the store assistants and places orders accordingly
for additional merchandise from the company’s warehouse. These reports are compiled
at the head office.
A similar process is followed for the weekly sales reports. The store managers also
compile the monthly and annual sales reports.
Appendix A.5

Formats of Excel Spreadsheets
Figure A.2 shows the format of the Daily Sales Report.
Figure A.2: Format of the Daily Sales Report
Figure A.3 shows the format of the weekly sales report.
Figure A.3: Format of the Weekly Sales Report
A.6 Appendix

Current Knowledge and Skill Level of Store Assistants in Excel 2000
Working knowledge and working skills in Excel 2000 are prerequisites for creating
reports in the above formats. The store managers often find that while the store
assistants are familiar with Microsoft Word and e-mail, their knowledge and skills in
using Excel are inadequate. It is attributed to the fact that a majority of them join
straight out of school without prior experience in Excel and knowledge only of Word
and an e-mail program.
The store managers requested to launch a training program in Excel for store assistants
because of the following reasons:
! Knowledge of Excel is a basic skill needed by store assistants.
! Managers lack the time to train the store assistants themselves.
Training in Excel has become an urgent and important requirement because the store
managers plan to recruit more assistants.
A.1.2 Needs Assessment

Deliverables of the needs assessment process are as follows:
! A needs assessment plan
! An interview form and questionnaire
! The results of the needs assessment process
! The instructional goal
Appendix A.7

Table A.1 illustrates the needs assessment plan.
Components of the Needs Assessment Plan Description
Purpose • Identify the gap between the current and

the required knowledge and skills of the
store assistants.
• Understand the causes for these gaps and
the problems faced.
• Decide whether the need can be resolved
by an instructional design solution.
Benefits • The causes for the gaps in performance

are identified and appropriate solutions
found to eliminate them.
• Improvement is made in the effectiveness
of the store assistants on the job through
bridging these gaps.
Sample audience for the needs assessment • The sample audience for the needs
assessment process includes all 5 store
managers and 30 out of the 45 store
assistants (including equal numbers of men
and women).
• A store manager heads each store. The
average age is approximately 30 years and
qualifications include either a
baccalaureate or an associate degree in
Commerce with 8 to 10 years of
experience in retail management.
• The store assistants support the store
manager. They are between 18 to 20 years
of age, with basic educational qualifications
and a year of work experience. Each store
assistant is responsible for a specific
section of the store.
Types of data to be collected for the needs • Optimal knowledge and skills levels
assessment required by the store assistants
• Current knowledge and skill levels of store
A.8 Appendix

assistants (Their current ability/disability to
carry out various tasks, and the problems
faced in that)
• Problems faced as a result of lack of
knowledge and skills and causes for these
problems
Data collection tools to be used for needs Interviews and questionnaires to be used.
assessment Interviews are useful to collect data from store
managers because:
• The interviews and questionnaires provide
a firsthand account of the needs and
problems faced by the store managers.
• There are only five store managers.
• It is possible to meet all of them in Dallas at
the sales planning meeting.
A questionnaire is to be used to collect data
from store assistants because:
• It is not possible to meet each store
assistant individually, because they are 30
in number and geographically dispersed.
• The questionnaire can be filled out and
mailed back.
Table A.1: Needs Assessment Plan
Appendix A.9

Interview Protocol for Store Managers
Table A.2 illustrates the interview protocol to be used for interviewing store managers.
No. Question
• Name, age, location, educational qualifications, and work experience
• What is the number of store assistants working at your store location?
• What is their educational qualification and background?
• How long have they been employed with you?
2. Roles and Responsibilities:

• What are your responsibilities?
• What are the responsibilities of store assistants?
3. Competencies:
• What are the competencies (knowledge, skills, attitude, and behavior) required in the
store assistants?
• What are the key competencies (knowledge, skills, attitude, and behavior) lacking in
the store assistants?
• What are the causes for this lack of skills?
4. What are the problems faced as a result of lack of these skills?

• What is the input of the senior management regarding these problems?
• What is the input of the store assistants regarding these problems?
5. How can these key competencies (knowledge, skills, attitude, and behavior) be further
improved?
Table A.2: Interview Protocol for Store Managers
A.10 Appendix

Questionnaire for Store Assistants
Table A.3 presents the questionnaire for store assistants.
No. Question
As you are aware, we are conducting a needs assessment in the organization. The purpose
of this questionnaire is to identify the company’s strengths and areas requiring
improvement. We request your cooperation in completing this questionnaire in order to help
us understand your concerns and your wishes to improve specific personal skills. Thank
you for your time and assistance.
1. Name: _____________Position:________________Location :_____________________
Educational Qualifications:_________________
2. What are your key responsibilities as a store assistant?
3. Rate yourself on the following competencies on a scale of 1 to 4, where 1= Need

improvement, 2 = Reasonable, 3 = Good, 4 = Very Good.
Knowledge about company, product, and pricing _________
Knowledge about competitor products __________
Merchandising skills __________
Products display standards __________
Customer orientation __________
Complaint handling __________
Quality orientation __________
Reporting skills using Excel 2000 __________
Computer skills using Excel 2000 and Word 2000 __________
4. How long have you been using computers (approximately)?

# 6 months # one year # A year and a half # Two years # Two years or more
5. Which features of Excel 2000 can you currently use?

# Creating database files
# Using basic commands
# Using formulas
# Performing formatting and layout
# Performing basic data analysis
# Performing advanced data analysis
# Creating presentations with charts
# Creating data summary
# Creating hyperlinks
6. What more would you like to learn in Excel 2000?
Appendix A.11

s# Creating database files
# Using basic commands
# Using formulas
# Performing formatting and layout
# Performing basic data analysis
# Performing advanced data analysis
# Creating presentations with charts
# Creating data summary
# Creating hyperlinks
7. What medium of instruction would you prefer?
# Books # Classroom # Tutorials # Videotapes # Demonstrations # CBT or WBT
8. What problems do you face in implementing your role? What are the causes for these
problems?
9. What areas would you like to improve?
Table A.3: Questionnaire for Store Assistants
Results of the Needs Assessment Process

The following are the results of the needs assessment process:
Store assistants are required to perform the following tasks:
! Ensure that the FIFO (First In, First Out) principle is maintained while removing
food items from the goods room
! Arrange food items in a neat and an attractive manner, according to company’s
display standards
! Correctly report daily and weekly sales in the Excel sheets
A.12 Appendix

Current Performance
Currently, store assistants are able to perform the following tasks:
! Ensure that food items (related to their section) are stored in the goods room in a
! Arrange food items in a neat and attractive manner, according to the company’s
display standards
! Implement promotion schemes, according to company plans
Gap Between Required and Current Performance

Store assistants are unable to perform the following tasks:
! Ensure that the FIFO (First In, First Out) principle is maintained while removing
food items from the goods room.
! Correctly report daily and weekly sales in the Excel sheets.
Prioritized Need
To rectify the inability to correctly report the daily and weekly sales in the Excel sheets
is considered important for the following reasons:
! A large number of store assistants are unable to use Excel correctly.
! There is pressure and commitment from the store managers to correct this problem.
! The costs incurred as a result of this problem are higher than the cost of
implementing a solution for it.
Problems Faced
The store assistants, with no formal training or knowledge in Excel 2000, find the
process of creating these reports difficult and resent the time and effort that they need to
invest in reports.
As a result, the reports are often delayed and full of errors. The store managers then
invest extra time in checking and correcting inconsistencies and errors in the reports
submitted by store assistants.
Because the store assistants are familiar with Word 2000, they already knew how to
open and close files and enter data. However, they are still not consistent and confident
in performing these tasks.
Appendix A.13

They face the following problems:
! They often overwrite existing data in a cell while editing it.
! They commit errors while making data entries.
! They lose data while saving files.
! They cannot switch between sheets.
! They cannot use simple formulae; therefore, they often use a calculator for simple
additions.
Causes
! Lack of knowledge, skills, or previous experience in Excel
! Lack of time and resources to practice working on Excel
Recommendation
Solve the knowledge and skills gap by designing and implementing a training program
or course in Excel 2000.
Instructional Goal
The instructional goal for the course is as follows:
“Store assistants will be able to enter data and perform simple mathematical
calculations using Excel 2000, which in turn will enable them to create error-free sales
reports efficiently.”
Improvement occurs in the following learning domains:
! Psychomotor skills: Entering data and performing simple mathematical calculations
require both mental and physical activity.
! Verbal information: The store assistants are able to describe some key features of
Excel.
A.14 Appendix

A.1.3 Learner Analysis
A part of the information related to learner analysis is obtained from the questionnaire
used for the needs assessment. Other information, in addition, is gathered from
interviews with a sample set of store assistants and store managers.
Some additional questions in the interview protocol are:
! How do you think this course can help you in your work?
! What are your expectations from this course?
! How do you like to learn something? Some options that you can provide are as
follows:
• By reading books
• By listening to others
• By experimenting in laboratory setups
• Through brainstorming and discussion
• Through exercises, demos, and activities
• By trying new activities on your own
! Which factors at your workplace facilitate your performance and which function as
roadblocks?
Appendix A.15

Learner Analysis
Table A.4 presents the learner analysis for the store assistants at Foodland Company.
Current role Store assistants responsible for a section in the store
Course Basic Excel for store assistants
Current skills Ability to use Word and e-mail. Ability to perform simple Excel
operations such as opening and closing the program and entering
data.
Problems faced ! Overwriting existing data in a cell

! Errors committed while making data entries.
! Loss of data while saving files
! Inability to switch between sheets
! Inability to use simple formulas; a calculator is often used for
simple additions.
Current computer skills Working knowledge of the computer. Word, E-mail, and basic
Excel operations, such as opening and closing workbooks.
Age 18–20 years
Gender 15 women and 30 men
Qualification High school diploma
Experience 0–1 year of experience of working in temporary jobs as sales

assistants or hostesses
Language ability Can understand English
Previous training None
Resistance to training Resistance is probable. Learners may perceive the training

(probable) program as a management strategy to control them and express
dissatisfaction over their performances.
Need for the course Learners need working knowledge of Excel to create accurate and
error-free sales reports.
Motivation and attitude Learners are under high pressure from long working hours and
towards training rigorous goals. Motivation levels are low for learning a new skill
because it is seen as an extra burden to their existing workload.
Learning style Learners prefer to get hands-on experience with the software
(refer to the Accommodator Learning Style in the text).
Table A.4: Learner Analysis
A.16 Appendix

A.1.4 Task Analysis
The responses to the questionnaire used for Needs Assessment in Chapter 2 are used to
develop a list of tasks for the store assistants to perform.
Hierarchy of Tasks and Subtasks

Table A.5 presents the tasks and subtasks of the store assistants to create the daily and
weekly sales reports in Excel.
Tasks Subtasks
Create a daily sales report ! Enter value of the sales made by product
! Add total sales per day per product
! Add total sales of all products
! Find the product with the maximum sales
! Find the product with the minimum sales
Create a weekly sales report ! Add totals by product for the week
! Calculate total sales for the week
! Find the product for which the maximum sale was recorded
during the week
! Find the product for which the minimum sale was recorded
during the week
! Calculate average sales per day
Table A.5: Task Analysis
Key skills, behaviors, and attitudes required for the tasks are as follows:
! A high school diploma
! Numerical ability
! Attention to detail
! Basic Excel skills
Appendix A.17

A.1.5 Writing Objectives
Table A.6 displays the objectives for the course.
Course Objectives Enabling Objectives Bloom’s
Level
Describe worksheets, • Describe the functions of spreadsheets, worksheets, 2

workbooks, and workbooks.
components of • Define spreadsheet rows, columns, cells, labels, and
spreadsheets, and the values.
Excel workspace.
• Identify the Excel title bar, menu bar, standard toolbar,
formatting toolbar, formula bar, task pane, and status
bar.
Navigate a workbook • Open a workbook using the File menu. 3

using the File menu • Close and update a workbook using the File menu in
and other options, such the same and in a new folder.
as keys and scroll bars.
• Navigate a worksheet using the following techniques:
o Cell selection
o Arrow keys
o Enter, Shift, and Tab
o Ctrl + Home
o Scroll bar
Enter and edit labels • Define a label and list its features. 3
and values. • Define a value and list its features.
• Enter a label and values using the Enter key on the
Formula bar.
• Edit a label and values using the Backspace or Delete
key and the Formula bar.
Enter and edit formulas. • Define a formula. 3

• Define functions.
• List the types of operators.
• Enter a formula by typing it into a cell.
• Define cell references.
• Enter the formula that contains cell references.
Move and copy data • State the function of the clipboard. 3

within a worksheet and • Differentiate between moving and copying.
A.18 Appendix

from one worksheet to • Move data from one cell to another using the Cut and
another. Paste commands on the File menu.
• Move a part of the data in a cell to another cell using
the Cut and Paste keys on the Standard toolbar.
• Copy data using the Copy key on the Edit menu.
• Insert a range of cells in a worksheet using the File
menu.
• Insert a row above a selected row using the Insert
option on the File menu.
• Delete a row using the Delete option on the File menu.
Calculate sums, • Define a function and state its structure. 3

averages, min, max, • Define a range reference.
and count value in a
• Enter a SUM function into a cell.
range of values with
relevant functions. • State the structure of a range reference.
• Define the AUTOSUM function.
• Differentiate between the AUTOSUM and SUM
functions.
• Add a range of cells using the AUTOSUM function.
• State the advantages of the AUTOSUM functions.
• List at least four important functions other than SUM in
Excel.
• Calculate the average of a range of values using the
AVERAGE function.
• Identify the minimum of a range of values using the
MINIMUM function.
• Identify the maximum of a range of values using the
MAXIMUM function.
Table A.6: Objectives for the Basic Excel for Store Assistant Course
The assigned Bloom’s level in the third column of the table is for the course
objectives.
Appendix A.19

A.1.6 Course Map
Figure A.4 shows the course map for the course Basic Excel for Store Assistants.
BASIC EXCEL FOR STORE ASSISTANTS
! Getting Started with Excel
Terms and Components
• Basic Spreadsheet Terminology
• Components of an Excel Window
Operating Workbooks
• Opening and Closing Workbooks
• Navigating in a Workbook
! Creating a Basic Spreadsheet
Entering and Editing Values
• Entering Values
• Editing Values
Modifying Spreadsheets
• Copying Data
• Inserting Rows
• Deleting Rows
! Performing Basic Calculations
Calculating with Formulas
• Entering and Editing Formulas
• Moving and Copying Formulas
Calculating with Functions
• Adding with SUM and AUTOSUM
• Calculating AVG, MIN, and MAX
Figure A.4: Course Map for the Basic Excel for Store Assistant Course
The two key decisions made for the course structure are explained in the following two
paragraphs. The first is related to the type of structure, and the second is related to the
exclusion of some content.
A.20 Appendix

Decision 1: Type of Structure
The course structure is primarily a task-centered structure aimed to help store assistants
to quickly learn how to use Excel for creating their reports. However, a section titled
Terms and Components in the first module is topic-centered and covers prerequisite
content about using Excel.
Decision 2: Exclusion of Irrelevant Content

The second decision involves excluding content, such as formatting, printing, or
presenting, that is irrelevant for the immediate needs of store assistants. Shortage of
time necessitates a thorough learning of basics instead of trying to learn all concepts.
For instance, they have no immediate need to format, print, or present charts. An
advanced course can be created at a later stage in these areas, if required. This course
focuses on the immediate need of entering data correctly and performing calculations.
A.1.7 Evaluating Learning

Key Decisions
Table A.7 presents the decisions and the rationale for the decisions taken regarding
evaluation.
Decision Description and Rationale
Type of Evaluation Formative

It will be useful to conduct a formative evaluation to find answers to the
following questions:
• Does the course cover all the content points adequately?
• Are the objectives of the course clear?
• Do the evaluation exercises test the course objectives clearly?
• Is the course written in an easily comprehensible language?
• Does the look and feel of the course appeal to learners?
• Which additional topics are required in the course?
• Can learners locate relevant content easily?
• Does the course require any additional links for expert learners?
• What three recommendations would you give for improving the look and
feel of the course?
These questions are sample questions.
Appendix A.21

Summative
Organize a test at the end of the course to check whether the store assistants
have met the objectives.
Confirmative
A month after the course, a questionnaire can be used to find out if there are
any gaps in the skills of the learners and what could be the measures to
bridge those gaps. Tools used for this could be feedback from managers, a
practice test, and interviews with store assistants.
Criteria-based
The purpose of the course is not to check the comparative skills of the
assistants but to teach them Microsoft Excel 2000. Therefore, a criteria-based
evaluation will be used.
Purpose of the test The purpose of the test is to assess whether the store assistants are able to
efficiently create error-free sales reports by entering data and employ simple
mathematical calculations using Microsoft Excel 2000.
What is to be The test will measure the following course objectives:

measured? • Describe workbooks, worksheets, the components of spreadsheets, and
the Excel workspace.
• Navigate in a workbook using the File menu and other options, such as
keys and scroll bars.
• Enter and edit labels and values.
• Enter and edit formulas.
• Move and copy data within a worksheet and from one worksheet to
another.
• Calculate sums, averages, min, max, and count value, given a range of
values with the relevant functions.
Test frequency Frequent tests are unnecessary; one summative and one confirmative
evaluation is sufficient to find if the learners achieved the objectives.
Frequency of these tests cannot be high in a corporate environment, because
they may become a sensitive issue with the learners.
Number of The summative test includes questions to test the objectives (in this case, a
questions per test total of six questions are asked, of which two are based on the concepts and
four on the tasks used).
Time available for Speed is not important in the summative test. A test of six questions is
the test one-hour long.
Use of optional There is no need for optional questions. Learners need to master all the tasks.
questions
A.22 Appendix

Allowing repeat There is no harm in allowing a repeat attempt at the test, because the intent of
attempts the course is to develop the skills of the learners. If learners fail the test even
after a repeat attempt, they will be advised to take the course again.
Handling technical A substitute test will be developed for use in case a technical problem
problems prevents; the use of the original test.
Validity and The test will be made valid by mapping all the questions directly to objectives of
reliability the course. Detailed instructions for evaluating the answers will be drawn up.
Table A.7: Decisions Related to Evaluation for the Basic Excel for Store Assistants Course
Test Items
Most questions involve simulations to test the learners’ skills because the emphasis is
on them to be proficient in using Excel 2000. However, a multiple-choice question and
a matching-list question based on concepts are also used to test the objectives.
Table A.8 presents some sample questions with the corresponding objectives.
Test Item Corresponding
Objective
Match the terms in Column A with their descriptions in Column B. Identify

spreadsheet
Column A Column B
rows, columns,
Rows The intersection of a row and a column cells, labels, and
values.
Columns The names used in spreadsheet to identify the
information it contains
Cells The horizontal groups of cells into which a spreadsheet

can be divided
Labels The data in a spreadsheet
Values The vertical groups of cells into which a spreadsheet

can be divided
Copy data from the Day 1.xls to the Wk1.xls. Move and copy
Day 1.xls contains one day’s sales data for Raymond and needs to be copied to data from one
the Wk1.xls. Copy data from the Totals row of the Day 1.xls to the Day 1 row of worksheet to the
Wk1.xls. other.
Perform a series the following actions on the worksheet WK1.xls. The Calculate, by
worksheet contains the week’s data for Raymond. typing, sums,
Appendix A.23

$ In (II) 19, enter a function to calculate Raymond’s total sales for the week. averages, min,
$ In (I) 20, enter a function to calculate Raymond’s average sales for the max, and count
week. value given a
range of values
with relevant
functions.
Table A.8: Sample Questions for Summative Evaluation
You can ask the store managers about the following:
! Last month’s error rate in sales reports
! Time taken by store assistants to prepare reports
! Rate of data losses in the last month
! Store assistants’ ability to use formulae and functions for calculations
! Input useful for store assistants
! Three suggestions to improve the content or the form of the course
You can ask store assistants the following questions:
! Which features of Excel can you currently use?
• Using basic commands
• Using formulas
• Performing formatting and layout
• Performing basic data analysis
• Performing advanced data analysis
• Creating presentations with charts
• Creating data summary
! In which areas would you like to get additional information?
• Using basic commands
• Using formulas
• Performing formatting and layout
• Performing basic data analysis
A.24 Appendix

• Performing advanced data analysis
• Creating presentations with charts
• Creating data summary
! Rate the course using a scale of 1–5 in terms of:
• Content coverage of objectives ____
• Look and feel of the course _____
• Interactivity ____
• Capacity to generate interest _____
Some of these questions are similar to the questions used at the time of the needs
assessment. This facilitates comparison of learners’ skills before and after the course.
A.1.8 Instructional Approach and Strategies

Table A.9 displays the instructional approach and strategies.
Decision Description Rationale
Mode The course is a WBT. It is to be ! Instructing the entire group of

distributed over the company’s employees in Excel at the same time in
intranet. An in-house expert classroom conditions will hold up their
introduces the course when it begins. work and be a waste of time and
Learners interact with one another money. Only the introduction by the
and with the instructors through e- instructor will be synchronous. The
mail and other collaboration tools. modules distributed over the intranet
will be asynchronous, and learners can
view them at any convenient time.
! A CBT course is not required because
Excel does not need heavy media
support. In addition, a CBT course
does not enable learners to collaborate
the way they can over the intranet.
! Publishing the course on the Internet is
not required. The need is for company
employees to be able to access the
course, and this can be done on the
intranet.
! A face-to-face introduction will build up
the relevance of the course and the
Appendix A.25

motivation of the learners. Preliminary
doubts can be clarified.
Architecture ! The architecture is largely ! A handholding approach with a gradual

hierarchical and behaviorist. degree of increasing difficulty is best
There is step-by-step guidance, suited because the learners are not
with drills and practice. Skills expert in using Excel. The handholding
are taught brick by brick. There can gradually taper off as learners gain
is a bottom-up approach, and confidence.
the course content moves from ! A lot of drills and practice will help the
the simple to the complex. learners gain confidence.
! For content, such as formulae ! Guided discovery is more suitable than
and functions, guided discovery drills and practice where the need is
will be built in. not to learn mechanical procedures but
to analyze the situation and apply
formulae and functions.
Macro Directive Suitable where learners need to master a

Instructional skill. Here the learner needs to learn Excel
Strategy basics.
Micro ! Expository and exploratory ! A combination of expository and

Instructional ! Simulations exploratory for concepts and principles
Strategy ! Simulations for learning procedures in
Excel
Learning ! Case studies ! During the course, learners can be

activities ! Problem solving provided with case studies and asked
to solve problems.
! Projects
! They can be assigned offline projects
to identify whether they satisfactorily
absorbed the learning.
Table A.9: Instructional Approach and Strategies Used for Teaching Basic Excel
A.26 Appendix

ARCS
The four parts of the ARCS cycle can be covered as displayed in Table A.10.
Strategy Means
Attention The in-house expert gains the learners’ attention in the introduction by quoting
startling statistics about the loss being incurred by the company as a result of
incorrect reports.
The instructor points out simple ways to correct these mistakes and illustrates
the difference made by these corrections. The instructor motivates learners by
informing them about better amenities and remuneration for the employees
due to increased profit for the company.
Relevance The relevance of the subject is provided by linking the new learning to the
learners' previous knowledge. This can be done by providing examples and
concepts related to the learners’ previous experience and values. The
instructor explains the utility and benefits of the Excel feature in question and
presents goal-orienting statements.
Confidence Continuous drills and practice provide learners the much-needed confidence
in Excel.
A learner’s confidence increases with the ability to troubleshoot formulae and
functions in a simulated environment.
Satisfaction Case studies and projects provide learners with the confidence to apply their
new skills in a real or simulated environment.
However, the real satisfaction is derived only on the job, as they witness the
benefits of training in faultless reports.
Table A.10: Implementing the ARCS Model for Teaching Basic Excel
Appendix A.27

A.1.9 Storyboarding
Sample Screen 1
Figure A.5 shows the Objectives screen.
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Use the spreadsheet terminology
2. Identify the main components of the Excel window
3. Use the keyboard and the mouse to explore an Excel worksheet
4. Close a workbook and close Excel
Color Specification for Graphic Lead-in text: Blue

Objectives text: Maroon
Audio No audio
Interaction None
Hyperlinks None
Notes
Figure A.5: Objectives Screen
A.28 Appendix

Sample Screen 2
Figure A.6 shows the simulation screen.
Screen Number M1S1Q1-S003
Color Specification for Graphic As in the original software
Onscreen Text Perform a series of actions on the worksheet Wk1.xls. This

worksheet contains the week’s data for Raymond. In I-19, enter a
function to calculate Raymond’s total sales for the week. In I-20,
enter a function to calculate Raymond’s average sales for the
week. Use the menu bar options for this exercise.
Click the right option to start the procedure.
Audio No audio
Interaction Click. Details in Table no. M1S1Q1-S003-T1
Hyperlinks None
Notes
Figure A.6: Simulation Screen
Appendix A.29

Figure A.7 shows the assessment screen.
Match each term in Column A with its description in Column B.
Column A Column B
Rows The intersection of a row and column
Columns The names used in spreadsheets to identify the

information contained therein
Cells The horizontal groups of cells in a spreadsheet
Values The vertical groups of cells in a spreadsheet
Color Specification for Graphic Left column text: Blue

Right column text: Green

Font description-question, Arial 21
Options Arial 20
Audio No audio
Interaction Drag-and-drop
Hyperlinks None
Notes
Figure A.7: Assessment Screen
A.30 Appendix

A.2 Additional References
! http://www.itt-techlibrary.com. Log on to the Virtual Library to access online
books, journals, and other reference resources selected to support ITT Tech
courses.
! http://www.dmu.ac.uk
! http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/
! http://classweb.gmu.edu
! http://www.gsu.edu
! www.mgrmnet.com
! http://www.edci.purdue.edu
! http://www.usask.ca/education/
! http://lrs.stcloudstate.edu
! www.skillsoft.com
! www.EDTLearning.com
! www.netg.com
Appendix A.31

A.32 Appendix

Glossary

G.2 Glossary

A reinforcements, all learners will respond in a
structured way.
Accommodators: Learners who believe in Blended mode: An integration of the various
experimenting and learning through trial and modes of instruction to deliver training.
error. Bloom’s taxonomy: A classification of
Analysis: The process of gathering information intellectual activity proposed by Benjamin
about the purpose of the course, current Bloom. It is organized into six levels:
problems in the present course, the work Knowledge, Comprehension, Application,
environment of the learners, and the learners’ Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation.
characteristics. Brainstorming: Learners of varied profiles
Andragogy: The discipline that deals with the assemble to generate solutions to a problem.
art and science of adult learning.
ARCS: A model of motivation proposed by
John Keller in 1970s. It consists of four
components: Attention, Relevance,
C
Confidence, and Satisfaction, which must be Chunk: A block of information in the form of
considered while designing instructional paragraphs, sections, or chapters, which are
strategies. organized into different levels.
Assessment: The process of judging or Classic tutorial: A method of training where
measuring learners’ specific knowledge, skills, concepts are presented, summarized, and
and behavioral attributes using tests, tested.
observation, and interviews.
Cognitivism: A school of learning that
believes adult learning is based on previous
experiences and is not always predictable.
B Comparative need: A need recognized by
examining a set of parameters or guidelines in
Behaviorism: A method/approach in which relation to a similar entity.
basic presentation of concepts is followed by Computer-based training: A system of
examples, drills, and practice. Subsequently, learning through interactive techniques, such as
advanced concepts are presented, also followed providing feedback, which is also referred to as
by examples, drills, and practice. Objectives CAT or computer-aided training.
and reinforcement techniques are used to focus
Concept: Groups of objects, events, or
the learning effort.
symbols that share common characteristics and
Behaviorism: The school of learning that are identified by a common name.
believes human behavior is predictable and that
Condition: A component of an objective,
if the teacher provides specific stimuli and
which describes the circumstances in which
Glossary G.3

learners perform. Conditions limit or specify learners should be able to perform the action.
learners’ actions. Criteria qualify the quality or the standard of
Confirmative evaluation: An evaluation type performance and can also be used to evaluate
conducted some time after the course performance.
implementation to assess whether the course Criteria-based evaluation: A type of
helped learners perform in the real world and evaluation in which the score of each learner is
eventually, retain the knowledge and skills. compared with an external benchmark in order
Constructivism: A school of learning that to judge whether or not the learner is able to
believes learners are active participants in the master a skill. The performance of other
process of learning. Learners use their existing learners is irrelevant.
experiences to construct new hypotheses
through experimentation.
Content writer: A person who uses the design
output, such as the objectives and the outline,
D
created by the instructional designer and Deductive: Learners discover the underlying
describes each element in detail. structures and principles with the help of tools
Context analysis: The process of collecting and devices, such as advance organizers.
relevant information about the environment Demographics: The general characteristics that
where learners will be required to perform their describe the learners. The aim of collecting
day-to-day activities after completing the demographic information is to ensure that the
course. design caters to some general behavioral
Convergers: Learners who like to test theories characteristics associated with each learner
group.
and see how things work in order to acquire a
skill or learn a concept. Design Phase: Involves determining the course
Copyright: A legal right that protects a structure, method of teaching, objectives,
instructional approach, and strategies test
creative work from misuse.
items.
Course identifiers: An address within a course
Design Phase: Involves determining the course
that identifies a document and traces its version
structure, method of teaching, objectives,
history. instructional approach, and test items.
Course map: An outline of content that
Development Phase: Involves developing
defines sequence and linkages among modules,
storyboards and course content, with a focus on
sections, and topics. different elements of the course, such as
Course objectives: Broad statements of graphics, audio, and programming.
purpose that describe learning outcome of the Diagnostic feedback: Shows learners the
entire course. correct response and provides reasons for
Criteria: The conditions that state how well incorrect responses. In this way, feedback helps
the learners find out more about the topic
G.4 Glossary

through links to the original material. Experiential learning cycle: A theory that
Directive: An approach in which learners are states that all learning are derived from
directed by the instructor or the course material experience. The cycle consists of four steps:
to the acquisition of learning instead of concrete experience, reflective observation,
discovering or constructing the learning on abstract conceptualization, and active
their own. experimentation.
Distance learning: A system and a process that Exploratory: An approach in which learners
connects the learners with distributed themselves explore the learning environment.
resources.
A rich database of information and examples
Distracters: Incorrect options in a multiple- are the available resources.
choice test item.
Expressed need: A need that is indicated
Divergers: Learners who personally get by a majority of customers, employees,
involved in an activity and share their students, or other personnel. An expressed
experiences with others in learning a skill or a
need may occur in response to the demand
concept.
for an unavailable product or resource or
because of the rejection of an unacceptable
product or service.
E
Enabling objective: An objective that
describes prerequisite skills or knowledge F
needed to accomplish a course objective.
Fact: A content category that is assumed to be
Essay-type question: A test item that requires
true and is presented without supporting
the learner to apply knowledge of a particular
evidence. Facts state specific information about
concept to describe a particular subject, an
people, places, and events that exist.
instance, or a statement in the learner’s own
words. Felt need: A training need that is expressed by
members of an organization.
Evaluation: The process of determining the
capability of learners, a course, or an Fill-in-the-blank question: This type of
instructional method in order to achieve the question requires the learner to complete a
instructional objectives defined at the statement or a table by supplying a missing
beginning of the course. word or term.
Evaluation phase: Involves assessing the Focus group: An interactive process in which
effectiveness of a course. a person asks a group a variety of questions. It
is usually conducted in contact sessions.
Future need: A need that is expected to arise
in the future.
Glossary G.5

G using instructional theories and principles.
Instructional designer: The person who
Generative: The theory that encourages visualizes the course as a unit in its entirety in
learners to think deeply and generate terms of all components (text, graphics, audio,
constructed knowledge through recall, video) and designs the course.
reflection, inquiry, and elaboration of previous Instructor-led training: A learning situation
learner knowledge. in which a teacher leads a group of learners.
Graphic artist: The person who visualizes and Interactive storyboarding: The technique of
creates all graphic images required for a using a software tool to visualize and compose
course. each screen and on-screen component.
Graphic elements: A set of graphics used Interview: An active two-way communication
repeatedly throughout a course. They are also between the interviewer and an individual or a
referred to as key graphics. group of individuals. It is conducted either
Guided discovery: A training approach in face-to-face, over the telephone, or using
which learners go through a course based on e-mail messages.
guidelines, in a simulated environment. Hints,
help, a summary of key concepts, and a test are
the resources available to learners.
K
Key(s): The correct answer in the test item.
H
Hierarchical task analysis: A type of task
analysis that yields three levels of tasks: end
goal that learners must achieve; main tasks that
L
learners must perform to achieve the end goal; Labeling: Labeling a chunk means adding an
and operational tasks that have to be performed appropriate title for it. Labels lead the learners
as part of each task. to the following content, aiding in
comprehension and retention of the content.
Layering: Dividing the content into different
I layers top, middle, and bottom, which the
learner can access according to preferences.
Implementation phase: Involves delivering Learner analysis: The process of collecting

the course to learners. information about the characteristics or traits
that affect the learning process and then using
Instructional design: The art and science of that information to form course objectives.
systematic development of learning material Instructional designers, sometimes, refer to
G.6 Glossary

learner analysis as audience analysis. methods to communicate information. For
example, video, sound effects, voices, and text
Likert scale: A commonly used rating scale in
can all be part of multimedia.
which 1 indicates the least important and 10
indicates most important. Multiple-choice question: A test item that has
a stem with three or more options, of which one
or more options could be the correct answer(s).
M
Matching-list question: A test item that N
provides two lists, typically containing terms
and definitions or objects and categories, Need: A gap between the current and desired
respectively, and then asks the learner to match performance.
the items in one list with items in the other list. Needs analysis: The third stage and
Mentoring: The mentor provides learning cornerstone of the needs assessment process. It
support to the protégé through direct involves analyzing the root causes for certain
interaction, e-mail, video conferencing, and needs and finding solutions for them.
other Web technologies. Needs assessment: The process of identifying
Mind map: The representation of an and prioritizing gaps in performance and
instructional designer’s visualization of the deciding whether an instructional design
subject matter and the relative importance of solution can be applied to bridge the gaps.
particular elements of the content.
Normative need: A normative or
Mode: The medium of delivery of instruction: organizational need is the one for which many
ILT, CBT, or WBT. learners have a related competency gap or in
Modularity: Structuring of content into other words, they fall below the expected norm
separate modules where each is a standardized or standard.
part or independent unit used in constructing
the course.
Motivation and attitude: Elements of the
psychological make-up of learners. They play a O
major part in how learners respond to a course
and learn from it. These help the instructional Objective: An objective is a statement that
designer to understand why learners want to describes the intended result of any instruction.
take a particular course, what learners expect
from the course, what learners' attitude towards
instruction is, and what motivates them to
learn.
Multimedia: A combination of a variety of
Glossary G.7

P Q
Performance: A component of an objective Question stem: The body of the question that
that provides an exact description of the action poses the problem to the learner.
that the learner will perform.
Questionnaire: A data collection tool for
Post-instructional context: The context in needs assessment. It consists of a printed list of
which learners apply their skills after questions relevant to the purpose of the needs
completing the course. assessment process.
Pre-instructional context: A compilation of
the mental images and impressions that
learners hold before they start a course.
Prerequisite skills and knowledge: The skills
R
that the learners should possess to be able to Role-playing scenario: A learning technique
study a particular course. For example, music
in which the learner acts in situations that
students will need to know the basic notes
before they can learn to compose a symphony. involve emotional interpersonal interaction.
Prescriptive feedback: Feedback that tells

learners only the correct response for a test
item. S
Principle: A content category that can be
stated in the form of rules to guide actions or Scavenger hunts: Learners hunt for and locate
explain changes. reliable information from the Web.
Procedure: A set of steps to be performed in Sequence: A series of components that are in a
order to obtain a specified outcome. Procedures logical order, one next to another, without
contain how-to information. gaps, and are arranged based on some
Process: A series of events, stages, or phases principle of order.
that take place over a period of time. Processes Sequencing question: A test item that has an
describe the manner of working instead of activity or a concept described in steps or
showing how to perform the steps. layers, and the learner needs to arrange the
Project management: Using the knowledge, steps in a logical sequence.
skills, tools, and techniques to manage project Short-answer question: A test item that asks
activities to meet or exceed stakeholder needs the learner to provide either a one-word or
and expectations. brief answer to the question presented in the
Project manager: The individual who is stem.
responsible for the project meeting the Simulation question: A test item that uses a
requirements set by the sponsor or client in real-life scenario where the learner must
terms of budget, time, and quality. perform a series of activities.
G.8 Glossary

SME: A Subject Matter Expect; the person
who provides the content expertise to the U
course.
Unstructured interviews: Informal and
Specific entry competencies: The skills and flexible interviews focusing on topics that
knowledge that the learners possess before emerge spontaneously during the conversation.
beginning a course. For example, the ability to
use e-learning technologies or the familiarity User interface: The portion of a program or
of learners with navigating topics online. software that is visible to the user and that
provides options and buttons for the user to
Sponsor: The entity that sanctions as well as interact with the program or software.
defines project specifications.
Storyboard: A document containing a
sequential description of events that occur in a
course. V
Structure: The set of interconnecting parts or
components that forms a framework for the Visual layout: The organization of various on-
whole. The structure of a course enables better screen elements, such as graphics, text, buttons,
communication and delivery of content. title bars, and navigation bars, on the user
interface.
Structured interviews: Formal focused
interviews with a prepared list of questions.
Summative evaluation: A type of evaluation
conducted after the course is implemented in
order to check if the learners acquired the
W
skills and knowledge levels that the course
Web-based training: A system that uses Web-
aimed to impart.
based technologies to deliver training.
Webcast: A delivery mechanism for
T simultaneously training distributed learners
using audio and video. The form is usually a
lecture, but it can also be a demonstration, an
Task analysis: A phase or a task that provides
critical input to the subsequent design phase to interview, or a panel discussion.
help develop objectives, content, sequencing
of instructions, and teaching method.
Test item: A question or an interaction that is
used to measure learning in courses.
True/false question: A test item that presents
a statement asking the learner to answer
whether the statement is true or false.
Glossary G.9

G.10 Glossary

Index

I.2 Index

Confirmative Evaluation, 1.22, 6.7, 6.10, 6.56
A Constructivism, 3.10, 3.11, 3.37, 7.11, 7.13,
ADDIE model, 1.1, 1.3, 1.12, 1.13, 1.23, 1.24, 7.14
1.25, 1.26, 1.27, 1.29, 1.30, 2.3, 2.28, 3.3, 3.32, Content Writer, 9.11
4.3, 4.19, 5.4, 5.31, 6.3, 6.4, 6.52, 7.3, 7.33,
Content-Structuring Process, 5.26
8.3, 8.33, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.6, 9.22
Context analysis, 1.13, 1.25, 3.26, 3.35
Andragogy, 3.9, 3.12
Course Identifiers, 8.8
Animation, 5.12, 8.11, 8.13, 8.23
Course Map, 5.5, 5.29, 5.32, 8.15
Anticipated or future need, 2.5, 2.6, 2.35
ARCS Model, 7.23, 7.24, 7.34–7.36
Assessment, 2.1, 2.3, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.28–2.29,
2.32, 2.35, 6.5, 6.58, 7.14, 8.35
D
Attitude development, 2.13, 2.36 Data collection tools, 2.8, 2.15, 2.29
Audio, 1.6, 1.10, 3.28, 8.5, 8.8, 8.13, 8.14, Deliverables, 9.4, 9.5
8.24, 8.37, 8.41, 9.8, 9.12, 9.19 Demographics, 3.6, 3.36
Diagnostic feedback, 6.46
Distance learning, 1.4, 1.6, 1.25
B Document review, 2.15, 2.36, 2.37, 3.31
Behaviorism, 3.10, 3.37, 7.11, 7.12
E
C Essay-Type Questions, 6.32, 6.33, 6.43
Chunking, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.34 Evaluation, 1.3, 1.12, 1.13, 1.17, 1.18, 1.22,
Client Review, 8.28 1.25, 1.26, 4.10, 4.13, 4.14, 4.22, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5,
6.6, 6.7, 6.12, 6.15, 6.16, 6.44, 6.50, 6.51, 6.52,
Cognitive strategies, 2.13
6.54, 6.58, 9.6
Cognitivism, 3.10, 3.37, 7.11, 7.13
Expressed or demand need, 2.5, 2.6, 2.35
Comparative need, 2.5, 2.6, 2.35
Computer-based training (CBT), 1.1, 1.4, 1.7,
1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.17, 1.18, 1.20, 1.25, 3.7, 6.38,
7.6, 7.9, 7.10, 7.12, 7.14, 7.15
F
Concepts, 4.11, 5.17, 5.18, 5.35, 7.30, 7.31 Facts, 4.10, 5.17, 5.35, 7.23, 7.31
Feedback, 6.1, 6.44, 6.45, 6.46, 6.47, 6.48,
6.59, 7.28, 7.36, 8.6
Felt need, 2.5, 2.6, 2.35
Index I.3

Fill-in-the-blank questions, 6.29, 6.30, 6.43 Interview, 2.15, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22, 2.27,
Focus group, 2.15, 2.23, 2.24, 2.36 2.30
Formative evaluation, 1.22, 6.7 ISD model, 1.12, 1.25
G L
Gap assessment, 2.8, 2.9, 2.35 Labeling, 5.6, 5.10, 5.11, 5.30, 5.34
Goal analysis, 2.13, 2.36 Language review, 8.27
Grading, 6.1, 6.44, 6.48, 6.49, 6.50, 6.51 Layering, 5.6, 5.14, 5.30, 5.34
Graphic builds, 8.23 Learner analysis, 1.13, 1.14, 1.25, 3.5, 3.36,
3.37, 4.26
Learning activities, 7.29, 7.34, 7.39
H
Hierarchical task analysis, 3.20
Hierarchy, 3.34, 5.6, 5.14, 5.15, 5.34
M
Matching-list questions, 6.26, 6.27, 6.41
Modularity, 5.6, 5.10, 5.12, 5.34
I Multimedia, 1.10, 1.25, 3.11, 3.15, 5.12, 9.13
Multiple-choice questions, 6.17, 6.22, 6.34
Instructional approach, 1.18, 7.1, 7.5, 7.7, 7.34
Instructional design, 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.24, 7.13
Instructional design review, 8.26
Instructional designer, 8.29, 9.10, 9.11
N
Navigation, 1.20, 7.10, 8.8, 8.14, 8.15, 8.16,
Instructional goal, 2.28
8.24, 8.25, 8.41
Instructional strategy, 7.33, 7.34
Needs analysis, 2.8, 2.35, 4.26
Instructor-led training (ILT), 1.1, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6,
Needs assessment, 1.13, 1.14, 1.25, 2.1, 2.3,
1.10, 1.18, 1.25, 6.25, 7.1, 7.3, 7.8, 7.9, 7.30
2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.28–2.29, 2.32, 2.35
Intellectual Property Rights, 9.14
Norm-based evaluation, 6.11
Intellectual skills, 2.13
Interactive storyboarding, 8.31, 8.32
Interactivity, 8.14, 8.15, 8.24, 8.25 O
Observation, 2.15, 2.36, 3.31, 3.38
I.4 Index

Short-answer questions, 6.24, 6.25, 6.40
P Simulation questions, 6.28, 6.42
Prescriptive feedback, 6.45 Specific entry competencies, 3.6, 3.7, 3.36
Principles, 5.6, 5.17, 5.19, 5.35 Sponsor/client, 9.8
Procedures, 3.19, 4.12, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 5.35, Still images, 8.11, 8.12
7.31, 7.32
Storyboarding tools, 8.29, 8.30, 8.31, 8.32
Processes, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 5.35, 7.31
Subject Matter Expert (SME), 4.17, 8.28, 9.9
Programmers, 9.8, 9.12, 9.19
Summative evaluation, 1.22, 6.9, 6.54, 6.55
Programming review, 8.28
Project management, 2.4, 5.22, 5.23, 6.11, 9.1,
9.3, 9.4, 9.5
Project manager, 9.9
T
Task analysis, 1.13, 1.15, 1.25, 3.18, 3.38
Psychomotor skills, 2.13, 2.34, 2.36, 7.10
Tests, 6.5, 6.12, 6.13, 6.15, 6.58
True/false questions, 6.22, 6.23, 6.24, 6.40
Q Two-way communication, 9.14
Quality reviews, 8.26

Questionnaire, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19,
2.27, 2.30–2.32
V
Verbal information, 2.13, 2.34, 2.36
Video producer, 9.8, 9.12
R Visual layout, 8.9, 8.20
Relevance, 5.6, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.30, 5.34, 7.27,
7.34, 7.35, 7.38
Request for proposal, 5.19, 9.7 W
Web-based training (WBT), 1.1, 1.4, 1.8, 1.9,
1.10, 1.11, 1.17, 1.18, 1.20, 1.21, 1.25, 1.27,
S 1.29, 3.7, 7.1, 7.3, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.10, 7.11,
7.12, 7.14, 7.15, 7.30, 7.31, 7.32, 7.33, 7.34,
Screen identifiers, 8.8 8.3
Screen/frame code, 8.9
Sequencing questions, 6.31, 6.32, 6.59
Sequencing, 5.6, 5.13, 5.30, 5.34, 6.17
Index I.5

I.6 Index

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Instructional Design

Pearson Custom Publishing

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Please visit our web site at www.pearsoncustom.com

PEARSON CUSTOM PUBLISHING

Pearson Custom Publishing

Chapter 1—Introduction to Instructional Design

Chapter 2—Needs Assessment

Pearson Custom Publishing

Chapter 3—Learner, Task, and Context Analysis

Pearson Custom Publishing

Chapter 5—Structuring Content

Chapter 6—Evaluating Learning

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Chapter 7—Instructional Approach and Strategies

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Chapter 8—Writing a Storyboard

Chapter 9—Project Management

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Pearson Custom Publishing

Pearson Custom Publishing

Pearson Custom Publishing

A note provides information about the topic in context. This is

A tip provides an alternative method for performing a task. It can

Just-a-Minute presents nice-to-know information or a quick

A warning informs you about the dire effects of an action.

A reference provides links to Web sites or relevant books and

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Pearson Custom Publishing

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Introduction to Instructional Design 1.3

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! Who first used the term instructional design?

1.1.2 Applying Instructional Design

1.4 Introduction to Instructional Design

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Instructor-Led Training (ILT)

Introduction to Instructional Design 1.5

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Peer interaction Learners have the opportunity to interact with

High cost Costs are relatively high, including instructor

Table 1.1: Features of ILT

1.6 Introduction to Instructional Design

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No interaction with the instructor Most distance learning courses offer no

No peer interaction Learners do not have the opportunity to interact

Anywhere, anytime Learners in remote locations can sign up for the

Anyone can register There are usually no restrictions on who should

Relatively low cost Neither instructors nor students need to spend

Table 1.2: Features of Distance Learning

Computer-Based Training (CBT)

Introduction to Instructional Design 1.7

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No interaction with the instructor Learners have no opportunity of a face-to-face

No peer interaction Learners do not have the opportunity to interact

Anywhere, anytime Learners in remote locations can use the

Use of multiple media Multiple media, such as text, graphics, video,

Interaction with the learner Questions, quizzes, simulations, and feedback