Concepcion Holy Cross College Inc.

Minane, Concepcion Tarlac

COMPILATION OF ALL REPORTS IN

CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2

Submitted by:
BS Criminology 4A

Submitted to:
Dr. Lylani S. Claro
 1. EDWARD UMLAS
WHAT IS RESEARCH
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCHER
What is research - Is “creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of
knowledge”. It involves the collection, organization and analysis of information to increase
understanding of a topic or issue. A research project may be an expansion on past work in the
field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate
elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.
Characteristic of research

 Empirical - Research is based on direct experiences or observation of the researcher.

 Logical - Research is Base on valid Procedures and principles.
 Cyclical - Research start with problem and start with A problem and end with a problem.
 Analytical - Research utilizes proven analytic Procedures in gathering data, whether
historical, descriptive experimental, And Case study.
 Critical - Research exhibits carefully and Precise judgement.
 Methodical - Research Is conducted in Methodical manner without bias using systematic
method And Procedures.
 Replicability - Research design and procedures are repeated to enable researcher to
arrive at valid and conclusive results.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCHER

 Intellectual Curiosity - Researcher under thinking and inquiry Of the things, Problem,
and situation around him.
 Prudence - Researcher is careful to conducts his study at a right time and at a right
place wisely, efficiency, and economically.
 Healthy Criticism - The researcher Is always doubtful as to the truthfulness or the
result.
 Intellectual Honesty - Researcher is honest to collect or gather the data Of facts In
order to arrive at honest result.
 Intellectual creativity - a researchful investigator always creates new research.
 2. DARWIN L. TAN
Roles of the Researcher
a. Importance of a Research
b. Goals of Conducting Research
ROLES OF THE RESEARCHER
1. As principal investigator- The Principal Investigator is responsible for the management and
integrity of the design, conduct, and reporting of the research project and for managing,
monitoring, and ensuring the integrity of any collaborative relationships.

As member of a research team

What is the role of member of a research team?
Research team members are there to answer your questions and help you find answers to
questions they cannot answer. Below is a list of questions you might want to ask the research
team before you agree to take part in a study. Who is the principal investigator for this study?
As identifier of researchable problems

INDENTIFIER

Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation. Non-researchable

problems include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-based
concerns.
As evaluator of research findings- Evaluators seek to understand what information is important
to collect and review and how to best use the findings to relate outcomes to stakeholders
(Levin-Rozalis, 2003).

As patient or client advocate during the study- A person who serves as a link between patients
and scientific researchers. Research advocates help patients understand scientific information
and research findings that may help them. They may also bring a patient perspective on
research activities to scientific advisory boards and committees.
As subject/respondent/participant- Subject is an individual or group (of persons, entities or
matter) in study. Respondent is one who answer/respond to questions(written/oral) or other
stimuli. Participant is one who joins willingly to be part of the study as a subject.

Importance of a Research
Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field of discipline
- For example, in the field of medicine, a new drug must first be tested to determine its efficacy
in curing sickness before it can actually be prescribed.

Research is undertaken for the continuous development and further productivity in any field.
- Any system that will be utilized in any organization must first be tried to determine its value and
it must be better than the previous system used.

Research provides solutions to problems concerning almost all issues encountered in the
different areas of work
- Some issues include the tardiness of employees, incentives given to the staff, sportsmanship
among school athletes, and implementation of “clean and green” program in school.

Research impacts decision - making

- It is a common mistake for people to make decisions without solid information to back them up
- For example, for a teacher to change his or her teaching methodology for the first-period and
last-period classes, he or she must conduct a study considering the time element, enthusiasm
to teach, academic standing of the students, instructional aides used, and other factors.

Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational aspects of any
discipline
- For example, research can help determine whether lecture is better method than experiment in
teaching science.

To produce evidence-based practice

- Research findings can also be utilized in seminars, workshops, or trainings so that new
knowledge can be shared.
- Effective and efficient practices or operations are results of research

To promote cost-effective through documentation

- The findings of research must be shared with and utilized by the individuals, group, and
community for which the study is intended.

They are useless if these results are not made known publicly.

These results however, must first satisfy the researcher’s goal before he or she can share them
with other researchers and professionals who may find these findings beneficial.

Anybody who is in the same condition as the subject/s of the study may also utilize the findings,
thus saving on expenses for doing the same research.
 3. SIMON FRANCISCO
RESEARCH PARADIGM
What is Paradigm?
• Late 15th century.: Via late Latin from Greek PARADEIGMA “pattern”
from PARADEIKNUNAI “to show side by side”.
• “Model of something, or a very clear and a typical example of something,” (English
Cambridge Dictionary)
• Indicate a pattern or model or typical example including cultural themes, worldviews,
ideologies and mindsets.
What is Research Paradigm?
• A research Paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared between
scientist about how problems should be understood and addressed. (Kuhn, 1970)
• According to Kuhn (1970) Paradigm contains “universally recognized scientific
achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of
researchers.
Example :
• what is to be observed and scrutinized.
• the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers in relation
to this subject
• how these questions are to be structured
• how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted
• How is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to conduct the
experiment.

What is Research Paradigm?

Three basic questions (Guba, 1990)
Ontological questions
- What is reality?
Epistemological questions
- How do you know something?
Methodological questions
- How do you go about finding it out?
Types of Research Paradigm
Positivist Paradigm

 Most of the scientific or quantitative research use positivism as a conceptual framework

for research. Quantitative research always follows positivist approach because it
believes in the empirical hypothesis testing. It also believes that the findings of one study
can be generalized to another study of a similar kind regardless of it is conducted in a
different environment and situations.
Interpretivist Paradigm

 Most of the qualitative research social sciences use interpretivism approach to research.
Interpretivist believe that human behavior is multilayered and it cannot be determined by
pre-defined probabilistic models.
 4. PATRICK JOHN K. ALFONSO
GENERAL FORMS OF RESEARCH

BASIC RESEARCH - Conducted largely for the enhancement of knowledge, and is research
which does not have immediate commercial potential.
APPLIED RESEARCH - Designed to solve practical problems of the modern world.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH - Also known as statistical research that involves surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.
ANALYTICAL RESEARCH - Where facts or information are used to analyze or critically
evaluate the data.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH - Involves collecting, analyzing and interpreting data by observing
what people do and say. It refers to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols,
metaphors, and description of things.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH - Is based on the measurement of quantity or amount and
compares it with past records and tries to project for future period.
CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH - Is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH - involves analysis of facts/events that occurred in the recent/distant
past.
ETHANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH - Is conducted when the problem has not been clearly defined
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH - Aims to describe an experience as it is actually lived by a
person.
 5. JOHN CLOYD GEOLAGON
MARJORIE PARAS
HERMELSON ESTRADA
PARTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
RESEARCH DESIGN- Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out
research that defines a succinct and logical plan to tackle established research question(s)
through the collection, interpretation, analysis, and discussion of data.
Action Research- Action research is a philosophy and methodology of research generally
applied in the social sciences. It seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process
of taking action and doing research, which are linked together by critical reflection. 
Parts of an Action Research
Chapter I. Introduction
A. Purpose of the Study
B. Main Research Problem/Objectives
C. Significance of the Study
Chapter II. Literature Review and Methodology
• Review of Related literature
• Interventions and Strategies
Chapter III. Findings
• Data Analysis
• Reflection
Chapter IV. Conclusions
• Result/ Outcomes
• Implications on Study
• Further Study
Chapter V. References

Quality Of an action research

• Focused on a Classroom Problem
• Systematic and Process- Oriented
• Must Recommend a Solution
• Participatory
Process of an action research
• Inquiring
• Acting
• Observing
• Reflecting
CAUSAL DESIGN- Causal research design tries to determine the cause-effect relationships in
the research one is conducting. A major feature of exploratory design is its flexibility, its
adaptability, and the front end of total research design
Descriptive Design- Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or
phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the
characteristics occurred.
Experimental design - Experimental design means planning a set of procedures to investigate a
relationship between variables. To design a controlled experiment, you need a testable
hypothesis at least one independent variable that can be precisely manipulated at least one
dependent variable that can be precisely measured.
Exploratory design- An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there
are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The focus is on
gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research problems are
in a preliminary stage of investigation.
Cohort design- A study design where one or more samples (called cohorts) are followed
prospectively and subsequent status evaluations with respect to a disease or outcome are
conducted to determine which initial participants exposure characteristics (risk factors) are
associated with it.
Cross-sectional design- Cross-sectional study design is a type of observational study design. In
a cross-sectional study, the investigator measures the outcome and the exposures in the study
participants at the same time.
Longitudinal design- A longitudinal design is a research study where a sample of the population
is studied at intervals to examine the effects of development. In a longitudinal design, you have
a group of people and you study something about them. Then you collect their contact
information. After a set amount of time - be it weeks, months or years - the participants are
called and asked to return.
Sequential design- Sequential designs are developmental research designs that include
elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies; they are configured in ways to
address confounds between age, cohort, and time of measurement. What is one limitation of the
ethnographic method? Ethnographic research has several disadvantages to consider as well.
Mixed- method design- A mixed methods research design is most often used when there is an
interest both in testing theories or integrating a specific theoretical perspective while also
exploring a better understanding of an experience or process. If the research question cannot
be answered just by analyzing qualitative or quantitative data alone, it would be best to use a
mixed methods approach. This type of research is most often done in behavioral and health
settings since both usually involve completed situational research from a large sample size.
 6. ARIAN M. VERDEFLOR
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH- Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-
numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It
can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Qualitative- Write an original statement or inspiring quote Qualitative from the word
“quality“ or kind, Qualitative relies on data obtained by the researcher from first-hand
observation, interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, participant-observation, recordings
made in natural settings, documents, and artifacts. The data are generally statistical.
Qualitative Research- Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social
sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.
Example of Qualitative Research

 Experimental Research
 BIO-CONTROLLING EFFECTS OF MARIGOLD AS BIO-PESTICIDE AND INSECT
REPELLANT ON LETTUCE
Characteristics of Qualitative Research

 Natural setting
 Researcher as key instrument
 Multiple methods
 Complex reasoning
 Participants' meanings
 Emergent design
 Reflexivity
 Holistic account
Natural setting
- Qualitative researchers often collect data in the field at the site where
participants experience the issues or problem under study.
Researcher as key instrument - unique researcher characteristics have the potential to
influence the collection of empirical materials. This concept, although widely acknowledged,
has garnered little systematic investigation.
Multiple methods - Multimethod research is research that uses multiple forms of qualitative
data (e.g., interviews and observations) or multiple forms of quantitative data (e.g., survey
data and experimental data)

Multimethod research

 Interviews
 Observations
 Experimental
Complex reasoning - through inductive and deductive logic. Qualitative researchers build their
patterns, categories, and themes from the “bottom up,” by organizing the data inductively into
increasingly more abstract units of information.
Participants' meanings - In contrast, subject selection in qualitative research is purposeful;
participants are selected who can best inform the research questions and enhance
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
Emergent design - The ability to adapt to new ideas, concepts, or findings that arise while
conducting qualitative research. In contrast to more structured approaches, an emergent
design welcomes unanticipated information, often adding to the richness of the data.
Reflexivity - About acknowledging your role in the research. As a qualitative researcher, you
are part of the research process, and your prior experiences, assumptions and beliefs will
influence the research process.
Holistic account - the whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that
is more than the sum of its parts; the focus is on complex interdependencies and system
dynamics that cannot be reduced in any meaningful way to linear, cause and effect
relationships and/or a few discrete variables
VALUE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH - The value of qualitative research is that it gives a
voice to the lived experience whilst allowing for practitioners to gain deeper insight into the
unique experiences and treatment needs of individuals.
 7. JONATHAN CASTRO
LALAINE GUZMAN
CHRISTIAN DANIEL MUNOZ
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE
RESEARH?
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IS A PROCESS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY THAT SEEKS AN
IN-DEPTH UNDERSTANDING OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA WITHINTHEIR NATURAL
SETTING. IT FOCUSES ON THE "WHY"RATHER THAN THE "WHAT" OF SOCIAL
PHENOMENA AND RELIES ON THE DIRECT EXPERIENCES OF HUMAN BEINGS AS
MEANING-MAKING AGENTS IN THEIR EVERY DAY LIVES.

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A. PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
B. ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY
C. HISTORICAL STUDY
D. CASE STUDY
E. GROUNDED THEORY STUDY
F. NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
G. CRITICAL QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
H. POSTMODERN RESEACH
PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
It is a qualitative research design that
focuses on the lived experiences of
people regarding a phenomenon.

Phenomenological Study
It is a qualitative research design that focuses on the lived experiences of people regarding a
phenomenon.
ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY
is the study of a particular cultural group to get a particular understanding of its organizational
structure, internal relations, and lifestyle.

HISTORICAL STUDY
Historical study refers to describing and analyzing past events in order to better understand the
present and predict potential future consequences.
CASE STUDY
A CASE STUDY IS A DETAILED STUDY OF A SPECIFISUBJECT, SUCH AS A PERSON,
GROUP, PLACE, EVENT, ORGANIZATION, OR PHENOMENON.
A CASE STUDY IS AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN WHEN YOU WANT TO GAIN
CONCRETE, CONTEXTUAL, INDEPTH KNOWLEDGE ABOUT A SPECIFIC REAL-
WORLDSUBJECT. IT ALLOWS YOU TO EXPLORE THE KEY CHARACTERISTICS,
MEANINGS, AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE CASE.
GROUNDED THEORY STUDY
Grounded theory (GT) is a research method concerned with the generation of theory,1 which is
‘grounded’ in data that has been systematically collected and analysed.2 It is used to uncover
such things as social relationships and behaviors of groups, known as social processes.
NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
Researchers use narrative analysis to understand how research participants construct story and
narrative from their own personal experience. That means there is a dual layer of interpretation
in narrative analysis. First the research participants interpret their own lives through narrative.
Then the researcher interprets the construction of that narrative.
Narratives can be derived from journals, letters, conversations, autobiographies, transcripts of
in-depth interviews, focus groups, or other types of narrative qualitative research and then used
in narrative research.

CRITICAL QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

CRITICAL QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INFORMS SOCIAL EDUCATION THROUGH A LENS
THAT ENSURES THE INVESTIGATION OF ISSUES IN EDUCATION TIED TO POWER AND
PRIVILEGE, ULTIMATELY LEADING TO ADVOCACY AND ACTIVISM
POSTMODERN RESEACH
Postmodernism is applied mainly in the artistic and social sciences. It consists of a loose
alliance of intellectual perspectives which collectively pose a challenging critique of the
fundamental premises on which modernism, specifically the scientific research method, is
based.
 8. ROBIE MERCADO
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

Strengths

 It requires few respondent

 Allows for complexity and depth of issues
 Provides insights into the real life situations
 Allows flexibility in research-related processes
 Enables data to be collected in natural setting
Weaknesses
• Data gathering is often time-consuming.
• Analysis of data takes longer time than the quantitative analysis.
• Interpretation of results is usually biased because it is influenced by the researcher’s
perspective.
• Conclusions are not generalizable because the subjects are few and sometimes possess
unique characteristics compared to typical respondents.
 9. JERRIC VINCE GARCIA
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Introduction to Quantitative Research
- The following definition, taken from Aliaga and Gunderson (2000), describes what
we mean by quantitative research methods very well:

“Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data

that are analyzed using mathematically based methods (in particular statistics)”.
Quantitative Research
-   “Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical,
or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by
manipulating pre- existing statistical data using computational techniques. Quantitative research
focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a
particular phenomenon”.
What is Quantitative Research?
▪ In a nutshell, quantitative research generates numerical data or information that can be
converted into numbers.
▪ Only measurable data are being gathered and analyzed in quantitative research.
▪ Goal or Aim of the Research:
– The primary aim of a Quantitative Research is to focus more in counting and
classifying features and constructing statistical models and figures to explain what is observed.
▪ Quantitative Research is highly recommended for the late phase of research because it
provides the researcher a clearer picture of what to expect in his research compared to
Qualitative Research.
Data Gathering Instrument
– Quantitative Research makes use of tools such as questionnaires, surveys,
measurements and other equipment to collect numerical or measurable data.
▪ Type of Data
– if you are conducting a Quantitative Research, what will most likely appear in your
discussion are tables containing data in the form of numbers and statistics.
▪ Approach
– In Quantitative Research, researchers tend to remain objectively separated from the
subject matter. This is because Quantitative Research is objective in approach in the sense that
it only seeks precise measurements and analysis of target concepts to answer his inquiry.
Types of Quantitative Research

 Survey Research
 Descriptive Research Design
 Correlational Research Design
 Quasi-Experimental Research
 Experimental Research
Survey Research - Survey Research is the most elementary tool for all sorts of quantitative
research techniques. Like Multiple queries can be raised by the customers and the analysis can
be done for the same.
Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research- The aim of descriptive research is to explain and interpret, the current
status of people, settings, conditions, or events.

Correlational Research Design

Correlational Research - is used to establish a relationship between two close entities and to
determine how one impacts the other. For this, a researcher needs at least two separate
groups. This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far
in its analysis to observe the different pattern.
Quasi-Experimental Research - involves the manipulation of an independent variable without
the random assignment of participants to conditions or orders of conditions.

Experimental Research

Experimental Research - as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories. It is
based on one or more than one theory. It is called true experimentation, uses the scientific
method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a
study. Multiple theories can be used to conduct this research. The components of the
experimental research design are prescribed below.
 10. ALVIN CASTRO
JOHN DEXTER TOLENTINO
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH
- Resnik (2007), in his article "What is Ethics in Research & Why is it important, explains the
importance of ethics in research.
These are as follows:
1. Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility It also fosters values that are
essential to collaborative work. Research often involves a great deal of cooperation and
coordination among people in different fields or disciplines. The important values include trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.

2. Many of the ethical norms ensure that researchers are held accountable to the public.

3. Adherence to ethical principles helps build public suppe t for research. People a likely to fund
research studies that promote a variety of important moral and social values such as social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, and health and safety.
ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH

Given the importance of ethics in the conduct of research, many professional associations,
government agencies, and universities have come up with the following codes and policies for
research:
1. Honesty. This must be maintained in all communications (eg. when reporting data, results,
and procedures). Data should never be fabricated, falsified, or misrepresented.

2. Objectivity. Biases should be avoided in the experimental design, data analysis,

interpretation, expert testimony, and the other aspects of research.
3. Integrity. Consistency of thought and action is the foundation of the credibility of any research
work. Promises and agreements should be kept and all actions should be made with a sincere
purpose.
4. Care. Careless errors and negligence should be avoided. Your work and the works of your
peers should be critically examined. Records of research activities should be kept in good order
and condition.
5. Openness. The researcher should be open to criticisms and new ideas Research data
results, ideas, and resources should also be shared with the public.
6. Respect for intellectual property Proper acknowledgement should be given to all authors cited
and sources used in your research. Patents and copyrights should be recognized. Any
unpublished data, methods, or results should not be used without permission. Credit should be
given to where it is due.
7. Confidentiality. Confidential communications or documents should be protected,
8. Responsible publication. The study should be done with the purpose of advancing research
and scholarship. Wasteful and duplicate publication should be avoided.
11.Social responsibility. Social good should be promoted and social harm should be avoided.

12. Non-discrimination. All those eligible to participate in research should be allowed to do

13. Competence. Professional competence and expertise should be maintained and improved
with the research.
14. Legality. A researcher should know and obey relevant laws, and institutional and
government policies

15. Human subject protection. Harms and risks to human lives should be minimized. Human
dignity, privacy, and autonomy should be among the primary considerations of the research.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
- The main purpose of a research is to produce results that would benefit the stakeholders in the
study. Likewise, the participants are crucial elements of the research and they have the same
rights as the research beneficiaries. Some of the rights of research participants are as follows
(Trochim, 2006, Smith, 2003; Polit, 2006):
1. Voluntary participation. Any person should not be coerced to participate in any research
undertaking

2. Informed consent. Prospective research participants must be fully informed about the
procedures and risks involved in the research. Their consent to participate must be secured.
3. Risk of harm. Participants should be protected from physical, financial, or psychological harm.
The principle of nonfeasance states that it is the researcher's duty to avoid, prevent, or minimize
harm to the participants of the study.
4. Confidentiality. Participants must be assured that their identity and other personal information
will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.
5. Anonymity. The participants must remain anonymous throughout the study even to the
researchers themselves.
ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WRITING
- It is a general notion that in the written work of any author, be it in books, magazines, research
papers for a degree program, or even those papers which are to be submitted for funding
programs, the reader assumes that the author is the sole originator of the written work, that any
text or ideas borrowed from others are clearly identified as such by established scholarly
conventions, and that the ideas conveyed therein are accurately represented to the best of the
author's abilities. For a writing to be considered ethical, it should be clear, accurate, fair, and
honest (Kolin, as cited by Roig, 2006).
The following reminders must be taken into consideration for ethical research writing (Logan
University, 2016):

1. Findings should be reported with complete honesty.

2. Intentional misinterpretation, misinformation, and misleading claims must be avoided.
3. Appropriate credit should be given when using other people's work.

4. Plagiarism should be avoided by fully acknowledging all content belonging to others.

Plagiarism and Intellectual Property Plagiarism refers to the act of using another person's ideas,
words, processes, and results without giving due credit. The following are considered as acts of
plagiarism:
1. Claiming authorship of a work or creation done by another person.
2. Copying an entire written work or a portion of it - including words, sentences, and ideas-
without acknowledging the author.
3. Failing to put quotation marks to distinguish a quotation taken directly from a source.
4. Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation.
5. Merely changing the words but retaining the sentence structure so that the selection or
quotes still bears a resemblance to the original source.
6. Using so many words and ideas from the original source that it makes up a large portion of
your work, even if you acknowledge the original author.
 11. ANGELO CARIZO
RESEARCH TITLE
RESEARCH
Is the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts
and reach new conclusions.
TITLE
The name given to something as a book, song, or job to identify or describe it.

RESEARCH TITLE - The research title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. A
good title contains the fewest possible words needed to adequately describe the content and/or
purpose of your research paper.
WRITING RESEARCH TITLE

 RESEARCH TOPIC
 BROADER TOPIC
 LOOK AROUND ,OBSERVED, THE PROBLEM
 BLANK SPOT OR BLIND SPOT
WRITING RESEARCH TITLE
- The title gives a name to the research and it is also a means to identify the
contribution of the researcher.
- It should be clear enough to express the global content of the article in a brief and
concrete way.
LENGTH AND KEY WORDS
- The title should be no longer than 15 words and should summarize the main topic
of the report and identify the crucial issues( key words).
EXAMPLES OF GOOD TITLE
- If you have written an essay in which you assessed the influence of
psychoanalysis on modern counseling practice a catchy and informative title be:
“Modern Counseling Freudian Theory with a New Face”
GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE RESEARCH TITLE
 The Research title sums up the variable being studied in the research.
 Usually the general problem is reflected in the research title.
 Avoid title that are too long
 Good research title is usually composed of the 12 to 15 words.
 12. GUILE ANDREI DELA CRUZ
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Sources of Problem Research

 Knowledge gaps.
- an analysis of needs at various levels reveals knowledge gaps where research can
come in. These needs exist at the community, society, individual or group level.
since research activities began, despite studies on many issues and concerns,
unexplored areas remain due to the dynamic nature of subjects of interest.
 Omitted groups.
- due to limited resources, some groups of people are left out. thus, including those
groups justify another study. it is a source of a research problem where previous
methods of investigation can be applied. different conclusions lead to further
exploratory research.
 Conflicting findings
- usually, this situation arises from methodology issues or a simple inability to
implement rigorous examination of the problems at hand.
Consideration in Formulating the Research Problem

 Specify your research objectives;

 Review its context or environment;
 Explore its nature;
 Determine variable relationships;
 Anticipate the possible consequences of alternative approaches.
 13. GABRIELLE VERA P. CRUZ
INTRODUCTION
What is Introduction?
- The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach
for the reader.
- Present your topic and get the reader interested. Provide background or
summarize existing research.
INTRODUCTION
How to write an Introduction?
 Step 1. Introduce your topic
 Step 2. Describe the Background
 Step 3. Establish your research problem
 Step 4. Specify your objective(s)
 Step 5. Map out your paper.
10 tips for writing an effective introduction to research papers
- After the title and abstract, the introduction is the next thing your audience will
read, so it’s vital to begin strongly. The introduction is your opportunity to show
readers and reviewers why your research topic is worth reading about and why
your paper warrants their attention.
1. Start broadly and then narrow down
2. State the aims and importance
3. Cite thoroughly but not excessively
4. Avoid giving too many citations for one point
5. Clearly state either your hypothesis or research questions
6. Consider giving an overview of the paper
7. Keep it short
8. Show, don’t tell
9. Don’t bury your readers in detail
10. Check the journal requirements
 14. JAY-AR TUAZON
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
- A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the
question.
What are the goals of a statement of the problem?
- The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem
(something that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem; one that
can be resolved through focused research and careful decision-making.
Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the
research project you will propose. Often, the statement of the problem will also serve as the
basis for the introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader’s attention quickly
to the issues that your proposed project will address and providing the reader with a concise
statement of the proposed project itself.

The Problem Statement

 Research problems are always linked to a more general set of problems, so it is useful
to separate the problem statement into two parts:
1. The general problem (or problematic situation)
2. The specific problem (or the researchable problem)
 Note that the specific problem is not necessarily “small”, but rather it must be precisely
specified and capable of being addressed with available resources.
 15. JOCEL MAE RAMOS
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
INTRODUCTION
What is Research Questions?

 is a question that a research project sets out to answer

 is an answerable inquiry into a specific concern or issue.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH QUESTION

 Good research questions seek to improved knowledge on an important topic, and are
usually narrow and specific.
 it determines where and what kind of research the writer will be looking for.
 it identifies the specific object the study or paper will address.
 What is the researcher is trying to find out, these questions influence most of rest of the
step taken to conduct the research.
3 TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH QUESTION

 Not much is known about phenomenon

 Existing research result are unclear
 Topic is highly complex
 Not enough theory available to guide the development of a theoretical framework.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH QUESTION

 Collect data that described characteristics of objects (persons, organizations)

 Either quantitative and qualitative
CASUAL RESEARCH QUESTION
WHEN & WHERE?

 You can ask questions to interact with your audience.

 Add a personal touch by customizing this layout as much as you want.
 You can also add other related visuals to capture the attention of your audience.
Non-Researchable Questions

 Are questions of value

 Questions that are answerable by YES or NO
EXAMPLES:
1. Should college instructors be watchful over their freshman students?
2. Should the colleges offering accountancy majors mandate their graduates to have a
review before taking the licensure examinations?
RESEARCHABLE QUESTIONS

 Are questions of value, opinions, or policy raised to accumulate data.

 Formulating a clear, significant question prepares the researcher for subsequent
decision-making over research design, data collection, and data analysis.
 The basic form of a research questions involves the use of question words.
 17. CATHERINE CANLAPAN
DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
DELIMIATIONS - The delimitations of a study are the factors and variables not to be included in
the investigation. In other words, they are the boundaries the researcher sets in terms of study
duration, population size and type of participants, etc.
Difference Between Delimitations and Limitations - Delimitations refer to the boundaries of the
research study, based on the researcher’s decision of what to include and what to exclude.
They narrow your study to make it more manageable and relevant to what you are trying to
prove.
Limitations relate to the validity and reliability of the study. They are characteristics of the
research design or methodology that are out of your control but influence your research
findings. Because of this, they determine the internal and external validity of your study and are
considered potential weaknesses.
 18. CHRISTINE JOY CAO
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Significance of the study - The significance of the study is a written statement that explains why
your research was needed.
The significance of the study implies the importance of the study for the broader area of study,
the specific question of the study, and the target group under study.

Example:
Thesis title: Disaster Preparedness of Brgy. Magao, Concepcion
Significance of the study: For our Brgy. to be aware and prepared when disaster comes.
Significance of the study - It's a justification of the importance of your work and impact it has on
your research field, it's contribution to new knowledge and how others will benefit from it.
 19. CHOLO RIVERA
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses)
related to a specific topic or research question. It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation,
or research paper, in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.
The Importance of review of literature - The purpose of a literature review is to gain an
understanding of the existing research and debates relevant to a particular topic or area of
study, and to present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Conducting a literature
review helps you build your knowledge in your field.
Literature Review Helps Establish A Context For Research - One of the main objectives of the
literature review is to provide a context for the research. It puts the current research in
perspective and shows how it relates to what has been done before. It also identifies the gaps in
the existing body of knowledge and helps to formulate new research questions.
Literature Review Helps Identify The Theoretical Framework - The theoretical framework
provides the conceptual underpinnings of the research and literature review is a key component
in identifying it. It helps to clarify the rationale for the study and shows how the research is
linked to existing theory.
Literature Review Helps Clarify Research Questions - One of the main functions of the literature
review is to help researchers formulate clear and concise research questions. By reading
extensively about a topic, researchers can develop well-defined questions that can be
addressed through their research.
 
Literature Review Helps Assess The Quality Of Previous Research - A literature review allows
researchers to critically assess the quality of previous research on the topic. It enables them to
judge the strengths and weaknesses of the previous studies and to decide whether they should
build upon or replace them.
Literature Review Helps Comparing Different Studies - A literature review helps researchers to
compare and contrast existing research on a particular topic to draw better conclusions from it.
It also shows how different studies are related and explains why some questions have received
more attention than others.
Literature Review Gives Context To The Research Study - The literature review provides
context for the research study that follows by showing its connection with what has already been
published on the subject. It lays out the most significant issues in the field, describes them
clearly, and explains why they are important. This allows readers to understand all subsequent
research within this context, thus giving it greater impact.
Literature Review Gives Context To The Research Study - The literature review provides
context for the research study that follows by showing its connection with what has already been
published on the subject. It lays out the most significant issues in the field, describes them
clearly, and explains why they are important. This allows readers to understand all subsequent
research within this context, thus giving it greater impact.
Literature Review Helps To Identify Problems - One of the main benefits of the literature review
is that it helps researchers to identify problems, issues, or controversies in the existing body of
knowledge on their topic. It then allows them to address these concerns in their work and
broaden the scope of research by contributing new ideas and insights.
Literature Review Provides A Map For Future Research - A literature review can also be useful
for laying out a road map for future research studies. It identifies gaps in previous research
studies and provides information about areas where further investigation is needed.
Literature Review Enables Researchers Save Time - A well-done literature review can help
researchers to save time by identifying relevant studies and steering them away from those that
are not. It also allows them to focus on the most important issues and avoid unnecessary
duplication of effort.
Literature Review Helps In Development Of New Research Methods - The process of reviewing
the existing literature can help researchers to develop new research methods and to improve
upon existing ones. By reading extensively about their topic, they may come up with new ways
of looking at things that can then be tested in their research study.
Literature Review Helps In Development Of New Research Methods - The process of reviewing
the existing literature can help researchers to develop new research methods and to improve
upon existing ones. By reading extensively about their topic, they may come up with new ways
of looking at things that can then be tested in their research study.
 20. JOHARIE TIQUI
CONDUCTING A REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Literature Review Defined
- A literature review is an overview of the previously published works on a specific
topic. The term can refer to a full scholarly paper or a section of a scholarly work
such as a book, or an article.
Purpose of a literature review
- is to gain an understanding of the existing research and debates relevant to a
particular topic or area of study, and to present that knowledge in the form of a
written report.

Steps in reviewing literature:

Narrow your topic and select papers accordingly -Think about what interests you and what
interests other researchers in your field.
Search for literature - Define your source selection criteria (ie. articles published between a
specific date range, focusing on a specific geographic region, or using a specific methodology).
Read the selected articles thoroughly and evaluate them - Evaluate and synthesize the studies'
findings and conclusions.
Review your work - Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only
these sentences, would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically developed,
from beginning to end? The topic sentences of each paragraph should indicate the main points
of your literature review.

Strategies in reading literature:

Skimming for the main idea - is useful when you want to survey a text to get a general idea of
what it is about. In skimming you ignore the details and look for the main ideas.
Guessing the meanings of unfamiliar words from context- are hints found within a sentence,
paragraph, or passage that a reader can use to understand the meanings of new or unfamiliar
words.
 21. MARGAUX M. BUDOMO
DIFFERENT STYLES OF RESEARCH WRITING
Table of contents:
1. Chicago
2. APA
3. MLA
What is the Chicago and Turabian Style?
Chicago style is usually used in the Humanities, History, and other fields. It includes
several different versions for notes, bibliography entries, and shortened citations. 
Turabian style is a simplified version of Chicago style with some modifications for the needs of
student writers. It includes a notes-bibliography style and a parenthetical citations-reference list
style.                                                                                                                                    
The most important difference between Chicago and Turabian Style is the numbering
system for notes. 
Chicago uses a number in parentheses followed by a period, a space and then the source
information (1. Chicago Manual of Style). 
Turabian utilizes superscript¹ in the text of the paper and in the footnotes. The superscript
number is followed by the source information (¹Turabian Style). 
Like Chicago Style, Turabian utilizes different citation systems (Author-Date or
Notes-Bibliography) For a paper written for the humanities
you will most likely utilize Notes-Bibliography and for most other disciplines (particularly
the sciences) you would typically use the Author-Date system. 
CITATION QUICK GUIDE 
- Source citations in the Turabian manual come in two varieties: (1) notes and
bibliography (or simply notes) and (2) author-date. These two systems are also
sometimes referred to as Chicago-style citations, because they are the same as
the ones presented in The Chicago Manual of Style.
1. The notes and bibliography style is popular in the humanities—including literature, history,
and the arts. In this system, sources are cited in numbered footnotes or endnotes.
2. The author-date style is more common in the physical, natural, and social sciences. In this
system, sources are briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and
year of publication.
The following examples illustrate the notes and bibliography style. Sample notes show
full citations followed by shortened forms that would be used after the first citation.
Sample bibliography entries follow the notes.
 BOOK
NOTES
1. Katie Kitamura, A Separation (New York: Riverhead Books, 2017), 25.
SHORTENED NOTES
1. Kitamura, Separation, 91–92.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)
Kitamura, Katie. A Separation. New York: Riverhead Books, 2017.
JOURNAL ARTICLE
-In a note, cite specific page numbers. In the bibliography, include the page range for the whole
article. For articles consulted online, include a URL or the name of the database
NOTES
1. Ashley Hope Pérez, “Material Morality and the Logic of Degrees in Diderot’s Le neveu de
Rameau,” Modern Philology 114, no. 4 (May 2017): 874, https://doi.org/10.1086/689836.
SHORTENED NOTES
1. Pérez, “Material Morality,” 880–81.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)
Pérez, Ashley Hope. “Material Morality and the Logic of Degrees in Diderot’s Le neveu de
Rameau.” Modern Philology 114, no. 4 (May 2017): 872–98. https://doi.org/10.1086/689836.
-The following examples illustrate the author-date style. Each example of a reference list
entry is accompanied by an example of a corresponding in-text citation
BOOK
REFERENCE LIST ENTRIES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)
Kitamura, Katie. 2017. A Separation. New York: Riverhead Books.

IN-TEXT CITATIONS
(Kitamura 2017, 25)
NEWS OR MAGAZINE ARTICLE
-Articles from newspapers or news sites, magazines, blogs, and the like are cited similarly. In
the
reference list, it can be helpful to repeat the year with sources that are cited also by month and
day.
REFERENCE LIST ENTRIES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)
Anderssen, Erin. 2016. “Through the Eyes of Generation Z.” Globe and Mail (Toronto), June 25,
2016.
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/through-the-eyes-of-generation-z/
article3057191
4/
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
(Anderssen 2016)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
What is APA style?
APA style is usually used in Social Sciences and Psychology and is an author-date
system. APA stands for the American Psychological Association.

Citation Guides
● APA style features in-text parenthetical citations, with a focus on author/date, and a
corresponding Reference page.
● In-Text Citations
● elements include author's last name, year of publication and page number(s)
● elements in are separated by commas - Example: (Arnold, 2015, p. 378)
● a direct quote requires a page number preceded by p. - Example: ... as the "individuals
pronounced vocally and fearlessly" (Smith, 2016, p. 201)
This article reflects the APA 7th edition guidelines
Important Differences Between APA 6 and APA 7 Edition?
-For in-text (parenthetical) citations, if there are more than two authors, you mention the first
author and then include et al.
APA 6 (Smith, Janey, Keys, & James, 2019)
APA 7 (Smith et al., 2019)

-When citing a resource, do not include the publisher’s city or state.

APA 6
Merriam, S.B. & Grenier, R.S. (2019). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion
and analysis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
APA 7
Merriam, S.B. & Grenier, R.S. (2019). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion
and analysis. Jossey-Bass.

What is MLA Style?

- MLA Style (Modern Language Association)
- MLA Style of citation and formatting is widely used in the field of Art, Liberal Arts,
and
- Humanities.
 22. MARVIN CEREZA
RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
What is a research framework?
- A research framework provides an underlying structure or model to support our collective
research efforts. Up until now, we’ve referenced, referred to and occasionally approached
research as more of an amalgamated set of activities. But as we know, research comes in many
different shapes and sizes, is variable in scope, and can be used to answer all manner of
questions across all aspects of business, product and delivery. From the broad fundamentals
that have the potential to inform company strategy and shape portfolio decisions, through to the
specific and narrow that guide our day-to-day development efforts. There is a flavor of research
for every situation and a framework helps us recognize these different scenarios and tailor our
approach and methods accordingly.

Theoretical Framework A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a

theory but not necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research,
determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for.
Theoretical frameworks are obviously critical in deductive, theory-testing sorts of studies. In
those kinds of studies, the theoretical framework must be very specific and well-thought out.
Surprisingly, theoretical frameworks are also important in exploratory studies, where you really
don't know much about what is going on, and are trying to learn more. There are two reasons
why theoretical frameworks are important here. First, no matter how little you think you know
about a topic, and how unbiased you think you are, it is impossible for a human being not to
have preconceived notions, even if they are of a very general nature. For example, some people
fundamentally believe that people are basically lazy and untrustworthy, and you have keep your
wits about you to avoid being conned. These fundamental beliefs about human nature affect
how you look things when doing personnel research. In this sense, you are always being guided
by a theoretical framework, but you don't know it. Not knowing what your real framework is can
be a problem. The framework tends to guide what you notice in an organization, and what you
don't notice. In other words, you don't even notice things that don't fit your framework! We can
never completely get around this problem, but we can reduce the problem considerably by
simply making our implicit framework explicit. Once it is explicit, we can deliberately consider
other frameworks, and try to see the organizational situation through different lenses.

ELEMENTS OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK What are the elements of theoretical

framework? The exploration of the learning process related to the concepts of physics, during
the development of the project in each worksheet contains six elements: 1) The Problem, 2)
The situation 3) The Experimentation 4) The prediction, 5) The Comparison, and 6) The
Conclusion
Developing a Theoretical Framework In practical terms, a theoretical framework serves as a
foundation for your research—one that is linked to the research questions you pose as well as
to the research design and methodology. It is derived from the research literature, and may be
inductive through qualitative research or deductive through quantitative research .A useful yet
simple definition of a theoretical framework is provided "A theoretical framework" is a collection
of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not necessarily so well worked-out "A theoretical
framework guides your research, determining what things you will measure and what statistical
relationships you will look for." A diagram may be useful in explaining the relationships among
variables

RELEVANT THEORIES you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research
methods. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address
questions of why and how. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations.
23. JOHN CARLO PALISOC
RELATED LITERATURE
A review of related literature (RRL) is a detailed review of existing literature related to the topic
of a thesis or dissertation. In an RRL, you talk about knowledge and findings from existing
literature relevant to your topic.
To undertake an RRL, therefore, you first need to identify relevant literature. You can do
this through various sources, online and offline. Ensure you are saving all applicable resources
because you will need to mention them in your paper.

Writing Literature Review

1. Narrow your topic and select papers accordingly
Consider your specific area of study. Think about what interests you and what interests
other researchers in your field. Talk to your professor, brainstorm, and read lecture notes and
recent issues of periodicals in the field. Limit your scope to a smaller topic area 
2. Search for literature
Define your source selection criteria (ie. articles published between a specific date
range, focusing on a specific geographic region, or using a specific methodology).
3. Develop a thesis or purpose statement
Write a one or two sentence statement summarizing the conclusion you have reached
about the major trends and developments you see in the research that has been conducted on
your subject.
4. Write the paper
Follow the organizational structure you developed above, including the headings and
subheadings you constructed. Make certain that each section links logically to the one before
and after. Structure your sections by themes or subtopics, not by individual theorists or
researchers.
5. Review your work
Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only these
sentences, would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically developed, from
beginning to end? The topic sentences of each paragraph should indicate the main points of
your literature review.
Essential Elements of the Literature Review
Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three basic
elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review containing
the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations section to end the
paper.
Organizing the body
Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how you will present the
sources themselves within the body of your paper. Create an organizational method to focus
this section even further.
Use evidence
In the example above, the writers refer to several other sources when making their point. A
literature review in this sense is just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation
of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to show that what you are saying is
valid.
Be selective
Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of
information you choose to mention should relate directly to the review’s focus, whether it is
thematic, methodological, or chronological.
Use quotes sparingly
Falk and Mills do not use any direct quotes. That is because the survey nature of the literature
review does not allow for in-depth discussion or detailed quotes from the text. Some short
quotes here and there are okay, though, if you want to emphasize a point, or if what the author
said just cannot be rewritten in your own words. Notice that Falk and Mills do quote certain
terms that were coined by the author, not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study.
But if you find yourself wanting to put in more quotes, check with your instructor.
Summarize and synthesize
Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as
throughout the review. The authors here recapitulate important features of Hamilton’s study, but
then synthesize it by rephrasing the study’s significance and relating it to their own work.
 24. JOB GUERRERO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Related Literature
 Composed of discussion of facts and principles to which the present study is related
 Materials which are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional
journals, magazines, newspaper, and other publications.

IMPORTANCE, PURPOSES, AND FUNCTIONS OF RELATED LITERATURE

 It helps or guides the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem
or topic.
 It helps the investigator understand his topic or researcher better.
 It ensures that there will be no duplication of other studies.
 It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research
STEPS IN WRITING RRL
1. SEARCH
2. READ
3. OUTLINE
4. WRITE
5. RE-READ

REMEMBER:
It is important that you have the knowledge of styles of citations in writing your RRL.
PLAGIARISM- academic writing that did not give any credit to the author and copied the
authors exact words and assumed it has his own.

STYLES OF CITATION
1. Integral Citation- The authors surname is included as part of the sentence construction
ex. According to Dela Cruz (2010) that….
2. Non- Integral Citation- the authors surname is not part of the sentence but rather included
through inside parenthesis.
ex. That energy is just the product of mass and the square of speed of light (Einstein,
1895)
 25. CHABELITA S. PADILLA
METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
What is Qualitative Research?
• Qualitative research is one of the best tools to identify behaviors and patterns governing
social conditions.
• It goes a step beyond quantitative data by providing the reasons and rationale behind a
phenomenon, which often cannot be explored quantitatively.
Main methods used in Qualitative Research
•  In-depth interviews
• Focus group discussions (FGDs)
• Observations

In-depth interviews
- One-to-one interviews are the most commonly used qualitative research method.
They are semi-structured, which means that the questions to be asked and issues to be
addressed are fluid and take shape as the interview unfolds.
How long do in-depth interviews take?
- An in-depth interview may last 60–90 minutes and is conducted face to face.
Do participants need to give their permission?
- Yes. Participation must be voluntary, and each person must give informed
consent before they participate in an interview.
Advantages of in-depth interviews
• Yield rich data and new insights
• Allow face-to-face interaction
• Allow in-depth conversation about the topic being studied
• Can capture both affective and cognitive aspects
• Give the interviewer the opportunity to clarify or explain the question/topic for better
responses
Limitations of in-depth interviews
• Costly and time-consuming
• Require highly trained interviewers
• May obtain a massive amount of information, which makes transcription and data
analysis difficult
• Create exploratory, not conclusive, results. This means that their findings usually cannot
be generalized for the entire population.

What is a FGD?
- Focus group discussions are another common qualitative research method. In a
focus group discussion, an interviewer talks to a group of people about their
perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards an idea, concept, service,
product, etc.
Observations
Covert: No one knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed. For example, a
researcher trying to understand the rituals and ceremonies of Hindu weddings may conceal
himself as a guest to observe what’s happening.
Overt: Everyone knows they are being observed. For example, a researcher on Hindu
weddings may explain his study to the wedding party and use a video camera to record the
wedding.
 26. FRANCE ERROL C. CASIANO
SAMPLING FOR RESEARCH
Sampling - Sampling is the selection of a subset of the population of interest in a research
study. In the vast majority of research endeavors, the participation of an entire population of
interest is not possible, so a smaller group is relied upon for data collection.
Factor to consider in determining sample size
In general, three or four factors must be known or estimated to calculate sample size:
(1) the effect size (usually the difference between 2 groups);
(2) the population standard deviation (for continuous data);
(3) the desired power of the experiment to detect the postulated effect; and
(4) the significance level.
Various approach in determining the Sample size
- There are several approaches to determining the sample size. These include
using a census for small populations, imitating a sample size of similar studies,
using published tables, and applying formulas to calculate a sample size.

Types of Sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Simple random sample
• Convenience sampling
• Cluster sampling

Stratified Sampling:
• Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
• To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
• Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling
to select a sample from each subgroup.
Simple random Sampling:
• In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
• To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or
other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
Systematic Sampling:
Systematic Sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
• If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in
the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees
by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your
interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed
towards senior employees.
Cluster Sampling:
• Clustery Sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling
individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
• If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster.
If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each
cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.
• This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more
risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters.
It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population.
 27. HARLIE MARIE ESPLANA
DATA COLLECTION
- Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest,
in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

Frequently used Data Collection Methods

1. Interviews
- An interview is generally a qualitative research technique which involve asking
open-ended questions to converse with respondents and collect elicit data about a
subject.
2. Questionnaires and Surveys
- Questionnaires surveys are a technique for gathering statistical information about
the attributes, attitudes or actions of a population by a structured set of questions.
3. Observations
- Observation is a systematic data collection approach: Researchers use all of their
senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations.
Observation of a field setting involves: prolonged engagement in a setting or social
situations.
4. Documents and records
- Typically, research records refer to any type of records or materials that
document your research effort. These can be electronic or hard copy as in
various forms of logs, notebooks, correspondence, videos, computer databases,
audio or digital records, or even the actual product of experiments.
5. Focus Group
- A focus group is a research method that brings together a small group of people to
answer questions in a moderated setting. The group is chosen due to predefined
demographic traits, and questions are designed to shed light on a topic of interest.
Focus group are a type of qualitative research.
6. Oral History
- Oral history is a method of conducting historical research through recorder
interviews between a narrator and personal experience of historically significant
events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of adding to the historical
record.
QUALITATIVE
- interviews, focus groups, observations, and oral histories are qualitative.
There can also be crossover between the two methods.
QUANTITATIVE
- quantitative, dealing with something that can be counted. factors other than
numerical values. In general, questionnaires, surveys, and documents and records
are quantitative.
 Characteristics of a
good data
collection
instrument

Accuracy Timeliness

Completeness Relevance
Reliability

Scales commonly used in an instrument:

1. Likert scale
2. Guttman scale
3. Mokken scale
4. Proximity scale
 28. GENISIS BULANADI
RESEARCH & RELIABILITY
Validity
Validity (Degree to which a test or instrument measures what it purports to measure; can be
categorized as logical, content, criterion, or construct validity. ) refers to the soundness of the
interpretation of scores from a test, the most important consideration in measurement.
There are different purposes for using certain measures. Consequently, there are different kinds
of validity. There are four basic types of validity logical, content, criterion, and construct.
Logical validity - Degree to which a measure obviously involves the performance being
measured also known as face validity.
Content validity - Degree to which a test (usually in educational settings) adequately samples
what was covered in the course.
Criterion validity - Degree to which scores on a test are related to some recognized standard
or criterion. The two main types of criterion validity are concurrent validity and predictive validity.
Construct validity - Degree to which a test measures a hypothetical construct usually
established by relating the test results to some behavior.
Reliability
An integral part of validity is reliability, which pertains to the consistency, or repeatability, of a
measure. A test cannot be considered valid if it is not reliable. In other words, if the test is not
consistent, you cannot depend on successive trials to yield the same results-then the test
cannot be trusted.
Test reliability is sometimes discussed in terms of observed score, true score, and error score.
Methods of Establishing Reliability
Stability - A coefficient of reliability measured by the test-retest method on different days. In the
test-retest method, the test is given one day and then repeated a day or so later. Intraclass
correlation should be used to compute the coefficient of stability of the scores on the two tests.
Alternate-forms method - establishing reliability involves the construction of two tests that
supposedly sample the same material. This method is sometimes referred to as the parallel-
form method or the equivalence method. The two tests are given to the same individuals.
Ordinarily, some time elapses between the two administrations. The scores on the two tests are
then correlated to obtain a reliability coefficient.
Intertester Reliability - the degree to which different testers can achieve the same scores on
the same subjects. Also called objectivity.
Objectivity - The degree to which different testers can achieve the same scores on the same
subjects also known as intertester reliability. The degree of objectivity (intertester reliability)
can be established by having more than one tester gather data. Then the scores are analyzed
with intraclass correlation techniques to obtain an intertester reliability coefficient.
 29. JEROME A. MIRANDA
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
The Process of Data Analysis
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the
goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making.
In statistical applications, some people divide data analysis into descriptive statistics,
exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on
discovering new features in the data and CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing
hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on the application of statistical or structural models for
predictive forecasting or classification. Text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural
techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species of unstructured
data.

Data analysis is a process, within which several phases can be distinguished. The initial data
analysis phase is guided by examining, among other things, the quality of the data (for example,
the presence of missing or extreme observations), the quality of measurements, and if the
implementation of the study was in line with the research design. In the main analysis phase,
either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually the approach is decided
before data is collected. In an exploratory analysis, no clear hypothesis is stated before
analyzing the data, and the data is searched for models that describe the data well. In a
confirmatory analysis, clear hypotheses about the data are tested.

Drawing Conclusions from the Data

Given that the study may generate many types of data, both qualitative and quantitative, the
analysis approaches may vary greatly. Qualitative researchers typically use multiple forms of
data (e.g., interviews, observations, and documents) and may use inductive methods in which
they build patterns, categories, or themes from the bottom up. Quantitative data analysis relies
on counting and comparison in frequency or differences between variables and utilizes
statistical analysis to determine significance.
 30. RAMIL B. PINEDA
FORMULATION OF THE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Introductory Paragraph

 There should be a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population or
respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the research instrument,
and the sampling design

 There should be no explanation made.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

 Due to clarity demand, summary of findings must contain each specific question under
the statement of the problem and must be written first to be followed by the findings that
would answer it.

 The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data
consisting of test and numbers.

 Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in the
summary, especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.

 Must be stated as concisely as possible

Use past tense to present the result of findings in the investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

 Unifies your research results, discussions, and elaborates their significance to your
thesis.
Elements of the Conclusion

 State your topic

 State your thesis statement

 Briefly summarize your main points

 Add the points up

 Make a call to action when appropriate.

RECOMMENDATION

 Steps offered to solve or improve the negative findings of the study.

Findings are the bases of the conclusions and conclusions are the bases of the
recommendations.