Cartogram

For broader coverage of this topic, see Thematic map.

Not to be confused with Cartography.

A cartogram (also called a value-area map or an anamorphic map,

the latter common among German-speakers) is a thematic map of a
set of features (countries, provinces, etc.), in which their geographic
size is altered to be directly proportional to a selected ratio-level
variable, such as travel time, population, or GNP. Geographic space
itself is thus warped, sometimes extremely, in order to visualize the
distribution of the variable. It is one of the most abstract types of
map; in fact, some forms may more properly be called diagrams.
They are primarily used to display emphasis and for analysis as
nomographs.[1]

Mosaic cartogram showing the distribution of the global

population. Each of the 15,266 pixels represents the home country
of 500,000 people – cartogram by Max Roser for Our World in
Data

Cartograms leverage the fact that size is the most intuitive visual
variable for representing a total amount.[2] In this, it is a strategy that
is similar to proportional symbol maps, which scale point features,
and many flow maps, which scale the weight of linear features.
However, these two techniques only scale the map symbol, not
space itself; a map that stretches the length of linear features is
:
 considered a linear cartogram (although additional flow map
techniques may be added). Once constructed, cartograms are often
used as a base for other thematic mapping techniques to visualize
additional variables, such as choropleth mapping.

Contents
History
The cartogram was developed later
than other types of thematic maps, but
followed the same tradition of
innovation in France.[3] The earliest
known cartogram was published in
1876 by French statistician and
geographer Pierre Émile Levasseur,
who created a series of maps that
represented the countries of Europe as
squares, sized according to a variable
One of Levasseur's 1876 cartograms
and arranged in their general of Europe, the earliest known
geographical position (with separate published example of this technique.
maps scaled by area, population,
religious adherents, and national budget).[4] Later reviewers have
called his figures a statistical diagram rather than a map, but
Levasseur referred to it as a carte figurative, the common term then
in use for any thematic map. He produced them as teaching aids,
immediately recognizing the intuitive power of size as a visual
variable: "It is impossible that the child is not struck by the
importance of the trade of Western Europe in relation to that of
Eastern Europe, that he does not notice how much England, which
has a small territory but outweighs other nations by its wealth and
especially by its navy, how much on the contrary Russia which, by its
:
 area and its population occupies the first rank, is still left behind by
other nations in the commerce and navigation."

Levasseur's technique does not appear to have been adopted by

others, and relatively few similar maps appear for many years. The
next notable development was a pair of maps by Hermann Haack
and Hugo Weichel of the 1898 election results for the German
Reichstag in preparation for the 1903 election, the earliest known
contiguous cartogram.[5] Both maps showed a similar outline of the
German Empire, with one subdivided into constituencies to scale,
and the other distorting the constituencies by area. The subsequent
expansion of densely populated areas around Berlin, Hamburg, and
Saxony was intended to visualize the controversial tendency of the
mainly urban Social Democrats to win the popular vote, while the
mainly rural Zentrum won more seats (thus presaging the modern
popularity of cartograms for showing the same tendencies in recent
elections in the United States).[6]

The continuous cartogram emerged soon after in the United States,

where a variety appeared in the popular media after 1911.[7][8] Most
were rather crudely drawn compared to Haack and Weichel, with the
exception of the "rectangular statistical cartograms" by the
American master cartographer Erwin Raisz, who claimed to have
invented the technique.[9][10]

When Haack and Weichel referred to their map as a kartogramm, this

term was commonly being used to refer to all thematic maps,
especially in Europe.[11][12] It was not until Raisz and other academic
cartographers stated their preference for a restricted use of the term
in their textbooks (Raisz initially espousing value-area cartogram)
that the current meaning was gradually adopted.[13][14]

The primary challenge of cartograms has always been the drafting of

:
 the distorted shapes, making them a prime target for computer
automation. Waldo R. Tobler developed one of the first algorithms in
1963, based on a strategy of warping space itself rather than the
distinct districts.[15] Since then, a wide variety of algorithms have
been developed (see below), although it is still common to craft
cartograms manually.[1]

General principles
Since the early days of the academic study of cartograms, they have
been compared to map projections in many ways, in that both
methods transform (and thus distort) space itself.[15] The goal of
designing a cartogram or a map projection is therefore to represent
one or more aspects of geographic phenomena as accurately as
possible, while minimizing the collateral damage of distortion in other
aspects. In the case of cartograms, by scaling features to have a size
proportional to a variable other than their actual size, the danger is
that the features will be distorted to the degree that they are no
longer recognizable to map readers, making them less useful.

As with map projections, the tradeoffs inherent in cartograms have

led to a wide variety of strategies, including manual methods and
dozens of computer algorithms that produce very different results
from the same source data. The quality of each type of cartogram is
typically judged on how accurately it scales each feature, as well as
on how (and how well) it attempts to preserve some form of
recognizability in the features, usually in two aspects: shape and
topological relationship (i.e., retained adjacency of neighboring
features).[16][17] It is likely impossible to preserve both of these, so
some cartogram methods attempt to preserve one at the expense of
the other, some attempt a compromise solution of balancing the
distortion of both, and other methods do not attempt to preserve
either one, sacrificing all recognizability to achieve another goal.
:
 Area cartograms
The area cartogram is by far the most
common form; it scales a set of region
features, usually administrative districts
such as counties or countries, such that
the area of each district is directly
proportional to a given variable. Usually
this variable represents the total count or
amount of something, such as total
Population, Gross domestic product, or
the number of retail outlets of a given
brand or type. Other strictly positive ratio Cartogram of Germany, with the
variables can also be used, such as GDP states and districts resized
according to population
per capita or Birth rate, but these can
sometimes produce misleading results because of the natural
tendency to interpret size as total amount.[2] Of these, total
population is probably the most common variable, sometimes called
an isodemographic map.

The various strategies and algorithms have been classified a number

of ways, generally according to their strategies with respect to
preserving shape and topology. Those that preserve shape are
sometimes called equiform, although isomorphic (same-shape) or
homomorphic (similar-shape) may be better terms. Three broad
categories are widely accepted: contiguous (preserve topology,
distort shape), non-contiguous (preserve shape, distort topology),
and diagrammatic (distort both). Recently, more thorough
taxonomies by Nusrat and Kobourov, Markowska, and others have
built on this basic framework in an attempt to capture the variety in
approaches that have been proposed and in the appearances of the
results.[18][19] The various taxonomies tend to agree on the following
:
 general types of area cartograms.

Anamorphic Projection

See also: Anamorphosis

This is a type of contiguous cartogram that uses a single parametric

mathematical formula (such as a polynomial curved surface) to
distort space itself to equalize the spatial distribution of the chosen
variable, rather than distorting the individual features. Because of
this distinction, some have preferred to call the result a pseudo-
cartogram.[20] Tobler's first computer cartogram algorithm was
based on this strategy,[15][21] for which he developed the general
mathematical construct on which his and subsequent algorithms are
based.[15] This approach first models the distribution of the chosen
variable as a continuous density function (usually using a least
squares fitting), then uses the inverse of that function to adjust the
space such that the density is equalized. The Gastner-Newman
algorithm, one of the most popular tools used today, is a more
advanced version of this approach.[22][23] Because they do not
directly scale the districts, there is no guarantee that the area of
each district is exactly equal to its value.

Shape-warping contiguous cartograms

Also called irregular cartograms

or deformation cartograms,[19]
This is a family of very different
algorithms that scale and deform
the shape of each district while
maintaining adjacent edges. This
Contiguous cartogram (Gastner-Newman) of
approach has its roots in the the world with each country rescaled in
early 20th Century cartograms of proportion to the hectares of certified
:
 [24]
Haack and Weichel and others, organic farming
although these were rarely as
mathematically precise as current computerized versions. The
variety of approaches that have been proposed include cellular
automata, quadtree partitions, cartographic generalization, medial
axes, spring-like forces, and simulations of inflation and deflation.[18]
Some attempt to preserve some semblance of the original shape
(and may thus be termed homomorphic),[25] but these are often
more complex and slower algorithms than those that severely distort
shape.

Non-contiguous isomorphic cartograms

This is perhaps the simplest method for constructing a cartogram, in

which each district is simply reduced or enlarged in size according to
the variable without altering its shape at all.[16] In most cases, a
second step adjusts the location of each shape to reduce gaps and
overlaps between the shapes, but their boundaries are not actually
adjacent. While the preservation of shape is a prime advantage of
this approach, the results often have a haphazard appearance
because the individual districts do not fit together well.

Diagrammatic (Dorling) cartograms

In this approach, each district is

replaced with a simple geometric
shape of proportional size. Thus,
the original shape is completely
eliminated, and contiguity may
be retained in a limited form or
not at all. Although they are
usually referred to as Dorling
cartograms after Daniel Dorling's
:
 1996 algorithm first facilitated Diagrammatic (Dorling) cartogram of the
number of times each country is linked in the
their construction,[26] these are French-language Wikipedia.
actually the original form of
cartogram, dating back to Levasseur (1876)[4] and Raisz (1934).[9]
Several options are available for the geometric shapes:

Circles (Dorling), typically brought together to be touching and

arranged to retain some semblance of the overall shape of the
original space.[26] These often look like proportional symbol
maps, and some consider them to be a hybrid between the two
types of thematic map.
Squares (Levasseur/Demers), treated in much the same way as
the circles, although they do not generally fit together as simply.
Rectangles (Raisz), in which the height and width of each
rectangular district is adjusted to fit within an overall shape. The
result looks much like a treemap diagram, although the latter is
generally sorted by size rather than geography. These are often
contiguous, although the contiguity may be illusory because
many of the districts that are adjacent in the map may not be
the same as those that are adjacent in reality.

Because the districts are not at all recognizable, this approach is

most useful and popular for situations in which the shapes would not
be familiar to map readers anyway (e.g., U.K. parliamentary
constituencies) or where the districts are so familiar to map readers
that their general distribution is sufficient information to recognize
them (e.g., countries of the world). Typically, this method is used
when it is more important for readers to ascertain the overall
geographic pattern than to identify particular districts; if
identification is needed, the individual geometric shapes are often
labeled.

Mosaic cartograms
:
 Mosaic cartogram of United States Electoral College
results (scaled by 2008 electors) of four past
Presidential elections (1996, 2000, 2004, 2008)
  States carried by the Republican in all four elections
  States carried by the Republican in three of the four
elections
  States carried by each party twice in the four
elections
  States carried by the Democrat in three of the four
elections
  States carried by the Democrat in all four elections

In this approach (also called block or regular cartograms), each

shape is not just scaled or warped, but is reconstructed from a
discrete tessellation of space, usually into squares or hexagons.
Each cell of the tessellation represents a constant value of the
variable (e.g., 5000 residents), so the number of whole cells to be
occupied can be calculated (although rounding error often means
that the final area is not exactly proportional to the variable). Then a
shape is assembled from those cells, usually with some attempt to
retain the original shape, including salient features such as
panhandles that aid recognition (for example, Long Island and Cape
Cod are often exaggerated). Thus, these cartograms are usually
homomorphic and at least partially contiguous.

This method works best with variables that are already measured as
a relatively low-valued integer, enabling a one-to-one match with the
cells. This has made them very popular for visualizing the United
:
 States Electoral College that determines the election of the
president, appearing on television coverage and numerous vote-
tracking websites.[27] Several examples of block cartograms were
published during the 2016 U.S. presidential election season by The
Washington Post,[28] the FiveThirtyEight blog,[29] and the Wall Street
Journal,[30] among others.

The major disadvantage of this type of cartogram has traditionally

been that they had to be constructed manually, but recently
algorithms have been developed to automatically generate both
square and hexagonal mosaic cartograms.[31][32] One of these,
Tilegrams, even admits that the results of their algorithm is not
perfect and provides a way for users to edit the product.

Linear cartograms
While an area cartogram manipulates the area of a polygon feature, a
linear cartogram manipulates linear distance on a line feature. The
spatial distortion allows the map reader to easily visualize intangible
concepts such as travel time and connectivity on a network.
Distance cartograms are also useful for comparing such concepts
among different geographic features. A distance cartogram may also
be called a central-point cartogram.

A common use of distance cartograms is to show the relative travel

times and directions from vertices in a network. For example, on a
distance cartogram showing travel time between cities, the less time
required to get from one city to another, the shorter the distance on
the cartogram will be. When it takes a longer time to travel between
two cities, they will be shown as further apart in the cartogram, even
if they are physically close together.

Distance cartograms are also used to show connectivity. This is

:
 common on subway and metro maps, where stations and stops are
shown as being the same distance apart on the map even though the
true distance varies. Though the exact time and distance from one
location to another is distorted, these cartograms are still useful for
travel and analysis.

Multivariate cartograms
Main article: Multivariate map

Both area and linear cartograms adjust the base geometry of the
map, but neither has any requirements for how each feature is
symbolized. This means that symbology can be used to represent a
second variable using a different type of thematic mapping
technique.[16] For linear cartograms, line width can be scaled as a
flow map to represent a variable such as traffic volume. For area
cartograms, it is very common to fill each district with a color as a
choropleth map. For example, WorldMapper has used this technique
to map topics relating to global social issues, such as poverty or
malnutrition; a cartogram based on total population is combined with
a choropleth of a socioeconomic variable, giving readers a clear
visualization of the number of people living in underprivileged
conditions.

Another option for diagrammatic cartograms is to subdivide the

shapes as charts (commonly a pie chart), in the same fashion often
done with proportional symbol maps. This can be very effective for
showing complex variables such as population composition, but can
be overwhelming if there are a large number of symbols or if the
individual symbols are very small.

Production
:
 One of the first cartographers to generate cartograms with the aid of
computer visualization was Waldo Tobler of UC Santa Barbara in the
1960s. Prior to Tobler's work, cartograms were created by hand (as
they occasionally still are). The National Center for Geographic
Information and Analysis located on the UCSB campus maintains an
online Cartogram Central with resources regarding cartograms.

A number of software packages generate cartograms. Most of the

available cartogram generation tools work in conjunction with other
GIS software tools as add-ons or independently produce
cartographic outputs from GIS data formatted to work with
commonly used GIS products. Examples of cartogram software
include ScapeToad,[33][34] Cart,[35] and the Cartogram Processing
Tool (an ArcScript for ESRI's ArcGIS), which all use the Gastner-
Newman algorithm.[36][37] An alternative algorithm, Carto3F,[38] is
also implemented as an independent program for non-commercial
use on Windows platforms.[39] This program also provides an
optimization to the original Dougenik rubber-sheet algorithm.[40][41]
The CRAN package recmap provides an implementation of a
rectangular cartogram algorithm.[42]

Algorithms

Year Author Algorithm

Rubber map area

1973 Tobler
method contiguous
Projector area
1976 Olson
method noncontiguous
Kadmon, Polyfocal
1978 distance radial
Shlomi projection
DEMP (Radial
area
1984 Selvin et al. Expansion)
contiguous
:
 method Cartogram (likely Gastner-Newman)
showing Open Europe estimate of
Rubber Sheet total European Union net budget
Dougenik et area
1985 Distortion expenditure in euros for the whole
al. contiguous
method [41] period 2007–2013, per capita, based
on Eurostat 2007 pop. estimates
Pseudo-
area
(Luxembourg not shown).
1986 Tobler Cartogram
contiguous
Net contributors
method
  −5000 to −1000 euro per capita
Magnifying
  −1000 to −500 euro per capita
glass
1987 Snyder distance radial
  −500 to 0 euro per capita
azimuthal map
projections Net recipients

Colette   0 to 500 euro per capita

Piezopleth area
1989 Cauvin [fr] et   500 to 1000 euro per capita
maps contiguous
al.   1000 to 5000 euro per capita
Interactive   5000 to 10000 euro per capita
polygon area
  10000 euro plus per capita
1990 Torguson
zipping contiguous
method
Cellular
Automata area
1990 Dorling
Machine contiguous
method
Gusein-Zade, Line Integral area
1993
Tikunov method contiguous
Circular area
1996 Dorling
cartogram noncontiguous
Graphical
1997 Sarkar, Brown distance radial
fisheye views
Combinatorial-
Edelsbrunner, area
1997 based
Waupotitsch contiguous
approach
Constraint-
Kocmoud, area
1998 based
House contiguous
approach

2001 Keim, North, CartoDraw[43] area

:
 Panse contiguous

Diffusion-
Gastner, area
2004 based
Newman contiguous
method[44]
Lastna tehnika
area
2004 Sluga za izdelavo
contiguous
anamorfoz
van Kreveld, Rectangular area
2004
Speckmann Cartogram[45] contiguous
Heilmann, area
2004 RecMap[42]
Keim et al. noncontiguous
Medial-axis-
Keim, North, area
2005 based
Panse contiguous
cartograms[46]
Heriques, area
2009 Carto-SOM
Bação, Lobo contiguous
Opti-DCN[40]
area
2013 Shipeng Sun and
contiguous
Carto3F[38]
Mathematical
B. S. Daya Morphology- area
2014
Sagar Based contiguous
Cartograms
Fast Flow-
Gastner, area
2018 Based
Seguy, More contiguous
Method[22]

See also
Choropleth map – Type of data visualization for geographic
regions
Contour map – Curve along which a 3-D surface is at equal
elevation
Thematic map – Type of map that visualizes data
:
 Waldo Tobler

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Applications. 25 (3): 60–68. doi:10.1109/MCG.2005.64.
PMID 15943089. S2CID 6012366.none
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 Further reading
Campbell, John. Map Use and Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill,
2001.
Dorling, Daniel. "Area cartograms: Their use and creation."
"Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography series no. 59."
Norwich: University of East Anglia, 1996.
Gastner, Michael T. and Mark E. J. Newman, "Diffusion-based
method for producing density-equalizing maps." Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences 2004; 101: 7499–7504.
Gillard, Quentin (1979). "Places in the News: The Use of
Cartograms in Introductory Geography Courses". Journal of
Geography. 78 (3): 114–115.
doi:10.1080/00221347908979963.none
Hennig, Benjamin D. "Cartograms." International Encyclopedia
of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons (2021).
Hennig, Benjamin D. "Rediscovering the World: Map
Transformations of Human and Physical Space." Berlin,
Heidelberg: Springer, 2013.
House, Donald H. and Christopher Kocmoud, "Continuous
Cartogram Construction." Proceedings of the IEEE Conference
on Visualization 1998
Paull, John & Hennig, Benjamin (2016) Atlas of Organics: Four
Maps of the World of Organic Agriculture Journal of Organics.
3(1): 25–32.
Tobler, Waldo. "Thirty-Five Years of Computer Cartograms."
Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (2004):
58–73.
Vescovo, Victor. "The Atlas of World Statistics." Dallas: Caladan
Press, 2005.
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 External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cartograms.

Cartogram Central
Worldmapper collection of world cartograms
Classified Ads on the French Leboncoin social web site and their
regional distribution
Cartograms about Brazil
Tilegrams - Interactive tool for constructing hexagonal mosaic
cartograms
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