Fiber Optics

Fiber Optics
• Fiber optics are used for long-haul transmission in network

backbones, high-speed LANs (although so far, copper has always
managed catch up eventually), and high-speed Internet access such
as FttH (Fiber to the Home).
• An optical transmission system has three key components: the light
source, the transmission medium, and the detector.
• The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber of glass. The detector
generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it.
• A unidirectional data transmission system that accepts an electrical
signal, converts and transmits it by light pulses, and then reconverts
the output to an electrical signal at the receiving end.
• The sketch of Fig(b) shows only one trapped ray, but since any light
ray incident on the boundary above the critical angle will be reflected
internally, many different rays will be bouncing around at different
angles. Each ray is said to have a different mode, so a fiber having this
property is called a multimode fiber.
• If the fiber’s diameter is reduced to a few wavelengths of light the
fiber acts like a wave guide and the light can propagate only in a
straight line, without bouncing, yielding a single-mode fiber. Single-
mode fibers are more expensive but are widely used for longer
distances. Currently available single-mode fibers can transmit data at
100 Gbps for 100 km without amplification.
Fiber Cables
• At the center is the glass core through which the light propagates.
• In multimode fibers, the core is typically 50 microns in diameter,
about the thickness of a human hair.
• In single-mode fibers, the core is 8 to 10 microns.
• The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of
refraction than the core, to keep all the light in the core. Next comes a
thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding. Fibers are typically grouped
in bundles, protected by an outer sheath.
• Fibers can be connected in three different ways.
• First, they can terminate in connectors and be plugged into fiber
sockets. Connectors lose about 10 to 20% of the light, but they make
it easy to reconfigure systems.
• Second, they can be spliced mechanically. Mechanical splices just lay
the two carefully cut ends next to each other in a special sleeve and
clamp them in place. Alignment can be improved by passing light
through the junction and then making small adjustments to maximize
the signal. Mechanical splices take trained personnel about 5 minutes
and result in a 10% light loss.
• Third, two pieces of fiber can be fused (melted) to form a solid
connection. A fusion splice is almost as good as a single drawn fiber,
but even here, a small amount of attenuation occurs.
• Two kinds of light sources are typically used to do the signaling - LEDs
(Light Emitting Diodes) and semiconductor lasers.
• They can be tuned in wavelength by inserting Fabry-Perot or Mach-
Zehnder interferometers between the source and the fiber.
• Fabry-Perot interferometers are simple resonant cavities consisting of
two parallel mirrors. The light is incident perpendicular to the mirrors.
The length of the cavity selects out those wavelengths that fit inside
an integral number of times.
• Mach-Zehnder interferometers separate the light into two beams.
The two beams travel slightly different distances. They are
recombined at the end and are in phase fo
• The receiving end of an optical fiber consists of a photodiode, which
gives off an electrical pulse when struck by light. The response time of
photodiodes, which convert the signal from the optical to the
electrical domain, limits data rates to about 100 Gbps. Thermal noise
is also an issue, so a pulse of light must carry enough energy to be
detected.
Comparison of Fiber Optics and Copper Wire
• Fiber has many advantages.
• It can handle much higher bandwidths than copper.
• Use in high-end networks.
• Due to the low attenuation, repeaters are needed only about every
50 km on long lines, versus about every 5 km for copper, resulting in a
big cost saving.
• Not being affected by power surges, electromagnetic interference, or
power failures. Nor is it affected by corrosive chemicals in the air,
important for harsh factory environments.
• Fiber is much lighter than copper. One thousand twisted pairs 1 km
long weigh 8000 kg. Two fibers have more capacity and weigh only
100 kg, which reduces the need for expensive mechanical support
systems that must be maintained.
• Lower installation cost.
• Fibers do not leak light and are difficult to tap.
• Downside of fiber - a less familiar technology requiring skills not all
engineers have, and fibers can be damaged easily by being bent too
much. Since optical transmission is inherently unidirectional, two-way
communication requires either two fibers or two frequency bands on
one fiber. Fiber interfaces cost more than electrical interfaces.
-END-

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• Fiber optics are used for long-haul transmission in network

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