Untitled

CVE515: Transportation and Highway Systems
1 SOIL COMPACTION
1.1 Introduction
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires mechanical
energy. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight. In the
construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other engineering structures, loose
soils must be compacted to increase their unit weights. Compaction increases the strength
characteristics of soils, which increase the bearing capacity of foundations constructed over them.
Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures and increases the
stability of slopes of embankments. Smooth-wheel rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, rubber-tired rollers,
and vibratory rollers are generally used in the field for soil compaction. When water is added to the
soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the soil particles. The soil particles slip over
each other and move into a densely packed position. The dry unit weight after compaction first
increases as the moisture content increases. (See Figure 3.1.) Note that at a moisture content w = 0,
the moist unit weight (ᵞ) is equal to the dry unit weight (ᵞd), or
When the moisture content is gradually increased and the same compactive effort is used for
compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases. For example, at w =
w1 ,
However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is given by
Beyond a certain moisture content w = w2 (Figure 1.1), any increase in the moisture content tends
to reduce the dry unit weight. This phenomenon occurs because the water takes up the spaces that
would have been occupied by the solid particles. The moisture content at which the maximum dry
unit weight is attained is generally referred to as the optimum moisture content.
The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the
optimum moisture content is called the Proctor compaction test. The procedure for conducting this
type of test is described in the following section.
1
Figure 1.1: Principles of compaction
1.2 Standard Proctor Test
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm 3( ft3). The
diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm (4 in.). During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a
baseplate at the bottom and to an extension at the top (Figure 1.2a). The soil is mixed with varying
amounts of water and then compacted in three equal layers by a hammer (Figure 1.2b) that delivers
25 blows to each layer. The hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg (6.5 lb) and has a drop of 304.8 mm (12
in.). Figure 1.2c is a photograph of the laboratory equipment required for conducting a standard
Proctor test.
For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, g, can be calculated as
1.1
where W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold
V(m) = volume of the mold 944 cm3( ft3)
For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the laboratory. With the
known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be calculated as
1.2
2
where w (%) = percentage of moisture content.

The values of ᵞd determined from Eq. (1.2) can be plotted against the corresponding moisture
contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture content for the soil.
Figure 1.3 shows such a plot for a silty-clay soil.
The procedure for the standard Proctor test is elaborated in ASTM Test Designation D-698
(ASTM, 2007) and AASHTO Test Designation T-99 (AASHTO, 1982).
For a given moisture content w and degree of saturation S, the dry unit weight of compaction can
be calculated as follows. For any soil,
where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

ᵞw = unit weight of water
e = void ratio
Thus
1.3
For given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when no air is in
the void spaces—that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%. Hence, the maximum dry unit
weight at a given moisture content with zero air voids can be obtained by substituting S = 1 into Eq.
(1.3), or
1.4
where ᵞzav = zero-air-void unit weight.
To obtain the variation of ᵞzav with moisture content, use the following procedure:
3
1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.

2. Know the unit weight of water (ᵞw).
3. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and so on.
4. Use Eq. (1.4) to calculate ᵞzav for various values of w.
Figure 1.3 also shows the variation of ᵞzav with moisture content and its relative location with
respect to the compaction curve. Under no circumstances should any part of the compaction curve
lie to the right of the zero-air-void curve.
4
Figure 1.2 Standard Proctor test equipment: (a) mold; (b) hammer; (c) photograph of laboratory
equipment used for test
5
Figure 1.3 Standard Proctor compaction test results for a silty clay
3.3 Modified Proctor Test

With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard Proctor test
was modified to better represent field conditions. This revised version sometimes is referred to as
the modified Proctor test (ASTM Test Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T-
180). For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm3
(1/30 ft3), as in the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers
by a hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg (10 lb). The drop of the hammer is 457 mm (18 in.). The
number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test.
The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700 kN-m/m3 (56,000
ft-lb/lb3). Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an increase
in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum dry unit weight is
accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.
In the preceding discussions, the specifications given for Proctor tests adopted by ASTM and
AASHTO regarding the volume of the mold and the number of blows are generally those adopted
for fine-grained soils that pass through the U.S. No. 4 sieve. However, under each test designation,
there are three suggested methods that reflect the mold size, the number of blows per layer, and the
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maximum particle size in a soil aggregate used for testing. A summary of the test methods is given
in Table 1.1.
Omar, et al. (2003) recently presented the results of modified Proctor compaction tests on 311 soil
samples. Of these samples, 45 were gravelly soil (GP, GP-GM, GW, GWGM, and GM), 264 were
sandy soil (SP, SP-SM, SW-SM, SW, SC-SM, SC, and SM), and two were clay with low plasticity
(CL). All compaction tests were conducted using ASTM 1557 method C to avoid over-size
correction. Based on the tests, the following correlations were developed.
1.5
1.6
where d(max) = maximum dry density (kg/m3)
wopt = optimum moisture content(%)
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
LL = liquid limit, in percent
R#4 = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
Gurtug and Sridharan (2004) proposed correlations for optimum moisture content and maximum
dry unit weight with the plastic limit (PL) of cohesive soils. These correlations can be expressed as:
1.7
1.8
where PL = plastic limit (%)
CE = compaction energy (kN-m/m3)
For modified Proctor test, CE = 2700 kN/m3. Hence,
and
ᵞd(max) (kN/m3 ) = 22.68
7
Table 1.1 Summary of Standard and Modified Proctor Compaction

Test Specifications (ASTM D-698 and D-1557)
1.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

Moisture content has a strong influence on the degree of compaction achieved by a given soil.
Besides moisture content, other important factors that affect compaction are soil type and
compaction effort (energy per unit volume). The importance of each of these two factors is
described in more detail in the following two sections.
1.4.1 Effects of water content during compaction
As water is added to a soil (at low moisture content) it becomes easier for the particles to move past
one another during the application of the compacting forces. As the soil compacts the voids are
reduced and this causes the dry unit weight (or dry density) to increase. Initially, as the moisture
content increases so does the dry unit weight. However, the increase cannot occur indefinitely
because the soil state approaches the zero air voids line which gives the maximum dry unit weight
8
for a given moisture content. Thus as the state approaches the no air voids line further moisture
content increases must result in a reduction in dry unit weight. As the state approaches the no air
voids line a maximum dry unit weight is reached and the moisture content at this maximum is
called the optimum moisture content.
1.4.2 Effect of Soil Type
The soil type - that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids,
and amount and type of clay minerals present - has a great influence on the maximum dry unit
weight and optimum moisture content. Figure 1.4 shows typical compaction curves obtained from
four soils. The laboratory tests were conducted in accordance with ASTM Test Designation D-698.
Note also that the bell-shaped compaction curve shown in Figure 1.3 is typical of most clayey soils.
Figure 1.4 shows that for sands, the dry unit weight has a general tendency first to decrease as
moisture content increases and then to increase to a maximum value with further increase of
moisture. The initial decrease of dry unit weight with increase of moisture content can be attributed
to the capillary tension effect. At lower moisture contents, the capillary tension in the pore water
inhibits the tendency of the soil particles to move around and be compacted densely.
Lee and Suedkamp (1972) studied compaction curves for 35 soil samples. They observed that four
types of compaction curves can be found. These curves are shown in Figure 1.5. Table 1.2 is a
summary of the type of compaction curves encountered in various soils with reference to Figure
1.5.
Figure 1.4 Typical compaction curves for four soils (ASTM D-698)
9
Table 1.2: Summary of the type of compaction curves
Figure 1.5: Various types of compaction curves encountered in soils
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1.4.3 Effect of Compaction Effort

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can be given as
1.9
If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture–unit weight curve also
changes. This fact can be demonstrated with the aid of Figure 3.6, which shows four compaction
curves for a sandy clay. The standard Proctor mold and hammer were used to obtain these
compaction curves. The number of layers of soil used for compaction was three for all cases.
However, the number of hammer blows per each layer varied from 20 to 50, which varied the
energy per unit volume.
From the preceding observation and Figure 3.6, we can see that
1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight of compaction is also
increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum moisture content is decreased to some extent.
The preceding statements are true for all soils. Note, however, that the degree of compaction is not
directly proportional to the compaction effort.
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Figure 1.6 Effect of compaction energy on the compaction of a sandy clay
1.5 Field Compaction

1.5.1 Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types of rollers are
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers
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Smooth-wheel rollers (Figure 1.7) are suitable for proof rolling subgrades and for finishing
operation of fills with sandy and clayey soils. These rollers provide 100% coverage under the
wheels, with ground contact pressures as high as 310 to 380 kN/m2 (45 to 55 lb/in2). They are not
suitable for producing high unit weights of compaction when used on thicker layers.
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers (Figure 1.8) are better in many respects than the smooth-wheel
rollers. They are heavily loaded with several rows of tires. These tires are closely spaced—four to
six in a row. The contact pressure under the tires can range from 600 to 700 kN/m2 (85 to 100
lb/in2), and they produce about 70 to 80% coverage. Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and
clayey soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by acombination of pressure and kneading action.
Sheepsfoot rollers (Figure 1.9) are drums with a large number of projections. The area of each
projection may range from 25 to 85 cm2 (4 to 13 in2). These rollers are most effective in
compacting clayey soils. The contact pressure under the projections can range from 1400 to 7000
kN/m2 (200 to 1000 lb/in2). During compaction in the field, the initial passes compact the lower
portion of a lift. Compaction at the top and middle of a lift is done at a later stage.
Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be attached to
smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil.
The vibration is produced by rotating off-center weights. Handheld vibrating plates can be used for
effective compaction of granular soils over a limited area. Vibrating plates are also gang-mounted
on machines. These plates can be used in less restricted areas.
Figure 1.7: Smooth-wheel rollers
13
Figure 1.8: Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
Figure 1.9: Sheepsfoot rollers
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1.5.2 Specifications for Field Compaction

In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted field dry
unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either
the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction, which can be
expressed as
1.10
where R = relative compaction.
For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in terms of the required
relative density Dr or the required relative compaction. Relative density should not be confused
with relative compaction.
1.11
Comparing Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), we see that
1.12
Where
1.13
On the basis of observation of 47 soil samples, Lee and Singh (1971) devised a correlation between
R and Dr for granular soils:
1.14
The specification for field compaction based on relative compaction or on relative density is an
end-product specification. The contractor is expected to achieve a minimum dry unit weight
regardless of the field procedure adopted. The most economical compaction condition can be
explained with the aid of Figure 1.10. The compaction curves A, B, and C are for the same soil with
varying compactive effort. Let curve A represent the conditions of maximum compactive effort that
can be obtained from the existing equipment. Let the contractor be required to achieve a minimum
dry unit weight of ᵞd(field) = Rᵞd(max). To achieve this, the contractor must ensure that the moisture
content w falls between w1 and w2. As can be seen from compaction curve C, the required ᵞd(field)
can be achieved with a lower compactive effort at a moisture content w = w3. However, for most
practical conditions, a compacted field unit weight of ᵞd(field) = Rᵞd(max) cannot be achieved by the
15
minimum compactive effort. Hence, equipment with slightly more than the minimum compactive
effort should be used. The compaction curve B represents this condition. Now we can see from
Figure 1.10 that the most economical moisture content is between w3 and w4. Note that w = w4 is
the optimum moisture content for curve A, which is for the maximum compactive effort. The
concept described in the preceding paragraph, along with Figure 1.10, is attributed historically to
Seed (1964) and is elaborated on in more detail in Holtz and Kovacs (1981).
Figure 1.10: Most economical compaction condition
1.6 Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

When the compaction work is progressing in the field, knowing whether the specified unit weight
has been achieved is useful. The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of
compaction include
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method
1.6.1 Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)
The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone attached at its top (Figure
1.11). The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa sand. The combined weight of the jar, the cone, and
the sand filling the jar is determined (W1). In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where
the soil has been compacted. If the weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole (W2) is
16
determined and the moisture content of the excavated soil is known, the dry weight of the soil can
be obtained as
1.15
where w = moisture content.
After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is inverted and placed
over the hole (Figure 1.12). Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the hole and the cone. After
that, the combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the remaining sand in the jar is determined (W4),
so
Figure 1.11: Glass jar filled with Ottawa sand with sand cone attached
17
Figure 1.12: Field unit weight determined by sand cone method
1.16
where W5 = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone.
The volume of the excavated hole can then be determined as
1.17
where Wc = weight of sand to fill the cone only
ᵞd(sand) = dry unit weight of Ottawa sand used
1.18
1.6.2 Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM Designation D-2167)
The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand cone method; a test hole
is made and the moist weight of soil removed from the hole and its moisture content are
determined. However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing into it a rubber balloon
filled with water from a calibrated vessel, from which the volume can be read directly. The dry unit
weight of the compacted soil can be determined by using Eq. (1.18). Figure 1.13 shows a calibrated
vessel that would be used with a rubber balloon.
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Figure 1.13: Calibrated vessel used with rubber balloon
1.6.3 Nuclear Method

Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry unit weight of soil. The
density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground surface. It uses a radioactive
isotope source. The isotope gives off Gamma rays that radiate back to the meter’s detector. Dense
soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil. The instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit
volume and the weight of water present in a unit volume of soil. The dry unit weight of compacted
soil can be determined by subtracting the weight of water from the moist unit weight of soil. Figure
1.14 shows a photograph of a nuclear density meter.
Figure 1.14: Nuclear density meter
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1.7 California Bearing Ratio

California bearing ratio test is one of the soil strength evaluation tests. In this test, the relative
strength of a soil specimen is measured with respect to the standard sample.
California bearing ratio is the percentage of stress a soil specimen can resist for a certain amount
of penetration relative to the value of stress of which a standard soil could resist. Basically, the
value is an indicator of the strength of the soil.
CBR= ×100%
Ps = Stress carried by site soil

Pstd = Stress carried by standard soil
California Bearing Ratio Test is basically a load test that is performed on the soil surface to
determine its CBR value.
In the CBR test, a mold is filled with the soil specimen. It is compacted into the mold with a
rammer. Then the mold is soaked in water for a certain period of time. Then a loading machine is
used to apply load on a plunger. This will penetrate through the soil mold. The machine will
penetrate through the soil by increasing the load gradually. There are one proving ring and one dial
gauge attached to the machine. The dial gauge indicates the penetration amount. The proving ring
indicates the amount of load machine is applying to the surface. For certain amounts of
penetrations, corresponding load values have to be recorded. Later stress vs. penetration curve is
drawn by using these values.
From that curve, both for 1 in (2.54 mm) & 2 in (5.08 mm) penetration, corresponding stress value
is determined. These values are used in the equation mentioned above to calculate the CBR value.
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Laboratory California Bearing Ratio Test Apparatus

The followings are the apparatus required to perform the CBR test of soil.
 Loading Machine
 Penetration Piston
 Sieves
 Mold
 Spacer Disk
 Mixing Tools
Details of this equipment are given below.
Loading Machine
with a capability of moving rate 0.05 in. (1.27 mm)/min to apply compressive force in the piston. A
penetration measuring device (dial indicator) has to be attached to the machine to provide accurate
penetration measurements.
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Penetration Piston
A metal piston with 1.954 ± 0.005 in. (49.63 ± 0.13 mm) in diameter and not less than 4 in. (101.6
mm) long.
Sieves
Two sieves are required. ¾ in. (19 mm) & #4 (4.75 mm).
Mold
A rigid metal cylinder with an inside diameter of 6 ± 0.026 inch (152.4 ± 0.66 mm) and a height of
7 ± 0.018 inches (177.8 ± 0.46 mm). It shall be provided with a metal extension collar at least 2.0
inches (50.8 mm) in height.
Spacer Disk
A circular metal spacer disc (see Figure 16.1) having a minimum outside diameter of 5 15/16
inches (150.8 mm). The spacer disc shall be 2.416 ± 0.005 inches (61.37 ± 0.127 mm) in height.
Mixing Tools
Mixing pan, spoon, trowel, spatual, etc.
Rammer for compaction, Balance, Filter Paper, Drying oven, Soaking Tank.
CBR Test Procedure

Detail CBR test procedure is described below.
Specimen Preparation
1. A ¾ in (19 mm) sieve is used to sieve the soil specimen. If all material passes through the
sieve, we can use all of it for the test. But some of the material might be retained in the
sieve. In that situation have to replace the retained amount with an equal amount of the
materials which pass ¾ in the sieve and retained on the #4 sieve.
2. After sieving, make 3 sample specimens each containing 6.8 kg (15 lb).
3. Specimen 1, 2, 3 will be compacted with a required number of blows. This will provide
variations in the percentage of maximum dry density.
4. Sufficient amounts of water shall be mixed with specimens to maintain optimum water
content.
5. The mold shall be attached to the base plate with the extension collar. Then the weight shall
be measured. Then a spacer disk shall be placed into the mold with a filter paper on top of
the spacer disk.
6. The mold shall be filled with soil in 3 layers. The water content of the material shall be
determined before and after the compaction procedure.
22
7. Then the extension collar shall be removed and the top of the mold shall be trimmed with a
straightedge to smoothen the surface.
8. The other two specimens shall be compacted following the same procedures mentioned
above.
9. Remove spacer disk, base plate. then the weight of mould plus compacted soil shall be
measured.
10. Then invert the mold and soil and attach the base plate to the mold with a coarse filter
paper.
Soaking
1. Place a specified amount of surcharge weight (typically 4.54 kg) on top of the base plate.
2. Use a water tank to soak the specimen for around 4 days (96 hrs.)
3. Measure the height of the specimen before and after soaking to determine the swell
percentage of the initial height. An expansion measurement equipment can be used for this
purpose.
4. After 4 days of soaking, the mold shall be from water. The base plate, filter paper, and
surcharge weights shall also be removed. mass of the mold plus soil shall be measured.
Load Test
1. Place the mold under the penetration piston of the compressing machine. The same amount
of surcharge weight (4.54 kg) shall be placed on top of the mold.
2. Then the compressing machine shall be started to apply load with a constant penetration rate
of 0.05 in. (1.27 mm)/min. The piston will start to penetrate through the soil for the loading.
3. The machine has two indicators. One is a proving ring and another is dial gauge. The dial
gauge indicates the penetration and the proving ring will indicate the amount of load is
applied to gain that penetration.
4. See the table below, column 2 shall be filled in with corresponding proving ring readings
for the penetrations specified in column 1.
5. Proving readings shall be multiplied with machine constant to find the piston load (col. 3)
6. Then penetration stress shall be determined from piston load (col. 4).
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Penetration Proving Ring Piston Load Penetration Stress

(in) (Dial Reading) (lb) (psi)
0.025
0.05
0.075
0.1
0.125
0.150
0.175
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
California Bearing Ratio Calculation from the Test Values

Stress-Strain Curve
Then Stress vs. Penetration (strain) curve shall be drawn. If the curve is concave upward in the near
of the origin, the values have to be adjusted according to the guidelines.
CBR Calculation
1. From the curve, corresponding stress shall be determined for 0.1 in. (2.55 mm) & 0.2 in
(5.08 mm) penetration. See the figure.
24
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2 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE AND DESIGN
2.1 Highway Pavements
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed

materials. The primary function of a pavement is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the
sub-grade such that the transmitted stresses are sufficiently reduced that they do not exceed the
supporting capacity of the sub-grade.
By definition, rigid pavements are those built from reinforced or plain cement-concrete. They
contain sufficient beam strength to be able to bridge over localized sub-grade failures and areas
of inadequate support. On the other hand, flexible pavements are generally considered to be any
pavement other than a concrete one. Under this category fall water-bound macadam roads,
stabilized soil roads, and other sophisticated roads which consist of various layers of road
building materials compacted so as to form a void-free compact and elastic bed. Depressions
which occur beneath flexible pavements are reflected in their running surfaces, unlike with rigid
pavements.
2.1.1 Comparison between Flexible and Rigid Pavements
The comparison between flexible and rigid pavements in terms of the constituent material,
manner of stress transmission to the subgrade, design criterion, etc. is shown in Table 2.1
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Table 2.1: Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement
27
2.1.2. Elements of a flexible pavement
The surfacing is the uppermost layer of the pavement. The primary function of the surfacing is
to provide a safe and comfortable riding surface for the traffic. It is also expected to protect the
layers, beneath from the effects of the natural elements, (rain, wind, etc) as well as from the
disintegrating effects vehicles skidding and braking on the roadway. In this regard it should be
impervious so as to waterproof the base against the surface water. The water-sealing and dust-
preventing property of the surfacing is best considerably improved by providing a bituminous
surface binding layer.
The surfacing will normally consist of a bituminous ―surface dressing‖ (spray-and-chip

treatment) or a single homogeneous layer of premixed bituminous material. In the higher types
of road, it may consist of two distinct sub-layers known as a wearing course and a base course.
The wearing course must be impervious and be of suitable material so that skidding accidents
are prevented. The base-course provides the wearing course with a better riding quality but
may not be as impervious as the wearing course.
b. The base is the most important and normally the thickest layer of the flexible pavement
on which the surfacing rests. It is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It bears the
burden of distributing the applied surface loads to ensure that the bearing capacity of the
subgrade is not exceeded. It should therefore be built from high quality material capable of
withstanding high shearing stresses imposed from the surface loads. It will normally consist of
either
(i) crushed stone or gravel

(ii) gravelly soils
(iii) decomposed rock
(iv) sands, or
(v) sand-clays stabilized with cement, lime or bitumen
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c. The sub-base is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the base. It may or may
not be present in a pavement depending on the purpose for which it is to be used. Its function
may be examined from a number of aspects:
1. The sub-base helps to distribute the applied loads to the sub-grade. Its stresses are
less than those of the base. Therefore the materials can be of lower quality than those of
the base but must always be stronger than the sub-grade.
2. A coarse-grained material in the sub-base acts as a drainage layer to pass to the
highway drainage system any moisture which falls during construction or which enters
the pavement after construction
3. When we have a fine-grained (clayey) sub-grade soil, a granular sub-base may be
provided.
(i) to carry constructional traffic and act as a foundation for subsequent layers
(ii) to act as a cut-off blanket to prevent moisture from migrating upward from the
sub-grade
(iii) to act as a cut-off blanket to prevent the infiltration of sub-grade material into
the pavement.
The material used will depend on the purpose of the sub-base and the grading of the sub-grade
soil. It will normally consist of unprocessed natural gravel, gravel-sand or gravel-sand-clay.
d. The sub-grade is the upper layer of the natural soil over which the pavement is being
built. It may be the undisturbed local material exposed by excavation or soil excavated elsewhere
and placed into an embankment. In either case it is compacted during construction to give added
stability and, where very weak soils are encountered, the subgrade may be improved by mixing
in an imported better soil or a small amount of a stabilizing agent.
e. The formation is the upper surface of the prepared sub-grade.
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Figure 2.1
2.1.3 Component layers of a rigid pavement
a. The most important property of the sub-grade is whether or not it will provide uniform support
for the concrete slab. If the sub-grade can be relied on to provide uniform support, then there will
be no need for a sub-base, as is the case for all sub-grades with CBR 15%
b. The sub-base is interposed only to correct unsatisfactory sub-grade conditions which could
lead to non-uniform support for the slab. Sub-bases are used to provide uniform, stable and
permanent support in the following cases.
(i) To prevent or minimize frost action whereby differential heaving and softening of
the sub-grade can result in the break-up of the pavement in cold, temperate
climates.
(ii) A granular sub-base which acts as a drainage layer will improve the sub-surface
drainage and minimize the accumulation of water within the pavement.
(iii) To prevent mud-pumping at the joints, edges and cracks of pavements. Mud-
pumping is the forceful ejection of water-soil suspension under heavy wheel
loads. It may lead to eventual failure of the pavement. The three factors which
must be present before pumping can occur are free water, fine grained or clayey
soil, and very heavy wheel loads.
(iv) To minimize volume changes in soils susceptible to high volume changes. The
volume chances may leave the slabs unsupported at critical points. Volume changes may be
30
combated by chemical stabilization of the sub-grade and/or construction of a granular sub-base,

so that a sufficient weight of pavement is obtained to hold down the sub-grade and absorb some
of the expansion.
(v) To form a working surface for construction traffic.

c. The concrete slab must be well-designed so as to possess the appropriate minimum strength. It
could be of ordinary concrete, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. The slab must be
provided with waterproof expansion joints to take care of the warping, expansion and contraction
of concrete from variations in temperature and moisture, so that buckling under compressive
stresses do not occur and tension cracks are not developed.
d. The pavement may be provided with a bituminous surfacing for a smooth ride.
Figure 2.2
2.2 Pavement Design for Tropical Highways

There are three main stages in the design of a new road pavement. They are:
I. Estimating the amount of traffic (together with its axle-load distribution) that will use the
road over the selected design life, i.e the traffic analysis.
II. Assessing the strength of the sub-grade soil over which the road will be built.
III. While taking into account the two above items and not overlooking the environmental
factors which may affect pavement behaviour or service, selecting the most economical
combination of pavement materials and layer thicknesses that will be enough to provide
satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement with only routine maintenance,
i.e the pavement design.
31
I. THE TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

This consists of two steps:
STEP 1: AMOUNT OR VOLUME OF TRAFFIC
The loads imposed by private cars do not contribute significantly to the structural damage caused
to road pavements by traffic. Therefore, for the purpose of structural design, cars are ignored.
Only the total number (and the axle loading) of the commercial vehicles i.e. those with an
unladen weight of 1500kg (1.5 tonnes) or more that will use the road during its design life need
to be considered.
To estimate the total no. of commercial vehicles that will traverse the pavement in the course of
its design life, it is necessary:
(i) to know the number of commercial vehicles that will use the road when it is first opened
to traffic. This is based on the results of classified traffic counts taken on existing routes
along the corridor through which the new road will run. Seasonal traffic counts may be
conducted to provide more reliable data. When there are no existing roads in the area,
traffic estimates can be made on the basis of potential land use and other factors. For new
roads in residential and associated developments, it is common for accurate data not to be
available. The initial values to be assumed are then taken from tables (Table 1 of the
handout).
(ii) to forecast the annual growth rate, r, of this traffic. For developed countries, r is usually
taken between 3% and 6%, while for developing countries, r is between 6% and 15% and
may vary considerably from year to year, region to region and road to road. It is possible
for the growth rate to be 0% for certain specialized roads, e.g. those leading to refineries,
factories, etc. In the absence of any information, a growth rate of 4% is assumed.
(iii) to determine what the design life of the pavement should be. In the developed countries,
the design life is often taken as 20 years. However, a shorter design life (often 10 years)
is chosen for road pavements in developing countries because there is a tendency for the
32
percentage of heavy goods vehicles to reduce in these developing economies with time,
apart from the considerable variation in the traffic growth rates from year to year. In
those circumstances, long-term forecasting of traffic is very difficult.
A second reason for choosing a shorter design life when the traffic growth rate is high is that it is
rarely economic to build a road pavement strong enough to carry the traffic that will be using it
twenty years or so in the future when this may be as much as ten times as great as the initial
traffic. In such cases it is recommended that the pavement design is based on a ten-year design
life and that a form of construction is chosen that can readily be strengthened, normally by
adding a bituminous overlay when the growth in traffic requires it.
This approach, a form of ―stage construction‖, can be applied to most roads outside urban areas.
In towns the restrictions on road surface levels due to fixed access levels to buildings, drainage
arrangements, etc may make substantial overlaying impracticable.
STEP 2: ESTIMATING THE EQUIVALENT NO. OF STANDARD AXLES USING THE

ROAD OVER THE DESIGN LIFE
The deterioration of road pavements caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the
individual wheel (or axle) loads and the no. of times these loads are applied.
(a) If the axle-load distribution of a typical sample of the commercial vehicles that will use the
road is known together with an estimate of the numbers of each axle load to be carried during
the design life of the pavement, then the equivalence factors given in Table 2 of the handout
(according to Liddle’s formula) are used as multipliers to obtain the equivalent number of
standard 8200 kg (18000 lb) axles to be catered for in the design.
3.8
Liddle’s formula: ESA = (L/80) , where L is the axle load in kN.
3.8
ESA = (L/8,160) , where L is the axle load in kg.
3.8
ESA = (L/18,000) , where L is the axle load in lb.
33
The equivalence factors given in the table are for single-axle loads only. However, road tests
have established the following equivalency between tandem-axle loads and single-axle loads.
Insofar as general performance of pavement structure and sub-grade soil is concerned, a 32000 lb
(14,500 kg) tandem-axle load is basically equivalent to an 18000 lb (8200 kg) single-axle load,
i.e. tandem axles have less effect. Furthermore, the above relationship holds for other loads, so
that a tandem-axle load when multiplied by 0.57 gives the equivalent single-axle load. The load
equivalence factors for flexible pavements are different from those for rigid pavements, but the
same ones are used.
Note that it is possible to establish different growth rates for commercial vehicles with various
axle loads once the axle-load distribution has been determined.
Some roads have significant differences in the axle-load distribution of traffic traveling in one
direction and that traveling in the other direction. Such roads are those serving docks, quarries,
cement works, etc. where the vehicles traveling one way are heavily loaded but are empty on the
return journey. In such cases, the condition in the more heavily trafficked lane should be used
when converting commercial vehicle flows to the equivalent number of standard axles.
(b) If the axle-load distribution is not known, then conversion factors (which depend on
the type of road and no. of commercial vehicles per day which the road is designed to
carry in each direction at the time of construction) are used to obtain the equivalent
no. of standard axles from the no. of commercial vehicles. They are given in Table
2.2.
34
Finally, the following formula is used to take into account a growth rate for any or all of the axle
loads:
Let Ax = no. of axles/day for a particular year, year x
Ao = no. of axles/day at the time of traffic count. (This is taken as the axles/day for the first year
of the design life of the pavement, i.e. A1 = A0.)
r = annual growth rate; this is generally taken as 0.04 or 4% in the absence of information to the
contrary. Usually, the regional growth rates for comparable or similar facilities are employed.
x= number of years from the year of construction to the year for which the number of
axles per day is required.
x–1
Then, Ax = Ao (1 + r)
2 3
Evaluating, we have A1 = A0, A2 = A0 (1 + r), A3 = A0 (1 + r) , A4 = A0 (1 + r) , etc.
To obtain the cumulative no. of axles of any one category during the design life, the no. of axles
per day for each year over the design life is computed using the formula above. This is multiplied
by 365 (to obtain the no. of axles throughout the particular year) and summed to give the
cumulative no. of axles over the design life.
When the growth rates differ from year to year, the above method is the only practicable one.
When we have a constant growth rate over the design life, the following two methods can also be
used in getting the cumulative no. of axles. Firstly, it could be read from special charts such as
the one given in Fig. 1 of the handout. Secondly, we could apply the formula as derived below:
x–1
As seen above, Ax = Ao (1 + r)
This is a geometric sequence with:
first term a = A0
and common ratio R = 1 + r
Sum of first n terms of such geometric series is given by:
n
S =aR –
1R–
1
35
Where n is the design life

II. ASSESSING THE STRENGTH OF THE SUBGRADE SOIL
There are many parameters used to express the strength of a sub-grade soil for road design, but
the most common of these is the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the soil. This had been
discussed under Soil aspect of highway, railway and airfield
III. THE PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCEDURE

We shall go over certain definitions:
(i) Design lane
This is the lane on which the greatest equivalent number of standard 8200 kg (18000 lb) single –
axle loads is expected. Normally, this will be either lane of a two-lane highway or the outside
(nearside) lanes of multilane highways. For multilane dual-carriageway highways and depending
on the traffic volume, the percentage of total commercial vehicles that will use the slow lane are
as follows:
(ii) Design period

This is the no. of years from the initial application of traffic until the first major resurfacing or
overlay is anticipated.
(iii) Equivalent standard axle of an axle load or combination of axle loads
This is the no. of 8200 kg (18000 lb) single-axle loads required to produce an equivalent effect
on pavement performance as the axle-load or combination of axle loads of varying magnitude.
(iv)Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
This is the average daily no. of vehicles expected to use the roadway in both directions during
the first year. The axle-load distribution may also be available.
36
2.2.1 CBR methods of design for flexible pavements

The strength or CBR of the sub-grade chosen for design should be that of the sub-grade soil at a
moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition likely to occur in the sub-grade after the
road is opened to traffic.
There are various flexible pavement design procedures based on the sub-grade CBR, and the
traffic loading in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles carried by the road in one
direction over the design life.
2.2.1.1 Road Note 31 (RN31) Method of Design for Bitumen-Surfaced Roads in Tropical or
Sub-Tropical Countries
RN31 design method is developed for the developing countries. The chart in RN31 (fig. 2 of the
handout) has been designed on the basis that a standard thickness of road base, with a variable
thickness of sub-base to allow for the different sub-grade strengths, is the most economical
design for flexible pavements with light commercial vehicle flows as in developing countries.
Note that the sub-base CBR must be 25% or more. Therefore, no sub-base is required if the sub-
grade CBR is 25% or more. A minimum thickness of 100 mm of sub-base is to be used with sub-
grade having CBR from 8 to 24%. For flexible pavements required to carry up to 0.5 million
standard axles in one direction over a design life of 10 years or more, a base thickness of 150
mm with a double surface dressing will be adequate.
If it is desired to provide at the time of construction a pavement capable of carrying from 0.5 to
2.5 million standard axles in one direction over the design life, there are three options or choices.
(i) Either a 150 mm thick base with double surface dressing. The sub-base thickness is
determined from the continuous lines, same as for cumulative traffic from 0 to 0.5 million
standard axles.
(ii) Or a 150 mm base with a 50 mm bituminous surfacing. The sub-base thickness is
determined from the broken lines.
(iii) Or a 200 mm base with a double surface dressing. The sub-base thickness is determined
from the broken lines.
Note that in options (ii) and (iii) the sub-base thickness is slightly reduced.
In general, for roads which will carry not more than 300 commercial vehicles per day (in both
directions) at the time of construction, the most economical solution will be to choose the double
surface dressing on the 150 mm base initially, and to add the 50 mm bituminous surfacing some
years later.
The design chart has been drawn up on the assumption that one of the following base materials,
used in the tropics for the great majority of bituminous surfaced roads, will be used:
(i) mechanically-stable natural gravel or crushed gravel
37
(ii) crushed rock

(iii) cement or lime stabilized soil
(iv) bitumen-stabilized sand
When the traffic loading is beyond that covered by RN31, RN29 can be used with success in
tropical countries.
Example 2.1
Given that the existing traffic flow per day and the equivalent standard axle factor are as shown
in the table below and the CBR, growth rate and design life are 4%, 4% and 10 years,
respectively. Design the flexible pavement (Flexible bituminous surface).
Table: Traffic flow and ESA factor

Commercial Vehicle Existing traffic flow/day ESA factor
Heavy truck 20 4.80
Medium truck 150 4.62
Light truck 50 1.00
Large bus 100 1.00
Solution
Commercial Vehicle Existing traffic ESA factor Existing Annual ESA
flow/day ESA/day
(1) (3) (4) × 365
(2) (4) = (2)×(3)
Heavy truck 20 4.80 96 35040
Medium truck 150 4.62 693 252945
Light truck 50 1.00 50 18250
Large bus 100 1.00 100 36500
Total Annual ESAs 342735
38
Cummulative Standard Axle for the design period is determined using the formula below:
= 4114533.676
6
= 4.1 × 10
Using the Road Note 31:
Traffic Class = T5
Subgrade Strength Class = S2
Provide
200mm Granular capping layer or selected subgrade fill
275mm Granular subbase
175mm Granular roadbase
50mm flexible bituminous surface
2.2.2 Road Note 29 (RN29) Method of Design
RN29 design method is for developed countries with heavier commercial vehicle flows. The
design method contained in the manual is of CBR – type. The thickness of the subbase is related
to the CBR value of the subgrade and to the total number of standard axle loads. The thicknesses
of the other layers are related to the quality of the materials in the pavement itself as well as to
the traffic loading by a series of curves. The design charts and tables contained in Road Note 29
are derived from the results of the TRRL’s many full-scale road tests under British conditions of
climate, materials, traffic loading etc.
39
Traffic Analysis
For the purpose of structural design, the loads imposed by private cars do not contribute
significantly to the structural damage caused to road pavements by traffic. Therefore, only the
number of commercial vehicles and their axle-loadings are considered. Normally, the heavy
commercial vehicles operate on the outermost lane (the slow lane). Hence, the procedure
provides designs applicable to this lane. These designs will be used over the whole carriageway
width.
For various initial intensities of commercial traffic, Fig 2.3 gives the cumulative number of
commercial vehicles carried by each slow lane for design lives up to 40 years. Fig 2.3 (a), (b), (c)
and (d) are for annual growth rates of 3, 4, 5 and 6 percent respectively.
40
If the initial traffic intensities are greater than 2500 commercial vehicles per day in each
direction (the maximum shown in Fig 2.4), the cumulative number of commercial vehicles
carried by the design lane can be estimated by extrapolation from the given curves. However, if
the traffic data lead to the cumulative total of more than 90 million commercial vehicles to be
carried by the design lane during the design period, a value of 90 millions should be adopted
because the road is likely to be saturated.
The number of commercial vehicles carried by the design lane is then converted to a number of
axles. The average number of axles per commercial vehicle varies with the type of road as shown
in Table 2.2. The number of commercial axles has to be expressed as equivalent number of
18,000-pound axles (standard axle). Table 2.2 also gives the number of standard axles per
commercial axle and the factor that must be applied to the cumulative number of commercial
vehicles on the design lane to derive the cumulative number of standard axles for use in the
design.
41
Figure 2.3: Relations between cumulative number of commercial vehicles carried by design
lane and design life
42
Table 2.2: Conversion factors to be used to obtain the equivalent number of standard axles from
the number of commercial vehicles.
Thickness Design of Pavement Structure

Road Note 29 presented the charts for determining the minimum thickness of various layers of
pavement structure as shown in Fig 2.4 – Fig 2.6. The main factors used in the design are the
cumulative number of standard axles, subgrade CBR and type of materials employed.
After determining the traffic and design period, the subgrade, the subbase, the base and the
surface are each considered in turn.
Subgrade
The strength of the subgrade is a principal factor in determining the thickness of the pavement.
The strength of the subgrade is assessed on the CBR scale. Road Note 29 recommended that the
water table should be prevented from rising to within 600 mm of the finished subgrade level.
This may be done by sub-soil drainage or by raising the finished subgrade level by means of an
embankment.
Subbase
The required thickness of subbase is determined from the cumulative number of standard axles to
be carried and the CBR of the subgrade using Fig 2.4. In the case that CBR of the subgrade is
43
less than 2 percent (the lowest value given in Fig 2.4), an additional 150 mm of subbase, above
the requirement for CBR 2 percent, should be used.
For cumulative traffic of less than 0.5 million standard axles, the minimum CBR of the subbase
should be 20 percent. For cumulative traffic in excess of 0.5 million standard axles, the minimum
CBR of the subbase should be 30 percent. For stabilized subbase, it can be assumed the CBR of
30 percent.
If the CBR of the subgrade is in excess of the minimum requirement for the subbase, no subbase
is required. Where subbase is required the minimum thickness that should be laid are 80 mm
where the cumulative traffic is less than 0.5 million standard axles and 150 mm where the traffic
is in excess of that value.
Base
Road Note 29 suggested the base materials as summarized in Table 4.8. The thicknesses required
for each of the base materials are determined by the use of Fig 4.5 or Fig 2.6, in terms of
cumulative number of standard axles to be carried.
To use the charts, it should be noticed the difference in English and American terminology.
―Roadbase‖ would be ―Base course‖ in American and ―Basecourse‖ would be ―Binder course‖.
Table 2.3: Base materials as recommended by Road Note 29
Surfacing Course
The thickness of surfacing in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried can
be determined by Fig 2.5 and Fig 2.6 depending on the type of base material used. RoadNote 29
recommended the surfacing course material to be varied with the cumulative traffic to be carried
and the details are given in Table 2.4.
44
The surfacing is intended to be laid in two courses, except where the cumulative traffic is less
than 0.5 million standard axles. The thicknesses of surfacing course are indicated in Table 2.4.
For cumulative traffic of over 11 million standard axles the minimum thickness of surface course
plus binder course is 100 mm. For additional surfacing thickness over 100 mm shown in Fig 2.5
and Fig 2.6.
45
Table 2.4: Bituminous surfacing materials as recommended by Road Note 29
46
Figure 2.4. Thickness of subbase.
47
Figure 2.5: Lean concrete, soil cement and cement-bound granular base courses: minimum
thickness of surfacing and base course
48
Figure 2.6: Wet-mix and dry-bound macadam base course: minimum thickness of
surfacing and base course.
49
4.3 Analytical Method of Flexible Pavements Design

The theoretical approach for designing flexible pavements uses fundamental physical properties
and theoretical model of each pavement material to predict the stresses, strains and deflections
due to load on the pavement. The thicknesses and composition of pavement materials are
designed so that the stresses, strains and deflections do not exceed the capabilities of any of the
materials.
Some of the advantages of the analytical method as compared to empirical methods are as
follows.

The analytical method is more theoretical. It is based on mechanistic responses on
pavement materials to the applied loads. Provided that the material properties and
material model are correct, the pavement can be designed correctly and confidently

anywhere and any environment condition.

Pavements can be designed according to any available materials. In the empirical
approach, the procedures are limited only to certain pavement materials for which they

were developed.

The analytical approach can cater any magnitude of wheel loads and frequencies while
the empirical method is valid only for the wheel loads and traffic intensities that it has

experienced during the experimental processes.

For certain traffic condition, a pavement can be designed into various patterns. This helps
the engineers to select the most optimum one. The empirical method is limited only one

or two patterns of pavement structure.

Since the damage of pavement can be predicted, therefore the maintenance strategies can be

easily obtained.
 
By the advent of computer, the analysis and design can be performed quickly.
The main disadvantage is that the analytical approach is still required a great deal of researches
in order to develop the relationships between loads and pavement responses as well as the
50
models to predict pavement distresses based on these responses. Moreover, because of

complexity of the method, computer is necessary.
2.4 Design of Rigid Highway Pavements
Rigid pavements are designed with the main view of the concrete slab being able to distribute the
applied load over a relatively wide area of soil and bridge over local areas of inadequate support
in the subgrade. Thus the major portion of the structural capacity is supplied by the slab itself,
due to the rigidity and high modulus of elasticity of the concrete slab. Therefore the major factor
considered in its design is the strength of the concrete itself, while minor variations in subgrade
and/or base strengths have little influence on the structural capacity of the pavement.
Despite the many theoretical analyses available, all theoretical design procedures make use of
quite a number of assumptions and approximations. The result is that, in the final place, the
design procedures tend to rely heavily on the results of road tests to gain design information
about slab thickness, degree of reinforcement, spacing of joints, strength of concrete and sub-
base thickness. The performances of these concrete roads have been evaluated on the rate of
cracks development as a function of subgrade strength and traffic loading.
2.4.1 Joints and reinforcement in concrete road slabs

The reinforcement in concrete road slabs is primarily to minimize the development of cracks,
and not to absorb any of the induced tensile stresses as in conventional concrete slab design. A
practical outcome of this approach is that reinforcement allows a greater spacing between
transverse joints.
If a slab is subjected to a temperature gradient, it will tend to warp. If it is subjected to a uniform

temperature change, it will tend to contract or expand. These movements are restrained by the
weight of the slab itself and by the friction between the slab and the subgrade or subbase. This
restraint will cause the pavement to crack unless provision is made to provide for crack control
by means of joints and reinforcing steel.
51
There are three main types of pavements used for highway construction: plain concrete pavement
slabs, simply reinforced slabs, and continuously reinforced slabs (which are not provided with
joints).
Plain concrete slab indicates that there is no reinforcing steel within the body of the slab.
However, for all three types of pavements, if there are longitudinal joints, they must have steel
tie bars across the longitudinal joints. For plain concrete and simply reinforced slabs, for short
joint spacings, the slabs are also provided with dowel bars across the transverse joints.
Plain concrete slabs must be relatively short in order to limit the formation of cracks, since there
is no distributed steel. The joints may or may not be provided with dowel bars.
In the design of simply reinforced slabs the formation of cracks is assumed. The reinforcement is
primarily to keep this crack intact so that it will not open. Further, since the slabs are relatively
long, the joints will open during contraction so that it is necessary to provide dowels as load
transfer devices.
Continuously reinforced slabs have no transverse joints except where it is necessary to put in
construction joints or expansion joints at bridges, etc.
2.4.1.1 Joints in concrete pavements
Joints are provided at optimum intervals in conventional concrete pavements to keep the stresses
induced in the concrete from changes in dimensions due to variations in temperature and
moisture (warping, expansion and contraction) within safe limits. If the changes in dimensions
are entirely resisted, the induced stresses in the pavement will be so high as to cause the concrete
52
to develop tension cracks or buckling under compressive stresses. The strength of the concrete is
thereby conserved to resist the stresses induced by traffic loads.
The installation of joints is the most prolific cause of defects in concrete roads, inasmuch as they
are deliberate planes of weakness inset into the pavement. Only absolutely necessary joints are
included in the design, while they should be made with the highest standard of workmanship.
4.4.1.2 Requirements of joints
Joints must fulfill the following requirements if they are to be satisfactory constituents of a
concrete pavement:
1. A joint must be waterproof at all times: if water enters through a joint, the softening and
weakening of the subgrade will take place. If the underlying soil is clayey, then pumping
may be promoted. It is important to use long-life sealing compounds in the joints.
2. Free movement of the slabs must be permitted at all times: Expansion joints must not be
filled by grit and other such foreign matter which might prevent the expansion of the
concrete. The sealing compound should be carefully selected and poured.
3. Joints should not detract from the riding quality of a roadway: There must be no
excessive relative deflections of adjacent concrete slabs. Also, the sealing material should
not be squeezed above the level of the road surface which may form irritating transverse
ridges.
4. A joint should not be the cause of an unexpected undesigned structural weakness in a

pavement: This is achieved by ensuring that:
i) transverse joints on either side of a longitudinal joint are not staggered from each
other, as transverse cracks will be induced in the slabs in line with the staggered
joints.
53
ii) No joint should be constructed at an angle of less than 90º to an adjacent joint or
edge of slab unless it is an intentional part of the design.
5. Joints should interfere as little as possible with the placing of the concrete pavement: This
is achieved by having as few joints as possible.
4.4.1.3 Functions and types of joint
Expansion joints
These are primarily designed to provide space into which expansion of concrete slabs can take
place when the temperature rises above that at which the concrete is laid. They prevent the
development of high compressive stresses as well as buckling of the slab. As well as being used
between slabs, they are also used at locations where pavements join fixed structures such as
bridge abutments or at intersections with other pavements. Expansion joints also serve as
contraction joints, warping joints and construction joints.
For both reinforced and unreinforced concrete slabs, expansion joints can be replaced by
contraction joints if construction takes place in hot weather.
Expansion joints are normally used transversely in a pavement. They are formed by embedding
in the concrete a vertical layer of non-extruding compressible material, (usually 12.5 to 25 mm
thick) so that there is a complete division between abutting slabs.
Mechanical load-transfer devices (dowels) are desirable at all expansion joints. The dowel is
simply a round steel bar, one-half of which is anchored in either slab while the other half is free
to move longitudinally within the adjacent slab. Longitudinal movement is ensured by coating
the free-end half of the dowel with a rapid-curing bituminous material and having it terminate in
an expansion cup containing a compressible material.
54
Contraction joints
These are to limit tensile stresses induced in the pavement due to contraction or shrinkage of the
concrete and to prevent or control cracking. They are also constructed transverse to the road
centre-line. They are also to be provided with load-transfer devices (dowel bars). When the
pavement is reinforced, the mesh is not carried through the joints. The reinforcing is used to
control cracking between the contraction joints.
There are two main types of contraction joints: butt joints and dummy joints. Butt joints are
normally used on road schemes which utilize the alternate-bay method of slab construction.
Dummy joints are a deliberate groove which is placed in a slab in order to form a vertical plane
of weakness and thus induce a controlled crack. Dummy joints may also be constructed by
sawing the concrete after it has slightly hardened.
Warping joints
Also known as hinge joints, warping joints are simply breaks in the continuity of the concrete
which allow a small amount of angular movement to occur between adjacent slabs, thus limiting
the stresses due to restrained warping. Their main usage is for longitudinal jointing purposes,
though they may also be used as transverse joints. Longitudinal joints are used in highway
pavements to relieve curling and warping. In one lane-at-a-time construction, the longitudinal
joints are used to ensure load transfer and the pavements are tied together with tie bars.
In contrast to expansion and contraction joints, appreciable changes in joint width are prevented
at warping joints. This is done by either continuing the reinforcing steel through each joint or by
utilizing tie bars to draw the sides of the joint together.
Dummy warping joints are the same as dummy contraction joints except that the tie bars are not
lubricated to allow sliding to occur. The tie bars do not act as load-transfer devices but only to
55
bond both slabs together. Load transference is provided by the interlocking of the aggregate
particles at the face of the joints. In the tongue-and-groove type of warping joint, the slabs are
held together by the tie bars and load transference is provided by the tongue-and-groove
interlock.
Construction joints
These are needed when fresh concrete mixes are placed next to hardened concrete. Examples are
night joints transversely across the pavement at the end of a day’s job, or longitudinal lane joints
or edge joints when full width is not placed in the same pass.
Figure 2.7 Detail of joints
56
Dowels
Dowel bars are to be plain steel bars with yield strength not less than 240 MPa and 500 mm long.
Dowels should strength with one end free from burrs. Appropriate dowel diameter, for slab
thickness of 200 – 250, is 25 mm.
Dowels at a spacing of 300 mm should be installed at transverse contraction joints where
appropriate. Dowels must be securely held parallel to each other, to the road centerline and to the
centerline of the surface of the finished pavement.
Tie Bars
Tie bars prevent separating of the pavement at longitudinal joints. Ties bars are to be 16 mm
diameter, 500 mm long and have yield strength of 400 MPa. Place centrally in the joint at
spacing 600 mm.
2.5 Road Note 29 (RN 29) Design of Concrete Pavements
2.5.1 Traffic Analysis

The traffic analysis of the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried in the design lane of
the pavement is estimated as described earlier.
2.5.2 Thickness Design

For design of concrete pavement, the subgrade, the subbase and the concrete slab are each
considered in turn.
Subgrade
Road Note 29 categorized the subgrade based on its qualities in to three groups as given in Table
2.5. As in design of flexible pavements, Road Note 29 recommended that the water table should
be prevented from rising to within 600 mm of the finished subgrade level. This may be done by
sub-soil drainage or by raising the finished subgrade level by means of an embankment.
57
Subbase
The minimum thickness of subbase recommended for the three types of subgrade is also given in
Table 2.5
Where heavy construction vehicles have to operate over the prepared sub-base laid on weak or
normal subgrades only, the sub-base should be strengthened as follows:
CBR 4%: Additional 150 mm of sub-base

CBR 4%: Additional 80 mm of sub-base
Table 2.5: Classification of subgrades for concrete roads and minimum thicknesses of
subbase required as recommended by Road Note 29
2.5.3 Concrete slab

The required thickness for reinforced and unreinforced concrete slab in terms of the cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried for the three types of subgrades is determined by the chart
shown in Fig 2.8. The designs given by this chart are based on a minimum compressive strength
for concrete of 28 MPa at 28 days.
58
Figure 2.8: Thickness of concrete slab as recommended by Road Note 29
59
The cumulative number of standard axles to be carried by each slow lane of the pavement is
estimated from the initial commercial traffic, growth rate and design life, using the method as for
flexible pavements.
2.6 Reinforcement
The minimum weight of reinforcement required in relation to the cumulative no. of standard
axles is given in a chart in terms of weight of long mesh reinforcement and area of steel per unit
width of pavement.
(i) The reinforcement should have 60 mm cover. This could be reduced to 50 mm if

slab thickness 150 mm
(ii) The reinforcement should terminate at least 40 mm and not more than 80 mm
from the edge of the slab and from all joints except longitudinal joints.
(iii) At the transverse overlap of reinforcing mats the first transverse wire of one mat
should lie within the last complete mesh of the previous mat and the overlap
should not be less than 450 mm. No overlap will be needed longitudinally
between mats.
(iv) When deformed bar reinforcement is used, the transverse overlap of the bars
should not be less than 40 bar diameters.
(v) To span longitudinal joints (when constructing a two-or three-lane carriageway
widths in one operation), reinforcing mats having 8 mm diameter at 200 mm
centres may be used in place of tie bars. The 8 mm wires must span at least 500
mm either side of the longitudinal joints.
2.6.1 Reinforcement design procedure

The purpose of reinforcing steel in rigid pavements is not to prevent cracking of the concrete, but
to hold tightly closed any cracks that do occur in such manner that the load carrying capacity of
the slab is preserved.
In jointed pavements the amount of steel is governed by the spacing of contraction joints. In case
of continuously reinforced pavements, sufficient steel is provided to eliminate the need for
contraction joints.
60
Reinforcement in Jointed Reinforced Pavements

The required area of reinforcing steel in jointed reinforced pavements is given by the equation:
where, As = the required area of steel (per width of slab)

fs = the allowable tensile stress of the reinforcing steel.
g = the acceleration due to gravity h = thickness of slab
L = the distance between untied joints and/or free edge of slab
M = the mass per unit volume of the slab
μ = the coefficient of friction between the concrete base slab and the subbase; this varies from
1.0 to 2.0 depending on the type of debonding layer applied to the subbase.
Joints
(a) Spacing of joints in reinforced concrete slabs:
The recommended maximum spacing of joints in relation to the actual weight of reinforcement
used is shown in one of the charts. Every third joint should be an expansion joint, the remainder
being contraction joints. Reinforcement must be discontinuous at both contraction
and expansion joints.
Longitudinal joints should be provided to ensure that the slabs are not more than 4.5m wide.
(b) Spacing of joints in unreinforced concrete slabs:
For slabs > 200 mm thick, Expansion joint spacing = 60m For slabs <
200 mm thick, Expansion joint spacing = 40m Intermediate contraction
joints are then placed at 5m intervals.
Tied warping joints may be substituted for some of the sliding contraction joints, but not more
than three such warping joints may be used in succession.
Longitudinal joints should be provided so that the slabs are not more than 4.5 m wide.
(c) Details of joints in concrete slabs:
(i) Expansion joints to be provided with joint filler 25 mm thick.
61
(ii) All joints should be provided with a groove to accommodate a sealing material
the most important function of which is to keep out grit, the groove being filled
with sealing compound to 5 mm below the surface of the concrete.
(iii) To ensure complete formation of contraction and longitudinal joints, the
combined depth of groove and fillet should be ¼ to 1/3 of the thickness of the
slab.
(iv) Adequate means of load transference should be provided at all joints in concrete
pavements of 150 mm or greater thickness. All expansion and contraction joints
should have sliding dowel bars placed at 300 mm centres and half the length of
the bars should be coated with a bond-breaking compound. The bars in expansion
62
joints only should be provided with a cap at the debonded end, containing a thickness of 25 mm
of compressible material to allow the joint to open and close.
(v) Longitudinal joints should have tie bars 12 mm in diameter by 1m long at 600
mm centres.
Examples
1. Reinforced concrete slab
A reinforced concrete pavement design is required for a road to carry 2200 commercial vehicles
per day (sum in both directions) at the time of construction with a growth rate of 5%. The
subgrade has a CBR of 2%. Construction traffic will require to use the base. The design life is to
be 20 years.
Solution
(a) Traffic
ADT = 1100 comm. vehs. per day in each direction r = 5%
Cumulative no. of comm. vehs. = 12.5 million Cum. no. of
std. axles = 12.5 x 1.08 = 13.5 million
(b) Subgrade
CBR = 2%
Classified as ―weak‖.
(c) Sub-base
Minimum requirement = 150 mm
Additional requirement for construction traffic = 150 mm Total
sub-base thickness = 300 mm
(d) Slab thickness
For weak subgrade, thickness = 222 + 25 = 247 mm for a loading of 13.5 mil. standard
axles
This is rounded upwards to 250 mm
(e) Reinforcement
2
Min. wt of reinforcement required for the traffic = 3.8 kg/m Next
2
standard wt. of reinforcement = 4.34 kg/m (selected)
63
(f) Joint spacing

2
Corresponding to 4.34 kg/m reinforcement, joint spacing = 27.5m
Expansion joints are built at spacings of 3 x 27.5 = 82.5m. Contraction
joints will be two in between at 27.5m spacing.
If constructed in hot weather, the expansion joints may also be replaced with contraction joints.
2. Plain concrete slab

A design is required for an unreinforced concrete pavement to be constructed with gravel
aggregate, suitable for a minor through road in a residential area. The road width is 7m and it is
to carry no public service vehicle. The soil CBR is 7%, and the pavement is intended to be used
by traffic bringing in materials for the construction of an estate of several hundred houses. The
design should cater for a life of 40 years.
Solution
(a) Traffic
Reference to tables indicate 0.4 mil. commercial vehicles on each lane during a design life of 40
years.
Conversion factor for this type of road = 0.45 Cumulative no.
of std. axles = 0.4 x 0.45 = 0.18 million
(b) Subgrade
CBR = 7%
Classified as ―normal‖
(c) Sub-base
Min. requirement = 80 mm
No construction traffic. No additional requirement
(d) Slab thickness
Required slab thickness = 160 mm
This is increased to 180 mm because of the initial use of the pavement by heavy traffic
concerned with the surrounding development.
(e) Joint spacing
Spacing of contraction joints = 5m
64
Spacing of expansion joints = 40m (if constructed in cold weather).
Example
The following parameters were given for the design of a four lane highway:
Average daily traffic in one direction = 7429 vehicles
Percent of commercial vehicles = 28.32%
Annual growth rate = 5%
Equivalent factor for commercial vehicles = 0.45
Design the joint plain unreinforced pavement using the Road Note 29 method. Assume the
average number of standard axle per commercial vehicle = 1
65

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CVE515: Transportation and Highway Systems

However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is given by

Figure 1.1: Principles of compaction

1.2 Standard Proctor Test

V(m) = volume of the mold 944 cm3( ft3)

where w (%) = percentage of moisture content.

where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.

3.3 Modified Proctor Test

ᵞd(max) (kN/m3 ) = 22.68

Table 1.1 Summary of Standard and Modified Proctor Compaction

1.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

Table 1.2: Summary of the type of compaction curves

Figure 1.5: Various types of compaction curves encountered in soils

1.4.3 Effect of Compaction Effort

Figure 1.6 Effect of compaction energy on the compaction of a sandy clay

1.5 Field Compaction

Figure 1.7: Smooth-wheel rollers

Figure 1.8: Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

Figure 1.9: Sheepsfoot rollers

1.5.2 Specifications for Field Compaction

Figure 1.10: Most economical compaction condition

1.6 Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

Figure 1.12: Field unit weight determined by sand cone method

Figure 1.13: Calibrated vessel used with rubber balloon

1.6.3 Nuclear Method

Figure 1.14: Nuclear density meter

1.7 California Bearing Ratio

Ps = Stress carried by site soil

Laboratory California Bearing Ratio Test Apparatus

CBR Test Procedure

Penetration Proving Ring Piston Load Penetration Stress

California Bearing Ratio Calculation from the Test Values

2 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE AND DESIGN

2.1 Highway Pavements

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed

2.1.1 Comparison between Flexible and Rigid Pavements

Table 2.1: Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement

2.1.2. Elements of a flexible pavement

The surfacing will normally consist of a bituminous ―surface dressing‖ (spray-and-chip

(i) crushed stone or gravel

e. The formation is the upper surface of the prepared sub-grade.

2.1.3 Component layers of a rigid pavement

combated by chemical stabilization of the sub-grade and/or construction of a granular sub-base,

(v) To form a working surface for construction traffic.

2.2 Pavement Design for Tropical Highways

I. THE TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

STEP 1: AMOUNT OR VOLUME OF TRAFFIC

STEP 2: ESTIMATING THE EQUIVALENT NO. OF STANDARD AXLES USING THE

Where n is the design life

III. THE PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCEDURE

(ii) Design period

2.2.1 CBR methods of design for flexible pavements

(ii) crushed rock

Table: Traffic flow and ESA factor

2.2.2 Road Note 29 (RN29) Method of Design

Thickness Design of Pavement Structure

Table 2.3: Base materials as recommended by Road Note 29

Table 2.4: Bituminous surfacing materials as recommended by Road Note 29

Figure 2.4. Thickness of subbase.