HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Lesson 14 World Englishes

The terms most often used to describe the varieties of English are ‘New Englishes’ or
‘World Englishes’. It has become customary to use the plural form ‘Englishes’ to stress
the diversity to be found in the language today, and to stress that English no longer
has one single base of authority, prestige and normativity.

Kachru (1983a) pointed out that the ‘New English’ of India was actually older than
English in Australia, which is not generally considered ‘New’ -- since it is to a large
extent a continuation of the norms of nineteenth-century first-language (henceforth
L1) working-class British English.

The second term ‘World English’ runs the risk of being over-general, since British
English is not generally studied within this paradigm. Yet one might quibble that it is
a ‘World English’ too (from a commonsense notion of the word ‘world’, anyway). The
term is often cited as parallel to the term ‘World Music’, which covers ‘non-Western’
musical forms. In all of these terms there is a problem of perspective that is difficult
to overcome.

It is therefore necessary to find a cover term for all varieties of English: the one we
will settle for is ‘English Language Complex’ (henceforth ELC), suggested by McArthur
(2003). The ELC may be said to comprise all subtypes distinguishable according to
some combination of their history, status, form and functions.

English as a Native Language (ENL)

1. Metropolitan standards: The term metropolitan (literally ‘mother city/city-
state’) is an old one, going back to ancient Greece, denoting the relation between a
state and its colonies. For the ELC the term would have once been applicable only to
standard English of England.

2. Colonial standards: The colonial history of English has made it an important

language in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and Northern and Southern
Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe). A fairly large number of English speakers
formed an influential group of speakers in the early history of these ‘Dominion’
territories. The varieties spoken there are referred to in historical dialectology as
‘extraterritorial’ Englishes. It is possible to speak of ‘colonial standards’ since
informal and (to a lesser extent) formal varieties have arisen in these territories that
may be considered ‘standard’.

3. Regional dialects: These are the varieties that may be distinguished on the basis
of regional variation within metropolis and colony. A rule of thumb is that the older
the settlement of English speakers, the firmer the regional differentiation within the
language. Thus English dialects of the UK and USA are clearly definable in regional

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terms; this is less true of Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and
Zimbabwe.

4. Social dialects: Identifiable varieties within a region along the lines of class and
ethnicity may occur. In London there is the difference between Cockney of the
working classes, Received pronunciation (RP) of the upper-middle class and the
intermediate ‘Estuary English’ (Rosewarne 1994). In Australia linguists identify Broad,
General and Cultivated varieties (Mitchell and Delbridge 1965); the first is the most
localized, while showing numerous traces of its origins in British working-class
dialects; the third is historically oriented towards RP, while the second mediates
between these two poles. Amongst ethnolects (or ethnic dialects) Black English (also
known as African American English) is identifiable as a distinct linguistic variety in the
USA (though it has some regional variation too).

Subgroups of English Language Complex

1. Pidgin Englishes: Pidgins are defined prototypically as rudimentary languages that

have no native speakers, though they may subsequently gain in complexity. They arise
from trade and other -- largely colonial -- forms of contact. English-based pidgins like
West African pidgin English may be considered to belong to the English family, since
they are ‘lexified’ by English -- i.e. English is the source of much of their vocabulary.

2. Creole Englishes: Creoles are fully developed speech forms, which show so much
restructuring as to bear little resemblance grammatically to their lexifiers. These
languages are ‘mixed’ in the sense that typically their grammars and lexicons come
from different sources -- see Singler and Kouwenberg (in press) for recent debates
over terminology in this field. Although a variety like Jamaican Creole is structurally
an independent language, it has overlapping membership with the ELC in terms of its
vocabulary and the possibilities of being influenced by English, which is the
‘authorised’ language of the education system.

3. English as a Second Language (ESL): Typically these are varieties that arose in
countries where English was introduced in the colonial era in either face-to-face
communication or (more usually) via the education system of a country in which there
is, or had once been, a sizeable number of speakers of English. In ESL countries like
Kenya, Sri Lanka and Nigeria, English plays a key role in education, government and
education.

4. English as a Foreign Language (EFL): This category typically refers to the English
used in countries in which its influence has been external, rather than via a body of
‘settlers’. For EFL speakers English plays a role for mainly inter-national rather than
intranational purposes. Whereas ESL countries produce literature in English (and other
languages), EFL countries typically do not use English in creative writing. The trend
towards globalization in economics, communication and culture has made EFL
prominent in places like China, Europe, Brazil, etc.

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5. Immigrant Englishes: In the context of migration to an English dominant country,

varieties of English which originate as EFLs may retain some distinctiveness or may
merge with the regional English of their territory, depending on a host of social and
economic factors. Thus whilst English in Mexico is of the EFL variety, Chicano English
of the USA shows greater affinity with general US English. However, Chicano English is
still a distinct variety amongst many speakers which we classify as an ‘immigrant
English’. Our main reason for differentiating ‘immigrant English’ from ESL is in the
degree of influence of metropolitan English over the former, since it is readily
available in the local environment.

6. Language-shift Englishes: These are varieties that develop when English replaces
the erstwhile primary language(s) of a community. There is, nevertheless, frequently
a sense of continuity with the ancestral language(s) and culture(s) in the shifting
community. The difference between ‘language-shift English’ and ‘social dialect’ is
one of degree; the former can, in time, shade into a social dialect. Essentially, a
language-shift English has at some crucial stage of its development involved adult and
child L1 and second-language (L2) speakers who formed one speech community. A
social dialect in contrast is typically conceived of as having only L1 speakers. Thus
Hiberno English is probably best classified as a social dialect in most areas of Ireland
today; not so long ago it would have counted as a language-shift variety, with L1 and
L2 speakers of the dialect closely interacting with each other.

7. Jargon Englishes: Whereas a pidgin is a well-defined (if rudimentary) variety, with

norms that are tacitly agreed upon by its speakers, a jargon is characterized by great
individual variation and instability (hence also described as a pre-pidgin).1 E.g.
contact between South Sea Islanders and Europeans in the nineteenth century led to
the formation of unstable jargons in many parts of the Pacific. One of these
developed into a stable, expanded pidgin, Tok Pisin, which is now one of the official
languages of Papua New Guinea.

8. Hybrid Englishes: Also called ‘bilingual mixed languages’, these are versions of
English which occur in code-mixing in many urban centers where a local language
comes into contact with English. Although sometimes given derogatory names, like
Hinglish for the hybrid Hindi-English of north Indian cities, these hybrids may have
prestige amongst urban youth and the young at heart in informal styles.

New English
Platt, Weber and Ho (1984:2--3) used the term to denote a variety of English with the
following characteristics:

1. It has developed through the education system, rather than as a first language of
the home.

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2. It has developed in an area where a native variety of English was not spoken by a
majority of the population.

3. It is used for a range of functions (e.g. letter writing, government communications,

literature, as a lingua franca amongst some people and in formal contexts).

4. It has become indigenized, by developing a subset of rules different from

metropolitan varieties.

Models of English
Tom McArthur’s ‘wheel model’ appeared in English Today in July 1987. McArthur’s
wheel conceives of a central variety called ‘World Standard English’ which is an
idealization, and perhaps best represented as ‘written international English’, though
there are slight differences between written British and American norms. The next
circle round the hub is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging.
Finally, the outer layer comprises localized varieties which may have similarities with
the regional standards or emerging standards.

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Schneider outlines the following phases in the spread of English:

Phase 1 -- Foundation: This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new
territory over an extended period of time. The motivations may be trade or long-term
settlement. Two linguistic processes are operative at this stage:

(a) language contact between English and indigenous languages

(b) contact between different dialects of English of the settlers which eventually
results in a new stable dialect (a koine, Trudgill 1986). At this stage bilingualism is
marginal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as
interpreters, translators and guides. Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with
local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the English.

Phase 2 -- Exonormative stabilization: At this stage the settler communities tended

to stabilize politically, under British rule. English increases in prominence and though
the colloquial English is a colonial koine, the speakers look to England for their formal
norms. Local vocabulary continues to be adopted. Bilingualism increases amongst the
indigenous population through education and increased contacts with English settlers.
Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous elite develops, based
on, inter alia, contacts with settlers and knowledge of English.

Phase 3 -- Nativization: According to Schneider this is the stage at which a transition

occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new identity based on
present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to the ‘mother country’. By
this time the indigenous strand has also stabilized an L2 system that is a synthesis of
substrate effects, interlanguage processes and features adopted from the settlers’
koin´e English. A ‘complaint tradition’ develops at this stage as educationists and
others point to the differences between the local forms of English and the more
prestigious metropolitan norms. Nevertheless neologisms stabilize as English is made
to adapt to local sociopolitical and cultural practices.

Phase 4 -- Endonormative stabilization: This stage is characterized by the gradual

acceptance of local norms, supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self-
confidence. By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and
indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of nationhood independent of
Britain. Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new identity. National
dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new lexis (and not always for
localized grammar). Literary creativity in the local English begins to flourish.

Phase 5 -- Differentiation: At this stage there is a change in the dynamics of identity

as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the former
colonial power as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic
lines. Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting language change (with the
aid of social differentiation) the new English koine starts to show greater
differentiation.

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Lesson 15 English today and

tomorrow
The growth and rise of English to international fame is an interesting linguistic
phenomenon that reflects the culmination of the implications of political, economic,
social, cultural, technological, and scientific factors that fostered the globalization of
English. The triumph of English as an international language makes it a language of
significant status.

Baugh and Cable (2002) argued that “In numbers of speakers as well as in its uses for
international communication and in other less quantifiable measures, English is one of
the most important languages of the world”. Moreover, the English language has
acquired importance and received researchers’ extensive attention as well.

According to Schreier et al. (2009) “Given the fact that hundreds if not thousands of
languages around the world are barely documented or simply not researched at all,
the massive body of research on English seems truly without parallel”. The massive
volume of research available now about English results from the various approaches
and perspectives researchers embraced in studying its history, linguistic evolution,
and the implications of its spread and dominance.

Thus, historical and comparative linguistics, colonization and varieties of English,

creolization and pidginization of English, English and imperialism, culture and
literature, as well as applied linguistics are all different perspectives used by
researchers in studying the changes that have taken place in different stages,
particularly in assessing the current status of English (Mesthrie & Bhatt, 2008).

These studies have provided rich data on the impact of varieties of factors that have
played significant roles in transforming the linguistic system of English and the
consequences of its changes and dominance on the world's linguistic map. Besides,
with these studies, there is a growing strand of academic concern about the English
language tomorrow.

The Future of English and Its Varieties

Because of its peculiarity, the modern time in English language history is the right
point to evaluate the situation and predict what will happen to this language and its
varieties or Englishes. Thus, it is legitimate to assess the current linguistic situation by
considering all the influences and circumstances that may determine the future of the
English language and its varieties. The topic is challenging and as divisive as its
significance, especially when we realize that “The role of English has developed to

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such an extent, unprecedented in world history, that it is difficult to see how it can
now be dislodged” (Crystal, 2002,).

English is envisaged to continue to dominate the international arena because “Few

people doubt that English, having come this far, will continue to be used as a global
language” (Davies, 2013). In any attempt to predict the future of any natural human
language, several decisive factors should be taken into consideration. In this context,
Baugh and Cable (2013) argued that “The variables to be considered come from
demographics, economics, second-language learning, language complexity, and the
histories of the languages concerned, including the developments of their writing
systems”. The above-stated factors, among other unseen or unpredictable variables,
determine the future of any language.

In the English language context, particularly its current status, these factors are of
significant relevance, especially when it comes to its future. Anticipating what will
happen next to English is undoubtedly as important as describing its linguistic
evolution principles.

In this context, Baugh and Cable (2013, 2002) listed several challenges they
considered parameters to be used to predict the future of English. These variables are
as follows:

1. The actual size of the English-speaking population.

2. Changing scenes, conditions, and realities because "A repetition of the spread of a
language by conquest is unlikely in the twenty-first century". (Baugh & Cable, 2013)
3. The rise of Chinese and its soft approach in spreading and acquiring new territories
by way of economic incentives and cooperation.
4. Emerging research trends in first and second language acquisition concerning
difficulty in learning which might promote learning of languages like Chinese.

Growing English-Speaking Population

In attempting to predict the future of English as an international language, the

number of people using it is taken into account as a determinant factor “Since growth
in a language is a matter of population” (Baugh & Cable, 2002, p. 5). Recent statistics
reveal that the 400 million or so-population of English speakers as a first language is
superseded by its ESL or EFL users. Thus, it is anticipated that with English growing
big in population size, it could turn into a ‘monster’ that leads to the death of many
vulnerable languages with a smaller number of speakers.

English and Language Variation

Another scenario that awaits English is related to the process of variation and change.
The future of English is suggested to witness the birth of more varieties that will

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eventually become subject to change. Thus, English, like Latin, might produce more
varieties that would eventually develop into distinct codes.

More Globalization

Another prediction suggests that English will continue to grow as a global language for
more dominance and expansion, especially with the growing populations of the people
who use English in the outer and expanding circles. However, Davies (2013) argued
that the spread of English as a lingua franca might be hindered by the local varieties
of English actively used in these circles. In studying the spread of English as an
international lingua franca and its future, it is of paramount importance that research
broadens our understanding of the linguistic features of the varieties and the
attitudes towards them.

Threats to English
Davies (2013), citing McKay (2002), reported that the proliferation of globalized
English might be challenged by many hurdles that include the changing geopolitical
circumstances and conditions and attitudes towards English in the outer and
expanding circles. The Global spread of English could face serious drawbacks if the
outer or expanding circles redefine their relationship with the inner circle and opt for
more autonomy and less dependence on the latter. Besides, English as an
international language is likely to be affected by the rising demands for more
recognition of minority groups in the educational systems of some nations and the
“predictions that the percentage of material stored on the Internet in English may fall
from 80 per cent to about 40 percent of the total information” (Davies, 2013, p. 148).
The prediction about the drop in English dominance as the Internet's language to only
a half suggests that the world will witness more multilingual web-based information.
Such a change is anticipated to give rise to more languages to compete with English
on the Internet.

References:

Antal, E. Czeglédi, C. Krakkó, E. (Eds.) (2019). Contemporary Perspectives on

Language, Culture and Identity in Anglo-American Contexts. Cambridge
Scholars Publishing.
Carter, R. & McRae, J. (2016). The Routledge History of Literature in English:
Britain and Ireland. New York: Routledge.
Derek Pearsall, D. (2019). Old English and Middle English Poetry. New York:
Routledge.
Filppula, M. Juhani Klemola, Sharma, D. (2017) The Oxford Handbook of World
Englishes. Oxford University Press.
Horobin, S. (2016). Introduction to Middle English. Edinburgh University Press.

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Horobin, S. (2016). A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford University

Press.
Johnson, K. (2016). The History of Early English: An activity-based approach
New York: Routledge.
Jucker, A. (2020). Politeness in the History of English: From the Middle Ages to
the Present Day. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Leung, C. & Street, B. (2014). The Routledge Companion to English Studies
New York: Routledge.
Mccully, C. Hilles, S. (2016). The Earliest English: An Introduction to Old English
Language. New York: Routledge.
McIntyre, D. (2020). History of English: A Resource Book for Students
New York: Routledge.
Niles, J. (2016). Old English Literature: A Guide to Criticism with Selected
Readings. John Wiley & Sons.

Prepared by: Recommending Approved:

Approval:

MANILYN R. CACANINDIN LEILANI I. PAMO RAQUEL D. QUIAMBAO

Instructor/Professor Program Chair Dean