INTRODUCTION

Radio is very powerful because it reaches a huge audience quickly and because it allows the
people in that huge audience to interact with one another more easily than television viewers or
newspaper readers.

Radio is the radiation (wireless transmission) of electromagnetic energy through space. The

biggest use of radio waves is to carry information, such as sound, by systematically changing
(modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as their amplitude, frequency, phase, or
pulse width. When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce
an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and
transformed back into its original form.

TERMS USED IN BROADCASTING

Audience: The group of people whom radio or media reaches for a particular program

Listener/s: A person or a group of people who form the target audience of radio programs.
Broadcaster: a person who presents or announces programs over radio for the public.
Broadcasting: any communication or transmission of any message or signal to the public
through electronic apparatus.
Tuning into radio: Switching on a radio set and adjusting a signal into the station you want to
listen to
Live broadcast: It means a program being broadcast directly without any pre-recording or the
sounds made at the moment of broadcast.
Pre-recorded program: The program recorded on magnetic tape, phonographic discs or
compact disc for broadcasting it later.
Script: The written copy of the words to be spoken during a radio program.
TYPES OF RADIO
Commercial or private radio
They are purely business oriented and are owned by particular individuals or a group.
Public Radio stations
These are funded by government and they majorly highlighted government policies and
establishments. They are owned by the public and a good example is BBC.
Community radio
These are radio stations that are owned by people living within a certain geographical area. They
tend to be intensely local in a flavor, and have a wide mix of programming apart from music.
This type of radio highlights issues affecting a particular community such as health, security,
education, and, environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO

Radio makes pictures

As you listen to radio commentaries, you can visualize or ‘see’ in your mind what is being
described. You can actively ‘see’ pictures in your mind even as you listen to the sounds. You use
your power of imagination as you follow the running commentary.

The speed of radio

Radio is the fastest medium. It is instant. As things happen in a studio or outside, messages can
be sent or broadcast. These messages can be picked up by anyone who has a radio set or receiver
which is tuned into a radio station. If you have a television set and cable or satellite connection
you may be using a remote to get your favorite channel. These days if you have a satellite or
internet connection, you can also receive radio signals of various AIR stations. Otherwise your
normal radio set gives the meter or frequency on which various radio stations operate. You are
tuned into that station and listen to news that happened a few minutes earlier. On the other hand,
a newspaper gives you the previous days’ news. Of course television can also cover events
instantly. But television is a more complex medium where you need light and cameras for any
coverage.
Simplicity of radio
Compared to all other media, radio is simple to use. As mentioned in the previous sections, radio
needs very simple technology and equipment.

Radio is inexpensive
As it is simple, it is also a cheaper medium. The cost of production is low and a small radio can
be bought for as low a price as three hundred shillings.

Radio does not need electric power supply

You can listen to radio using dry battery cells even if you do not have electric power supply or a
generator.
A radio receiver is portable
This ability of moving an object which is called ‘portability’ gives radio an advantage. These
days if you have a car and a radio in it, you can listen to it as you drive or travel. Can you think
of watching television, when you drive?

One does not have to be literate to listen to radio

Unless you are literate, you can’t read a newspaper or read captions or text on television. But for
listening to radio, you need not be literate at all. You can listen to programs or news in any
language on the radio. For a majority of Africans in the rural areas, radio is the only source of
news and entertainment. Radio news can be heard anywhere using an inexpensive receiver. Even
the most economically backward sections can afford to use the medium of radio.

LIMITATIONS OF RADIO BROADCAST

A one chance medium

When you read a newspaper, you can keep it with you and read it again. You have the printed
word there and unless the paper is destroyed it will remain with you. Suppose when you read a
news item, you do not understand the meaning of certain words. You can refer to a dictionary or
ask someone who knows to find out the meaning.
Now think of radio. Suppose you are listening to a news bulletin in English and you hear words
that you don’t understand. Can you refer to a dictionary or ask someone else for the meaning? If
you stop to do that, you will miss the rest of the news. You have to understand what is being said
on radio as you listen. You have only one chance to listen. What is said on radio does not exist
any longer; unless you record it. The words have momentary life. After it is spoken, it disappears
unlike a newspaper or a printed book. So that is one of the greatest limitations or weaknesses of
radio. It’s momentary nature or to put it differently – radio is a one chance medium. A listener
has just one chance to receive the message and understand it.

Radio has no visual images

Let us consider a news item on radio and the same item on television. For example, the news
about the devastating West Gate moll attack in Westlands in 2014. Radio news talked about the
intensity of the attack, the estimated number of deaths, details about property that’s was
destroyed etc. market
However in the case of television, it showed the actual attack hitting the maul, visuals of
properties destroyed, rescue operations and many more details which could be seen. Now
compare the two. A disaster like a terrorist attack when seen on television is more effective than
what you hear on radio. It is said that “a picture is worth a thousand words”. It is also said that
‘‘seeing is believing’’. So when you see something, it is more believable than what you hear. So
having no visuals is a major limitation of radio.

Messages on radio are easily forgotten

The problem of not having visuals leads to another limitation of radio. What is seen is often
remembered and may remain with us. For example if you have seen the fine visuals of Mt.
Kenya, it will remain in your memory. But what you hear is normally forgotten fast. Probably
you may remember what you have heard in a class room if you found it interesting. But can you
recall all the headlines of a news bulletin you heard on radio? Normally, you don’t. So this is
another limitation of radio. Messages heard on radio are easily forgotten.
Poor performance on the part of announcers
Presenters or participants in a radio program can be boring or uninteresting that it can result in
listeners switching off their radio sets. So listeners’ interest depends up on how information or
messages are presented.

Radio broadcasts are of no use to people who have no sense of hearing especially those with
hearing disabilities.

RADIO STUDIO
Radio studios are special rooms where audio programs or contributions are produced for
broadcasting. Apart from their technical facilities, the important thing about studios is that they
are designed or adapted to be isolated from outside sounds, so there is no back-ground noise
interference with a program. Inside they have special acoustic treatment on the walls and ceilings
to control the amount of reverberation (the persistence of sound due to multiple reflections after
the sound source has stopped), so it does not sound as though a speaker is in a very live
environment like a bathroom.
Local radio stations have one or more studios: studios are also located in radio network centers,
production centers, and elsewhere for remote contributions. There are several varieties,
depending on the type of programming and whether they are primarily for on-air use or for
recording. A major distinction is whether the studio has a separate control room or whether or
whether there is a combined, combo, studio and control room. In a combo, the control board
operator is also the presenter or disk jockey (DJ), who does both tasks simultaneously. The
combined arrangement is extremely common for on-air studios.
A studio with a separate control room is used primarily for more complex productions. The
presenters and guests, or artists (known as talent) are in the studio, and one or more technical
operators, often with other production staff, are in the control room with the technical equipment.
Usually there is a soundproof window between the other areas, for visual communications.
Larger radio stations and network centers may have a studio intended for live music or other
performances, with more space in both the studio and control room and more equipment.
To determine whether you need multiple studios, consider how much material you will be
preparing in advance, and whether you will have off-air time when you can use the on-air studio
for production. You can always start with one studio and leave space to add a production studio
down the road. Instead of a second production studio you could provide your programmers with
information on how to turn their personal computers into mini-production studios with only a
USB microphone and free or cheap audio editing software.

RADIO EQUIPMENT
Before you put your Low Power FM (LPFM) station on the air, you will have to make a lot of
decisions related to equipment.
Source equipment - The source equipment in a studio may include CD players, turntables, line
inputs for a laptop or iPod, cassette players, or even reel-to-reel tape players. Of course, none of
this equipment is required for a radio station – you only need as much of it as you want to use.
Computers - There are a number of uses for computers in the studio, and the requirements for a
computer will depend on its intended use. If you only want a computer for Internet access, you
won’t need a fast processor, a giant hard drive. Some stations also use computers for automated
playback to allow unattended programming.
Microphones - A studio should have one microphone for each DJ or host and a few for guests if
needed. It is best to limit the amount of microphones in the studio to around 4–having lots of
microphones active at once leads to a lot of background noise. Guests can share microphones if
need be. There are many different kinds of microphones to choose from when building your
studio. The studio microphones might be the second most important equipment in a radio station
after the transmitter. Microphones need to sound good, be easy to use, and perform reliably
under constant use. Microphones can be either directional or omni-directional. Directional
microphones, also called cardioid microphones, only pick up sound waves from one direction,
and as a result pick up less ambient noise (equipment hum, paper-shuffling, etc). Omni-
directional microphones pick up sound from all directions, and are therefore useful for speakers
who don’t have experience using microphones or will be moving a lot while talking. There are
two main types of microphones most commonly used in the audio industry: dynamic
microphones and condenser microphones. Condenser microphones are generally more sensitive,
particularly in the higher frequencies, and are great at recording quiet sounds and musical
instruments. Condensers are made up of many electrical parts and therefore tend to be more
fragile and less reliable than dynamic microphones. Condensers also require a special kind of
power source (called Phantom Power) while dynamic microphones do not. Both types can be
used in broadcast radio applications. However, radio stations generally use dynamic
microphones because of their superior durability and ease of use.
Microphone booms or stands - It is important to have an arm to position each microphone at a
comfortable position relative to the speaker’s mouth.
Mixer or console - An audio mixer takes input from multiple audio sources and lets the user
determine which channels to use in the output, and at what levels. A console is generally the
same thing as a mixer, but sometimes has some additional fancy features used just for radio. A
mixer or console is essential for any station that will broadcast using multiple audio sources. A
nice mixer should have ample channels to accommodate all audio sources and easily visible level
meters with sliding controls. Another useful feature is monitor muting, which automatically
mutes the studio monitor speakers whenever a microphone channel is on. Without this, the sound
from the speakers goes back into the microphone and creates feedback, which most people find
unpleasant. If the mixer does not include automatic monitor muting, you can make or buy a
speaker muting device that does this automatically, or the DJ can mute the speakers manually to
avoid feedback.
FM tuner - It is important to have an FM tuner so the DJ can listen to the signal that is being
sent over the airwaves. The receiver should be tuned to the frequency at which the station is
broadcasting. The DJ can switch between the on-air signal and the console (calm) signal to make
sure the station is broadcasting loud and clear.
Monitor speakers - Monitor speakers let the DJ listen to what they are playing. The monitor
speakers might be internally amplified, or might require an external amp for power. The best
monitor speakers have a “flat” response so that the sound coming out of the speakers sounds as
much as possible like the audio going into them.
Headphones – Headphones should be used by anyone speaking into a microphone. This allows
the DJ or hosts to monitor their audio levels as they speak. Each microphone in the studio should
be paired with a set of headphones. Headphones tend to wear out quickly, so durability is an
important consideration if you want to avoid replacing them frequently. It’s also a good idea to
keep a couple pairs in reserve. If there are lots of headphones in the studio, you might want a
Headphone amplifier to split up the signal and allow all of the guests to set their listening level to
whatever is comfortable for them.
Telephone system - Most studios will have at least one telephone. If you plan to put callers on
the air, you will need a Telephone Hybrid. The hybrid feeds the signal from the phone line into
the console, and feeds another signal back to the caller. More complex (and more expensive)
caller management systems are also available to handle multiple calls in cue, and sometimes do
audio processing with the phone signal as well. On-air light and relay circuitry - An on-air light
notifies others outside of the studio when the DJ has microphones on in the studio.
Distribution amplifier - A distribution amplifier splits the signal from the audio console and
sends it in multiple directions without overloading the console output. If you have many
destinations for your signal – for instance, a CD recorder, streaming computer, production studio
and transmitter – you might need one of these.
Audio cables and connectors - Audio cables transmit audio signals from one place to another,
such as from an audio source to the console. You will likely need an assortment of connectors to
make custom cables, depending on what equipment you use.
Equipment racks - Some audio equipment can be freestanding, but in many cases a studio will
want to rack-mount the equipment. There is a wide variety of free-standing wood and metal
racks that you can hang equipment in, or install shelves in for equipment that doesn’t come with
“rack ears”. Equipment racks keep the equipment secure and the cables hidden out of the way,
which is nice for the aesthetics of the studio, but not necessarily important for basic
functionality.
NEWS WRITING AND PRESENTATION
News is everything that has happened recently which we have not heard about and everything
which is about to happen. For news to be news, it just has to happen and be of sufficient concern
to people.
All news is important but there are orders of importance in news. The news which generally
interests us most is local news-news about happenings and proposals which are likely to have an
immediate and direct effect on our own lives.
The basis of a news story is often said to be found in the following words; who, what, where,
when, why, and how (5 w’s &1H).
Types of news
1. Hard news – reporting of important events which have taken place. This type of news is
about personalities e.g. politicians, and government officials. It obeys the 5 w’s &H
format.
2. Soft news – this is news that is more informational in nature and not immediate. It can
also be called feature news.
Audience needs
A plane flying to Kampala from Nigeria plunges into the Atlantic Ocean killing 250
passengers onboard while a dozen survive. This makes the headlines in Kenya and many
media houses are sent to cover the story because it is of great interest to all East Africans.
This is the format that can be used to cover the story:
1. Who
In Kenya, the audience will want to know if Kenyans are involved, whether dead, hurt or
surviving. Is it a Kenyan plane? Was it coming to Kenya? There is nothing unusual about this
need-if the reporting is Britain, Australia, Canada or Japan then the same questions will be
asked about their nationals.
2. Where
The website and TV services will carry a map of where the plane went down. The map is a
first visual, what we get as soon as the story breaks. It will probably show the airport of
departure, where it was heading and where it crashed.
3. Why
This is likely to come later because we do not know yet. News may come in quickly that it
got lost in a radar. What is a radar anyway? Where is it found? How can a plane disappear
anyway? Was there human error and is there anyone to blame for this?
4. The human factor
This is the ultimate important way of explaining the story. People tell their stories. We soon
hear from passengers and their survival stories of heroism and courage, of endurance, or
tragedy or joy or incompetence or neglect. All broadcasters will prefer stories from their own
 nationals, but will not exclude stories from others if they are moving and informative, or
both.

5. The specialist
These include people who work in the travel or transport industry or aviation or risk and
insurance sector. They will be asking very specific questions – didn’t they detect the error? If
not why? Etc.
Elements of news
1. Where did it happen?
For news to have relevance it has to have proximity.
2. Relevance
Even when the proximity gap is narrowed, a news item may fail to interest different
groups within the same country. A surge in the price of coffee might shake up the
businessmen in Nairobi, but fail to stir the fishermen and wood carvers of Mombasa. But
if the price of coffee crashed, the item would come home to everyone in Kenya because
the economy would be affected.
3. Immediacy
News is about what is happening now or the first inkling of something that happened
earlier.
4. Interest
Worthy, but dull is one of the most damning indictments you could make about a news
report. News should make you suck your breadth and exclaim, sit up, take notice and
listen. Great radio means you stay in your car when you reach your destination.

News Bulletins
A news bulletin is a round-up of the main stories of the moment. Main news bulletins usually
appear at the top of the hour and shorter bulletins are often placed on the half hour. They may
also be integrated into news programs. Stories in news bulletins are typically presented in the
following order: Local stories or issues that might have the most impact on listeners' daily lives
National or regional stories International stories
A national or local news broadcast might not report international stories unless the story affects
the country or the local community. Stations may change this order around, particularly if a
major news event occurs. News bulletins may also include financial updates, sports news, traffic
reports and weather updates.
Some stations end with a story that makes listeners smile. This may be a "good news' or
humorous story. Be careful with humor, as it might offend rather than amuse listeners.

Structure of a News Bulletin

A news bulletin may contain some or all of these ingredients:
Hard copy is the scripted version of the news stories in the bulletin (without interview clips or
other sound) as read by the news reader or anchor.
A news cue is what the news reader or anchor says to introduce a recorded report, clip, or
question and answer. A good cue introduces the clip clearly, concisely and smoothly.
A clip or sound-bite is a very short, recorded comment from someone who is key to the news
story. Clips are usually just a few seconds in length. They are often recorded on the phone, but
can also be recorded in person by a reporter on the scene.
A voicer is a short piece, written and read by a reporter, not the news reader, which gives more
detail about a news story. It may be recorded at the scene of the story, or the reporter may go out
to the scene to investigate and then return to the station to write and record the voicer.
A report/wrap-around/package is similar to a voicer, but also includes clips and sound.
Questions and answers or Q & As are conducted between the news reader and a reporter at the
scene of the news story. The news reader essentially interviews the reporter. This is usually done
live.

News Programs
A news program (sometimes also called a current affairs show) is a compilation of features,
reports, interviews and discussions about current events, developments and controversial issues.
Depending on the audience and the reach of the radio station, a news program will cover a
variety of local, regional and world news.
Local news focuses on community events. The community could be a neighborhood, a city, a
county or even encompass a larger area depending on where the radio station is.
Examples of local news stories include local tax changes, school referendums and debates among
candidates for community elections.

Regional news focuses on news events at the state, provincial or even national level. A regional
news program may cover elections or new public services, for example.

World news focuses on events occurring in other countries that have an international impact or
are of interest to the radio station's listeners.

All stories could potentially be local news, depending on the angle. A plane crash in another
country, for example, might have survivors who live in the radio station's community.

CONVERSATIONAL WRITING

Conversational writing means writing the way you talk and it also means connecting with your
listeners. It's about trying to give them a reason to care about what you have to say while being
genuine.

Writing conversationally gives your story a more approachable and friendly feel. Your writing
will appear a lot less forced, making the material you're presenting more credible. In this kind of
writing, your listeners will be able to understand and easily navigate through and it will show
you’re making the effort to promote understanding.

CONVERSATIONAL WRITING TIPS

Colloquial – Informal writing is similar to a spoken conversation.  Informal writing may include
slang, figures of speech, broken syntax, asides and so on.  Informal writing takes a personal tone
as if you were speaking directly to your audience (the reader). You can use the first or third
person point of view (I and we), and you are likely to address the reader using second person
(you and your).

Simple – Short sentences are acceptable and sometimes essential to making a point in informal
writing. There may be incomplete sentences or ellipsis (…) to make points.

Contractions and Abbreviations – Words are likely to be simplified using contractions (for
example, I’m, doesn’t, couldn’t, it’s) and abbreviations (e.g. TV, photos) whenever possible.

Empathy and Emotion – The author can show empathy towards the reader regarding the
complexity of a thought and help them through that complexity.

Conversational writing in news writing

The idea behind newswriting is pretty simple: Keep it short and to the point. But that idea gets
taken to a new level when it comes to writing copy for radio or television broadcasts.

i. Keep It Simple

Newspaper reporters wanting to show off their writing style occasionally insert a fancy word into
a story. But that just doesn't work in broadcast newswriting. Broadcast copy must be as simple as
possible. Remember, viewers aren't reading what you're writing, they're hearing it. People
watching TV or listening to the radio generally don't have time to check a dictionary. So keep
your sentences simple and use basic, easily understood words. If you find you've put a long word in a
sentence, replace it with a shorter one.

Example:

Print: The physician conducted an extensive autopsy on the decedent.

Broadcast: The doctor did an autopsy on the body.

ii. Keep It Short

Generally, sentences in broadcast copy should be even shorter than those found in print articles
because shorter sentences are more easily understood than long ones.

Also, broadcast copy must be read out loud. If you write a sentence that's too long, the news
anchor will be gasping for breath just to finish it. Individual sentences in broadcast copy should
be short enough to be easily read in one breath.

Example:

Print: President Barack Obama and congressional Democrats sought to ease Republican

complaints about a massive economic stimulus plan Friday, meeting with GOP leaders in the
White House and promising to consider some of their recommendations.
Broadcast: President Barack Obama met with Republican leaders in Congress today. The
Republicans aren't happy with Obama's big economic stimulus plan. Obama says he'll consider
their ideas.

iii. Keep It Conversational

Many sentences found in newspaper stories simply sound stilted and unwieldy when read out
loud. So use a conversational style in your broadcast writing. Doing so will make it sound more
like real speech, as opposed to a script someone is reading.

Example:

Print: Pope Benedict XVI joined U.S. President Barack Obama and Queen Elizabeth II on
Friday by launching his own YouTube channel, the latest Vatican effort to reach out to the
digital generation.
Broadcast: President Obama has a You-tube channel. So does Queen Elizabeth. Now Pope
Benedict has one too. The pope wants to use the new channel to reach out to young people.
 iv. Use One Main Idea per Sentence

Sentences in newspaper stories sometimes contain several ideas, usually in clauses that are
broken up by commas.

But in broadcast writing you really shouldn't put more than one main idea in each sentence
because more than one main idea in a sentence makes it too long.

Example:

Print: Gov. Evans Kidero appointed Jubilee’s Jane Kamau on Friday to fill the vacant MCA
seat, finally settling on a woman from a largely slum, eastern slum part of the county to replace
Agnes Odera.
Broadcast: Gov. Evans Kidero has appointed Jubelee’s woman MCA Jane Kamau to fill
Kibera’s vacant Senate seat. Kamau is from a slum part of the county. She will replace Agnes
Odera.

v. Use the Active Voice

Sentences written in the active voice just naturally tend to be shorter and more to the point than
those written in the passive voice.

Example:

Passive: The robbers were arrested by police.

Active: Police arrested the robbers.
 vi. Use a Lead-in Sentence

Most broadcast news stories start with a lead-in sentence that is fairly general. Broadcast news-
writers do this to alert viewers that a new story is being presented, and to prepare them for the
information that is to follow.

Example:

"There's more bad news today from Iraq."

Note that this sentence doesn't say very much. But again, it lets the viewer know that the next
story is going to be about Iraq. The lead-in sentence almost serves as a kind of headline for the
story.

Here's an example of a broadcast news item. Note the use of a lead-in line, short, simple
sentences and a conversational style.

There's more bad news from Iraq. Four U.S. soldiers were killed in an ambush outside Baghdad
today. The Pentagon says the soldiers were hunting insurgents when their Humvee came under
sniper fire. The Pentagon hasn't yet released the soldiers' names.

vii. Put Attribution at the Start of the Sentence

Print news stories usually put the attribution, the source of the information, at the end of the
sentence. In broadcast newswriting we put them at the beginning.

Example:

Print: Two men were arrested, police said.

Broadcast: Police say two men were arrested.
 viii. Leave Out Unnecessary Details

Print stories tend to include a lot of details that we just don't have time for in broadcast.

Example:

Print: After robbing the bank the man drove approximately 9.7 miles before being apprehended,
police said.
Broadcast: Police say the man robbed the bank then drove nearly 10 miles before he was
caught.

VOICE PRESENTATION/MICROPHONE PERSONALITY

This is the blend of voice quality and manner of delivery. This calls for a well-placed and a
relaxed and friendly manner. The best microphone voices are the middle to low registers-neither
to shrill as to be annoying nor so deep as to be unclear.
Microphone personality should sound confident and self-assured, not tense or hesitant; they
should talk with us, not at us.

Speaking at the microphone

Speech is controlled and articulated breathing. Good breathing is therefore essential to good
speaking. A relaxed but erect position with elbows and forearms resting on the table makes
breathing easier than a slumped position. The hands should be kept away from the face as a hand
cupped under the chin will resist movement of the jaw or held to cheek will distort the facial
muscles. The jaw, the facial muscles and the lips must all have free movement when speaking.
The professional announcer
As a professional announcer, you must keep in mind the following truths:
a. Without an audience you are wasting your breath
b. Aim to share the program
c. Talk to people, do not “read” a script, do not talk at people, or down to them, or even up
to them, as though afraid. You are talking to intelligent equals. The tone in your voice
should have a smile as when greeting someone you like.
d. Act a little.
You have only sound to convey information, thoughts and emotions. All these have to go
into the voice, so you project a little and in a natural way. In front of the microphone, you
are an actor.
e. Be interested
This may require acting too. If you are enthusiastic, the listener will beware. If you bored,
it will show in your voice. Let your voice have some excitement in it.
f. Always accept criticism
g. Listen to radio programs and other broadcasters and learn from them also.