E&ITW Lab Manual-2022-2023 PDF

LORDS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (A)
Survey No. 32, Near Police Academy, Appa Junction, Himayath sagar,
Hyderabad, Telangana 500091.
MANUAL
of
Engineering and IT Workshop Lab
B.E I-YEAR I/II SEM
(COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES)
Name: _________________________
Roll No: _______________________
Branch & Section: _______________
Mr.Prashant
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology (A)
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LORDS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY(A)
Survey No. 32, Near Police Academy, Appa Junction, Himayath sagar,
Hyderabad, Telangana 5000091.
VISION
Lords Institute of Engineering and Technology strives for excellence in
professional education through quality, innovation and teamwork and aims to
emerge as a premier institute in the state and across the nation.
MISSION
1. To impart quality professional education that meets the needs of present
and emerging techno-logical world.
2. To strive for student achievement and success, preparing them for life,
career and leadership.
3. To provide a scholarly and vibrant learning environment that enables
faculty, staff and students to achieve personal and professional growth.
4. To contribute to advancement of knowledge, in both fundamental and
applied areas of engineering and technology.
5. To forge mutually beneficial relationships with government organizations,
industries, society and the alumni.
QUALITY
POLICY
To pursue global standards of excellence in all our endeavors namely
teaching, research, and consultancy to create quality Engineering
professionals in order to meet the emerging industrial and social needs.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)
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Departmental Vision, Mission and PEOs
VISION
To impart high standards of quality education which enhance students‟ career
efficaciously, to become a holistic well-qualified engineers who are competent,
innovative, entrepreneurial and research oriented to meet the standards of new
millennium.
MISSION
DM1: An integrated educational approach that blends knowledge of engineering
fundamentals, technical skills, practical knowledge and research.
DM2: To enrich undergraduate experience of distinctive academic curriculum through
interaction with major stake holders, hands-on learning, team work, management and
multi-disciplinary skill set.
DM3: To make students aware of professional responsibilities, ethics, global demands,
sustainable solutions, environmental, technological challenges and the needs of lifelong
learning.
DM4: To prepare students in developing solutions of global standards through research
and innovation, design and development of demand based projects, entrepreneurial skills
and employability capabilities.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PEO1: To establish themselves as successful professionals with strong fundamental
knowledge in basic and engineering sciences to find suitable solutions of technological
and real life challenges using innovative tools.
PEO2: To enhance technical competency and problems solving skills through state of art
facilities for adequate solutions to technical problems.
PEO3: Acquire high skill-set by continuous training, multi-disciplinary activities, team

work, effective communications, Information Technology tools usage and ethics so that
students shall acquire good job opportunities and also will help in their higher education.
PEO4: Giving consultancy services to industrial challenges and promoting department-

industry interactions, by enhancing technical, managerial, environmental responsibilities
and lifelong learning with sustainable development.
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PROGRAM OUTCOMES & PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES
PO’s & PSO’s

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
PO1 fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research in literature and analyze complex
PO2 engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.
Design and development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processors that meet the specified needs with appropriate
PO3 consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research based knowledge and research
PO4 methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources and modern
PO5 engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to access
PO6 societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
PO7 solutions in societal and environmental contexts and demonstrate the knowledge of , and
need for sustainable development
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
PO8 norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and Teamwork: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader
PO9 in diverse teams and in multi-disciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
PO10 write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations and give and
receive clear instructions.
Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
PO11 Engineering and Management principles and apply these to once own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multi-disciplinary environments.
Lifelong Learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
PO12 in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Professional Skills: An ability to understand the basic concepts in mechanical Engineering
PSO1 and to apply them to various areas, like production, thermal, designing etc., in the design and
implementation of complex systems.
Problem-Solving Skills: An ability to solve complex Mechanical Engineering problems,
PSO2 using latest hardware and software tools, along with analytical skills to arrive cost effective
and appropriate solutions.
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ENGINEERING & IT WORKSHOP LAB SYLLABUS
Course code Course title Core/Elective
U21ME1L2/ U21ME2L2
ENGINEERING & IT WORKSHOP Core
(COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES)
Pre-requisites Contact Hours Per Week
CIE SEE Credits
L T D P
-
1 - - 4 50 50 3
Course Objectives:
The Objective of this course is to impart knowledge of
1. Engineering Practices & develop holistic understanding of various Engineering materials and
Manufacturing processes.
2. Steel, Plastic, Composite and other materials for suitable applications.
3. Hands on practice on techniques of fabrication, welding, casting, manufacturing, metrology, and allied
skills.
4. Productivity, create skilled manpower which is cognizant of industrial workshop components and
processes and can communicate their work in a technical, clear and effective way.
5. Engineering Skill development with regard to making components, system integration and assembly to
form a useful device.
Course Outcomes – (Laboratory):

After completing this course, the student will be able to
1) Understand about the tools and Fabricate components with their own hands.
2) Get practical knowledge of the dimensional accuracies and dimensional tolerances possible with
different manufacturing processes.
3) Understand the Assembling of different components and will be able to produce small
mechanisms/devices of their interest.
4) Gain practical skills of carpentry, tinsmithy, fitting, house wiring.
5) Gain knowledge of different Engineering Materials and Manufacturing Methods.
6) Understand trades and techniques used in Workshop and chooses the best material/ manufacturing
process for the application.
SYLLABUS :-
A. TRADES FOR EXERCISES

1. FITTING
1. Square fitting
2. Dovetail fitting
3. V- Template fitting
2. CARPENTRY
1. End lap joint

2. T- Bridle joint
3. Dovetail lap joint
3. ELECTRICAL/HOUSE WIRING
1. Two lamps in parallel with 5 Pin 6amp socket and switches.
2. Two lamps in series connection with switches .
3. Staircase wiring.
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4. TIN SMITHY
1. Square Tin
2. Rectangular Scoop
3. Conical funnel
5. WELDING PRACTICE
1. Lap Joint
2. V- Butt Joint
3. T-joint
B. TRADES FOR DEMONSTRATION AND EXPOSURE
1. Machining (Lathe & Drilling)

2. Black smithy ( Introduction, Round to Square , Square to Octagon)
3. Plumbing (Introduction of tools, joints, couplings, and valves etc )
C. PRESENTATIONS AND VIDEO LECTURES
1. Manufacturing Methods
2. Rapid Prototyping
3. Glass Cutting
4. 3D printing
5. CNC LATHE
6. Injection Moulding
7. Mould Making and casting
8. Basic Electronics lab Instruments
D. IT WORKSHOP:
Task 1: Computer hardware & Identification of parts,
Task 2: Disassembly & Assembly of computer to working condition,
Task 3: Operating System Installation.
Task 4: Hardware Trouble Shooting
Text Books:
1. H S Bawa, "Workshop Practice", Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Private Limited ,New Delhi, Second
Edition, 2009.
2. V Ramesh Babu, “Engieering Workshop Practice”, VRB Publishers Pvt Ltd, New Edition, 2009.
3. P. Kannaiah & K. L. Narayana “Workshop manual” 2nd Ed., Scitech publications (I) Pvt. Ltd.,
Hyderabad.
Reference Books:
1. Hajra Choudhury S.K., HajraChoudhury A.K., Nirjar Roy S.K. “Elements of Workshop Technology”
Vol-I 2008 &Vol-II 2010 Media Promoters & Publishers Pvt. Limited, Mumbai.
2. B S Raghuwanshi, “A Course In Workshop Technology”, Dhanpat Rai & Co.(P) Ltd, Educational &
Technical Publishers, Vol-II, 2011.
Note: At least two exercises from each trade.
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Course outcomes: C18– Engineering & IT Workshop Lab
Student will able to:
Bloom’s
CO. No. Description Taxonomy
Level
C19.1 Differentiate about the tools and Fabricate components with their own hands BTL2
C19.2 Examine the dimensional accuracies and dimensional tolerances possible
BTL3
with different manufacturing processes.
C19.3 Assemble the different components and will be able to produce small
BTL6
mechanisms/devices of their interest.
C19.4 Demonstrate practical skills of carpentry, tinsmithy, fitting, house wiring. BTL3
C19.5 Differentiate Engineering Materials and Manufacturing Methods. BTL2
C19.6 Determine trades and techniques used in Workshop and chooses the best
BTL3
material/ manufacturing process for the application.
Note: Bloom's Taxonomy Levels
BTL1-Remember BTL2 - Understand BTL3 –Apply

BTL4-Analyze BT56 –Evaluate BTL6–Create
Signature of the Faculty
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Course Articulation Matrix: Mapping of Course Outcomes (CO) with Program
Outcomes (PO) and Program Specific Outcomes (PSO’s):
Course Program
Outcomes Specific
Program Outcomes
(CO) Outcomes
(PO)
(PSO’s)
CO. No. PO PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO PO PO PS PS
1 10 11 12 O1 O2
C19.1 3 2 2 2 3
C19.2 3 2 2 2 3
C19.3 3 3 2 2 2 3
C19.4 3 2 2 3 3
C19.5 3 2 3 2 3
C19.6 3 2 3 2 3
C19 3 2 2.2 2.66 2 3
Level:
1- Low correlation (Low), 2- Medium correlation (Medium), 3-High correlation (High)
PO1: Engineering knowledge, PO2: Problem analysis, PO3: Design/Development of solutions, PO4:
Conduct investigations of complex problems, PO5: Modern tool usage, PO6: The engineer and
society, PO7: Environment and sustainability, PO8: Ethics, PO9: Individual and teamwork, PO10:
Communication, PO11: Project management and finance, PO12: Life-long learning PSO1:
Professional Skills, PSO2: Problem-Solving Skills
Signature of the Faculty
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Engineering & IT Workshop Lab Safety Rules
• When working in the lab, jewelries, loose clothing etc. are must be avoided and
long hair must be completely covered.
• Lab coats/overalls and safety boots must be worn by students performing the
exercise.
• Ask how to use the tools safely. Immediately notify the workshop supervisor of any
faulty or broken equipment.
• No tool may be used or work undertaken unless the technician-in- charge permits.
• Make sure your work piece is fixed securely before

work commences.
• Keep clear of any person operating tools and machinery (bumping an operator
could cause serious injury to you or the operator)
• Equipment must be cleaned after use. Any materials, tools or equipment used must
be tidied away.
• Tools and equipment must be replaced in their appropriate cabinets after each
working day.
• Tools and equipment must not be removed from the workshop without permission
from the technician-in-charge.
• Eating and drinking in the mechanical workshop is

strictly prohibited.
All accidents, cuts and abrasions must be reported to the In-charge

& get the required First-Aid.
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Instructions to the students:
• No Entry without Apron, ID Card & Shoes.
• Students must carry their records, observation & required stationary (pen, pencil, eraser,
etc.) to the lab.
• Students must be regular, punctual and disciplined in the lab.
• The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate
phenomena in different areas of Workshop and to expose you the uses of instruments.
• Conduct the job with interest and an attitude of learning.
• Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make reliable
measurements!) and equally share the work with your partners.
• All presentations of job and diagram should be neatly and carefully drawn with pencil.
Always display units.
• Students must mark their presence in log resister when they come to laboratory (as per
time-table), failing which their attendance will not be considered.
• Students are liable for getting their observations and records corrected on day-to-day
basis.
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Do’s
1. Teachers expect students to be calm and discipline. Your behavior and attitude in the lab should
be excellent. The safety of you and other persons depend on it.
2. There is always plenty to do in the lab, so teachers expect you to arrive on times and to use your
time well.
3. Listen to all instructions given by your teacher and follow them carefully.
4. Read your lab assignments before coming to lab. Prepare your pre-lab write-up prior to entering
the lab.
5. Familiarize yourself with all lab procedures before doing the lab exercise.
6. Get signature in your observation book from your teacher before leaving the lab.
7. Perform only those experiments which you have been instructed.
8. It is your responsibility to take care of lab equipment, use it only as instructed, and report any
damages to your teacher.
9. Clean and dry your lab work area at the close of the lab period. Return all equipment and
materials
to the proper place.
10. Use ball points pens, not pencils for noting the observations.
11. Be honest. All procedures and experimental data whether you regard them as “good” or “bad” at
the time should be recorded in the lab book.
12. Pleases take care your personal stuff with you (Backpacks, purses, calculators, keys, etc.). Do not
leave them in the laboratory.
Don’ts
1. Never attempt to touch the equipment or to do the experiment on your own until your
teacher demonstrates about it.
2. Don’t eat or drink in the lab room at any time
3. Don’t chew gum or eat candy during lab exercises.
4. Don’t be mischievous in the lab
5. Never remove any pages from the observation notebook & record.
6. Never use electrical equipment around water.
7. Don’t work in the lab alone.
8. Don’t leave the bags and books in the aisles.
9.
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INDEX
SL NO NAME OF THE DATE PAGE NO REMARKS/SIGN
TRADE/EXPERIMENT
A. TRADES FOR EXERCISES
1 FITTING 14-19
a. Square fitting 20-21
b. Dovetail fitting 22-23
c. V-Template fitting 24-25
Review questions 26
2 CARPENTRY 27-33
a. End lap joint 34-35
b. T-bridle joint 36-37
c. Dovetail joint 38-39
Review questions 40
3 ELECTRICAL/HOUSEWIRING 41-46
a. Two lamps in parallel 47-48
with 5 Pin 6amp socket
and switches.
b. Two lamps in series 49-50

connection with
switches.
c. Staircase wiring. 51-52

Review questions 53
4 TINSMITHY 54-60
a. Square Tin 61-62
b. Rectangular Scoop 63-64
c. Conical Funnel 65-66
Review questions 67
5 WELDING PRACTICE 68-71
a. Lap Joint 72-74
b. V-Butt Joint 75-77
c. T- Joint 78-80
Review questions 81
B. TRADES FOR DEMONSTRATION AND EXPOSURE
1 Machining (Lathe & Drilling) 84-91
Review questions 92
2 Plumbing (Introduction of tools, 93-103
joints, couplings, and valves etc)
Review questions 104
3 Black Smithy (Introduction, 105-114
Round to Square , Square to
Octagon)
Review questions 115
C. PRESENTATIONS AND VIDEO LECTURES
1 Manufacturing Methods 117-118
2 Rapid Prototyping 119-120
3 Glass Cutting 121-122
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4 3D printing 123-125
5 CNC LATHE 126-128

6 Injection Moulding 129-131
7 Mould Making and Casting 132-137
8 Basic Electronics lab Instruments 138-140
SL NO NAME OF THE TRADE/EXPERIMENT DATE PAGE NO REMARKS/SIGN

D. IT WORKSHOP
1 Task: 1 Computer hardware & 143-144
Identification of parts, operating
system installation.
2 Task: 2 Disassembly & Assembly 145-147
of computer to working condition.
3 Task: 3 Operating System 148-151
Installation.
4 Task: 4 Hardware Trouble 152-155
Shooting.
Signature of the faculty
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FITTING
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Introduction to Fitting
1. Introduction
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are occasions
when components are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or repair
component which must be fit accurately with another component on reassembly. This involves a
certain amount of hand fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc, involves certain
amount of bench work. The accuracy of work done depends upon the experience and skill of the fitter.
The term “bench work” refers to the production of components by hand on the bench,
whereas fitting deals which the assembly of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the
required fit. Both the bench work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools and
considerable manual efforts. The operations in the above works consist of filing, chipping, scraping,
sawing, drilling, and tapping.
2. Measuring Tools
Steel Rule
It is a direct reading measuring instrument to read an accuracy of 0.5 mm metric and 1/64 of an
inch in British. Steel rules are made from high carbon steel and stainless steel.
Try Square
It is make and checking instrument of right angle of the job as well as levelness of the flat
surfaces.
Inside calipers
It is a tool used to checkup the internal dimensions of any job. It is an indirect measuring
instrument.
Outside Calipers
It is a tool used to checkup the outer dimensions of any job.
Jenny Caliper or Bent Leg Calipers
It is a tool used in layout work for locating and testing the center of cylindrical job. It is used
scribed parallel lines on flat surfaces.
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Cutting tools
Fig No: 01 Fitting (Cutting Tools)
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2. Marking Tools
Universal Surface Gauge
It is an instrument having a base, and a scriber. It is a tool used for marking lines on flat surfaces.
It is an indirect marking instrument.
V-Block
It is a rectangular or square block having V-shape grooves as such it is called V-block. It is
classified by its length, breath and height. It is used to support the job and to mark the round rod
center.
Angle Plate
It is made from closed grain cast iron. It is used for marking purpose as well as to checkup the
right angles of the job.
Punch
Punch is a cylindrical steel piece. It is a tool used for punching on the marked lines. This
operation is called punching. There are three types of punches: 1) Center Punch (90), 2) Dot
Punch (60), 3) Prick Punch (30).
3. Cutting Tools
Hacksaw
It is a tool which consists of a frame and a blade. It is a tool used for cutting the surplus metal on
the marked lines. This operation is called sawing.
File
File is a cutting used to remove small quantity of surplus metal. Files having cutting points
incorporated in the body at equal distance usually on all four faces over the length from tip to
shoulder. Files are classified according to their length, grade, section and cuts.
3.2.1 Types of files:
a. Flat file: This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and then it tapers in
width and thickness. The faces are double cut while the edges are single cut.
b. Hand file: for a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness tapers as given in
flat file. Both faces are double cut and one edge is single cut. The remaining edge is kept uncut
in order to use for filing a right-angled corner on one side only.
c. Square file: It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its length and then
tapers towards the tip. It is double cut on all sides. It is used for filing square corners and slots.
d. Round file: It has round cross-section. It carries single cut teeth all round its surface. It is
normally made tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as rat-tail file. Parallel round
17
Fig No: 02 Fitting (Hand Tools)
18
files having same diameter throughout the length are also available. The round files are used for
opening out holes, producing round comers, round-ended slots etc.
e. Half-round file: Its cross-section is not a true half circle but is only about one-third of a circle.
The width of the file is either parallel throughout or up to middle and then tapered towards the
tip. The flat side of this file is always a double cut and curved side has single cut. It is used for
filing curved surfaces.
f. Triangular file: It has width either parallel throughout or up to middle and then tapered
towards the tip. Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces are double cut and the
edges single cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or comers and for sharpening wood
working saws.
4. Hand Tools
Hammer
It is a simple striking tool used to make the job to a required shape either in cold or hot
conditions beating directly on the job. There are four types of hammer.
a) Ball- Peen Hammer
Ball‐ Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by
their weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball
end, particularly used for riveting.
b) Cross peen hammer

It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping,
riveting, bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.
c) Straight-Peen Hammer
This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the hammer handle. It is
used for swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.
d) Riveting hammer
A hammer having a long head, a flat face, and a narrow peen; used for swaging down rivets
or beating sheet metal.
e) Bench-vice:
A device is used to hold the job firmly fixed on a bench is called Bench-vice. It is available
according to their length of the jaw plates.
• Parts of the Vice:
1) Fixed Jaw, 2) Moveable Jaw, 3) Jaw plates, 4) Spindle, 5) Handle, 6) Box nut,
7) Split pin, 8) Washer It is an instrument used to checkup the manufacture job to know
whether it is fit or not. It is made from tool steel hardened and tempered. Gauges are
classified according to their nature or work.
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Ex. No. 1
Square Fitting
Fig No:03 Square Fitting

All dimensions are in mm
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Ex. No. 1
Square Fitting
1.1 Aim: To make a Square fitting from the given two M.S pieces.
1.2 Material: Two MS Flat pieces of size 50x50x5mm
1.3 Tools Required & Equipment:

1. 10" Flat rough file 2. 6" Safe edge file 3. 4" Try square
4. 6" Vernier Calipers 5. 12" Vernier height gauge 6. 4" Angle plate
7. 2" V-Block 8. 12" Hacksaw 9. 4" Dot punch
10. Feeler Gauge 11. 1/2 lb. (half pound) Ball peen Hammer
Sequence of Operations:
1. Filling 2. Marking 3. Punching 4. Sawing 5. Filling 6. Finishing
1.4 Precautions:
1. While sawing use coolant properly.
2. While sawing, Hacksaw should move perpendicular to the job pieces.
3. Should wear Apron, Shoes while entering to the laboratory.
4. Marking is done without parallax error.
1.5 Procedure:
1. The burrs in given materials are removed and the dimensions are checked for
50x50x5mm with steel rule.
2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and outer mating edges are filed and
checked for their flatness, with the help of try-square.
3. The side edges of the two pieces are filed such that, they at right angles to each other
and widths are exactly 48mm.
4. Wet chalk is applied on surfaces of the two pieces.
5. The given dimensions of the Square fitting are marked, by using steel rule, scriber,
and the surface plate.
6. The portion to be removed is then marked.
7. Using dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
8. Using the hacksaw, the unwanted portions are removed.
9. Now the potions are filed and burrs are removed by filing on the surfaces of fitted
job.
1.7 Result: The square fitting is thus made by following the above sequence of operations.
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EX.NO. 2
Dovetail Fitting
TV 3D VIEW
Fig No: 04 Dovetail Fitting
22
EX.NO. 2
Dovetail Fitting
2.1 Aim: To make a dovetail fitting as per the given dimensions.
2.2 Material Required: Two MS Flat pieces of size 50x50x5mm
2.4 Precautions
2. While doing in step filing use safe edge file.
2.5 Sequence of Operations
1) Filing, 2) Marking, 3) Punching, 4) Sawing, 5) Filing to the given dimensions, 6) Finishing
2.6 Procedure:
1. The burrs in the pieces are removed and the dimensions are checked with the steel rule.
2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and the outer mating edges are filed and
checked for their flatness, with the help of the try-square.
3. The side edges of the two pieces are filed such that, they are at right angle to each other
and widths are exactly 48 mm.
4. Chalk is then applied on the surfaces of the two pieces.
5. The given dimensions of the dovetail fitting are marked, by using the Jenny caliper, steel
rule and surface plate.
6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
7. Using the hack saw, the unwanted portions are removed.
8. Using the flat chisel, the unwanted material in the piece Y is removed.
9. The cut edges are filed by the half round file.
10. The corners of the stepped surfaces are filed by using a square or triangular file to get the
sharp corners.
The pieces (X and Y) are fitted together and the mating is checked for the correctness of the fit,
any defects noticed, is rectified by filing with a smooth file.
2.7. Result: The required Dovetail fitting is obtained according to the drawing.
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Ex. No. 3
V- Template Fitting
TV 3D VIEW
Fig No: 05 V-Template Fitting
24
Ex. No. 3
V- Template Fitting
3.1 Aim: To make a V- Template as per the given dimensions.
3.2 Material Required: Two MS Flat pieces of size 50x50x5mm
3.4 Precautions
2. While doing in step filing use safe edge file.
3.5 Sequence of Operations
1) Filing, 2) Marking, 3) Punching, 4) Sawing, 5) Filing to the given dimensions, 6) Finishing
3.6 Procedure
1. The given MS piece is fixed in the bench vice and one of the two surfaces is filed
with a 10" flat rough file and checkup the flatness with the help of try square. File two
adjacent sides and make it right angle.
2. Apply marking media only on field surface.
3. Marking should be done with the help of a Vernier height gauge as per the given dimensions.
4. After marking, punching should be done with the help of Dot punch & Ball peen
hammer as per given dimensions.
5. Sawing the excess material with the help of Hacksaw, filing should be done as per
given dimensions with the help of a Flat smooth file & safe edge file.
6. Checkup the dimensions with the help of the Vernier caliper as per the given dimensions.
7. File another surface as per required thickness with the help of the flat smooth file.
8. Finishing should be done with the help of flat smooth file.
3.7 Result: V-Template fitting is thus made by following the above sequence of operations
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1.6. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the terms „Bench work” and „Fitting‟

Ans: Bench work refers to the production of components by hand on the bench.
2. Name the operations that are normally performed under „Bench work‟ and „ Fitting‟
Ans: Bench work operations are fitting operations are chipping, filing, scarping, marking,
measuring angles and sawing.
3. Name the material with which a vice body is normally made of. What are the
characteristics of this material?
Ans: it is made of cast iron which is strong in compression, week in tension and so fractures
under shocks and therefore should never be hammered
4. What for a C-clamp is used.
Ans: It is used to hold the work against an angle plate or v-block or any other
surface
5. Name the measuring tools which are a part of the combination set.
Ans: steel rule, square head, centre head, protractor and spirit level
6. Define „Least count‟ of a vernier.
Ans: minimum dimension which can be measured by the device
7. Name the parameters which specify the size of the fallowing.
Surface plate,
Ans: length, width and height
Try square,
Ans; length of the blade
Combination set
Ans: length of its rule
Screw driver
Ans: length of the metal part from handle to tip
8. Classify hacksaw blades.
Ans: a) All hards made of HSS hardened and tempered material
b) Flexible types made of HSS or low alloy steels
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CARPENTRY
27
Table 1: Carpentry tools
S No. Tools Specifications
1 Steel Rule 24"
2 Marking gauge 2" x 2"
3 Carpentry vice 8" x 6"
4 Metal jack plane 14"
5 Try square 6"
6 Hand Saw 12"
7 Tenon Saw 12"
8 Rip saw 18"
9 Firmer Chisel 5, 18, 12, 6 mm
10 Bevel edge chisel 12, 18 mm
11 Mortise chisel 12 mm
12 Wooden mallet 4" x 4"
13 Pincer 2" x 2"
14 Wood Rasp File
28
Introduction to Carpentry
Introduction:
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It starts from a
marketable form of wood and ends with a finished product. It deals with the building work, furniture,
cabinet making, etc. Joinery, i.e. preparation of joints is one of the important operations in all wood
works. It deals with the specific work of a carpenter like making different types of joints to form a
finished product. In this chapter, tools and works associated with joinery are presented.
Specification of wood:
Timber is the name given to the wood obtained from well grown trees. The trees are cut,
sawn into various sizes to suit building purposes. The word, „grain‟, as applied to wood, refers to the
appearance or pattern of the wood on the cut surfaces. The grain of the wood is a fibrous structure and
to make it strong, the timber must be so cut, that the grains run parallel to the length.
Classification of Timber
Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called timber. Woods in
general are divided into two broad categories: Soft woods and hard woods.
Soft woods are obtained from trees having needle shaped leaves or conifers grown in colder part
of the world.
Hard woods are obtained from trees having broad leaves or deciduous trees in hot climate.
Seasoning of Wood
A newly felled tree contains considerable moisture content. If this is not removed, the
timber is likely to wrap, shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content
under controlled conditions, at a uniform rate, from all the parts of the timber. Only seasoned wood
should be used for all carpentry works. Seasoning makes the wood resilient and lighter. Further, it
ensures that the wood will not distort after it is made into an object.
29
\
Fig No: 06 Marking and measuring Tools
30
Carpentry Tools
Carpentry involves operations like cutting, shaping, fastening, etc.., which requires a
variety of tools. The tools which are used to perform the exercises in the WMP lab are tabulated
below.
Classification of Carpentry Tools
Marking and Measuring Tools

Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work, to produce parts to exact
size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the marking and measuring tools
that are required in a carpentry shop.
a) Steel Rule: Steel rule is a simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal
strip with a marked scale of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement.
b) Try Square: Try Square is used for marking and testing angles of 900. It consists of a
steel blade riveted into a hard wood stock, which has a protective brass plate.
c) Bevel Square: The bevel square is similar to the try square but has a blade that may be
swiveled to any angle 0 to 1800. This tool is adjusted, by releasing with a turn screw.
d) Marking Gauge: The marking gauge has one marking point. It gives an accurate cut line
parallel to the true edge. Usually with the grain.
e) Mortise Gauge: Mortise Gauge has two marking points one fixed near to the end of the
steam and another attached to the brass sliding bar these two teeth cut two parallel lines
called mortise lines.
31
Fig No: 07 Cutting and planning tools
32
Cutting and planning tools
a) Rip Saw: Rip Saw is used for cutting along the grain in thick wood. The blade is made
of high grade tool steel and may be either straight or skew backed. It is fitted in a
wooden handle. Made of hard wood by meant of rivets or screws.
b) Hand saw: Cross cut saws, or hand saws as they are sometimes called are used for
cutting across the grain in thick wood.
c) Tenon Saw: Tenon Saw is mostly used for cross cutting when a finer and more accurate
finish is required the blade, being very thin.
d) Metal jack plane: A metal jack plan serves the same purpose as the wooden planes but
facilitate a smoother operation and better finish. The body of a metal plane is made from
a Grey Iron Casting.
e) Firmer Chisel: Firmer Chisel is most useful for general purposes and may be used by
hand pressure or mallet.
f) Bevel Edge Chisel: Beveled edge chisel is used for more delicate or fine work. They are
useful for getting acute angles.
g) Mortise Chisel: The mortise chisel is used for chopping out mortises. This chisels are
designed to with stand heavy work.
h) Pincer: Pincer is mainly used for pulling out nails, tacks etc. It consists of two arms–
one area has a ball end and the other arm has end for levering out small tacks
i) Wood Rasp File: A rasp is coarse form of file used for coarsely shaping wood, it
consists of a generally tapered rectangular, round, or half-round sectioned bar of case
hardened steel with distinct, individually cut teeth.
j) Claw Hammer: It serves the dual purpose of hammer and as well as pincer. The claw is
used for pulling out any nails.
k) Mallet: The mallet is woodenheaded hammer of round or rectangular cross section the
striking face is made flat to the work
33
Ex. No. 1
End- Lap Joint
Fig No:08 End Lap Joint
34
Ex. No. 1
End- Lap Joint
1.1 Aim: To make a End-Lap joint.
1.2 Material Required: Soft Wood (250 mm x50 mm x30mm).
1.3 Tools required: 1. 300mm Steel rule 2. Metal jack plane 3. Try-square 4. Marking gauge,
2. Hand saw 6. Wooden mallet 7. Wood rasp file 8. Mortise chisel 9.Scriber
10.Tenon saw.
1.4 Sequence of operations:

1. Planning 2. Marking 3.Sawing 4.Chiseling 5.Filing 6.Finishing.
1.5 Procedure:
1. The given reaper is checked to for dimension.
2. The reaper is firmly clamped in the carpenters vice and to adjacent faces is
planed by the jack plane and the two faces are checked for squareness with the
Try-square.
3. Marking gauge is set and lines are draw at 30 and 50mm, to mark the
thickness and width of the model respectively.
4. The excess material first chiseled out with firmer chisel and then planned to
correct size.
5. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Y are then marked using scale and
marking gauge.
6. Using the tenon saw, the portion to be removed or cut in both the pieces,
followed by chiseling and also the parts X and Y are separated by cross-
cutting, using the tenon saw.
7. The end of both the parts are chiseled to the exact lengths.
8. A fine finishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper fitting is
obtained.
9. The parts are fitted to obtain a slightly tight joint.
1.6 Safety Precautions:

• Loose cloths should be avoided.
• Shoes should be worn.
• The saw teeth should not touch the hard material.
• Work shop should always be kept clean.
1.7 Result: The End-Lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of operations.
35
Ex. No. 2
T-Bridle Joint
3D VIEW
Fig No:10 T-Bridle Joint

All Dimensions in mm
36
Ex. No. 2
T-Bridle Joint
2.1Aim: To make T-Bridle Joint as per given dimensions.

2.2 Material Required: Soft Wood (250 mm x 50 mm x 30 mm).
2.3 Tools required: 1. 300mm Steel rule 2.Metal jack plane 3.Try-square 4.Marking gauge
5. Hand saw 6.Wooden mallet 7.Wood rasp file 8.Mortise chisel 9.firmer chiesel.
2.4 Sequence of Operations:

2.5 Procedure:
1. The given reaper is checked for dimension.

2. The reaper is firmly clamped in the carpenter's vice and one of its faces are planned by
the jack plane and checked for straightness.
3. The adjacent face is then planed and the faces are checked for squareness with the try
square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are drawn at 30 and 50 mm, to mark the thickness and
width of the model respectively.
5. The excess material is first chiseled out with the firmer chisel and then planned to correct
size.
6. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Yare then marked using the scale and marking
gauge.
7. Using the tenon saw, the portions to be removed in part Y (tenon) is cut, followed by
chiseling.
8. The material to be removed in part X (mortise) is carried out by using the mortise and
firmer chisels.
9. The parts X and Yare separated by cross-cutting with the tenon saw.
10. The ends of both the parts are chiseled to exact lengths.
11. Finish chiseling is done wherever needed so that, the parts can be fitted to obtain a near
tight joint.

2.7 Result:
The T- Bridle joint is thus made by following the above sequence of operations.
37
Ex. No. 3
Dovetail Joint
3D VIEW
Fig No:11 Dovetail Joint
38
Ex. No. 3
Dovetail Joint
3.1 Aim: To make dovetail lap joint as per dimensions.
3.2 Materials required: Soft Wood (250 mm x50 mm x30mm).
3.3 Tools required: 1.300mm Steel rule 2.Metal jack plane 3.Try-square 4.Marking gauge
5. Hand saw 6.Wooden mallet 7.Wood rasp file 8.Mortise chisel 9. Scriber
10. Tenon Saw
3.5 Procedure:
1. The given wood is checked for dimensions.
2. One side is planned with metal jack plane and checked for trueness by try-
square.
3. The four sides are also planned.
4. The excess material is cut by tenon saw.
5. Now the portions for lapping portion are marked.
6. After sawing remove the waste material by firmer chisel.
7. If the material is still remained in 2 or 3 mm, the remove by filing by wood
rasp file.
Note:
Dovetail joint is widely used simple and effective joint. Generally an angle of 1:6 ratios is
adopted. It is partially used in joint between the sides and back of drawers.

3.7 Result:
The dovetail lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of operations.
39
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the commonly available shapes of timber in the market.
Ans: - log, balk, post, plank, board, batten, scantlings or reapers

2. Classify the planning tools.
Ans: - to regulate the depth of cut, to straighten the blade so that it produces flat surfaces
3. Name the different type of chisels
Ans: - firmer chisel, dove tail chisel, mortise chisel
4. On what parameters, the strength of the joint depends.
Ans: - the strength of joint depends upon the amount of contact area
5. Name the various joinery materials used in carpentry.
Ans: - nails, screw, bolts, nuts and dowels
40
ELECTRICAL/
HOUSE WIRING
41
Introduction to Electrical/House Wiring
INTRODUCTION
Power is supplied to domesticate installations through a phase and neutral, forming a
single phase AC 220v two wire system. For individual establishment power is supplied
through three phase two wire system. To give 440V, the neutral is earthed at to the
domestic utilities; power is fed to kilo watt meter and then to distributes power along
several circuits. It also protects these circuits from over load by safety devices like fuses
or circuit breakers.
Safety Precautions
✓ Always be careful.
✓ Don‟t tamper unnecessarily with any live electrical gear.
✓ Don‟t disconnect any plug by pulling the flexible cable.
✓ Before replacing a blown fuse, always remember to put the main switch off.
✓ Safety demands good earthing. Here always keep earthing connections in good
conditions.
✓ While handling on electrical appliance like Table Fan, Iron heaters etc., be sure that they
are disconnected from the supply. Switches off is not enough. Leaky insulation may
give serious shock.
✓ Live wires should always be connected through the switch.
✓ Do not put a share edge tool in your pocket.
✓ In case of electric wire, do not throw water on line conductor and equipment as it is
dangerous. The best remedy is to disconnect the electrical supply immediately and then
throw sand (or) dust on fire.
✓ Do not tie wire with the electric pole on which clothes are dried (or) hanged.
42
Table No:2 Signals and Symbols
Signs and Symbols:
1. Alternate current
2. Direct current
3. Lamp
4. Fuse
5. Earthing
6. One way switch
7. Two way switch
8. Double pole iron clad switch
9. Triple pole iron clad switch
43
CONNECTION OF RESISTANCE
1. Series connections 2. Parallel connection 3. Combined connections
1. Series Connections
The R1 ending is connected to R2 starting and R2 ending is connected to R3 starting like
50 is known as series connections. The characteristics of the series connection the total voltage
divided into number of lamps, 50 numbers of lamps. This connection is generally used for decoration
purpose.
2. Parallel connections
All the resistance starting terminals are connected at one end and all the ending terminals
are connected at another end is known as parallel connections. The characteristics of the parallel
connection are voltage same and current will divide. The number of lamps time which is depend upon
supply system. This connection can be used for domestic purpose. i.e., House, Factories, Street lights
etc.
3. Combined connections:
The combined of series and parallel connection is known as combined connection
CIRCUITS
There are three types of circuits.
1) Open circuit 2) Short circuit 3) Closed circuit
1. Open Circuit:
When we put on the switch the lamp does not glow due to the loose connections of conductors (or)
damage of the conductor is known as open circuit.
2. Short Circuit:
When phase and neutral conductors are touching together before the high resistance, the short circuit is
occurred when the short circuit is occurred immediately the fuse will blow off when we provide rating of
fuse wire i.e., 5A, 10A, 15A etc.
3. Closed Circuit:
When we put on the switch the lamp glow is known as closed circuit. Our circuits are closed circuit and
connections are all parallel.
4. Consumption of power: No. of lamps x watts x hours x days
1 x 100 x 5 x 30 = 15000 wh = 15
kwh One unit cost Rs. 1.50
= 15 x 1.50 = Rs. 22.50 p
44
Fig No: 12 Electrical Tools
45
2. TOOLS AND USES
1. Cutting Pliers
Cutting is a tool used for cutting & nipping purpose. It is used for cutting both insulator and conductor
at once. It is available 8” and 6”
2. Nose Pliers
It is a tool used for cutting the conductors and insulators at very narrow places. Whole cutting plier
cannot be used because of its width.
3. Screw Driver
Screw driver of different way this and of different sizes of screws. It is used for loosing and fitting the
screw. It is available 12”, 8”, 6” & 4” etc.
4. Poker
It is used to make pilot holes on wooden boards.
5. Wire stripper
It is used to remove the insulation.
6. Hammer (1/2 lb.)
It is used for reverting purpose. The iron part of this hammer weighs ½ lb.
46
EX.NO. 1
Two Lamps in Parallel with 5 pin 6amp socket and switches
Fig No:13 Connection Diagram (Parallel Connection)
Fig No:14 Circuit Diagram(Parallel Connection)
Department of Mechanical Lords Institute of Engineering &

Engineering 46 Technology
EX.NO. 1
Two Lamps in Parallel with 5 pin 6amp socket and switches
1.1 Aim: To connect two lamps in parallel connection with controlling one-way switch with
5pin , 6amp socket.
1.2Material Required:
1. 3 way junction box 3/4 2. Saddle ¾”
3.Square block 4. Round block wooden
5. PVC wire 1/18 6. Screws 12 mm &60 mm
7. PVC pipe ¾” 8. Socket 5pin, 230V, 6amp 1 Nos.
9. switches (1way) 3 No,s 10.Two Lamps
1.3 Tools Required:
• Screw Driver 12" 1 No. • Screw driver 8" 1 No.
• Screw Driver 4" 1 No. • Cutting plier 8" 1 No.
• Poker 8" 1 No. • Hammer ½Ib 1 No.
• Wire Stripper 6" 1 No
1.4 Index:
1. Hammer ½Ib 1 No. 1 &2 Lamp Holders
2. Wire Stripper 6" 1 No.3 One-Way Switch
1.5 Precautions:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid short circuit.
1.6 Procedure:
1. Make “T” frame with the help of 3-way junction box and fix with help of saddles.
2. Take PVC wire and give connection as per circuit diagram such that a phase wire connected
incoming of one-way switch and another wire connected outgoing of one-way switch to the bottom
wire which was connected to bottom of L1 and L2 ends. Neutral wire is connected to L1 and L2
second terminal and 5 pin socket second terminal.
3. Fix one-way switch square block.
4. Fix round blocks and the top of the round blocks are connected to lamp holders.
1.7 Result: Two lamps are connected in parallel connection with controlling one-way switch.

Ex. No. 2
Two Lamps in Series Connection with switches
Fig No:15 Connection Diagram(Series Connection)
Fig No:16 Circuit Diagram(Series Connection)

Ex. No. 2
Two Lamps in Series Connection with switches
2.1 Aim: To connect two lamps in series connection with switches.
2.2 Material Required
1. Two lamps 250 volts 6 amp 5. One Square block
2. Two lamp holder’s 250 volts 6 amp 6. Two Round blocks Wooden
3. PVC Pipe ¾" 7. PVC Wire 1/18
4. One way Switch 2 No. 250 volts 6 amp
2.3 Tools Required

1. Screw Driver 12" 1 No. 5. Poker 8" 1 No.
2. Screw driver 8" 1 No. 6. Hammer ½ Ib. 1 No.
3. Screw Driver 4" 1 No. 7. Wire Stripper 6" 1 No
4. Cutting plier 8" 1 No.
2.4 INDEX
• 1 &2 Lamp Holders
• One-Way Switch
2.5 PRECAUTIONS
2. Avoid short circuit
2.6 PROCEDURE:
1. Make “T” frame with the help of 3-way junction box and fix with help of saddles.
2. Connection such that a phase wire connected incoming of one-way switch and another wire
connected to outgoing one-way switch to the one end of L1 bottom lamp holder. Neutral wire
is connected to another end of L2 lamp holder. Finally L1 L2 top of ends points are
connected with a wire.
3. Fix one-way switch square block.
4. Fix round blocks and the top of the round blocks are connected to lamp holders
2.7 Result: Two lamps are connected in series connection

Ex No: 3
Stair-Case Connection
Fig No:17 Connection Diagram (Stair-Case Connection)
Fig No:18 Circuit Diagram (Stair-Case Connection)
Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology

50
Ex No: 3
Stair-Case Connection
3.1 Aim: To give connection to one light controlled by 2 two way switches.
3.2 Material Required: Tools used:

1. Wooden wiring board. 1. Connector screw driver.
2. One way switch. 2. Poker.
3. Wooden round blocks. 3. Wire stripper.
4. Batten lamp holders. 4. Nose plier.
5. Wires, wire clips. 5. Cutting plier.
6. Bulbs. 6. Pincer.
7. Nails.
3.3 Precautions:
2. Avoid short circuit.
✓ The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
✓ Clips are nailed the board, following the wiring diagram.
✓ Wires are stretched and clamped with clips.
✓ Wires are connected to the holders and switch, which are then screwed onto the wiring board.
✓ Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
✓ The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.
3.5 Result: The electrical circuit, for one light controlled by 2 way switches is thus made.

51
Review Questions and Answers
1. Define electrical wiring?
Ans: a wire is defined as a bare or insulated conductor consisting of one or several stands.
2. Name the three types of electrical circuits?

Ans: Open circuit, series circuit and parallel circuit.
3. What is single phase system?

Ans: There will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through only one wire and there
will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit.
4. What is three phase system?

Ans: The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it can act as three
single phase system.
5. What is the unit of power?

Ans: Watt
6. What is the function of the electrical switch?

Ans: An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit.
Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either completely on (“closed”) or completely
off (“open”).
7. Name the different methods of earthlings?

Ans: plate earthing, pipe earthing, rod earthing, earthing through the waterman.
8. The intensity of the glow of an indicator lamp is a measure of voltage/current

level. Ans: voltage
9. How do protect the circuits?

Ans: by installing fuse or circuit breaker.

52
TIN SMITHY

53
Cutting Tools
Fig No:19 Shearing Machine
Fig No: 20 Snips

54
Introduction to Tin Smithy (Sheet Metal Working)
1. Introduction
The sheet metal work section deals working with metallic sheets using hand tools. Sheet metal
works such as making a tray, box, funnel, chimney, air duct, fabricate boiler shells and pipe joints from
thin or thick plates, etc. are few examples of its application and the process is also known as Tin Smithy.
To make any object from sheet metal, knowledge in engineering drawing and development of surfaces is
required. As per drawing the sheet is cut and folded to form the required shape of the article. The edge
of the article is then secured through welding, brazing, soldering, riveting etc. Allowance should be
given in the drawing stage for folding and bending. This allowance depends on the radius of the bend
and thickness of the sheet metal.
Sheet Metals Used in Metal Work:
A wide variety of metals, in the form of sheet are used in sheet metal workshop. The most
commonly used are explained below.
❖ Galvanized Iron (G.I.) Sheet
It is a sheet of soft steel coated with zinc. GI sheet is one of the least expensive metals
used in sheet metal shop. It is used for making pans, buckets, gutters, tanks, boxes etc.
Generally GI products are very suitable for corrosive environment because zinc coating
protects the iron form corrosion.
❖ Copper
It has reddish colour and is used for water pipes, roofing, gutters and other parts of the
building. Copper products are used where thermal resistance is the criterion along with
corrosion resistance. But copper is expensive.
❖ Tin Plate
Tin plate is the iron or steel coated with pure tin. It has bright silvery appearance and is
used for containers, dairy equipment‟s, furnace fittings, cans, trays and pans.
❖ Stainless Steel
The 18-8 type steel is used in sheet metal work from the available different type of
stainless steel. The products like food containers, dairy equipment‟s and kitchen wares
are prepare from 18-8 steel.
❖ Black Iron
It is an uncoated sheet of metal with bluish appearance. The black iron sheet is used for
the products, which are having no restrictions on painting after its preparation.

55
Fig No: 21 Marking and Measuring Tools
56
2. Marking and Measuring Tools
Marking and measuring tools are used to produce objects to an exact shape and size. The commonly
used tools are given below:
2.1. Steel Rule
It is used to measure and mark dimensions. It is graduated on both sides in millimeters and
centimeters or inches. Its length varies from 15 cm (6 inches) to 30 cm (12 inches).
It is used to mark or scribe lines on the metal sheet. Its length varies from 150 mm to 300 mm
and has diameter which varies from 3 to 5 mm.
2.2 Wire Gauge
A gauge is a traditional, non-linear measurement. The most commonly used sheet metal sizes
range from 30 gauge (thinner) to 7 gauge (thicker). A sheet metal gauge tool is used
to measure metal thickness, and show both the gauge number as well as the thickness of the
metal in thousandths of an inch.
Divider
It is used to mark the dimensions from scale to the work piece. It is also used to scribe arcs and
circles on the sheets. It is similar to the compass and is used for more accurate marking.
Try-square
It is used for marking and checking right angles. It consists of a steel blade riveted at right
angles. It is used to mark square corners.
Trammel points
It is used to draw large circles and arcs. The trammel has two removable pointed legs and
mounted on separate holders. The holders slide on a beam which can be easily adjusted for the
required length.
3. Cutting Tools
Snips are used to shear or cut the metal sheets to the required size and shape. Snips are used to cut thin
sheet metals. The following snips are used in sheet metal work.
Straight snip
It is used to cut or trim along a straight line. The blades in this snip are straight.
Bent Snip
It is used to trim or cut along inside curves. The blades in this snip are curved back from the
cutting edge, which permits the sheet to slide over the top blades while cutting.

57
Fig No:22 Different Types of Stakes

58
Shearing machine
The simple shearing machine is used to shear the sheet metal using a compound lever. The
shearing machine has a fixed bottom blade and a top shearing blade which is operated by a lever.
It is used to shear metal plates which can’t be cut or trim by snips.
4. Forming Tools
Shaping of the sheet metal such as folding, bending, curling, etc., is done by using the following types of
forming tools.
Stakes
Stakes are the sheet metal anvils used for bending, seaming and forming by using a hammer or
mallet. They work as the supporting tool as well as the forming tools. They are made in different sizes
and shapes depending upon the job requirement. Commonly used stakes are:
a) Rectangular Stake: It is used to form / bend the sheet metal to 900 and the face of the stake
can be used to form square shape.
b) Hand Stake: It is used for pressing the inner sides of straight joint in the sheet. It has a flat
surface with two straight edges, a concave edge and a convex edge.
c) Half-Moon or Half Round Stake: It is used to form a round seam joint on the inner side of
the job.
d) Horse Stake: It has two square holes for holding one or two stakes to carry out different
operations on the job.
e) Taper Stake: It is used to form a conical or tapering job.
Hammers and mallet
The hammer is a striking tool. It has a handle and a head. Hammers are classified into four types.
• Ball peen hammer
• Cross pen hammer
• Straight peen hammer
• Riveting hammer
The ball peen hammer is a general purpose hammer which has a slightly curved face and a round head.
The cross peen and straight peen hammers are used for folding the sheet and to work in the corners of
the object.
Mallet: It has a striking face which is used to give light blows to sheets. It is used to smoothen/ flatten the surface
of the sheet without spoiling it. Mallet is made of hard wood and is round or rectangular in cross-section.

59
Ex. No. 1
Square Tin
Material: GI sheet 30 gauge

Fig No:23 Square Tin
All dimensions in mm
Note: Sketches should be drawn with pencil neatly

60
Ex. No. 1
Square Tin
1.1. Aim: To make a square tin having separate base and top open.
1.2 . Tools Required & Equipment:
1. Steel rule, 2. Straight Snip, 3.Mallet, 4.Scriber, 5.Stakes, 6.Try square,
7. Ball peen hammer½ lb.
1.3. Materials Required With Dimensions

G.I sheet, 30-Gauge- 215mm x 70 mm, and 70 mm x 70 mm.
1.4. Precautions:
• Wear apron and shoes while doing the job.
• Dimensions have to be marked carefully.
• Dimensions are to be measured carefully.
• The cut portion must not be felt by hand while cutting with snip.
• Cutting has to be done carefully without hurting the fingers.
• Do not let sheet metal slip through your hands. Most cuts from sheet metal result
from allowing it to slide through the hands.
1.5. Sequence of operation:
1) Measuring 2) Marking 3) Cutting 4) Folding 5) Bending 6) Hammering.
1.6. Procedure:
1: The given metal sheet is smoothened using mallet.
2: Draw the development of surface of square tin of required dimensions.
3: (i) 215 mm x 70 mm (ii) 70 mm x 70 mm and mark required dimensions with the
help of steel rule and scriber.
4: After marking, unwanted material is removed with the help of steel rule and straight snip.
5: Now bending is to be done by placing sheet on stakes. After bending as per
requirement, two pieces are assembled and joined with the help of stakes and mallet.
Thus the required square tin is obtained
1.7 Result: Square tin of required size is obtained.

61
Ex. No. 2
Rectangular Scoop
Fig No:24 Rectangular Scoop

62
Ex. No. 2
Rectangular Scoop
2.1. Aim: To make a Rectangular scoop using the given sheet metal
2.2. Tools required:
1. Steel rule, 2. Straight Snip, 3.Mallet, 4.Scriber, 5.Stakes, 6. Try square, 7. Ball peen hammer
½ lb.

G.I sheet, 30-Gauge- 100x120mm
2.4. Precautions:
1. Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2. Be sure that the fingers are away from the shearing bend.
3. Markings should be done carefully.
4. Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.
2.5. Sequence of operation
2.6. Procedure:
1. The size of given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
2. The layout of the scoop is marked on the given sheet.
3. The layout of the scoop is cut by using the straight snip as shown in development.
4. Single hemming is made on the four sides of the tray.
5. The two sides of the scoop are bent to 90°.
Note:
The single hemmed vertical edges of the scoop can either be riveted or soldered to
ensure stability of the joints.
2.7. Result:
The rectangular scoop is thus made, from the given sheet metal.

63
Ex. No. 3
Conical Funnel
Fig No:25 Conical Funnel
Where,
r= base radius of the cone.

R= slant generator of the cone

64
Ex. No. 3
Conical Funnel
3.1. Aim: To make a conical funnel using the given sheet metal.
1. Steel rule, 2. Straight Snip, 3.Mallet, 4.Scriber, 5.Stakes, 6. Try square, 7. Ball peen hammer
½ lb.

G.I sheet, 30-Gauge- 60 mm x 75 mm
3.4. Precautions:
1. Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2. Be sure that the fingers are away from the shearing bend.
3. Markings should be done carefully.
4. Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.
3.5. Sequence of operation

3.6. Procedure
1. Draw the front view of the right circular cone OAB of base dia. Is 60mm. A section
plane cuts perpendicular to the axis of the cone at 40mm height at CD above the base.
2. With „O‟ as center and radius equal to slant generator length (OA or OB) draw an
arc. With the same center „O” radius equal (OC or OD) draw another arc.
3. Find ø = 360X r / R =360 X Radius of the base circle of the cone/ Length of slant
generator of the cone Where ø = Angle subtended to cut the arc.
4. Set an angle ø = ? At the point of vertex it cut the arc at the
points EFGH. Set off 4 and 5+4 mm extra for seam joint.
5. The development of the part-II is in a concept of frustum of cone is just same as
Right circular Cone.
6. Trace the development part-I and II on a given G.I sheet 28G (Galvanized Plain
sheet0.38mm thick). Mark all the necessary lines.
7. Cut the sheet along the line according to shape of the development.
8. Fold 4 mm extra allowance in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions by keeping
hacksaw blade thickness and pressed.
9. Remove the hacksaw blade, Bend the main body using the cone stake and lock the
end joint lock.
10. Repeat the same for Part-Ii. Solder the two parts with electric soldering.
3.7 Result: The funnel is thus made, from the given sheet metal.

65
Review Questions and Answers
1. What is straight peen hammer?
Ans: this is similar to cross-peen hammer, but its peen is -line with hammer handle it is used for
swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching‟s metals.
2. What are the types of hammers are there?

Ans: ball peen hammer, cross peen hammer, straight peen hammer.
3. What is scriber?
Ans: It is used to marking on timber and sheet metal. It is made of steel, having one end pointed and the
other end formed into a sharp cutting edge.
4. What are the supporting tools in tin smithy?

Ans: trammel, bench shear, snip, stakes,
5. A sheet of steel, which is coated with molten zinc, is known as ------ ?

Ans: GI sheet
6 ------- are used to support the sheet while shaping

Ans: Stakes
7. Difference between straight snip and bent snip?

Ans: Straight snip is used for cutting along outside curves and bent snip is for trimming along inside
curves.
8. What are stakes?

Ans: Stakes are nothing but anvils, which are used as supporting tools and to form, seam, bent, or rivet
sheet metal objects.
9. What is scriber?
Ans: It is used to marking on timber and sheet metal. It is made of steel, having one end pointed and the
other end formed into a sharp cutting edge.
10. What is tin smithy?

Ans: Many engineering and house hold articles such as hoppers, guards, covers boxes, cans, fanners,
ducts etc., are made from a flat sheet or metal; the process being known as tin smithy.

66
WELDING
PRACTICE

67
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING
1. Introduction:
Welding is a process of joining two or more parts of material(s) by heating them to above melting
point of the base metal.
Welding processes are classified as (i) Autogeneous welding and (ii) Heterogeneous
Autogeneous Welding: In this process the two pieces are fused together without using a filler
rod (or an electrode)
Heterogeneous Welding: In this process the two parts are joined together with the help of a
filler rod (or an electrode)
The arc welding processes are again classified as follows:
• Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding or (SMAW) Manual metal arc welding (MMAW)
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Gas metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
• Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding (AHAW)
• Electro-gas Welding (EGW)
However, SMAW and Oxy-Acetylene Welding processes are the general purpose processes with a wide
range of applications.
Some of the typical applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels automobile
bodies, off-shore plat forms, storage tanks, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives
etc.
Fig No: 26 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

68
In SMAW an emf is applied between the electrode and the work piece and suitable current proportional
to the diameter of the electrode is passed through the circuit. An arc is struck between the electrode and
the plate and the heat produced is utilized for melting both the work piece and the electrode. The flux
around the electrode melts and forms a shielding gas to protect the molten weld pool from the ill effects
of atmospheric gases. The temperature in the core of the arc ranges between 6000-7000C. The
radiations originating from the welding arc can damage the eye thus necessitating the use of protective
shield.
Fig No: 27 Oxy-Acetylene Welding (Gas Welding)

In this process acetylene (C2H2) is mixed with oxygen in the welding torch and is then burnt at the torch
tip to give a flame with a temperature of about 3300C which can melt most of the ferrous and non-
ferrous metals in common use.
Oxygen and Acetylene are easily available in cylinders at pressures of 1500 N/cm 2 or 150 bars and 170
N/cm2 or 17 bars respectively.
These are connected to the welding torch through hoses and are mixed and burnt to get different types of
flames viz., neutral, oxidizing and corburising. The nature of the flame depends upon the ratio of the
two gases. The neutral flame is most often used for the welding of most of the materials like low carbon
steels, cast steel, cast iron etc.
69
It is quite common to use filler material with gas welding though if need be, the process can be used without
filler as well.
1.1 Tools and equipment used in gas and arc welding process
1. Welding machine. (AC transformer, DC generator or AC, DC Rectifier.
2. Welding cables (Copper or Aluminium)
3. Electrode Holder (400 mps or 600 Amps) and Earth clamp
4. Types of Electrodes and Filler rod.
5. Welding Helmet or Hand Screen.
6. Ball peen hammer and Chisel
7. Chipping Hammer and Steel Wire Brush.
8. Tong
9. Steel Rule (12”)
10. Leather Hand Gloves and Leather Apron.
11. Oxygen Cylinder and Regulator with hose pipe.
12. Acetylene Cylinder and Regulator with hose pipe.
13. Welding Blow pipe and Nozzle.
14. Cutting Blow pipe and Nozzle.
15. Spindle Key and Adjustable spanner.
16. Spark Lighter and Goggles.

70
EX.NO. 1
Making Joint on Plate by Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Lap Joint)
3D VIEW
Fig No:28 Lap Joint
All Dimensions are in mm

71
EX.NO. 1
Making Joint on Plate by Shielded Metal Arc Welding (Lap Joint)
1.1 Aim: To make a lap joint on MS plates

1.2 Material required:
MS plate on MS flat (100 mm x 50 mm x 6mm thickness (2 Nos)
1.3 Tools required:
1. Welding Transformer (AC Transformer, DC generator or AC / DC Rectifier)
2. Welding Cables 3. Electrode holder and Earth clamp
4. Metallic work table 5. MS electrodes
6. Hand Screen 7. Leather apron and Leather hand gloves
8. Chipping hammers 9. Steel wire Brush
10. Tong 11. Ball peen Hammer
12. Chisel 13. Bench grinding machine
1.4 Precautions:
• Always use welding hand screen while doing welding.
• While doing welding wear protective items i.e. leather apron, leather hand gloves.
• While doing welding, short arc i.e. (1mm) gap should be maintained.
1.5 Sequence of Operation:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

72
1.6 Procedure:
1. Take the given MS plate (100 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm thick) and clean the surfaces from rust and
dust particles with the help of steel wire brush.
2. After cleaning the plates grind all sides lightly and one of the edges of both the plates should
be ground more like as „V‟ grove using the bench grinding machine.
3. After grinding, set the plates overlap (overlap length is 25 mm) to each other on the work table.
4. Take 3.15 mm (dia) or 10 gauge electrodes fix into the electrode holder and slightly bend the
electrode in the tip side.
5. Set current of the transformer rating to 66 volts i.e. open circuit voltage and 100 Amps
i.e. welding current.
6. Firstly, strike the electrode on the scrap plate for 2, 3 times and do tack welding of 2 plates on
4 sides and do full welding carefully.
7. After completing full welding cool the job with water and remove the slag and clean it. The
job is over.
1.7 Result: Lap joint is done on MS plates

73
EX.NO. 2
Laying Joint on Plate by Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (Butt joint)
3D VIEW
Fig No:29 Butt Joint

74
EX.NO. 2
Laying Joint on Plate by Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(Butt joint)
2.1 Aim: To make a butt joint on MS plates
2.2 Material Required:
MS plate on MS flat (100 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm thickness (2 Nos))
2.3 Tools Required:
1. Welding transformer (AC Transformer, DC generator or AC / DC Rectifier)
1. Marking
2. Cutting
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning
2.5 Precautions:

75
2.6 Procedure:
1. Take the given MS plate (100 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm thick) and clean the surfaces from rust
and dust particles with the help of steel wire brush.
3. After grinding, set the plates on the work table and set parallel to each other and 1 mm gap
should be maintained between the two plates.
4. Take 3.15 mm (dia) or 10 gauge electrodes fix into the electrode holder and slightly bend
the electrode in the tip side.
5. Set current of the transformer rating to 66 volts. i.e. open circuit voltage and 100 Amps
i.e. welding current.
6. Firstly, strike the electrode on the scrap plate for 2, 3 times and do tack welding of 2 plates
on 4 sides and do full welding carefully.
job is over.
2.7 Results: Butt joint is done on the given MS plates

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EX.NO. 3
T-Joint
Fig No:30 T-Joint

77
EX.NO. 3
T-Joint
3.1 Aim: To make a butt joint on MS plates
3.2 Material Required: MS plate on MS flat (100 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm thickness (2 Nos))
3.3 Tools Required:

3. Welding transformer (AC Transformer, DC generator or AC / DC Rectifier)
3.4 Precautions:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

78
3.6 Procedure:
1. Take the given MS plate (100 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm thick) and clean the surfaces from rust
and dust particles with the help of steel wire brush.
3. After grinding, set the plates on the work table and set parallel to each other and 1 mm gap
should be maintained between the two plates.
4. Take 3.15 mm (dia) or 10 gauge electrodes fix into the electrode holder and slightly bend the
electrode in the tip side.
5. Set current of the transformer rating to 66 volts. i.e. open circuit voltage and 100 Amps
i.e. welding current. Firstly, strike the electrode on the scrap plate for 2, 3 times and do
tack welding of 2 plates on 4 sides and do full welding carefully.
job is over.
3.7 Results: T- Joint is done on the given MS plates.

79
PRE LAB QUESTIONS:
1. What gases are used in gas welding?
Ans:
1. Shielding gases such as carbon dioxide, argon, helium, etc.
2. fuel gases such as acetylene, propane, butane, etc.
3. oxygen, used with fuel gases and also in small amounts in some shielding gas mixtures.
2. What is reverse polarity and forward polarity?

Ans: In case of DC polarity, current flows only in one direction; whereas, in case of AC, current
flow direction reverses in every cycle (number of cycles per second depends on the frequency of
supply). Now, in arc welding, base metals are connected with one terminal and the electrode is
connected with other terminal.
3. What are the rays generates during welding processes which effect on eyes?
Ans: Exposure to infrared light can heat the lens of the eye and produce cataracts over the long
term. Visible light from welding processes is very bright and can overwhelm the ability of the iris
of the eye to close sufficiently and rapidly enough to limit the brightness of the light reaching the
retina.
4. What is the electrode coating material?
Ans: Electrode coatings are composed of a mixture of minerals, organic material, ferro-alloys and
iron powder bonded with sodium or potassium silicate.
5. Welding is a permanent or non permanent joint?
Ans: Permanent Joint
6. What is the angle between electrode and work piece?
Ans: With wire welding, hold the gun at a 10° to 15° angle into the direction you are pushing the
weld. With stick welding, maintain a 20° to 30° lead angle in the dragging direction. With a fillet
(tee) weld, hold the rod or wire (regardless of weld process) at a 45° angle between the two pieces
of metal.
7. What is the minimum gap is required to perform the welding process?
Ans: 1/16” inch

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PRE LAB QUESTIONS:
1. What is Arc Welding?
Ans: Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and join
metals. A power supply creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-consumable electrode
and the base material using either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents.
2. What is Gas Welding?
Ans: Gas Welding • Gas welding is a welding process that melts and joins metals by heating them
with a flame caused by a reaction of fuel gas and oxygen.
3. What is spot welding?
Ans: Spot welding (or resistance spot welding) is a type of electric resistance welding used to weld
various sheet metal products, through a process in which contacting metal surface points are joined
by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current.
4. What is AC & DC current?
Ans: Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electrical current, in which the direction of the flow of
electrons switches back and forth at regular intervals or cycles. ... Direct current (DC) is electrical
current which flows consistently in one direction.
5. What is electrode?
Ans: As per the definition of the electrode, it is any substance that is a good conductor of electricity
and these substances usually connect non-metallic parts of a circuit for example semiconductors, an
electrolyte, plasmas, vacuum or even air. The term was first coined by William Whewell and
derived from Greek words Elektron, which means “amber” and hodos which translates to “a way.”
6. What is the melting temperature of M.S plate?
Ans: Typically, mild steel has a melting point of 1350oC-1530oC (2462oF-2786oF) depending on the grade
of the steel as dictated by the amount of carbon it contains.
7. Define the following joints?
i) Lap Joint, ii) Butt joint, iii) T-Joint and iv) Corner joint.
Ans:
i) Lap Joint: A joint made by halving the thickness of each member at the joint and fitting them
together.
ii) Butt joint: A joint formed by two pieces of wood or metal united end to end without overlapping.
iii) T-Joint : A tee joint refers to the welded point of two metallic materials that are joined in the same
plane at a 180° combined angle with a 90° angle
iv) Corner joint: A joint between two elements located approximately at right angles in the form of L.

81
B. TRADES FOR
DEMONSTRATION AND
EXPOSURE

82
MACHINING
(LATHE & DRILLING)

83
Machine shop (Lathe & drilling machine)
1. Introduction
In a machine shop, metals are cut to shape on different machine tools. A lathe is used to
cu and shape the metal by revolving the work against a cutting tool. The work is clamped either
in a chuck, fitted onto the lathe spindle or in-between the centres. The cutting tool is fixed tool is
fixed in a tool post, mounted on a movable carriage that is positioned on the lathe bed. The
cutting tool can be fed into the work, either lengthwise or cross-wise. While turning, the chuck
rotates in counter-clockwise direction, when viewed from tail-stock end
• Lathe:-
A lathe is a versatile machine useful to cut and shape the material by revolving the work
against cutting edge of a cutting tool. The work is clamped either in a chuck or face plate
fitted on the lathe spindle or between the centre. The cutting tool is fixed in a tool post,
mounted on a movable carriage that is positioned on the lathe bed. The cutting tools can be
fed into the work either length wise or crosswise.
Fig: 31 Lathe Machine
Principal Parts of Lathe:-
Bed: Bed is an essential part of lathe, which must be strong, rigid and free from
vibrations. It carries all parts of the machine and resists the outing forces. The carriage and the
tailstock move along the guide ways provided on the bed. It is made of grey cast iron because it
84
has the above properties.
Head stock: It contains cone pulleys, V-pulleys or gears to provide necessary range of spindle
speeds. Headstock provides the speed gearbox, which rotates the main spindle at selected
revolutions per minute depending on the cutting speed (m/mt) recommended for a particular
operation.
Tail stock: It is used to support the right hand end of a long work piece. It may be clamped in
any position along the lathe bed. The tailstock spindle has an internal Morse taper to receive the
dead center to support the work. Drills, reamer, taps etc. may also be fitted in the tailstock
spindle for performing operations such as drilling, reaming, and taping.
Carriage or Saddle: Saddle is used to control the movement of cutting tool. The carriage
assembly consists of longitudinal slide, cross slide, compound slide and the apron. The cross
slide moves across the length of the bed and perpendicular to the axis of spindle. This movement
is used for facing and to provide necessary depth of cut while turning. The apron, which is bolted
to the saddle, is on the front of the lathe and contains longitudinal and cross slide controls both
manual and automatic.
Compound rest: compound rest supports the tool post. By swiveling the compound rest on the
cross slide, short tapers may be turned to desired angles. Material is cut by moving the
compound slide. The length of the taper is limited to the travel to the compound slide.
Tool post: The tool post holds the tool or the tool holder, which may be adjusted to any working
position. It may be a single tool post that can hold the tool at a time or square tool post with
provision to hold four tools. In some lathes quick-change tool posts are also provided.
Feed gear box: It is also called Norton gear box. It is connected to the lathe spindle through
change gears and tumbler gears to provide automatic rotation to the feed rod or lead screw.
Lead screw (feed rod): It is a long threaded shaft located in front of carriage, running from the
head stock end to the tailstock. It is connected to the spindle through the feed gearbox and
change gears for providing movement of tool either for automatic feeds or of cutting threads. In
some lathes fed rod and lead screw are separated. The thread of the lead screw is made of ACME
type for easy engagement of half nut.
Centers: There are two types of Centre known as dead center and live Centre. The dead Centre
is fixed in the lathe tailstock spindle and the live Centre in the headstock spindle. During turning
between centers the dead Centre does not revolve with the work, while the live Centre revolves
with the work.
Working Holding Devices:-
Three jaw chucks: It is a work holding device having three jaws which will close or open with
respect to the chuck Centre, Centre line or the spindle Centre. It is used for holding regular
85
objects like round bars, hexagonal rods, etc. a three jaw chuck is provided with a set of external
jaws also.
Four jaw chuck: In a four chuck, all jaws have independent movement. It is used for holding,
octagonal or irregular shaped works.
Fig No :32 3-Jaw Chuck And 4-Jaw Chuck

Face plate: It is a plate of large diameter used for turning operations. Certain types of works that
cannot be held in chucks are held on the face plate with the help of various accessories or
fixtures.
Lathe dogs and driving plate: These are used to drive a work piece that is held between
centers. These are provided with no opening to receive and clamp the work piece and dog tail.
The tail of the dog is carried by the pin provided in the driving plate fixed on the spindle nose
and rotates along with it.
Fig No:33 Face Plate Fig No:34 Lathe Dog And Driving Plate
Cutting Parameters:-
Cutting speed: Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the material is removed and it is
specified in meters per minute. It depends on the work piece material, tool material, feed and
depth of cut, type of operation such as rough turning, finish turning, threading etc, and many
other cutting conditions. For example the cutting speed recommended for turning operation on
mild steel with high speed steel tool is 25m/mt. If instead of HSS tool, carbide tool is used the
cutting speed recommended is about 75m/mt.
On the other hand, instead of mild steel the work material is aluminum say with the HSS
tool the cutting speed recommended is 150m/mt. The cutting speeds recommended for various
combinations are given in table.
Knowing the cutting for a particular operation and the diameter of the work, the spindle speed in
revolutions per minute is calculated from the relations.

86
Introduction to Drilling Machine
1. Introduction
The drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. As regards its
importance, it is second only to the lathe. In a drilling machine holes can be drilled quickly and
at low cost. The hole is generated by the rotating edges of a cutting tool known as the drill which
exerts large force on the work clamped on the table. As the machine tool exerts a vertical
pressure to originate a hole it is loosely called a drill press. Drilling machines are made in many
types and sizes, each is designed to handle a class of work or specific jobs to the best advantage.
Types of drilling machines:

1 Portable drilling machine
2 Sensitive drilling machine
3 Upright drilling machine
4 Radial drilling machine
5 Gang drilling machine
6 Multiple spindle drilling machine
7 Automatic drilling machine
8 Deep hole drilling machine
2. Sensitive Drilling Machine

It is a small machine designed for drilling small holes at high speeds in light jobs. It may be
bench or floor mounted. It consists of a base, a vertical column, horizontal table, a head
supporting the motor and driving mechanism and a vertical spindle for driving and rotating the
drill. Total drilling operation is manually controlled. The machine is capable of drilling holes
from 1.5 to 15mm diameter.
3. Upright Drilling Machine

The upright drilling machine is designed for handling medium sized work pieces. In an upright
drilling machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be available for drilling
different types of work. The table of machine also has different types of adjustments. There are
two general classes of upright drilling machine:
(1) Round column section or pillar drilling machine

(2) Box column section
4. Round column section or pillar drilling machine

The round column section upright drilling machine or pillar drilling machine consists of a round
column that rises from the base which rests on the floor, an arm and a round table assembly, and
a drill head assembly.

87
Fig No :35 Vertical Drilling Machine
The arm and the table have three adjustments for locating work pieces under the spindle. The
arm and the table may be moved up and down on the column for accommodating work pieces of
different heights. The table and the arm may be moved in an arc up to 1800 around the column
and may be champed at any position. This permits setting of the work below the spindle.
This is particularly intended for lighter work. The maximum size of hole that the machine can
drill is not more than 50 mm.
4.1. Box column section upright drilling machine:
The upright drilling machine with box column section has the square table fitted on the slides at
the front face of the machine column. Heavy box column gives the machine strength and rigidity.
The table is raised or lowered by an elevating screw that gives additional support to the table.
These special features permit the machine to work with heavier work pieces, and holes more than
50 mm in diameter can be drilled through this machine.

88
5. Radial Drilling Machine
The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling medium to large and heavy work pieces. The
machine consists of a heavy, round, vertical column mounted on a large base. The column
supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to accommodate work pieces of different
heights. The arm may be swung around to any position over the work bed. The drill head
containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted in a radial arm and can be
moved horizontally on the guide-ways and clamped at any desired position. These three
movements in a radial drilling machine when combined together permit the drill to be located at
any desired point on a large work piece for drilling the hole.
Plain radial drilling machine
Ina plain radial drilling machine provisions are made for vertical adjustment of the arm,
horizontal movement of the drill head along the arm, and circular movement of the arm in
horizontal plane about the vertical column.
Semi universal machine
Ina semi universal machine, in addition to the above three movements, the drill head can be
swung about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the arm. This fourth movement of the drill head
permits drilling hole at an angle to the horizontal plane other than the normal position.
Universal machine
Ina universal machine, in addition to the above four movements, the arm holding the drill head
may be rotated on a horizontal axis. All these five movements in a universal machine enable it to
drill on a work piece at any angle.
Gang Drilling Machine
When a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side by side on a common
base and have a common work-table, the machine is known as the gang drilling machine.
In this machine four to six spindles may be mounted side by side. This type of machine is
specially adapted for production work. A series of operations may be performed on the work by
simply shifting the work from one position to the other on the work-table. Each spindle may be
set up properly with different tools for different operations.
6. Multiple – Spindle Drilling Machine
The function of a multiple-spindle drilling machine is to drill a number of holes in a piece of

work simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces
in a mass production work. Such machines have several spindles driven by a single motor and all
the spindles holding drill are fed into the work simultaneously. Feeding motion is usually
obtained by raising the work-table.
89
2. Drilling Operations
The operations that are commonly performed on drilling machines are

1. Drilling,
2. Reaming,
3. Boring,
4. Counter-boring,
5. Counter-sinking,
6. Spot-facing
1. Drilling: This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from
the work piece by a cutting tool called drill.
2. Reaming: This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill.
Reaming is performed by means of a cutting tool called reamer having several cutting edges.
Reaming serves to make the hole smoother, straighter and more accurate in diameter. Reamer
may be classified as solid reamer and adjustable reamer.
3. Boring: This is the operation of enlarging a hole by means of adjustable cutting tools with
only one cutting edge. A boring tool is employed for this purpose.
4. Counter-boring: This is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole, as for the recess for a
counter-sunk rivet. The tool used is known as counter-bore.
5. Counter-sinking: This is the operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement of the end of a

hole, as for the recess for a flat head screw.
6. Spot – facing: This is the operation of removing enough material to provide a flat surface
around a hole to accommodate the head of a bolt or a nut. A spot-facing tool is very nearly
similar to the counter-bore.

90
REVIEW QUESTION
1) What is the purpose of cone pulley provided in the headstock of a lathe?

A) To provide the necessary range of speeds and feeds
2) What is the purpose of tail stock in a lathe?

A) It is used to support the right hand end of long work piece
3) Name the parts that are associated with carriage or saddle in a lathe?
A) It is consist of longitudinal slide, cross slide, and the compound slide and apron
4) What is the purpose of the lead screw in a lathe?

A) It is geared to the spindle and controls the movement of the tool either for automatic feeding
or for cutting threads
5) Define cutting speed and on what it depends?

A) It is defined as the speed at which the material is removed and is specified as in metre per
minute
6) Name the possible lathe operations?

A) Turning, facing, taper turning, eccentric turning, drilling, knurling, threading and centre
gauge
7) Why lathe is named as entre lathe?

A) Because of the fact that work pieces are held by the centre
8) While turning the chuck rotates in which direction, when viewed from the tail?
A) Counter clock wise direction

91
PLUMBING

92
Fig No : 36 PIPE WRENCH
Fig No: 37 PIPE VICE

93
Plumbing
1. Introduction:
Plumbing deals with the laying of pipe lines. Pipe lines provide the means of transporting
the fluid. It is obvious that laying out the pipe line requires a number of joints to be made and a
number of valves incorporated, while connecting different length of pipes.
Plumbing work does not require many tools except pipe wrenches, hacksaw, pipe cutter,
threading equipment and a pipe vice.
Plumbing Tools
Pipe wrench
Pipe wrenches are used for holding and turning the pipes, rods and machine parts.
Wrenches of size 300 mm and 450mm are more useful. The adjustable wrench shown in fig
consists of a fixed jaw and a movable jaw. The movable jaw facilities the adjustment of the
opening between the jaws. The jaws are serrated inside, to enable a firm grip over the pipes.
Pipe vice
The use of a regular pipe vice is advisable, though ordinary bench vice can serve the
purpose in most of the occasions. The pipe vice is fitted on the work bench. It holds the pipe in
position during cutting, threading and fitted of bends, couplings etc. fig shows a pipe vice. It
consists of two jaws for holding the work, which are serrated to ensure firm grip..
Pipe cutter
For and occasional pipe work, a hacksaw is quite satisfactory. Pipe cutter is also used
where considerable amount of pipe work is involved. The pipe cutter mainly consists of three
wheels, which are hardened and with sharp cutting edges along their periphery. Of these three
wheels, one can be adjusted to any desired distance from the other two fixed wheels, to
accommodate different sizes of pipes. After adjusting the cutter on a pipe, it is turned around the
pipe so that the cutter wheels cut the pipe along a circle. Fig shows a pipe cutter

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Fig No: 38 PIPE CUTTER
Fig N: 39 DIES

95
Pipe bending machine
While laying he pipeline, sometimes a part of a pipe may have to be bent to the
required curvature. For this, a pipe bending machine is used. It is mounted on a tripod stand and
can swivel about a vertical axis to any desired angle, to cover the required range for the
operation. The unit consist s of number of bending block and dolly block to obtain any desired
curvature at the bend.
Dies
A pipe is used for cutting external threads on pipes. One or two pieces dies are used in
the die stock. It is a hand operated tool, which may be considered as a hardened steel nut, having
flutes cut along its inside surface. These flutes serve the same purpose as in a twist drill. In case
of two piece die, the two pieces are set at a desired distance and secured in position by means of
a set screw.

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Fig No: 40 GI PIPE LAYOUT

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PIPE FITTINGS
The pipe fittings are used to join adjacent lengths pipes. They are also frequently used to provide
changes in direction, to provide branch connection at different angles or to effect a change in
size. The various screwed fittings commonly used with malleable iron and steel pipes are as
follows:
1. Tee: It is a threaded T-Shaped component used for distributing the supply of water at right
angles to direction of flow.
2. Elbow: It is a threaded fitting used for joining two pipes at right angle, while bend is used for
any angle
3. Cross: It is used to connect four pipes at right angles to each other.
4. Socket: It is used to connect two pipes of same diameter.
5. Increaser or Reducer: It is a threaded pipe fitting having one of its ends larger than the other.
It is used for joining the pipes of different diameters.
6. Nipple or coupler: it is a. small length pipe having outside threads at ends. It is used to get
extra length of the pipe, by screwing it with the two pipes having internal threads.
7. Union: it is used to connect two pipes and can be disconnected easily when desired.
8. Plug: it has external threads and is used with Tee or Cross to close the opening of the pipe
which is left for further use.
9. Cap: it has internal threads and is used to close the threaded end of the pipe.

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Fig No: 41 Thread Cutting

99
Ex No: 1
Thread Cutting on G.I. Pipe
1.1. Aim: A thread cutting on G.I. pipe

1.2. Tools required: pipe vise, pipe wrench, threading die.
1.3. Raw material: GI Pipe
1.4. Procedure:
✓ First you'll need to measure, mark, and cut the pipe to length.
✓ Measure twice, cut once.
✓ Be sure about cutting square, don't have to be absolute about it but some care makes the
threads come out better and makes work easier.
✓ Lubricate the blade of the hacksaw, it makes it much easier to cut, the lard beautifully
adheres and doesn't drip (try finding cutting oil which will do that). Also, the lard won't stay
solid as people may think; it sort of liquefies on contact with metal.
✓ After you cut, take down the edges with a file and make up for any imperfections in the cut
1.5. Result: a thread cutting on given G.I pipe is done.

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Fig No: 42 Basic Connection Involving PVC/GI Pipe Fitting

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Exp. No: 2
Basic Connection Involving PVC/GI Pipe Fitting

2.1.Aim: To connect the PVC/GI pipe fitting like valves, bends and tap.
2.2.Components required: 1. Pipes different length 2. Gate valve 3. Tap 4. Elbows 5.
Reducer
2.3.Tools required: pipe wrench, hacksaw, die set, hammer, screw driver, measuring tape
2.4.Sequence of operation:
1. Selection of pipe
2. Threading of pipe
3. Connection of the pipes with the fitting
2.5.Procedure:
1. The required pipe connection layout is drawn
2. Two pipes of required length are taken and the ends are threaded using die set.
3. The gate valve which is internally threaded is connected to the elbow for vertical extension.
4. A third pipe with external threads is connected to the elbow for vertical extension.
5. To this pipe another elbow is attached at free end
6. The free end of the second elbow is connected with another pipe for horizontal extension.
7. A reducer coupling with internal threads is connected to the horizontal pipe.
8. A tap is connected properly to the end of the reducer coupling.
2.6.Result: hence the required connection is obtained using required pipes and pipe fittings.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) With what kind of work, the term “plumbing”, deals?

A) Plumbing deals with the laying of pipe lines
2) Name the various plumbing tools?

A) Pipe wrench pipe wise pipe cutter, pipe bending machine, dies.
3) What are the jaws of a pipe wrench are serrated inside?

A) Movable jaws
4) When a pipe cutter is used instead of hacksaw, cutting pipes?

A) It is used when considerable amount of pipe work is involved
5) What is a pipe die?

A) A pipe die is used for cutting external threads on pipes
6) A pipe die is used for cutting either external/ internal threads on pipes?
A) External threads
7) Pipe die produces straight/tapered threads?

A) Tapered threads

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BLACK SMITHY

104
\
Fig No:43 Blacksmithy tools

105
Introduction to Black Smithy
1. Introduction
Black smithy or Forging is an oldest shaping Process used for the producing small articles
for which accuracy in size is not so important. The parts are shaped by heating them in an open
fire or heat, by the blacksmith and shaping them through applying compressive forces using
hammer.
Thus forging is defined as the plastic deformation of metals at elevated temperatures into a
predetermined size or shape using compressive forces exerted through some means of hand
hammers, small power hammers, die, press or upsetting machine. The shop in which the various
forging operations are carried out is known as the smithy or smith‟s shop.
Applications of Forging:
Almost all metals and alloys can be forged. The low and medium carbon steels are readily
hot forged without difficulty, but the high-carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to forge and
require greater care. Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels, wrought iron, copper-
base alloys, aluminum alloys, and magnesium alloys. Stainless steels, nickel-based super alloys,
and titanium are forged especially for aerospace uses.
Forgeability
The ease with which forging is done is called forgeability. The forgeability of a material
can also be defined as the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under compression
without rupture.
2. Common Hand Forging Tools

For carrying out forging operations manually, certain common hand forging tools are
employed. These are also called blacksmith‟s tools, for a blacksmith is one who works on the
forging of metals in their hot state. The main hand forging tools are as under
a) Tongs
The tongs are generally used for holding work while doing a forging operation. Various kinds of
tongs are shown in Figure.
• Straight-lip fluted tongs are commonly used for holding square, circular and hexagonal
bar stock.
• Rivet or ring tongs are widely used for holding bolts, rivets and other work of circular
section.
• Flat tongs are used for mainly for holding work of rectangular section.
• Gad tongs are used for holding general pick-up work, either straight or tapered.

106
b) Flatter
.
It is commonly used in forging shop to give smoothness and accuracy to articles which
have already been shaped by fullers and swages.
c) Swage
Swage is used for forging work which has to be reduced or finished to round, square or
hexagonal form. It is made with half grooves of dimension to suit the work being reduced. It
consists of two parts, the top part having a handle and the bottom part having a Square shank
which fits in the hardier hole on the anvil face.
d) Fuller
Fuller is used in forging shop for necking down a forgeable job. It is made in top and
bottom tools as in the case of swages. Fuller is made in various shapes and sizes according to
needs, the size denoting the width of the fuller edge.
e) Punch
Punch is used in forging shop for making holes in metal part when it is at forging heat.
f) Rivet header
Rivet header is used in forging shop for producing rivets heads on parts.
g) Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting metals and for nicking prior to breaking. They may be hot or
cold depending on whether the metal to be cut is hot or cold. A hot chisel generally used in
forging shop. The main difference between the two is in the edge. The edge of a cold chisel is
hardened and tempered with an angle of about 60°, whilst the edge of a hot chisel is 30° and the
hardening is not necessary. The edge is made slightly rounded for better cutting action.
h) Hand hammers
There are two major kinds of hammers are used in hand forging:
• The hand hammer used by the smith himself and
• The sledge hammer used by the striker.
Hand hammers may further be classified as

(a) Ball peen hammer. (b) Cross peen hammer.
(c) Straight peen hammer.
Sledge hammers may further be classified as

(a) Double face hammer. (b) Cross peen hammer.
(c) Straight peen hammer.
Hammer heads are made of cast steel and, their ends are hardened and tempered. The striking face
is made slightly convex. The weight of a hand hammer varies from about to 2 kg whereas the
weight of a sledge hammer varies from 4 to 10 kg.

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i) Anvil
An anvil is a most commonly tool used in forging shop which is shown in. It acts as a
support for blacksmith’s work during hammering. The body of the anvil is made of mild steel with
a tool steel face welded on the body, but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not steel
faced. The round hole in the anvil called pitcher hole is generally used for bending rods of small
diameter, and as a die for hot punching operations. The square or hard i.e. hole is used for holding
square shanks of various fittings. Anvils in forging shop may vary up to about 100 to 150 kg and
they should always stand with the top face about 0.75 mt. from the floor. This height may be
attained by resting the anvil on a wooden or cast iron base in the forging shop.
j) Swage block
Swage block generally used in forging shop is shown in figure. It is mainly used for
heading, bending, squaring, sizing, and forming operations on forging jobs. It is 0.25 mtr or even
more wide. It may be used either flat or edgewise in its stand.
3. Forging Operations
The following are the basic operations that may be performed by hand forging:
a) Drawing-down
Drawing is the process of stretching the stock while reducing its cross-section locally.
Forging the tapered end of a cold is an example of drawing operation.
b) Upsetting
It is a process of increasing the area of cross-section of a metal piece locally, with a
corresponding reduction in length. In this, only the portion to be upset is heated to
forging temperature and the work is then struck at the end with a hammer. Hammering
is done by the smith (student) himself, if the job is small, or by his helper, in case of
big jobs, when heavy blows are required with a sledge hammer.
c) Fullering
Fullers are used for necking down a piece of work, the reduction often serving as the
starting point for drawing. Fullers are made of high carbon steel in two parts, called
the top and bottom fullers. The bottom tool fits in the hard i.e. hole of the anvil. Fuller
size denotes the width of the fuller edge.
d) Flattering:
Flatters are the tools that are made with a perfectly flat face of about 7.5 cm square.
These are used for finishing flat surfaces. A flatter of small size is known as set-
hammer and is used for finishing near corners and in confined spaces.
e) Swaging:
Swages like fullers are also made of high carbon steel and are made in two parts called
the top and swages. These are used to reduce and finish to round, square or hexagonal
forms. For this, the swages are made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the work.

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f) Bending:
Bending of bars, flats, etc., is done to produce different types of bent shapes such
as angles, ovals, circles etc. Sharp bends as well as round bends may be made on
the anvil, by choosing the appropriate place on it for the purpose.
g) Twisting:
It is also one form of bending. Sometimes, it is done to increase the rigidity of the
work piece. Small piece may be twisted by heating and clamping a pair of tongs on
each end of the section to be twisted and applying a turning moment.Larger pieces
may be clamped in a leg vice and twisted with a pair of tongs or a monkey wrench.
However, for uniform twist, it must be noted that the complete twisting operation
must be performed in one heating.
h) Cutting (Hot and Cold Chisels):
Chisels are used to cut metals, either in hot or cold state. The cold chisel is similar
to fitter‟s chisel, except that it is longer and has a handle. A hot chisel is used for
cutting hot metal and its cutting edge is long and slender when compared to cold
chisel. These chisels are made of tool steel, hardened and tempered.
NOTE: The forging produced either by hand forging or machine forging should be heat treated.
The following are the purposes of heat treatment:
• To remove internal stresses set-up during forging and cooling.
• To normalize the internal structure of the metal.
• To improve much inability.
• To improve mechanical properties, strength and hardness.
4. SAFE PRACTICES:
• Hold the hot work downwards close to the ground, while transferring from the
hearth to anvil, to minimize danger of burns; resulting from accidental collisions
with others.
• Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work. These should hold the work
securely to prevent its bouncing out of control from repeated hammer blows.
• Care should be exercised in the use of the hammer. The minimum force only
should be used and the flat face should strike squarely on the work; as the edge
of the hammer will produce heavy bruising on hot metal.
• Water face shield when hammering hot metal.Wear gloves when handling hot metal.
• Wear gloves when handling hot metal wear steel-toed shoes.
• Wear steel-toed shoes
• Ensure that hammers are fitted with tight and wedged handles.

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Ex. No. 1
Round to Square
Fig No: 44 Round To Square

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Ex. No. 1
Round to Square
1.1. Aim: To make a Square rod from a given round rod, by following hand forging operation.

1. Smith’s forge 5. Swage block.
2. Anvil. 6. Half round tongs.
3. Ball-peen hammers 7. Pick-up tongs.
4. Flatters 8. Cold chisel.
1.3. Procedure:
❖ Take the raw material from stock i.e., mild steel 10 mm round shaped, cut the
length of 100 mm.
❖ Handle specimen with round tong and heat in blacksmith‟s forge up to the part
appears as red cherry color.
❖ The required piece heated up to it gets the recrystallization temperature.
❖ The part is taken out from the forge and blow with sledge hammer for obtaining
the square shape on all edges.
❖ The hammering is done on the anvil.
❖ The above mentioned all steps are repeated, till the specimen in required shape is
obtained.
❖ Check the dimensions after cooling the job by quenching process.
NOTE: In-between the above stage, the bar is heated in the smith‟s forge, to facilitate forging operations.
1.4. Precautions:
▪ Hold the job carefully while heating and hammering
▪ Job must be held parallel to the face of the anvil.
▪ Wear steel-toed shoes.
▪ Wear face shield when hammering the hot metal
▪ Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work.
1.5. Result: The square rod is thus made from the given round rod.

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Ex. No. 2
SQUARE TO OCTOGON
Fig No: 45 Square To Octogon

112
Ex. No. 2
SQUARE TO OCTOGON
2.1. Aim: To make an S-hook from a given round rod, by following hand forging operation.

1. Smith’s forge 5. Swage block.
2. Anvil. 6. Square tongs.
3. Ball-peen hammers 7. Pick-up tongs.
4. Flatters 8. Cold chisel.
2.3. Procedure:
❖ One end of the bar is heated to red hot condition in Black smith’s forge for the required
length.
❖ Using the pick-up tongs; the rod is taken from the forge, and holding it with the square
tongs, the heated end is forged into a tapered pointed end.
❖ The length of the rod requires for Octagon is estimated and the excess portion is cut-
off, using a cold chisel.
❖ One half of the rod towards the pointed end is heated in the forge to red hot condition
and then bent into Octagon shape as shown.
❖ The other end of the rod is then heated and forged into a tapered pointed end.
❖ Using the flatter, the Octogon shape is made as above, is kept on the anvil and
flattened so that, the shape of the Octogon is proper.
Note: In-between the above stage, the bar is heated in the smith’s forge, to facilitate
forging operations
2.4. Precautions:
▪ Hold the job carefully while heating and hammering
▪ Job must be held parallel to the face of the anvil.
▪ Wear steel-toed shoes.
▪ Wear face shield when hammering the hot metal
▪ Use correct size and type of tongs to fit the work.
2.5. Result:
The Octagon is thus made from the given square rod; by following the stages mentioned above.

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Review questions
1. What is meant by smithy?

Ans: Black smithy or Forging is an oldest shaping process used for the producing small
articles for which accuracy in size is not so important. The parts are shaped by heating them
in an open fire or hearth by the blacksmith and shaping them through applying compressive
forces using hammer.
2. What are the applications of forging?

Ans: Almost all metals and alloys can be forged. The low and medium carbon steels are
readily hot forged without difficulty, but the high-carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to
forge and require greater care. Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels, wrought
iron, copper-base alloys, aluminum alloys, and magnesium alloys. Stainless steels, nickel-
based super alloys, and titanium are forged especially for aerospace uses.
3. What are the uses of anvil in block smithy?

Ans: An anvil is a most commonly tool used in forging shop which is shown in. It acts as a
support for blacksmith‟s work during hammering. The body of the anvil is made of mild steel
with a tool steel face welded on the body, but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not
steel faced. The round hole in the anvil called pritchel hole is generally used for bending rods
of small diameter, and as a die for hot punching operations.
4. What are the tools required for the forging operation?
Ans: anvil, chisel, tong, fuller, hammer, press, die, flatter, punch and drift, swage, swage
block, clamping vice, and hearth.
5. What is meant by red hot temperature?
Ans: Red-hot metal or rock has been heated to such a high temperature that it has turned red.

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C. PRESENTATION
& VIDEO
LECTURING

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1. MANUFACTURING METHODS
INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation. Manufacturing and technical
staff in industry must know the various manufacturing processes, materials being processed,
tools and equipments for manufacturing different components or products with optimal process
plan using proper precautions and specified safety rules to avoid accidents. Beside above, all
kinds of the future engineers must know the basic requirements of workshop activities in term
of man, machine, material, methods, money and other infrastructure facilities needed to be
positioned properly for optimal shop layouts or plant layout and other support services
effectively adjusted or located in the industry or plant within a well planned manufacturing
organization.
The complete understanding of basic manufacturing processes and workshop technology
is highly difficult for any one to claim expertise over it. The study deals with several aspects of
workshops practices also for imparting the basic working knowledge of the different
engineering materials, tools, equipments, manufacturing processes, basic concepts of
electromechanical controls of machine tools, production criteria’s, characteristics and uses of
various testing instruments and measuring or inspecting devices for checking components or
products manufactured in various manufacturing shops in an industrial environment. It also
describes and demonstrates the use of different hand tools (measuring, marking, holding and
supporting tools, cutting etc.), equipments, machinery and various methods of manufacturing
that facilitate shaping or forming the different existing raw materials into suitable usable forms.
It deals with the study of industrial environment which involves the practical knowledge in the
area of ferrous and non ferrous materials, their properties and uses. It should provide the
knowledge of basic workshop processes namely bench work and fitting, sheet metal, carpentry,
pattern making, mould making, foundry, smithy, forging, metal working and heat treatment,
welding, fastening, machine shop, surface finishing and coatings, assembling inspection and
quality control. It emphasizes on basic knowledge regarding composition, properties and uses
of different raw materials, various production processes, replacement of or improvement over a
large number of old processes, new and compact designs, better accuracy in dimensions,
quicker methods of production, better surface finishes, more alternatives to the existing
materials and tooling systems, automatic and numerical control systems, higher mechanization
and greater output.
Manufacturing Methods/Manufacturing Process:

Manufacturing process is that part of the production process which is directly concerned
with the change of form or dimensions of the part being produced. It does not include the
transportation, handling or storage of parts, as they are not directly concerned with the changes
into the form or dimensions of the part produced.

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2. RAPID PROTOTYPING
1. INTRODUCTION:
Prototyping or model making is one of the important steps to finalize a product design. It
helps in conceptualization of a design. Before the start of full production a prototype is usually
fabricated and tested. Manual prototyping by a skilled craftsman has been an age- old practice for
many centuries. Second phase of prototyping started around mid-1970s, when a soft prototype
modeled by 3D curves and surfaces could be stressed in virtual environment, simulated and tested
with exact material and other properties. Third and the latest trend of prototyping, i.e., Rapid
Prototyping (RP) by layer-by-layer material deposition, started during early 1980s with the
enormous growth in Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) technologies when
almost unambiguous solid models with knitted information of edges and surfaces could define a
product and also manufacture it by CNC machining. The historical development of RP and related
technologies is presented in table.
1.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES
RP process belong to the generative (or additive) production processes unlike subtractive or
forming processes such as lathing, milling, grinding or coining etc. in which form is shaped
by material removal or plastic deformation. In all commercial RP processes, the part is
fabricated by deposition of layers contoured in a (x-y) plane two dimensionally. The third
dimension (z) results from single layers being stacked up on top of each other, but not as a
continuous z-coordinate. Therefore, the prototypes are very exact on the x-y plane but have
stair-stepping effect in z-direction. If model is deposited with very fine layers, i.e., smaller z-
stepping, model looks like original. RP can be classified into two fundamental process steps
namely generation of mathematical layer information and generation of physical layer
model. Typical process chain of various RP systems is shown in figure.
Fig No: 46 Rapid Prototyping Process Chain

117
It can be seen from figure that process starts with 3D modeling of the product and then STL
file is exported by tessellating the geometric 3D model. In tessellation various surfaces of a
CAD model are piecewise approximated by a series of triangles (figure 2) and co-ordinate of
vertices of triangles and their surface normals are listed. The number and size of triangles are
decided by facet deviation or chordal error as shown in figure 2. These STL files are checked
for defects like flip triangles, missing facets, overlapping facets, dangling edges or faces etc.
and are repaired if found faulty. Defect free STL files are used as an input to various slicing
softwares. At this stage choice of part deposition orientation is the most important factor as
part building time, surface quality, amount of support structures, cost etc. are influenced.
Once part deposition orientation is decided and slice thickness is selected, tessellated model
is sliced and the generated data in standard data formats like SLC (stereolithography contour)
or CLI (common layer interface) is stored. This information is used to move to step 2, i.e.,
generation of physical model. The software that operates RP systems generates laser-
scanning paths (in processes like Stereolithography, Selective Laser Sintering etc.) or
material deposition paths (in processes like Fused Deposition Modeling). This step is
different for different processes and depends on the basic deposition principle used in RP
machine. Information computed here is used to deposit the part layer-by-layer on RP system
platform. The generalized data flow in RP is given in figure .
Fig No: 47 Rapid Prototyping Process System

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3. GLASS CUTTING
1. INTRODUCTION
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has
widespread practical, technological, and decorative usages in the industry. In this article, we
will discuss on Glass Cutting Process along with its Introduction, Properties, Types,
Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applications.
1.1 HOW GLASS IS MADE?
• The glass is made by heating ordinary sand (which is mostly made up of silicon dioxide) until it
melts and turns into a liquid. Sand melts at a high temperature of 1700°C (3090°F).
• In a glass plant, sand is mixed with waste glass, limestone (calcium carbonate), and soda ash
(sodium carbonate) heated in a furnace.
• The soda reduces the sand's melting point, which helps to save energy and time during the
manufacturing process, but it has a drawback that it produces a kind of glass that would dissolve
in water and that (dissolving in water) can be eliminated by adding Limestone to the mixture.
• The end product is called soda-lime-silica glass and it is the ordinary glass that we are using in
our domestic applications.
1.2 Properties of Glass:
These are some of the properties of Glass
• It is amorphous.
• These are affected by alkalis.
• It is very brittle.
• Possesses high compressive strength and since it doesn't have any crystalline structure.
• It Softens on heating
• Light in weight because it has a homogeneous internal structure similar to liquids.
• It can absorb, transmit, and reflect light.
• It is a good electrical insulator.
• Glass is not affected by air, water, etc. But, it is soluble in HF which converts into SiF4.
Glass Cutting Tools:
1. Wheel Cutting or Glass Cutter

2. CO2 Laser Cutting
1. Wheel Cutter or Glass Cutter: In the Middle Ages, glass was cut with a heated and sharply
pointed rod of iron.
a. The Diamond can also act as cutting material for glass. Nowadays we used different
methods to cut the glass.

119
b. Wheel: It is a small wheel attached to the glass cutter whose role is to cut the glass plate
w.r.t. the dimensions easily. The glass after cut by cutting wheel has sharp corners. So, care
must be taken during operation. A glass cutter more commonly uses a small cutting wheel
made of hardened steel or Tungsten Carbide of 4–6 mm in diameter with a V-shaped
profile called a "hone angle" is used. The greater the hone angle of the wheel, the sharper
the angle of the V, and the thicker the piece of glass it is designed to cut. The honing
angle on most hand-held glass cutters is 120°.
c. Holders or Grips: After marking the glass with the cutting wheel, the glass cutter has to be
inserted into the corners of glass and tilt it so that it can break w.r.t the mark made.
d. Ball: The ball attached at the end of the glass cutter is used for tapping the glass piece if any
irregularities are present at the corners of glass after the cut.
This is the explanation of the "wheel cutting" tool in a detailed way which is one of the Glass
Cutting tools. So, let's see the detailed explanation of CO2 Laser cutting process in a detailed
way.
2. CO2 Laser Cutting Process: Cutting the glass with conventional methods (Wheel Cutting) as
stated above uses the principle of Scribe and Break. In the sense, you need to scribe on the
surface of the glass w.r.t. the dimensions and Break that particular part. By doing so, relatively
low scribing quality results in the formation of micro-cracks and that leads to the damage of
glass. In addition to that, various time-consuming processes like grinding, masking, and etching
are necessary to remove the damage that had been introduced by mechanical processes
(Conventional Methods). Using a laser for the glass cutting process avoids all the limitations
stated above. By this laser cutting, the Straight, angled, curved, and chamfered contours are
possible.
The laser beam is used to cut different materials like metal, wood, rubber, glass, plastics, etc.
Laser cutting machines are equipped with computer-controlled programming that helps to do
the work more efficiently and easily. By this, a high degree of accuracy is maintained. This is
the detailed explanation of two types of cutting tools used in Glass Cutting Process. Let's see
the advantages, disadvantages of the Glass Cutting Process along with its applications.
1.3 Applications of Glass Cutting Process:
3. Small scale industries use wheel cutter to cut the glass for their regular usage. Apart from that,
it is also used in labs in colleges for doing experiments on the cutting processes.
4. As Large Scale industries require faster production and accuracy, Laser cutting is used to avoid
the breaking of the glass at frequent intervals.
5. Glass is used as decorative items or window panes etc.

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4. 3D PRINTING
1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 General explanation of 3D Printing:

A method of manufacturing known as ‘Additive manufacturing’, due to the fact that instead of
removing material to create a part, the process adds material in successive patterns to create the desired
shape.
3D Printing uses software that slices the 3D model into layers (0.01mm thick or less in most
cases). Each layer is then traced onto the build plate by the printer, once the pattern is completed, the
build plate is lowered and the next layer is added on top of the previous one. Typical manufacturing
techniques are known as ‘Subtractive Manufacturing’ because the process is one of removing material
from a preformed block. Processes such as Milling and Cutting are subtractive manufacturing
techniques. This type of process creates a lot of waste since; the material that is cut off generally cannot
be used for anything else and is simply sent out as scrap. 3D Printing eliminates such waste since the
material is placed in the location that it is needed only, the rest will be left out as empty space.
1.3 How does 3d printing work?
The working principle of 3D printing is the same as that of traditional printers. It’s just that 3D
print does not spray ink, but printing materials such as liquid or powder.
The rapid prototyping device that uses light curing and paper stacking technology superimposes
the printing materials layer by layer through computer control and finally becomes real.
Fig No: 48 3D Printing Principle
1.4 Advantages and Limitations:

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2. Layer by layer production allows for much greater flexibility and creativity in the design process. No
longer do designers have to design for manufacture, but instead they can create a part that is lighter
and stronger by means of better design. Parts can be completely re-designed so that they are stronger
in the areas that they need to be and lighter overall.
3. 3D Printing significantly speeds up the design and prototyping process. There is no problem with
creating one part at a time, and changing the design each time it is produced. Parts can be created
within hours. Bringing the design cycle down to a matter of days or weeks compared to months. Also,
since the price of 3D printers has decreased over the years, some 3D printers are now within financial
reach of the ordinary consumer or small company.
4. The limitations of 3D printing in general include expensive hardware and expensive materials. This
leads to expensive parts, thus making it hard if you were to compete with mass production. It also
requires a CAD designer to create what the customer has in mind, and can be expensive if the part is
very intricate.
5. 3D Printing is not the answer to every type of production method; however its advancement is
helping accelerate design and engineering more than ever before. Through the use of 3D printers
designers are able to create one of a kind piece of art, intricate building and product designs and also
make parts while in space!
6. We are beginning to see the impact of 3D printing many industries. There have been articles saying
that 3D printing will bring about the next industrial revolution, by returning a means of production
back within reach of the designer or the consumer.
1.5 Applications of 3D Printing:
1. Biomedical Engineering
2. Aerospace and Automobile Manufacturing
3. Construction and Architecture
4. Product Prototyping
1.6 Designing of 3D Printing:

All the parts created using a 3D printer need to be designed using some kind of CAD software.
This type of production depends mostly on the quality of the CAD design and also the precision of
the printer. There are many types of CAD software available, some are free others require you to buy
the software or have a subscription. Deciding what type of CAD software is good for you will depend
on the requirements of what you are designing. However for beginners, that simply want to learn
CAD and create basic shapes and features, any of the free CAD software packages will do.
When designing a part to be 3D printed the following points need to be kept in mind:
1. The part needs to be a solid, that is, not just a surface; it needs to have a real volume.
2. Creating very small, or delicate features may not be printed properly, this depends greatly
On the type of 3D printer that is going to be used.
3. Parts with overhanging features will need supports to be printed properly. This should be
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taken into account since after the model needs to be cleaned by removing the supports. This
may not be an issue unless the part is very delicate, since it might break.
4. Be sure to calibrate the 3D printer before using it, it is essential to ensure that the part sticks
properly to the build plate. If it does not, at some point the part may come loose and ruin the
entire print job.
5. Some thought should be given to the orientation of the part, since some printers are more
precise on the X and Y axes, then the Z axis.
Fig No:49 3D Printing Machine

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5. CNC LATHE
1. INTRODUCTION:
CNC machining plays a huge role in shaping today’s advanced industrial development. We are
now capable of developing most complex of parts and products with absolute perfection, and with
minimum of effort. Whether it’s about creating 3D, 4D or 5D machined parts, CNC technology has
provided us with a sure shot way to convert our ‘mechanical fantasies’ into a tangible reality! Now, there
are multiple types of CNC machining process. All of them have different functionalities and operations;
CNC turning uses a helix path to cut through the material, while CNC milling uses rotary cutters to
remove excess material. All of them require specific machining tools that enable the workpiece to work do
the desired work. CNC lathe is one such important tool. In fact, the lathe is seen as the pioneer for being
the machine for metal cutting. Sounds interesting, right? Let’s delve deep into the functioning, properties,
and types of CNC lathe machine.
A lathe machine is typically used for shaping the material into the desired form by removing the
excess material from a given workpiece (generally cylindrical). Apart from serving as cutting and facing
machine, a lathe is also used to perform complex operations such as knurling, deformation, metal
spinning, woodturning, thermal spraying, metalworking and more.
According to machine historians, the manual lathe was first used by the reformers in the Ancient
Egypt and Greece. The European nation widely utilized two-person lathe variety, with the former turning
the workpiece (wood) and the latter cutting off the excess material with a single point cutting tool. With
the Industrial Revolution came the modern lathe; advanced, fast, and better.
1.2 Parts of CNC lathe Machine.

Main Parts of a CNC Lathe Machine Before moving on to the functioning of a lathe machine, let’s
quickly go through the primary components of a lathe machine:
Fig No:50 CNC Lathe Machine

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1. Bed: As the name suggests, the bed of a lathe serves as the base of the whole machine where the
different components are mounted. Generally heavily rigid in structure, the lathe beds are made from a 9:1
combination melting of toughened cast iron (semi-steel) and steel scrap. This method helps lathe bed to
perform a sliding action easily. While single-bed lathe machines are quite popular, we also get two-three
pieced beds, pieces bolted together to meet the desired length. The beds have a high damping capacity to
absorb the vibrations produced by the working machine.
2. Carriage: Used for mounting and moving the cutting tools, a carriage moves the tool
horizontally and vertically on the bed for a smooth cutting process. PDF is created by Machining Design
Associated Ltd
3. Chuck: A chuck is responsible for holding the workpiece. This component is attached to the
spindle that rotates both the chuck and workpiece.
4. CNC Control Panel: The storage center of the machine, CNC control panel stores all the CNC
programs and instructions. The CNC expert operates the machine by controlling the keys on the panel,
instructing the machine to produce the desired results.
5. Headstock: This part functions as a holding device for the other components of the lathe like
gear chain, spindle, driving pulley and more.
6. Main Spindle: The main feeding center of the machine. Stock is fed via the headstock.
7. Main Drive Motor: The drive motor helps rotate the chuck, thus driving the entire machine.
8. Tailstock: A tailstock is usually used to conduct drilling operations and support the system.
9. Tool Turret: A tool turret is used a tool carrier for the machine. The shape and the size of the
turret is determined by the number of tools that’ll be mounted on them.
1.3 CNC Lathe Machine: How Does It Work?

As discussed in the last part, a typical lathe comprises of a bed, headstock, tailstock, chuck, tool
turret, carriage and a spindle for feeding purposes.
The following steps define how this particular machine works:
1. First Step: After checking the machine for the working faults, a cylindrical workpiece is
attached to the chuck. Its position can differ as per requirement.
2. Second Step: We now set the spindle on the desired speed, thus rotating the chuck and the
workpiece. Major attention needs to be paid on the spindle speed as any discrepancy can cause
cutting errors. Check if the workpiece is turning properly.
3. Third Step: Now locate the cutting tool at the desired feed by moving the tool turret and
carriage. Pay special attention to feeding speed.
4. Fourth Step: Remove all the excess metal by moving the carriage to get the finished CNC
products.

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1.4 Types of Lathe Machines
Just like every other machine, a lathe machine also has different varieties that are used to fulfill
different work requirements. Let’s have a look at the major types of the CNC lathe machine:
1. Engine Lathes Pretty popular amongst manufacturers, an engine lathe perfectly suitable for low-
power operations. But that doesn’t mean that it cannot be used for high-power operations. This
device is very reliable and versatile, operating on a wide range of speed & feed ratios. This type is
perfect for manufacturers looking for a machine that works with different metals.
2. Centre Lathe Centre lathe is a lathe type where the spindle speed is managed via a set of gears
that are operated by using a lever. Gap Bed Lathe This type of lathe machine contains a removable
bed section to accommodate the larger diameter of a workpiece, hence the name gap bed lathe.
Generally, the part next to the headstock is removable. Speed Lathes A simpler version of a lathe
machine, the speed lathe only has a headstock, tailstock, and tool turret. This type is generally used
for light machine work as it can only operate in three or four speeds.
3. Bench Lathe Smaller in size, a bench lathe can be mounted on a workbench for conducted lighter
jobs.
4. Tool room lathe is highly versatile, working in a number of speeds and feeds.
5. Turret Lathes A turret lathe is ideal for quick and sequential workings. With the tool holder in the
vicinity, performing multiple operations on a single workpiece becomes several folds easier.
6. Special Purpose Lathes These special purpose lathes are used to perform heavy-duty production
of identical parts. Some of the popular special purpose lathes include automatic lathes, crankshaft
lathes, bench-type jewelers’ lathes, duplicating lathes, and multi-spindle lathes.

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6. INJECTION MOULDING
1. INTRODUCTION:-
Injection moulding is the most widely used polymeric fabrication process. This paper
describes Injection moulding process in detail along with its process parameters and their effects
on the moulding component. Runner system is playing the major role in the quality of the
moulded part. Each injection molding method works when a plastic material flows from the
sprue into the runner system, and then through a gate into the mold cavity. Basically runner
system is of two types, Hot runner and cold runner system, both having some advantages and
disadvantages of each. This paper describes in details about effectiveness of hot runner over cold
runner. Although hot runner gives better quality of product, many of the industries uses cold
runner due to high cost and complexity of design. The paper also deals with the illustration of
mould defects related to the process parameters and the need of its optimization.
Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts from both
thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic materials. It is the most widely used polymeric
fabrication process which is evolved from metal die casting. However unlike molten metals,
polymer melts have a high viscosity and cannot simply be poured into a mould. a large force
must be used to inject the polymer into the hollow mould cavity. More melt must also be packed
into the mould during solidification to avoid shrinkage in the mould. Thus the injection moulding
process is primarily a sequential operation that results in the transformation of plastic pellets into
a moulded part. Identical parts are produced through a cyclic process involving the melting of a
pellet or powder resin followed by the injection of the polymer melt into the hollow mould cavity
under high pressure.

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1.2 Moulding machine
Most commonly used machines are hydraulically powered in-line screw machines. The
various components of the injection moulding machine are illustrated in the following fig.
Fig No:51 Injection Moulding Machine

The main units of a typical injection moulding machine are the clamping unit, the
plasticizing unit, and the drive unit; as shown in Fig.1. The clamping unit holds the mould. It is
capable of closing, clamping, and opening the mould. Its main components are the fixed and
moving plates, the tie bars and the mechanism for opening, closing and clamping. The injection
unit or plasticizing unit melts the plastic and injects it into the mould. The drive unit provides
power to the plasticizing unit and clamping unit. Injection moulding machines are often
classified by the maximum clamp force that the machine can generate. This is the force that
pushes the two mold halves together to avoid opening of the mould due to internal pressure of
the plastic melt in the mould. The clamping force of typical injection moulding machines range
from 200 to 100,000 kN.
1.2.1 The runner system

A mould basically consists of properly designed sprue, runner, gate, and cavity. The
sprue is the channel, cut in the stationary platen that transports the melt from the plasticator
nozzle to the runner. Once the plastic melt enters the mould, it flows through a distribution
system, called the runner system, and then through the gates into the mould cavities. The gate
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connects the runner to the actual part. The cross section of the gate is usually small so that the
runner can be easily removed from the part and does not leave a large gate mark on the part. The
runner system is the most important part of injection moulding machine as it has a major role in
moulding process. Two different types of molding systems can be used in the injection molding
process—cold runner molds and hot runner molds. Each injection molding method works when a
plastic material flows from the sprue into the runner system, and then through a gate into the
mold cavity.
1.2.1 A) Cold Runner Molds
In this system, the runners are kept at the same temperature as the molds. The cold runner
system consists of either two or three plates within the mold. The two plate system is the
simplest, but requires an ejection system to remove both the runner and the part from the mold.
The three plate system enables the part to be ejected separately from the runner, since the runner
is on a separate plate from the rest of the part. The three plate molds allow for flexibility in the
design. In a cold runner system, a new runner is moulded in each moulding cycle and the runner
is ejected together with the moulded parts. The plastic of the runner can often be reprocessed and
moulded again. In the design of the runner system the objective is to have the plastic reach to all
gates at the same time. This is an important issue in multi-cavity moulds. In a rectangular runner
system, the number of cavities is a multiple of two. In a circular runner any number of cavities
can be used. In the cold runner system, it is important that the dimension of the runner be larger
than the part. This will ensure that the material fills the part properly and that the mold is not
under filled
1.2.1 B) Hot Runner Molds
Hot runner molds are made up of two plates, which are heated using a manifold system.
There are two types of hot runners, externally heated and internally heated. Externally heated
molds are better for materials that are sensitive to heat, while internally heated molds provide
better flow control. There are several methods that can be used to heat the runners, including
coils, heating rods, and heating pipes. The hot runner system ensures that the material remains
molten throughout the runner process until it enters the mold cavity.

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7. MOULD MAKING AND CASTING
1. INTRODUCTION
Foundry practice deals with the process of making castings in molds, formed in either sand or
some other material. The process involves the operations of pattern making, sand preparation,
molding, melting of metals, pouring in molds, cooling, shake-out, heat treatment, finishing, and
inspection.
• Pattern
Pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It may be defined as a model of
anything, so constructed that it may be used for forming an impression called would in damp
sand or other suitable material. When this mold is filled with molten metal and the metal is
allowed to solidify it forms a reproduction of the pattern and is known as casting. The process of
making pattern is known as pattern making.
• Mold
Mold is cavity formed by the pattern. It is similar in shape and size to that of the actual
casting plus some allowances for shrinkage, machining etc. Molds are classified as temporary
and permanent. Temporary molds are made of refractory sand and other binding materials and
may be produced either through hand molding or machine molding.
• Molding Sand
Sand is the principal material used in foundry. The principal ingredients of molding sands
are: Silica sand, clay, moisture, and miscellaneous materials. Silica sand withstands very high
temperatures and doesn‟t react with the molten metal.
Clay imparts the necessary bonding strength to the molding sand. Moisture in requisite
amount furnishes the bonding action of clay. Miscellaneous materials that are formed in addition
to silica and clay penetrate the mixture and forms a microfilm which coats the surface flake
shaped clay particles. Natural molding sand is available in river beds or dug from pits. They
possess an appreciable amount of clay and are used as received with addition of water. Synthetic
sands are prepared by adding clay, water and other materials to silica sand so that desired
strength and bonding properties are achieved which are not possessed by natural sands.
• Properties of Molding Sand:

The essential requirement of good molding sand is that it should produce sound castings
which are free from defects. For producing sound castings, molding sand or mold should possess
the following properties; to quote a few:
• Porosity or Permeability
When molten metal is poured into a mold, gases and steam are passed through it. If they are
not removed, casting defects such as blow holes will be formed.

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• Flowability
Flow ability of molding sand refers to its ability to its ability, under externally applied forces
(ramming), into deeper sections of the pattern and uniformly fill the flask. Flowability increases
as clay and water content increase.
• Collapsibility
Collapsibility is the property of sand that permits it to collapse (break) easily during its
knockout from the castings. This property is particularly important for cores. This property
depends on amount of the sand, clay and type of binder used.
• Adhesiveness
Adhesiveness is the ability of a moulding sand to stick on the surface of molding boxes. It is
due to this property that the sand mass can be successfully held in a molding box and it does not
fall out of the box when it is removed.
• Cohesiveness or Strength
This is the ability of sand particles to stick together. Insufficient strength may lead to a
collapse in the mold or its partial destruction during conveying, turning over or closing.
• Refractoriness
The sand must be capable of withstanding the high temperature of the molten metal without
fusing.
1.2 Types of Molding Sand:
Molding sands are classified according to their use into a number of varieties. These are
described as follows:
Green Sand
It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 % clay having a total water of 6 to 8 %.
Dry Sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked after the mold is made is called dry sand.
Loam Sand
Loam sand is high in clay, as much as 50 %.
Facing Sand
Facing sand forms the face of the mold. It is used directly next to the surface of the pattern and it
comes into contact with the molten metal when the mold is poured. It is made of silica sand and
clay, without the addition of used sand.
Baking Sand
Baking sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and fill the whole volume of the
flask. Old repeatedly used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose. The baking sand is
sometimes called black sand because of the fact that old, repeatedly used molding sand is black
in color due to the addition of coal dust and burning on coming in contact with molten metal.
Parting Sand
Parting sand is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to allow the sand
on the parting surface of the cope and drag to separate without clinging. This is clean clay free
silica sand which serves the same purpose as parting dust.
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Core Sand
The sand used for making cores is called as core sand and sometimes it is called as oil sand. This
is silica sand mixed with core oil which is composed of linseed oil. Resin light mineral oil and
other binding materials.
1.3 Pattern Materials:
▪ The selection of pattern materials depends primarily on the following factors.
▪ Service requirement
▪ Type of production of castings and the type of molding process
▪ Possibility of design changes
▪ Number of castings to be produced.
▪ Easily worked, shaped, and joined
▪ Light in weight
▪ Strong, hard, and durable.
▪ Dimensionally stable in all situations
▪ Easily available at low cost
▪ Repairable and reused
▪ Able to take good surface finish
The wide variety of pattern materials which meet these characteristics are wood and wood
products; metal and alloys; plasters; plastics and rubber; and waxes.
1.4 Types of Patterns:
1.4.1 Single Piece or Solid Pattern

In a simple solid pattern, one side is made flat which serves as a parting surface. In this case,
the mold cavity will be entirely in the drag, and requires the more number of manual operations
such as cutting the gating system and repairing of the mold. The shape of the single piece pattern
is exactly same as that of casting. Single piece patterns are inexpensive and best suited for
limited production
1.4.2 Split Pattern
Split pattern is made in two parts. One part producing the mold in drag and the other in
cope. They are kept in position by dowel pins, and the split is usually arranged along the parting
line to draw the pattern easily out of the mold before pouring of molten metal. Split piece
patterns are used for intricate castings or castings of unusual shapes.
1.4.3 Multi Piece Pattern
Pattern with three or more parts is used for more complex castings. This type of pattern is
known as multi piece pattern. It requires molding box with three parts. The middle one is called
cheek.
1.4.4 Loose Piece Pattern
Loose piece pattern is used to produce the castings having projections in the sides. Such design
makes impossible to draw the pattern from the mold. It is therefore necessary to make such
projection in loose piece and fastened to main pattern by means of anchor pin.

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1.4.5 Match Plate Pattern
In this case, pattern in two halves is attached on opposite side of wooden or metal plate (match
plate). Production efficiency and dimensional accuracy of castings can be generally improved by
the use of these patterns. Several patterns for small castings (need not be same) can be mounted
on one match plate. These are mostly used in machine molding as well as for producing large
number of small castings by hand molding.
1.4.6 Sweep Pattern

It is not a true pattern, but a template made of wood or metal revolving around a fixed axis in the
mold shapes the sand to the desired contour. This eliminates the need for a large three
dimensional pattern. It is suitable for producing simple symmetrical castings such as wheels,
rims, and bell shapes.
1.5 Runner:
Runner is a horizontal channel that receives molten metal from the sprue base, and distributes to
the in gates which carries metal to the mold. Runners are usually made trapezoidal in cross
section. They are generally located in cope and in gates in the drag. This ensures that the slag and
dross are trapped in the upper portion of runner and only molten metal enters into the mold.
Runner Extension:
The runner is often extended beyond the last in gate to retain inclusions and various refractory
materials that may have been washed along the stream of molten metal. Also, it absorbs kinetic
energy causing a smooth flow of metal into the mold cavity.
Gates or In gates:
Gates or in gates are openings through which molten metal directly enters into the mold cavity.
The gates should be designed such that the molten metal can flow steadily and quietly into the
mold cavity. They should be easily removed from the casting after solidification.
1.6 Tools and Equipment:
1.6.1 Molding Board

A molding board is a smooth wooden board on which the flask and pattern are placed when the
mould is being made.
1.6.2 Molding Boxes
Sand moulds are prepared in specially constructed boxes called flasks. The purpose of flask is to
impart the necessary rigidity and strength to the sand in molding. They are usually made in two
parts, held in alignment by dowel pins. The top part is called the cope and the lower part the
drag. These flasks can be made by wood or metal depending upon the size required and the
purpose the flask must serve.

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1.6.3 Shovel
A shovel is used for mixing and tempering molding sand and for moving the sand from the pile
to the flask.
1.6.4 Riddle
A riddle sometimes called a screen consists of a circular or square wooden frame fitted with a
standard wire mesh at the bottom as shown in figure below. It is used to remove coarse sand
particles and other foreign material from the foundry sand.
1.6.5 Rammer
A hand rammer is used for packaging or ramming the sand into the mould. One of its ends,
called the peen end, is wedge shaped and is used for packing sand in spaces, pockets and corners,
in the early stages of ramming. The other end called the butt end, has a flat surface and is used
for compacting the sand towards the end of molding as shown in below figure.
1.6.6 Strike Edge or Strike-Off Bar

It is a piece of metal or wood with straight edge as shown in below figure. It is used to remove
excess sand from the mould after ramming, to provide a level surface.
1.6.7 Riser Pin

It is a straight wooden pin used to make a hole in the cope over the mold cavity for the molten
metal to rise-in and feed the casting to compensate the shrinkage that may take place during
solidification.
1.6.8. Sprue Pin

It is a tapered wooden pin, as shown in below figure. It is used to make a hole in the cope
through which the molten metal is poured into the mould.

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Fig No: 52 Mould Making Tools

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8. BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB INSTRUMENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
In the world of mechanical devices today, most measurements are made by electronic instrumentation,
not the crude mechanical devices of the past. Most of these newer devices are actually a modern combination
of a mechanical device and electronic sensing element. Many of the measurements a mechanical engineer
makes are done with specialized calibrated equipment, but some are still made with basic electronic
instruments, and the readings interpreted by the operator. This mini-lab is designed to introduce you to some
of the more common basic instrumentation and its use. It will also allow you to conduct some measurements
and familiarize yourself with these instruments.
1.1 Multi-Meter:
The multi-meter is the most common electronic instrumentation in use. It is a combination meter that
is capable of measuring, resistance, voltage (AC and DC) and usually current. In addition some meters are
capable of measuring capacitance, frequency and other variables. An example of one of these meters is the
Fluke 189 hand held multi-meter.
Fig No: 53 Fluke 189 Multi Meter
This type meter is very common in most shops and is portable and easily used. This meter is capable
of measuring AC and DC Voltage (down to 0.000001 Volts and as high as 1000 Volts), Resistance,
Capacitance, Temperature, Current (Down to 0.000001 Amps and as high as 10 Amps). In addition it is
capable of catching maximum and minimum values and saving them in memory. A versatile meter like this
is most commonly used by service personnel, but can easily be used by anyone. In addition this meter is a
True RMS meter, which will be explained in more detail later.
1.2 Frequency Counter:
A second common instrument found in any well used instrumentation shop is the Frequency counter or
meter. In its most simple form the meter measures the amount of time it takes from one positive going pulse to
the next positive going pulse, and the result is displayed as a number of cycles per second or Hertz. This
function is built into some higher end hand held multi-meters, but there are many more sophisticated bench top
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frequency meters available. Most of these meters let you control exactly how you look at the signal being
measured. Common settings are weather the signal is triggered going positive or going negative, and at what
level this happens. They may also let you look at the pulse period, positive going portion or negative going
pulse time, duty cycle and other more advanced configurations involving two input signals, such as time from
the pulse on one channel to the pulse on the other channel. All these abilities can be useful when investigating
how a particular mechanism or system if functioning. In this course we will only use the simple functions of
frequency and period.
1.3 Function Generator:

Function or frequency generators are a class of instrument that are useful for creating a repetitive
signal of a various form. In the mechanical world this is most commonly used to generate signals to drive test
apparatus. As an example, a vehicle chassis may be connected to a large shaker assembly, and this assembly is
vibrated and moved in a motion that simulates going down a bumpy road. In this way a vehicles durability can
be tested and its motion analyzed, without the need to actually drive it down the road. This might be important
if your job is to prove that it will last 100,000 miles of rough road. Your test drivers will certainly appreciate
that the machine can spend 24/7 bouncing the truck around instead of the truck spending those miles bouncing
their kidneys around.
Fig No: 54 Sweep Function Generator

1.4 Strip Chart Recorder:
Working with different mechanical systems, it is often advantageous to look at what a signal is doing
over a period of time. You could sit with a meter and record a reading every so often, but this could get very
tedious, especially if the signal you are looking at takes hours or days to complete. The solution to this falls
into two categories: Computer data acquisition and strip chart recorder. The strip chart recorder was originally
developed in 1930’s. While these units did not have the accuracy that newer units do, the strip chard recorder
is still a valuable tool for slow period wave forms. The strip chart recorder uses two motor drives to generate a
time based wave display on a continuous roll grid paper. One motor drive system controls the rate at which
the paper moves under a pen, and the second motor drive controls the movement of the pen side to side over
that paper.
1.5 Oscilloscope:
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The basic premise of an oscilloscope is similar to that of a chart recorder, with the pen no longer being
an ink device, but a beam of electrons, and the paper being a glass tube with a phosphor coating. When the
beam of electrons strike the phosphor, it glows. The beam of electrons is deviated from left to right with time,
and up and down with voltage. The resulting image is a small “page” of voltage vs. time. Unfortunately the
beam must continue to “paint” this image for it to remain so you could see it. This was only good for
repetitive signals, however, it had the advantage that it was extremely accurate for signals that were too fast
for the chart recorder. By installing a triggering section to display the same portion of the wave form over and
over at the same point in time, the device became a standard and useful tool. Over time “persistent” phosphors
were created that allowed a recording of only a single sweep of the electron beam. With the advent of the
computer age, it soon became more cost effective to use a small processor to record the image to memory and
display it on a small computer screen.
1.6 Spectrum analyzer:
While the oscilloscope is a wonderful tool, there are times when it is valuable to view a waveform in
the frequency domain, rather than the time domain. One common application is when working with vibrations
of structures. Where the oscilloscope displays a wave form of voltage vs. time, the spectrum analyzer displays
a waveform of voltage vs. frequency. This data can be obtained from a specialized instrument, such as the HP
3582, shown below, or from more general purpose tools such as an FFT module in a digital oscilloscope, or a
computer data acquisition system running a virtual instrument. Many people have trouble with the concept of
the spectrum analyzer. The simplest model for how one of these systems works, is that there are lots of
individual frequency filters. Each filter being set to one specific frequency. If the incoming signal has a
component that matches this frequency, the analog voltage level of that component is displayed.

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WEB LINKS FOR PRESENTATION
AND
VIDEO LECTURING TOPICS
Sl no Topic Web link Remarks

1 Manufacturing Methods https://youtu.be/mLakJ77O4_s
2 Rapid Proto typing https://youtu.be/NkC8TNts4B4
3 Glass Cutting https://youtu.be/oAlrlFyEAt4
4 3D Printing https://youtu.be/kNz-TM4zPkE
5 CNC Lathe https://youtu.be/B7MM5M7DzpM
6 Injection Moulding https://youtu.be/QxZ54WgYhnA
7 Mould Making and Casting https://youtu.be/_Pcjz9bOsPs
8 Basic Electronics Lab Instruments https://youtu.be/w8Dq8blTmSA

139
D.IT WORKSHOP

140
Task: 1
Computer hardware & Identification of parts, operating system installation.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A computer is a combination of two terms Hardware and Software. The physical components of a
computer are called hardware. Pieces of hardware may be categorized according to the functions each performs:
input, process, output, and storage. Your PC (Personal Computer) is a system, consisting of many components.
Some of those components, like Windows XP, and all your other programs, are software. Software is the source
of interaction between the user and the computer. It represents programs, collection of several sets of
instructions, which allow the hardware to run properly. The stuff you can actually see and touch, and would
likely break if you threw it out a fifth-story window, is hardware.
1.2 COMPUTER HARDWARE & IDENTIFICATION OF PARTS
Hardware of a computer is made up of complex electronic circuits. For a user the details of the circuitry
are not important. However, the hardware units with which a user has to interact must
For convenience, the hardware of a computer can be classified in the following categories:
1. Input Devices
2. Output Devices
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
4. Memory or Storage
5. Motherboard
Let us discuss each of these hardware components:
1. Input Devices: The form in which data is available to a user is not always in the same form as is
accepted by computer hardware. Input devices are hardware equipment that receive data and instructions
from users, convert the data and instructions into a form that can be processed by the computer and passes
the same to the computer. Hence, if you have to enter employees’ names into the computer you do not
have to write it on a piece of paper and shove the paper inside the computer. You will need some input
device for this.
Example: A keyboard is an example of input device.

2. Output Devices: The result, produced by a computer after processing, is not always in user readable
form. An output device is hardware equipment that translates this non-readable result into a form
understood by the users.
Example: A VDU (Visual Display Unit) or monitor is an example of output device.

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3. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Central processing unit is to computer what brain is to our body. It is
the master organ of a computer. No computer can exist without a CPU. It is composed of two simpler
hardware units - Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). CU controls all the activities of
other hardware units while ALU performs all the calculations. Computer CPUs are very fast in their
calculations and swift in control.
4. Memory or Storage: This hardware is the place where a computer stores all the data and
instructions given to it. The results of the processing are also stored here. A computer has many types of
memories. Some memories are directly connected to the CPU and are extremely fast as far as storage and
retrieval of data is concerned. These memories are called primary memory - RAM (Random Access
Memories) and ROM (Read Only Memories) belong to this category of memories. The CPU takes data
and instructions stored only in the primary memories.
5. Motherboard: Motherboard, also called as System Board, is the most important hardware
component of a microcomputer. Motherboard is so called as all the other boards (printed circuit boards
having chips or other electronic components) of the computer are connected to this board, hence it is like
the mother of all other boards.
1.3 OPERATING SYSTEM INSTALLATION

An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources and
provides common services for compute programs. The operating system is an essential component of the
system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to
function.
An Operating System (OS) is software that acts as an interface between computer hardware components
and the user. Every computer system must have at least one operating system to run other programs.
Applications like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad Games, etc., need some environment to run and perform
its tasks.
The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer’s
language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer or mobile device without having an operating
system.

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Task: 2
Disassembly & Assembly of Computer to Working Condition
2.1 INTRODUCTION
With wide availability of computer towers, cases, motherboards, processors, hard disk, CD or DVD
disc drives, and other computer components – and a little bit of technical know-how – you can build your
dream computer from scratch. As far as technical skills go, you will need to have a basic aptitude for
building computers before you attempt to build your own PC. While bolting together parts is relatively
straight forward, you will also need to install an operating system, configure the devices, and make sure
that the computer’s components are compatible with each other. In this unit, we will discuss the process of
building assembling different parts of a computer.
2.2 ASSEMBLING
If you have decided to take on the task of assembling a computer, it would be better that we spend
some time in taking some safety precautions. The safety precautions are extremely important and all of them
need to be taken seriously. Here, we will discuss some safety tips and the components needed for
assembling.
2.3 SAFETY TIPS FOR ASSEMBLING
First of all, since the word is assembling, so definitely, we will be working or dealing with desktop
computers in this article. Secondly, our primary focus is the CPU and connecting the different components
along with it. Therefore it’s obvious that we will discuss the safety precautions that we need to take while
assembling the computer cabinet. A static shock which is not sufficient to be felt by humans is enough to
destroy the components that you are using to assemble your computer. So, it is very important that all the
components that you will be using to assemble your computer should be kept on anti static mats. If in case
you do not have anti static mats, you can simply keep them in the packaging in which they came. There is
also a concept of using wristbands, while you are using your hands at assembling a computer. The idea is
simple, tie the wristband on your wrist and one end of the band is connected to the anti static mat and the
other end is connected to the computer chassis. The basic concept is to balance the charge on the computer
chassis and the body. Do not stand on a carpet while you are taking up this task.
2.4 COMPONENTS REQUIRED TO ASSEMBLE A COMPUTER
Let us take a look at the components that we will require to assemble a computer.
⚫ The first component that we would require is the computer chassis or cabinet. This is where all the
component will be integrated into a package.
⚫ Next we will need the computer motherboard. This is where all the other components need to be
connected.
⚫ The computer processor or the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is what handles all the processing of the
computer. It is the most important part of a computer.
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⚫ RAM or the primary memory of the computer .
⚫ The hard drive of a computer is where all the data is stored. Hence, this is the next component that you
will require.
Step 1: Prepare Your Workspace
Step 2: Choosing Computer Cabinet and Cooling Considerations
Step 3: Installing Motherboards
Step 4: Install The Processor (CPU)
Step 5: Install The CPU Heat Sink
Step 6: Install The Memory Modules (Ram Memory)
Step 7: Place The Motherboard Into The Case
Step 8: Connect the Power Supply
Step 9: Install the Graphics/Video Card
Step 10: Connect the Keyboard, Mouse and Monitor
Step 11: Install the Drives
Step 12 : Install the Add-In Cards
Step 13: Turn the Computer On
Step 14: Install the Operating System (OS)
Step 15: Update Drivers
Step 16: Install Anti-Virus Software and Setup a Network/ Internet Connection
Step 17: Install other Software
2.5 DISASSEMBLING
1. Prepare all your tools.

a. Long Philip Screw Driver
b. Rubber Eraser
c. Soft Wide Bristle Brush
d. Paper and Pen for documentation
2. Before opening the system case, be sure to turn off the system unit. Turn off and unplug the AVR from
the wall socket as well. After that, unplug all the cables connecting to the back of the system unit. After
clearing all the connected cables, put the system unit on an empty working table.
3. Touch the unpainted part of your system unit with your bare hands to remove the ESD of your body.
This is an important part before opening your system case. You might destroy your RAM, Chipsets and
other components of your motherboard.
4. Remove the screws of the side cover opposite to the side where the ports are. By most system cases, if
you are facing the back of the system unit the right side cover is to be removed. Return the screws back
to the screw holes to avoid losing them.
5. Once the side cover is removed, turn your system side down where the opened side of the system unit
should be facing upward where you can comfortably look down on the inside of your system case.
6. We are now ready to remove the components inside of the computer. The first thing we need to do is
144
remove the power supply. To be able to remove the power supply, remove first the molex connectors
(the white plastic connector at the tip of the wires of the power supply) or the motherboard power
connector, drive power connectors, the floppy drive power connector, the sata power connectors and the
four pin 12-volt motherboard connector. With all power connectors are removed from the motherboard
and drives, the power supply is now ok to be removed as well. Always have the removed components
placed in a remote and safe place away from where you are performing computer disassembly.
7. With the power supply removed, the data cable should be removed next. This includes IDE, SATA, and
floppy drive cables. Secure the removed data cables.
8. Next to remove are the RAM, Video Card and other card peripheral components. Again have them
secured in a safe place and put the screws back. Clean the connector edges of the card peripherals by
rubbing the gold colored edge moderately with a rubber eraser then brushing off the shredding. Do not
attempt to clean the edge by blowing or brushing it off with your fingers. Our body is acidic and you
might only cause the edges to tarnish faster.
9. Remove all drives. This will include your hard drive, cd/dvd drives, and the floppy drive.
10. Since all peripherals where removed, the next thing to do is to remove the front panel connectors. This
will include the USB, Front Panel (FP) and Audio header. If you are not sure of which connector is
being match to, write down or document the connections and orientation of the connectors before
removing them from the headers. Remember that not all motherboards have the same header
configuration so be careful and watchful while documenting.
11. After removing the header connectors, we are now ready to remove the motherboard. To remove the
motherboard, locate first all the screws and lightly unscrew all screws alternately. With this technique,
we are reducing the risk of warping or bending our motherboard. It may not have a large impact on the
bending of the motherboard but still it does have even a little. Upon lightly loosening all screws, remove
all screws then. Remove the motherboard by carefully and lightly pulling it away from the I/O shield.
Why? because we need to free the ports that are fitted from the holes in the I/O shield. After freeing the
motherboard ports from the I/O shield holes, lift up the motherboard and put it on the safe place.
12. Clean the system unit chassis with your brush, also clean your motherboard and the rest of the
peripherals being removed.

145
Task: 3
Operating System Installation
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources
and provides common services for compute programs. The operating system is an essential
component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an
operating system to function.
An Operating System (OS) is software that acts as an interface between computer hardware
components and the user. Every computer system must have at least one operating system to run
other programs. Applications like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad Games, etc., need some
environment to run and perform its tasks.
The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the
computer’s language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer or mobile device without
having an operating system.
1.2 Types of operating system:
Following are the popular types of OS (Operating System):
1. Batch Operating System

2. Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
3. Real Time OS
4. Distributed OS
5. Network OS
6. Mobile OS
1. Batch Operating System

• Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same process, a job
with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as a group.
• The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the computer. In this type of OS,
every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch card and submits it to the
computer operator.
2. Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems

Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminal (shell) to use a
single computer system at the same time. The processor time (CPU) which is shared among multiple
users is termed as time sharing.
3. Real time OS
A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to inputs is very small.
Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems are the Real time OS example.
4. Distributed Operating System

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Distributed systems use many processors located in different machines to provide very fast
computation to its users.
5. Network Operating System
Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve to manage data,
user, groups, security, application, and other networking functions.
6. Mobile OS
Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are designed to power smart
phones, tablets, and wearable’s devices. Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and
iOS, but others include BlackBerry, Web, and watch OS.
1.3 Functions of Operating System:
1. In an operating system software performs each of the function:

2. Process management: - Process management helps OS to create and delete processes. It also
provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.
3. Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of allocation and de-
allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources.
4. File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as organization storage, retrieval,
naming, sharing, and protection of files.
5. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module also
responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task of allocation and
de-allocation of the devices.
6. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the peculiarities of those
hardware devices from the user.
7. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage which includes primary
storage, secondary storage, and cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored in primary
storage or cache so that a running program can reference it.
8. Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer system against
malware threat and authorized access.
9. Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share memory, hardware
devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one another through the network.
10. Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters and another
software resource of the various users of the computer systems.

147
1.4 Advantage of using Operating System
• Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction

• Easy to use with a GUI
• Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
• The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to use
• Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware components
• It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
• Acts as an intermediates between all hardware’s and software’s of the system
1.5 Disadvantages of using Operating System
• If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in your system
• Operating system’s software is quite expensive for small size organization which adds burden on
them. Example Windows
• It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time.
1.6 Operating system installation:
The detailed information of various operating systems as follows.
Windows 7 Operating system:
In order to install your copy of the Windows 7 operating system please makes sure to have the
following items:
• -Windows 7 Installation disk
• -Drivers CD: * Use after installation process if needed.
NOTE: Please make sure to back up all of your important data before proceeding with this installation.
Step 1. Insert the Windows 7 operating system disk into your DVD drive, and then restart your
computer.
Step 2. You will see a prompt that says ‘Press any key to continue’ after the ZT logo disappears.
When you see this press any key immediately.
NOTE: The following screen shots may differ from what you may see during your installation. (I.e.
Windows 7 version, HDD disk space etc.)

148
Fig No:55 Windows 7 logo will appear
Step 3 ‘Starting Windows’ with the Windows7 logo will appear.
Fig No:56 Starting Windows
Step 4. Language options, by default English will be set along with “time and currency format” and
“keyboard or input method”
Fig No:57 Language Option

149
Task:4
Hardware Trouble Shooting
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is hardware troubleshooting?
Hardware troubleshooting is the process of reviewing, diagnosing and identifying operational or

technical problems within a hardware device or equipment. It aims to resolve physical and/or logical
problems and issues within a computing hardware. Hardware troubleshooting is done by hardware or
technical support technician.
Hardware troubleshooting processes primarily aim to resolve computer hardware problems using a
systematic approach. he process starts by first identifying the problem and finding different issues that
can cause such a problem and eventually leading to implementing a solution or alternative. Hardware
troubleshooting is generally done on hardware equipment installed within a computer, server, laptop or
related device.
1.2 Some processes within hardware troubleshooting include:
• Removing, repairing and replacing faulty RAM, hard disk or video/graphic card.
• Cleaning dusts from RAM and Video carts slot/ports and from cooling fan.
• Tightening cable and jumpers on motherboard and/or components.
• Software related hardware problems such as device driver update or installation.
1.3 Some of the most common PC hardware problems that need troubleshooting are:
a) Your computer won’t turn on.
b) Your computer turns on, but still doesn’t work.
c) Your computer screen freezes.
d) Your computer has insufficient memory.
e) You get a CMOS error.
f) Your operating system is missing or your hard drive isn’t detected.
g) You get the blue screen of death.
1.3.1 Problem: a) Your computer won’t turn on.
This is a common problem that often offers a simple solution.

150
• Is everything plugged in? I can’t tell you how many times I have come across a “broken” computer that
simply had an unplugged component.
• Try plugging into different power outlets. It isn’t uncommon to blow a fuse, especially with more power-
hungry systems.
• Is either the monitor, mouse, or keyboard the only thing not working? If so, try plugging in a different one
to see if that does the job. Most of the time, replacing one of these is cheaper than attempting a repair.
Once you’ve completed the above steps, it’s time to look at the tower.
• Are the lights on in the front or back of the tower? If not, the power supply unit (PSU) may be turned off.
• Next, you can open up your tower and look at the motherboard. Most have a small LED light built in to
show if power is running to the motherboard. If it’s turned off, you can either try using a PSU tester, or
replace the PSU. Never try to open a PSU and try to repair it yourself as this is extremely dangerous.
1.3.2 Problem: b) Your computer turns on, but still doesn’t work.
If power is obviously flowing to the computer system and its peripherals, there may be a component issue.
When you first turn on the computer, do you hear or see anything out of the ordinary? Many times the
computer’s Power-On Self-Test (POST) will let you know what’s going on with the machine.
Beep Codes
If you hear any beeps when your computer turns on, they can help you troubleshoot common PC hardware
problems. Here’s a list of beep codes.
No beep but the system turns on and runs fine - Under normal circumstances, most computer systems
will beep one short beep when turned on. If yours doesn’t, your “beeper” may have died out.
• No beep - The power supply is not plugged in or turned on. Or, the power supply is completely dead.
• Steady, short beeps - The power supply may be bad or the voltages might be wrong. A replacement would
usually be necessary.
• Steady, long beeps - The power supply has gone bad.
• Long, continuous beep - Your Random Access Memory (RAM) sticks may have gone bad. If there is
more than one stick installed, try taking one out to see if the computer boots. If it does not, try the same
thing with the other stick. This will tell you which stick has gone bad and you can replace or upgrade
accordingly. If there is only one stick installed, you will need to replace or upgrade it to fix the problem.
• One long, two short beeps - There has been a video card failure. Your first action is to try reseating the
video card. This often solves the problem when the computer system is connected to projectors because the
VGA/DVI/Video cable gets moved so often that the card can be slowly unplugged. If reseating doesn’t
work, replace the video card.
1.3.3 Problem: c) Your computer screen freezes.

151
• If you’ve tried all of this and your computer still won’t unlock, you may be dealing with either defective
hardware or a defective device driver. If this is your case, replace the defective piece immediately so it
doesn’t cause further damage.
• Another thing you could be dealing with is a virus that is overwhelming your system. Run a virus
scan, remove the virus, recover or reinstall damaged files or software, and implement the latest security
software.
• When your computer freezes and isn’t responsive to your mouse or keyboard, the first thing to do is just
wait. Sometimes it will just take a few minutes for your computer to process. Then, end-task the non-
responding program. If that doesn’t work, turn off the computer by holding down the power button and
then rebooting into Safe Mode (don’t forget about saving your work first, if you can).
1.3.4 Problem: d) Your computer has insufficient memory.
• Receiving an “insufficient memory or disk space” error message can usually be solved (at least
temporarily) by closing extra windows to free up some RAM. If you’ve done that and the error still comes
up, you can try rebooting your computer and installing the latest operating system update.
• If you really don’t have enough available memory and space (which can be checked in Windows 10 by
pressing the Windows-R button and typing perfmon in the Open field to run the Performance
Monitor), you can uninstall or delete any unused or unnecessary files, especially those of the video/music
type. Your final solution is to add more RAM.
1.3.5 Problem: e) You get a CMOS error.
The CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) is an onboard chip that stores information
ranging from the time and date to system hardware settings. If you get a CMOS alert message showing up
on your screen, it’s likely you need to replace the CMOS battery located on the motherboard. Remove it
carefully, insert a new battery that is exactly the same as the old one, and enter the CMOS values to the
defaults.
1.3.6 Problem: f) Your operating system is missing or your hard drive isn’t detected
If the message “Missing Operating System” shows up on your screen, there are four possibilities the
problem could be (and four ways to solve it):
• The basic input/output system (BIOS) doesn’t detect Windows’ hard disk, or the disk failed. If you know
how, take out the hard drive and reconnect it. If that doesn’t work, the hard drive’s interface is forbidden or
the hard drive is seriously damaged.
• Restart the computer and watch for the message telling you which key to strike to go into the BIOS. The
key can vary from system to system so you may need to use a search engine to find the instructions for

152
your system. Be sure to strike the specified key as soon as you see the message. In the BIOS highlight the
hard drive and set it to “Auto”. If it’s still invisible, you need a hard drive repair or replacement.
• The BIOS settings are incorrect. Set the BIOS back to Default State.
• The Master Boot Record (MBR) is damaged or corrupted. Rebuild the MBR using either the Windows
installation disk; the Windows repair disk, or a bootable partitioning tool.
• The Windows boot file partition isn’t active. Start the computer using a bootable partitioning tool. If that
doesn’t work, set the wrong partition to ‘inactive’ and activate the correct partition.
1.3.7 Problem: g) You get the blue screen of death (BSOD)
The blue screen of death (BSOD) appears when Microsoft Windows has an unrecoverable, critical
error that causes a crash and subsequent data loss. This can be caused by the low-level software in
Windows crashing.
When the BSOD occurs, the computer automatically creates a minidump file and restarts the
computer. If the blue screen appears again, follow the prompts, identify and search for the error code
online, and learn how to fix the problem.

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LORDS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (A)

Roll No: _______________________

Branch & Section: _______________

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PEO3: Acquire high skill-set by continuous training, multi-disciplinary activities, team

PEO4: Giving consultancy services to industrial challenges and promoting department-

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

PO’s & PSO’s

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Course code Course title Core/Elective

Course Outcomes – (Laboratory):

A. TRADES FOR EXERCISES

1. End lap joint

1. Machining (Lathe & Drilling)

Note: At least two exercises from each trade.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

C19.5 Differentiate Engineering Materials and Manufacturing Methods. BTL2

Note: Bloom's Taxonomy Levels

BTL1-Remember BTL2 - Understand BTL3 –Apply

Signature of the Faculty

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

1- Low correlation (Low), 2- Medium correlation (Medium), 3-High correlation (High)

Signature of the Faculty

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

• Make sure your work piece is fixed securely before

• Eating and drinking in the mechanical workshop is

All accidents, cuts and abrasions must be reported to the In-charge

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

• Students must be regular, punctual and disciplined in the lab.

• Conduct the job with interest and an attitude of learning.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

b. Two lamps in series 49-50

c. Staircase wiring. 51-52

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

5 CNC LATHE 126-128

SL NO NAME OF THE TRADE/EXPERIMENT DATE PAGE NO REMARKS/SIGN

Signature of the faculty

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Fig No: 01 Fitting (Cutting Tools)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

b) Cross peen hammer

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Fig No:03 Square Fitting

1.3 Tools Required & Equipment:

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Fig No: 04 Dovetail Fitting

All dimensions are in mm

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Fig No: 05 V-Template Fitting

All dimensions are in mm

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Lords Institute of Engineering & Technology(A)