GENERAL GEOLOGY

Geology- is a branch of science that studies the composition, history, and processes that
shape the earth's surface.

 GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Engineering geology is the branch of applied sciences concerned with using geology to
provide safe, stable, and cost-effective designs and constructions for civil engineering
projects.

What do engineers have to do with geology?

One of the most important tasks a civil engineer needs to complete is site surveying.
Surveying requires civil engineers to determine the relative positions of points that are
at, above, and below the surface of the earth. This requires geological surveying tools
and skills.

It all simply portray engineering activity. For example, in designing/ planning in cities,
building high rises, constructing bridges, and preparing for complex buildings or
apartments, people call an Engineering Geologist.

 Branches of geology
Geology is a relatively recent subject. In addition to its core branches, advances in
geology in allied fields have led to specialized sciences like geophysics, geochemistry,
seismology, oceanography, and remote sensing.
Main Branches
 Physical geology
 Mineralogy
 Petrology
 Structural geology
 Stratigraphy
 Paleontology
 Economic geology
Physical geology:
This is also variously described as dynamic geology, geomorphology, etc. It deals with:
 Different physical features of the earth, such as mountains, plateaus, valleys,
rivers, lakes glaciers, and volcanoes in terms of their origin and development.
 The different changes occurring on the earth’s surface like marine transgression,
marine regression, and formation or disappearance of rivers, springs, and lakes.
 Geological work of wind, glaciers, rivers, oceans, and groundwater and their role
inconstantly molding the earth’s surface features
 Natural phenomena like landslides, earthquakes, and weathering.
Mineralogy:
It deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are basic units with different rocks and ores
of the earth are made up of. Details of the mode of formation, composition, occurrence,
types, association, properties uses, etc. of minerals form the subject matter of
mineralogy.
For example: sometimes quartzite and marble resemble one another in shine, colour,
and appearance while marble disintegrates and decomposes in a shorter period because
of its mineral composition and properties.
Petrology:
Petrology deals with the study of rocks. The earth’s crust also called lithosphere is made
up of different types of rocks. Hence petrology deals with the mode of formation,
structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and types of rocks. This is the most
important branch of geology from the civil engineering point of view.
Structural geology:
The rocks, which from the earth’s crust, undergo various deformations, dislocations, and
disturbances under the influence of tectonic forces. The result is the occurrence of
different geological structures like folds, faults, joints, and unconformities in rocks. The
details of the mode of formation, causes, types, classification, importance, etc of these
geological structures from the subject matter of structural geology.
Stratigraphy:
The climatic and geological changes including tectonic events in the geological past can
also be known from these investigations. This kind of study of the earth’s history
through sedimentary rock is called historical geology. It is also called stratigraphy
(Strata = a set of sedimentary rocks, graphy description).
Economic geology:
Minerals can be grouped as general rock-forming minerals and economic minerals.
Some of the economic minerals like talc, graphite, mica, asbestos, gypsum, magnesite,
diamond, and gems. The details of their mode of formation, occurrence, and
classification. Association, varieties, concentration, properties, and use from the subject
matter of economic geology. Further based on the application of geological knowledge in
other fields there are many other allied branches collectively called earth science.
Some of them described here are:
 Engineering geology
 Mining geology
 Geophysics
 Geohydrology
 Geochemistry
Engineering geology
This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of civil engineering,
for the execution of safe, stable, and economic constructions like dams, bridges, and
tunnels.
Mining Geology
This deals with the application of geological knowledge in the field of mining. A mining
engineer is interested in the mode and extent of occurrence of ores, their association,
properties, etc. It is also necessary to know other physical parameters like depth
direction inclination thickness and reserve of the bodies for efficient utilization. Such
details of mineral exploration, estimation, and exploration are dealt within mining
geology.
Geophysics
The study of physical properties like density and magnetism of the earth or its parts.
To know its interior form the subject matter of geophysics. There are different types of
geophysical investigations based on the physical property utilized by gravity methods,
seismic methods, and magnetic methods. Engineering geophysics is a branch of
exploration geophysics, which aims at solving civil engineering problems by interpreting
the subsurface geology of the area concerned. Electrical resistivity methods and seismic
refraction methods are commonly used in solving civil engineering problems.
Geohydrology
This may also be called hydrogeology. It deals with the occurrence, movement, and
nature of groundwater in an area. It has applied importance because groundwater has
many advantages over to surface water. In general, geological and geophysical studies
are together taken up for groundwater investigations.
Geochemistry
This branch is relatively more recent and deals with the occurrence, distribution,
abundance, mobility, etc of different elements in the earth’s crust. It is not important
from the civil engineering point of view.

 The Composition and Structure of Earth

Is composed of different layers, each with unique features.
There are three main layers: which is the crust, mantle and core.

You see only the surface of the crust because this is the part of earth where we live.

Crust- it consists of a 5-70km thick layer of oceanic and continental crusts. Also it
describes the outermost shell of a terrestrial planet.
Moho- it is in upper mantle and still part of the crust. (what we called mohorovicic
discontinuity.)

Mantle- it is in below of crust. The scientist through their recent discoveries added a sub
layer of the mantle which is the asthenosphere where the occurrence of earthquakes
and seismic activities.

Asthenosphere- lies between the upper part of mantle and directly below the crust.

Gutenburg discontinuity- which serve as a transitional boundary between the lower

and outer core.

Core-it is made up of iron and nickle. The iron in outer core is liquid, while the inner
core is solid.

Lehman discontinuity- it was discovered in 1929 when a large earthquake occurred in

new Zealand.

 Continental Drift
Continental drift describes one of the earliest ways geologists thought continents moved
over time. This map displays an early "supercontinent," Gondwana, which eventually
moved to form the continents we know today. Fossils of similar organisms across widely
disparate continents encouraged the revolutionary theory of continental drift.

Alfred Wegener, in full Alfred Lothar Wegener,

November 1, 1880, Berlin, Germany

November 1930, Greenland

German meteorologist and geophysicist who formulated the first complete statement of
the Continental Drift

Evidence:

Fossil Evidence

One type of evidence that strongly supported the Theory of Continental Drift is the fossil
record. Scientists have found fossils of similar types of plants and animals in rocks of
similar age. These rocks were on the shores of different continents.

Plate Tectonics

The Theory of Plate Tectonics builds on Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift. In

theTheory of Plate Tectonics, it is tectonic plates, rather than continents, which are
moving. Tectonic plates are pieces of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of the
crust and the upper mantle. These pieces float on a layer of partly liquid rock called the
asthenosphere. Tectonic plates are able to move because the lithosphere is stronger
andmore dense than the rock below it.
Moving Plates

Geologists came to accept the Theory of Plate Tectonics in the late 1950s and early
1960s after coming to understand the concept of seafloor spreading. Seafloor spreading
happens on the seafloor where oceanic plates are moving away from each other. We say
that these plates are diverging. When this happens, cracks occur in the lithosphere. This
allows magma to come up and cool, forming a new seafloor. The opposite of divergence
is convergence. This happens when plates are moving towards each other. Material may
push upwards forming mountains or downwards into the mantle.
 Earth Processes
What is Earth Processes?
Earth surface processes include weathering; sediment production by weathering and
biochemical or chemical precipitation; erosion, transport, and deposition of sediment
under the influence of gravity, flowing water, air, and ice; earthquakes and Earth surface
motions; volcanic eruptions and movement of volcanic ejecta. Study of the landforms
(morphology) of the Earth's surface, including the processes responsible for such
landforms, is called geomorphology. The study of sediment, specifically the nature and
origin of unconsolidated sediments and consolidated sedimentary rocks, is called
sedimentology. Stratigraphy strictly means the description of (sedimentary) strata,
which, by definition, is another aspect of sedimentology.

What causes Earth processes?

Lithospheric plates on the scales of continents and oceans constantly move at rates of
centimeters per year in response to movements in the mantle. Major geological events,
such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building, result from these plate
motions.

Why is Earth geologically active?

Internal heat drives geological activity, and Earth retains plenty of internal heat because
of its relatively large size for a terrestrial world. This heat causes mantle convection and
keeps Earth’s lithosphere thin, ensuring active surface geology. It also keeps part of
Earth’s core melted, and the circulation of this molten metal creates Earth’s magnetic
field.

What processes shape Earth’s surface?

The four major geological processes are impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and
erosion. Earth has experienced many impacts, but most craters have been erased by
other processes. We owe the existence of our atmosphere and oceans to volcanic
outgassing. A special brand of tectonics—plate tectonics—shapes much of Earth’s
surface. Ice, water, and wind drive rampant erosion on our planet.

 WEATHERING
Weathering is a term which describes the general process by which rocks are broken
down at the Earth’s surface into such things as sediments, clays, soils and substances
that are dissolved in water.
Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the
surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature
are all agents of this process (weathering). Once a rock has been broken down, a process
called erosion transports the bits of rock and mineral away.
Why does weathering occur?
The process of weathering typically begins when the earth’s crust is uplifted by tectonic
forces. After the physical breakup and chemical decay of exposed rocks by weathering,
the loosened rock fragments and alterations products are carried away through the
process of erosion.
Weathering is often divided into the processes of MECHANICAL WEATHERING and
CHEMICAL WEATHERING.
EFFECTS:
Mechanical Weathering also called Physical Weathering and disaggregation, caused
rocks to crumble. Furthermore, Mechanical Weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces.
These smaller pieces are just like the bigger rocks. And the main agents of mechanical
weathering are water, ice, and wind.
1. Water, in either liquid or solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical
weathering. For instance, liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in rock.
2. Ice wedging: PROCESS
 Water seeps into cracks and fractures in rock.
 When the water freezes, it expands about 9% in volume, which wedges apart the
rock.
 With repeated freeze-thaw cycles, rocks breaks into pieces.
3. Abrasion – one rock bumps against another rock. Gravity causes abrasion as a
rock tumbles down a slope.

Plants and Animals in Mechanical Weathering

This can happen slowly. A plant’s roots grow into a crack in rock and as the rocks grow
larger, they wedge open the rocks. And as for animals, they can also cause weathering by
just digging for food or creating a hole to live, in the animal may break apart rock.

Humans and Mechanical Engineering

Building homes, roads, and subways, or quarry stone for construction or other uses of
infrastructures.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Water and many chemical compounds found in water such as acids and oxidation, is the
main agent of chemical weathering. Chemical Weathering is caused by rain water
reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals (clays) ad soluble salts.
These reactions occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic.
Example: Feldspar, one of the most abundant rock-forming minerals, chemically reacts
with water and water-soluble compounds to form clay.
Where does it occur?
This occurs more rapidly at higher temperature,. Chemical Weathering (especially
hydrolysis and oxidation) is the first stage in the production of soils.
How does this it occur?
There are different types of Chemical Weathering and the most important are:
SOLUTION - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In particular, limestone is
weathered by rainwater containing dissolved CO2, (this process is sometimes called
carbonation).
HYDROLYSIS - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.
OXIDATION - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a
rusty-coloured weathered surface.

 WORKS OF RIVERS, WIND AND SEA AND THEIR ENGINEERING

IMPORTANCE

WORKS OF RIVERS

The flow of a river brings many positive as well as the negative changes to the landscape.
The rivers or streams transport sediments and gravels from one location to another. As
a river flows and erodes sediment, gravels, and silt, it changes the shape of the course of
the river and these changes ca be positive and beneficial to mankind, as well as negative.
Furthermore, the process of erosion always has been and still is, a natural part of the
rock cycle. Without erosion, the existence of sediments and the formation of
sedimentary rocks will be impossible. Erosion detaches the loose, unconsolidated soil
and sediment from over the bedrock.

All the rivers have a beginning which is called the head. The place where a river ends in
the sea or lake is called the mouth. In all cases, the slope of the rivers at the head is high
so that it can carry all this materials from the parents rocks down. The slope slowly
decreases and in the plains it is smaller. Thus the shape of the curve from the head to the
mouth is concave. Thus concept of change in slope is crucial in our study of deposits
along the river.

To a hydraulic engineer and irrigation engineer, the water that flows into the river is
most important. From the geological point view, we look upon rivers as one among the
means disturbing the products of weathering among all over the earth surface.

WORKS OF WIND

The movement of air over the surface of the earth is called wind. We have seen that
wind, water, and ice are not only some of the agents of transportation of the weathered
products over the face of the earth.
The processes of erosion due to the wind are:

1. Deflation - The act of removing the loose particles of the earth from one area
and forming depression is called deflation. By this process of removing the sand
to the groundwater level, oasis is formed in desert.

2. Abrasion - The process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against
formation lake understanding rock and eroding them.

SAND AND DUST STORM

While the lower part of the wind consists of sand, the upper part is mainly the fine
particles of dust. Thus, the lower part produces the sand storms and upper part produce
dust storms.
DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENTS
The velocity of the wind carrying the particles may get reduced by some obstruction like
hills, mountains, forest sudden change of climate presence of water bodies like rivers,
sea, fall of rains, etc. This reduction of velocity forces deposition of particles the winds is
carrying, and they form typical Aeolian deposits. The two important types such deposits
are:
1. Sand dunes
2. Loess

WORKS OF SEA

Seas and oceans covered over seventy percent of the earth’s surface. Most Civil
engineers are generally interested on the shorelines only. Those specializing in harbor
structures will have to go deeper into the sea. The term “sea” is generally used for saline
water bodies surrounded by landforms in which it is formed by marine Erosion of rocks
on Seacoasts and also water bodies of shallower depth less than 4 km.

SEA WAVES

The waves are created by the winds. This disturbance travels to the coast and gets its
energy destroyed. The distance between the crests of adjacent waves is the wavelength
in the deep part of the sea; waves are only oscillatory.

LITTORAL CURRENT - word “littoral” means pertaining to the shoreline. There many
types of currents in the sea. The Littoral currents are currents pertaining to the seas,
lake and oceans, the current produced after the breaking of waves on the coast.
Formation of landforms by Coastal Deposition
The sediments entering the sea are carried away by the sea waves and deposited in the
sea or alternately it may be taken to the other parts of the seacoast. The coarser and
heavier particles are generally left near the coast.
 Bars – Bars are long deposits of sand formed in the sea parallel to the shoreline.
This may be above or below the sea level. The above are the sea level are called barrier
beach.
Tombolo -If the bars form a link to the mainland the link is known as a tombolo as
shown in the figure below.
Lagoon – A bar spit can enclose a portion of the sea as shown in the figure above to
form a lake such the Chilka Lake of Orissa, which is of 70 km length and a maximum
width of 52 km.

Formation of landforms by Sea Level changes

During the long history of the earth, the sea level has fallen and also rises in many places
on the earth due to various causes. A rise in sea level can form a ford. There are called
shore lines of submergence.
CURRENTS IN THE SEAS
There are different types of currents that work in the waters of the seas like density
currents, salinity currents, temperature currents, tidal currents etc. We will briefly
examine the only the action of the following type of currents that affect the coastline
shown.
1. Underflow or rip – The rise and fall of the tide in an open coast does not produce
much effect on the deposits the shoreline.
2. Tidal currents – Seawalls and bulkheads are the massive structures built along the
coast.

Construction of Revetments
Revetments against the coast are usually built with large stone or concrete block big
enough resist the force of the waves placed on each other.
Prevention of silting
Corals are very small sea organisms that live in very large colonics especially near the
tropics.

What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is an intense shaking of Earth’s surface. The shaking is caused by
movements in Earth’s outermost layer.

 Origin of an earthquake
The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary.
The focus is point inside the earth where the earthquake started, sometimes called
the hypocenter, and the point on the surface of the earth directly above the focus is
called the epicenter.
The location where an earthquake begins is called the epicenter. An earthquake’s most
intense shaking is often felt near the epicenter. However, the vibrations from an
earthquake can still be felt and detected hundreds, or even thousands of miles away
from the epicenter.
Why do earthquakes occur?

(Although the Earth looks like a pretty solid place from the surface, it’s actually
extremely active just below the surface. The Earth is made of four basic layers: a solid
crust, a hot, nearly solid mantle, a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.)
The solid crust and top, stiff layer of the mantle make up a region called the lithosphere.
The lithosphere isn’t a continuous piece that wraps around the whole Earth like an
eggshell. It’s actually made up of giant puzzle pieces called tectonic plates.

Tectonic plates are constantly shifting as they drift around on the viscous, or slowly
flowing, mantle layer below.
This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the stresses get too large,
it leads to cracks called faults. When tectonic plates move, it also causes movements at
the faults.
Earthquakes can originate from sudden motion along a fault, from a volcanic eruption,
bomb blasts, landslides, or anything else that suddenly releases energy on or in the
Earth.
What is an earthquake fault?
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the
blocks to move relative to each other.
Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most
faults produce repeated displacements over geologic time.
Earth scientists use the angle of the fault with respect to the surface (known as the dip)
and the direction of slip along the fault to classify faults.
Types of faults

Normal fault - a dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault has moved downward
relative to the block below. This type of faulting occurs in response to extension and is
often observed in the Western United States Basin and Range Province and along
oceanic ridge systems.

Reverse (thrust) fault - a dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault plane,
moves up and over the lower block. This type of faulting is common in areas of
compression, such as regions where one plate is being subducted under another as in
Japan. When the dip angle is shallow, a reverse fault is often described as a thrust fault.

Strike-slip fault - a fault on which the two blocks slide past one another. The San
Andreas Fault is an example of a right lateral fault.
How do we measure earthquakes?
Magnitude is proportional to the energy released by an earthquake at the focus. It is
calculated from earthquakes recorded by an instrument called seismograph. It is
represented by Arabic Numbers (e.g., 4.8, 9.0).
Intensity on the other hand, is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by
people in a certain locality. It is a numerical rating based on the relative effects to people,
objects, environment, and structures in the surrounding. It is represented by Roman
Numerals (e.g., II, IV, IX).
Types of earthquakes:
Tectonic earthquakes
produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries.
Volcanic earthquakes
Earthquakes induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes.
Crystal habit / mode of occurence
Definitions
Crystal habit - is the most commonly found shape or form that a mineral adopts. It is
the tendency for specimens of a mineral to repeatedly grow into characteristic shapes.
These shapes are influenced by the atomic structure of the mineral, but they can also be
influenced by the environment of crystal growth.

 Mode of occurrence
Reflects the environment of a mineral's formation.

Two Types of Occurrences of Minerals

1. Veins (the smaller occurrences)

In geology, vein are body that is disseminated within definite boundaries in unwanted
rock or minerals (gangue). There are two distinct types: fissure veins and ladder veins.
a. Fissure veins - the earliest described bedrock deposits, occupy one or more fissures;
they are tabular, with two dimensions much greater than the third.
b. Ladder veins - are short, rather regularly spaced, roughly parallel fractures that
traverse dikes (tabular bodies of igneous rocks) from wall to wall. Their width is
restricted to the width of the dike, but they may extend great distances along it.
2. Lodes (the larger occurrence)
A lode is a metal-bearing deposit found embedded between layers of bedrock. Lode
deposits occurring in igneous or metamorphic rocks commonly contain gold and silver,
while lode deposits in sedimentary rocks often contain iron or uranium ore.
Crystal habit terms:
Prismatic - is a habit name for minerals that form in elongated crystals with opposite
faces normally parallel to one another.
Tabular - appear tabular or platelike in shape.
Acicular - The adjective 'acicular' means needlelike in shape. An acicular aggregate of
crystals contains many long, slender crystals which may radiate out like needles or
bristles from a common base. Acicular crystals are typically long and narrow like a pine
leaf and seem to possess a sharp point. The mineral natrolite often exhibits acicular
crystals.
Fibrous - Specimens possessing fibrous habit exhibit clumps of sinewy, stringy, or
hairlike fibers.

Mode of occurrence terms:

Cryptocrystalline - consist of substances which are made up of such small crystals that
a microscope cannot distinguish individual crystals.
Massive - said of any rock that has a homogeneous texture or fabric over a wide area,
with an absence of layering, foliation, cleavage, or any similar directional structure.
Granular - a rock texture resulting from the aggregation of mineral grains of approx.
equal size. The term may be applied to a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, but is
especially used to describe an equigranular, holocrystalline igneous rock whose
particles range in diameter from 0.05 to 10 mm.
Concretionary - are masses of mineral matter embedded within rock layers, including
limestone, sandstone, and shale. They often take shape when minerals precipitating
(settling) out of water collect around a nucleus, such as a pebble, leaf, shell, bone, or
fossil.

 PROSPECTING
Prospecting in geology refers to the process of searching for mineral deposits, such as
precious metals, industrial minerals, and fossil fuels, in the Earth's crust. This process
involves a combination of fieldwork, including mapping and sampling, as well as
laboratory analysis to identify and evaluate potential mineral deposits. Exploration can
be conducted on a variety of scales, from regional exploration to targeted drilling and
sampling, and can be conducted by individuals, companies or government agencies. The
goal of exploration is to find new deposits that can be mined or extracted economically,
and ultimately to discover new sources of valuable resources for society.

PROSPECTING TECHNIQUES/TYPES

GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING – a types of prospecting wherein a systematic

measurement of one or more of the chemical properties of rock, soil, glacial debris,
stream sediment, water, or plants. This type of prospecting aims to measure the amount
of key “trace” elements.

An example would be; in most soils about 0.00001 percent (0.1 part per million) of
silver was found in soil, but a few contained as much as 0.0001 percent (1 part per
million). Those few high percentages are called “geological anomalies”, those with such
high percentages are subjected to further investigations.
GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING – is a type of mineral exploration that analyzes several
physical aspects of the Earth, such as gravity, magnetic, electrical, and seismic properties,
to find possible mineral deposits. This technology, which does not need drilling or
excavation, can be used to map an area's subsurface geology.

Geophysical prospecting can be used to identify potential mineral deposits in a wide

range of environments, from deep in the Earth to the shallow subsurface. These
methods are often used in combination with other techniques such as geochemical
prospecting and geological mapping to identify potential mineral deposits.

Electrical method involves measuring the electrical resistivity or conductivity of the

subsurface. This can be useful in identifying subsurface features such as clay, water, and
metal ore deposits. Seismic prospecting uses sound waves to create images of the
subsurface. This method can be used to identify subsurface rock formations, as well as
locate potential oil and gas deposits.

Seismic method in geophysical surveying involves the use of controlled explosions or

specialized energy sources to generate seismic waves, which travel through the
subsurface and are reflected back to the surface by different layers of rock or other
subsurface materials. These reflections are then recorded by sensors, called geophones,
which are placed on or near the surface. The data collected by the geophones is then
used to create a subsurface image, which can be used to locate oil and gas deposits,
mineral deposits, and other subsurface features of interest. Seismic methods can be used
both on land and offshore, and are an important tool in the exploration and
development of natural resources.

Gravity method measures the variations in the Earth's gravitational field, which can
indicate the presence of dense mineral deposits such as gold and lead. Magnetic
prospecting measures the variations in the Earth's magnetic field, which can indicate the
presence of iron-bearing minerals or other magnetic minerals.

Radioactive method in geophysical surveying involves the measurement of naturally

occurring radioactive elements in the subsurface. This method is based on the fact that
certain elements such as Uranium, Thorium and Potassium emit gamma radiation,
which can be detected and measured by specialized sensors. By measuring the gamma
radiation at different locations, it is possible to identify variations in the subsurface
geology, such as changes in rock type or the presence of certain minerals.

It's important to note that geophysical methods are not always able to detect mineral
deposits directly, and the data obtained from geophysics need to be interpreted by
geologists and geophysicists who have a good understanding of the geology of the area.

INDICATOR PLANTS - Plants have been successfully used as prospecting aids, and
under certain conditions, they may aid in the discovery of buried mineral deposits.
However, because there are so many variables involved, it is not always possible to
predict the conditions under which plants will be useful. Many plants effectively sample
many of the elements that are within reach of the roots and transfer these elements to
the branches, stems, and leaves, which can then be chemically analyzed, thanks to their
extensive root systems and absorptive ability.
 Ground water
What is groundwater?

Groundwater is water that is found underground in cavities and cracks in rock, sand,
and soil. Aquifers are geologic formations of soil, sand, and rocks where water is stored
and slowly circulated.

-Groundwater foundation (U.S. based corporation)

Is groundwater limited?

It is possible for groundwater to be replenished. Floods like flash floods are one way to
replenish groundwater; water conservation, recycled water, desalination, and water
transfer are other ways to replenish groundwater.

-Water education foundation

How can we access groundwater?

Aquifer water may rise to the surface naturally through a spring or be released into
lakes and streams. The majority of groundwater, however, is brought to the surface by
pumping it through a well drilled into the aquifer (which sucks the water like soda
through a straw). Wells vary in shape and size depending on the material into which the
well is drilled, the depth to the aquifer, and the amount of water pumped out.

-California water boards

Groundwater in geology.

Groundwater is an important component of the water cycle, which is the natural cycling
of water through Earth's phases and regions. Water that seeps into the soil may
resurface in other locations, sustaining the world's rivers, lakes, streams, and oceans.

Aquifers, which are subsurface water reservoirs made largely of rock such as limestone,
hold a considerable amount of the world's groundwater. The limestone absorbs and
retains water for an extended period of time, behaving as a gigantic rock sponge. The
Ogallala Aquifer in the American Great Plains is one of the world's largest aquifers. This
massive connected system runs from South Dakota to Texas and from Colorado to
Arkansas! Because aquifers can retain so much water, they take a very long time to fill;
this can take hundreds or even millions of years.

 Importance of civil engineering

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil engineering is a career that involves planning and building infrastructure for the
general public, including highways, power plants, sewage systems, bridges, aqueducts,
canals, dams, and other structures.

A civil engineer's duties can be broken down into three groups: those done prior to
construction (such as feasibility studies, site investigations, and design); those done
during construction (such as dealing with clients, consulting engineers, and contractors);
and those done following construction (maintenance and research).

https://www.britannica.com/technology/civil-engineering

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering geology is concerned with identifying potential geologic hazards that may
affect man-made structures or urban developments. An engineering geologist is
uniquely qualified to understand earth-structure interactions and recommend actions to
reduce potential hazards due to advanced education in soil and rock mechanics,
hydrology, geotechnics, and civil design.

To ascertain how the earth and constructions produced by humans interact, engineering
geologists conduct research and study. Their duties can fall under geological,
geotechnical, or environmental research.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Careful planning and hazard analysis are necessary for large civil engineering projects.
Geologists that specialise in engineering can conduct thorough evaluations to look into
all potential risks. In order to make recommendations for foundation and shoring design,
they can conduct geotechnical engineering investigations.
Any civil project's stability and durability are improved by geological engineering's
inclusion.
Geological engineering is necessary for minor projects too. Small building works to
maximise space by excavating farther into the ground in congested urban situations. To
lower the likelihood of a building failure, evaluating the risks associated with doing so is
necessary.
References:
http://www.velhightech.com/Documents/CE8393-ENGINEERING-GEOLOGY.pdf.
J. Gaither (2008)
https://beyondpenguins.ehe.osu.edu/issue/earths-changing-surface/the-forces-that-ch
ange-the-face-of-earth
J. Bridge and R. Demicco (2012)
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/earth-surface-processes-landforms-and-s
ediment-deposits/definitions-rationale-and-scope-of-the-book/F4A80E386782491F2A
A0690FD13E74C3
http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/courses/ast105/summary7.htm
https://geologyscience.com/geology/geophysical-methods/?amp.

S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. (n.d.). SUGGESTIONS FOR

PROSPECTING. michigan.gov. Retrieved from

https://www.michigan.gov/-/media/Project/Websites/egle/Documents/Programs/OG
MD/Catalog/08/GIMDL-USGSINF672R6.PDF?rev=660aaeec4b4a4a579b5a62fd48b02f6
0.

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Prospecting and exploration. Encyclopædia

Britannica. Retrieved January 17, 2023, from
https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining/Prospecting-and-exploration.

Geology Science. (2019, May 3). Geophysical Methods, Exploration Geophysics " Geology
Science. Geology Science. Retrieved January 18, 2023, from
https://geologyscience.com/geology/geophysical-methods/?amp.

https://groundwater.org/what-is-groundwater/

https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia-background/groundwater-replenishment
#:~:text=Groundwater%20replenishment%20happens%20through%20direct,water%2
C%20desalination%20and%20water%20transfers.

https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/groundwater/gw_basics.htm
l#:~:text=How%20do%20we%20get%20groundwater,is%20drilled%20into%20the%
20aquifer.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/groundwater-system-definition-geological-role.ht
ml#:~:text=Groundwater%20also%20acts%20like%20a,those%20sediments%20toget
her%20into%20rocks.

https://aessoil.com/what-is-engineering-geology/#:~:text=The%20inclusion%20of%2
0geological%20engineering,digging%20deeper%20into%20the%20soil.