Advances in Military Technology

Vol. 4, No. 2, December 2009

Ballistic Resistance of Steel Plate Hardox upon Impact

of Non-Penetrating Projectiles
J. Hub1* and J. Komenda2
1
Department of Aerospace and Rocket Technologies, University of Defence, Brno, Czech
Republic
2
Department of Weapons and Ammunition, University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic

The manuscript was received on 30 June 2009 and was accepted after revision for publication on
21 September 2009.

Abstract:
A steel plate material Hardox can be used also as a core design material for the
production of ballistic barriers or traps at the shooting ranges for small arms. The
article deals with the results of experiments with shooting weapon systems of a high
ballistic performance and with Finite Element Method simulation of the projectile
penetration upon the steel plate using the software Ansys Autodyn. Results and
influencing factors are discussed.

Keywords:
Ballistics, bullet, Hardox, penetration, shooting experiment, simulation model

1. Terminal Ballistics of Targets upon the Impact of

Non-Penetrating Projectiles
Evaluation of the terminal ballistics of barriers (armours, ballistics coverings, traps
etc.) is one of the key goals for terminal ballistics of hard targets. The terminal
ballistics of the barrier means the ability of the barrier to avoid the full penetration of
the barrier upon the impact of ballistic object with specific energy (bullet or a part of
it, fragment). The barrier is considered to be ballistic resistant in case of bringing the
ballistic object to stop or pushing the object aside.

2. Introduction of the Steel Hardox

The steel Hardox made by SSAB Oxelösund, Sweden, is an abrasion resistant alloy
steel of a high strength designated for wide machinery applications. The Hardox steel
varies upon alloy components and the hardness. The basic range of the steel has the

*
Corresponding author: Department of Aerospace and Rocket Technologies, University of
Defence, Kounicova 65, CZ-662 10 Brno, Czech Republic, phone: +420 973 445 189, fax:
+420 973 445 147, E-mail: [email protected]
80 J. Hub and J. Komenda

three-number code for determination of the Brinell hardness: 400, 450, 500 and 600.
The increasing code number means higher hardness, abrasion resistance, tensile
strength and on the other hand it means also decreasing ductility, toughness and
weldability.
In terms of applications to the firing ranges HARDOX 450 material can be
considered as an optimal compromise with regard to the requirements for high
strength, hardness, toughness and weldability of material for the manufacture of
ballistic screens of shooting ranges. For ballistic applications regarded as extreme
shock loading, it is possible to consider the impact strength of the material HARDOX
450 as the limit value (i.e., steel HARDOX of the higher classes cannot be used with
regard to their lower toughness and weldability).
Hardox 450 characteristics:
• Brinell hardness HBW 420-475, medium value HBW 450,
• Impact energy is 35 J using Charpy-V test at the temperature –40 °C,
• Carbon equivalent for the thickness 20 mm is 0.47 (CEV), respective 0.34
(CET),
• Yield strength Re = 1200 MPa, tensile strength Rm = 1400 MPa,
• Elongation to fracture A5 = 10 %.
Characteristics written above prove that the steel Hardox 450 exceeds the mechanical
properties of common structural steels.

3. Experimental Shooting

3.1. Background of Shooting Experiments

For shooting experiments, a HARDOX 450 plate of the thickness of 10 mm only
which is given ballistic limit of 6 500 J was used. It is therefore assumed that the plate
captures the bullet impact with 6 500 J of energy. The goal of the experiments [1] was
therefore to ascertain whether the presumption of safety capabilities of sheet metal
HARDOX is real or not.

3.2. Characteristics of the Weapon Systems

Taking into account the above mentioned fact, systems for penetrating the sheets of
HARDOX 450 reaching absolute ballistic limits mentioned above were selected with a
minimum projectile calibre, thus with maximum specific energy. Under these
circumstances the most unfavourable situation is reached in terms of capturing bullets.
If the plates are ballistic resistant, it would be possible to assume that the plates will
resist also different bullets of a larger calibre with the same impact energy.
For shooting to sheet the basic calibre weapon system 338 Lapua Magnum
(8.6 × 69) with a sniper rifle TRG 42 (SAKO) were chosen as well as two types of
charges with different types of bullets. Shooting was conducted at a distance of 15 m
and 50 m. The conventional calibre projectile 338 LM is 8.6 mm and this value
approximately corresponds to the actual diameter of the bullet.
The plate was shot at by projectile 338 Lapua Magnum with full metal jacket
bullet FMJ with a commercial designation Lock Base and expansive projectile HP
labelled Scenar (for both the manufacturer Lapua). Characteristics of both projectiles
are listed in Tab. 1.
 81 Ballistic Resistance of Steel Plate Hardox upon Impact 81
of Non-Penetrating Projectiles

During shooting experiments with 10 mm plate were also used sniper rifles in
calibre 308 Winchester (Rifle Sig Sauer SSG 3000), with an expansive ammunition
HPBT (Diamond Line series) with a lead core and molybdenum coating of the weight
of 10.9 g (NORMA manufacturer) and 7.62 × 54R (SVD Dragunov rifle, ammunition
with armour-piercing/incendiary bullet from the military production of Sellier &
Bellot).
Tab. 1 Characteristics of projectiles 338 Lapua Magnum (made by Lapua)
Characteristics Dimension Projectile
Lock Base (FMJ) Scenar (HP)
Weight of bullet g 16.2 16.2
Initial velocity m⋅s–1 900 905
Initial energy J 6561 6634
Initial specific energy MJ⋅m–2 113 114
Velocity v200 m⋅s–1 807 813
Energy E200 J 5275 5354
Specific energy e200 MJ⋅m–2 91 107

3.3. Realisation and Results of Experiments

For the shooting experiments, specially manufactured plates of HARDOX 450 of the
thickness of 10 mm and square shape of side length 400 mm were used. When
shooting, the evaluated plate was placed separately in a special single-purpose holder
made for the purposes of experiments of steel profiles. The plate holder was backed
along all four sides and fixed at the corners with 4 screws.
Targeting points were chosen on the face side plate so that the impact points were
away of minimum 50 mm from the edge and of a minimum 70 mm from each other.
For each shot, speed of the projectile before impact on a barrier through optical gates
was measured.
The first shooting was an experiment carried out on one plate (with actual
thickness of 10.0 mm to 10.2 mm) upon shooting of 7 bullets of calibre 338 Lapua
Magnum from sniper rifle TRG 42, 5 full metal jacket boat tail bullets Lock Base and
2 expansion jacketed hollow point boat tail bullets Scenar. The test target was focused
before shooting, so that 4 bullets impacted the plate in perpendicular direction (angle
of impact measured from the perpendicular line to the plane of sheet 0°) and 3 bullets
impacted the plate diagonally under impact angles 45 degrees, 30 degrees and
15 degrees (measured from the line perpendicular to the plane of sheet).
Next it was shooting to the same plate from sniper rifle Sig Sauer 3000 the
projectile in calibre 308 Winchester with an expansive bullet Diamond line weighing
10.9 g. This calibre was used in the first experiment only for one approximate shot
onto sheet perpendicular to the impact of the bullet. In all these cases shootings were
held at a distance of 50 m.
The shooting experiment results did not ratify the above mentioned assumption
of ballistic resistance of the sheet thickness of 10 mm against bullets with 6 500 J
impact energy. The plate of thickness of 10 mm was shot at 10 m by both types of
projectiles with calibre 338 Lapua Magnum with a surplus of energy. For the same
sheet metal plate, however, only superficial damage caused by the projectile
calibre 308 Winchester was recorded.
82 J. Hub and J. Komenda

Fig. 1 shows front side of the sheet after a total of 8 shots. The characteristic of
the effect of bullet on the plate is given according to the serial number of the shot.

3 2 1

4 5

7 8 6

Fig. 1 Looking at the front (shot) side of the sheet HARDOX 450 of the thickness
10 mm after shot with high-performance rifle ammunition (in the figure is cut out –
total board size is 400 mm × 400 mm).
1. top right – bullet hole – projectile 338 LM/FMJ, perpendicular impact of the bullet
to the frontal target area, the mean diameter of the inlet 11.8 mm,
2. top centre – bullet hole – projectile 338 LM/FMJ, perpendicular impact, the mean
diameter of the input hole 12.3 mm,
3. top left – bullet hole – projectile 338 LM/HP, perpendicular impact, the mean
diameter of the input hole 20.4 mm with unilateral narrowing to 19 mm,
4. centre left – no bullet hole – very shallow nick (maximum 0.1 mm) – projectile 308
Win/FMJ, perpendicular impact, the mean diameter of mechanically affected area
4.5 mm,
5. centre right – bullet hole – projectile 338 LM/HP, perpendicular impact, elliptical
input hole 11.5 mm × 20 mm,
6. bottom right – no bullet hole – shallow nick (maximum 0.5 mm), projectile 338
LM/FMJ, sloping impact of bullet at an angle of 45 degrees, mechanically affected
zone of elliptical shape 6.5 mm × 9 mm,
7. bottom left – no bullet hole – deep nick (maximum 1.8 mm), projectile 338
LM/FMJ, sloping impact of bullet at an angle of 30 degrees (regarding to
perpendicular line to the plane of the plate), the mean diameter of mechanically
affected area 11 mm,
 83 Ballistic Resistance of Steel Plate Hardox upon Impact 83
of Non-Penetrating Projectiles

8. bottom in the middle – bullet hole – projectile 338 LM/FMJ, sloping impact at an
angle 15 degrees (regarding to perpendicular line), the mean diameter of the input
hole 11.5 mm.

As it is apparent from the previously shown picture, the bullets of calibre 338 Lapua
Magnum (full metal jacketed and expansive as well) with lead cores with impact
energy around 6 000 to 6 200 J have penetrated the 10mm plate in the normal impact
with a surplus of energy, while the hole diameter was significantly greater than the
calibre of the projectile. For full metal jacketed bullet Lock Base there was the mean
diameter at the input hole of about 12 mm with perpendicular impact, while the calibre
of the projectile is 8.6 mm. The bullet Scenar with internal cavity creates the
maximum dimension of an irregular opening about 20 mm. This is somewhat
surprising in view of the design of bullet, which is not optimized in terms of armour
piercing properties.
In all cases where the bullet 338 LM penetrated the plate, there occurred a huge
cut out of the plate. The bullet itself has spread on small fragments with exception of
small segment of the rear part of the bullet that burst through the plate. The full metal
jacketed bullet penetrated the plate even when the impact angle was 15 degrees from
perpendicular to the plane of sheet. The conditions of the angle of 30 degrees and
45 degrees did not allow the bullet to penetrate the plate, as shown in Fig. 2. The
reason for this phenomenon is increasing the thickness of the sheet when penetrating
in sloping trajectory and improving the conditions for slipping and ricochet of bullet
from the front part of the sheet. In the supplementary experiment, it was verified that
the limit angle of the impact projectile (measured from the perpendicular) is between
22 degrees and 30 degrees (22 degrees enables perforation, the angle of 30 degrees
causes stopping down the bullet, respectively it causes pushing the bullet aside).

Fig. 2 Detail of the effect of full metal jacketed bullet of the calibre 338 Lapua
Magnum at the front side of the plate of the thickness 10 mm (left - angle of the impact
of 45 degrees – shot No. 6, right – 30 degrees - shot No. 7)

When shooting the projectile of the calibre 308 Win with the bullet HPBT (made by
NORMA, 10.9 g), not a partial perforation occurred. Only a minor damage (shallow
irregular nick) has been seen on the front plate – see Fig. 1, the position 4. On the back
side of the sheet there were no apparent changes in shape. Therefore it can be stated
84 J. Hub and J. Komenda

that non-penetrating jacket bullet with lead core and with the impact energy of 3 000 J
was stopped-down by the sheet metal of Hardox of the thickness of 10 mm with ease.
The experiments there further examined the ballistic resistivity of the sheet facing
repeated impact by the ammunition of the calibre 308 Win/HPBT. Targeting point was
still chosen in the same place and the same position was actually affected five times
(max deviation of the centre points of each impact is only a few millimetres). Mean
impact energy of the projectiles was 3 165 J. The metal was not penetrated even after
the fifth round and the front side of the plate showed no major effects of depth
(Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Details of the front side of the plate of thickness 10 mm after the first bullet
impact (left), third bullet (middle) and the fifth bullet (right) of the calibre 308
Winchester shot in the same place – experiment No. 3, shot No. 6

4. Analysis of Mechanism of the Sheet Metal Penetration

The sheet metal plate HARDOX is not directly intended for ballistic applications.
Although having very good parameters in terms of mechanical properties, the ballistic
resistance of armour piercing and non penetrating bullets of small arms ammunition is
limited. Armour piercing bullets (i.e., bullets with armour piercing hard core)
penetrate the sheet metal HARDOX at different mechanism as compared to non
penetrating projectiles and less energy is required to penetrate the sheet metal.
The group of armour piercing bullets can include also such bullets which are
partly or wholly made of hard materials (full bullets or bullets with tips – made from
high strength steels). The impact of armour piercing bullet with tip leads to failure of
the surface layer sheet by penetrating tip. The tip is separated (stripped) from the rest
of the bullet and penetrates the sheet metal, while lead core and jacket remain in front
of the target. The same mechanism of penetration is with the case of impact the sheet
metal by the whole homogenous bullet (usually sub-calibre) made of high strength
steel. Relatively good penetration ability can be achieved due to the quality of material
and a small cross-section of the core, respectively a small cross-section of the whole
sub-calibre bullet.
It is not the case with non penetration bullets whose design has not been
optimized to achieve a high armour piercing performance. The group of non
penetrating bullets can include also common shell bullets with cores made of soft
material (for instance lead), which were used in testing or bullets of all-lead or brass
design.
The impact of shell bullet with a lead core of the relatively low speed on a steel
plate of sufficient thickness causes the deformation of the bullet and its gradual
 85 Ballistic Resistance of Steel Plate Hardox upon Impact 85
of Non-Penetrating Projectiles

disintegration without any penetration or achieving the depth effect on the plate. In
place of the impact of a bullet on plate just a surface plastic deformation occurs. If the
target is used as armour with hard surface layer, the surface changes are negligible.
However, if the same bullet hits the target with over-limit high supersonic speed
and thus it has relatively high impact energy, there occurs a deformation of the bullet
in the first phase of the impact and the length of the bullet is reduced and it increases
in diameter. As a result of high-energy bullet impact, however, the damage of the plate
surface occurs, even if the plate has a relatively high hardness. The relatively compact
shape of the bullet with a sharp tip helps to this process.
The bullet gradually penetrates into the depth of the plate, further distorts and in
the front part degenerates (the diameter increases and the length of the bullet reduces,
next drops off the eroding and fragmenting inside material of the bullet – lead). At the
same time, the erosion of the plate material at the side of entry occurs and shooting
channel also increases in diameter. These essential changes of ballistic process are
therefore ideal for the bullet to be stopped down and not to penetrate the plate
completely. There is not only increasing size of the bullet cross-section, but also the
speed and the weight of the bullet significantly decreases and therefore extremely high
decline in specific energy during the bullet penetration of the plate occurs. However, if
the projectile impact energy is high, a shear failure of the rest of the plate takes place
while achieving a certain depth of intrusions into the plate following by the massive
cut out of the plate. This cut out is pushed forward by the deformed rest part of the
bullet with similar diameter. The mean diameter of the shooting channel is thus much
larger than the diameter of the impact bullet (to double).
In Fig. 4, there is a detail of the input shooting channel created by the bullet 338
LM Lock Base and the picture of the fragment with bullet residual.

Fig. 4 Detail of the shooting channel in the plate 10 mm after shot of the rifle
projectile with calibre 338 Lapua Magnum with full metal jacketed Lock Base (See the
front of the plate, experiment No. 1, shot No. 2, left picture). In the right picture there
is a cylindrical fragment with ogival face originated in the same experiment and shot.
The fragment parameters: length 10.4 mm, mean diameter 12.5 mm and weight 7.62 g.
The bullet residue parameters: length 5.6 mm, mean diameter 12.7 mm and
weight 4.55 g.
86 J. Hub and J. Komenda

A similar mechanism has been reported to penetrate sheet metal using both full
metal jacketed bullet and expansion bullet with the cavity. Since the expansion bullet
is easily distorted, a larger diameter of the shooting channel and cut out was achieved
with respect to full metal jacketed bullet. With regard to the different shape of both cut
outs it can be assumed that the cut out in Fig. 5 is only a part of the overall cut out,
which is split into 2 parts (part 2 not found). The asymmetric shape of the cut out
embossed out of the sheet by penetrating expansion bullet attests the considerable
influence of radial forces on the entire terminal ballistic process.
Shooting experiments therefore have shown that if the bullet has enough energy
at the impact on a plate or certain thickness, the bullet penetrates the plate fully, even
in case of an extremely large difference in hardness and strength of target and bullet
materials (hardness of the plate HARDOX 450 is significantly higher than the
hardness of lead). Therefore, the bullet design almost does not determine the armour
piercing ability with high impact energy.

Fig. 5 Detail of the shooting channel in the 10 mm plate after shot of the rifle
projectile with calibre 338 Lapua Magnum with expansive bullet Scenar (See the front
of the plate, experiment No. 1, shot No. 3, left picture). On the right picture there is a
steel fragment with those parameters: length 10.2 mm, mean diameter 19.2 mm and
weight 11.3 g. The bullet residual was not found.

5. Simulation

5.1. Introduction
Next step of the work is to create a simulation of the bullet penetration through the
target material using finite element method (FEM). The goal is to find consensus
between experiment and simulation. FEM provides a tool to study the process more in
detail, to investigate the influencing factors, to predict the impact behaviour and
reduce the number of needed experiments.
Two models of the bullets of calibre 338 Lapua Magnum – Lock Base and Scenar
– are introduced penetrating the HARDOX 450 sheet plate of the thickness of 10 mm
in accordance with experiments mentioned above. The bullets are of a two-part design
with the lead core and a gilding metal (tombac) jacket. The mass of both bullets is of
the same value of 16.2 g and the diameter is of calibre 338 (which means 8.58 mm).
 87 Ballistic Resistance of Steel Plate Hardox upon Impact 87
of Non-Penetrating Projectiles

The bullet Lock Base is a full metal jacketed kind with the length of 35.3 mm and the
bullet Scenar is expansion jacketed hollow point kind with the length of 39.8 mm. The
rectangular dimension of the experimental target plate is 400 mm × 400 mm, the
diameter of the simulation circular target plate is 200 mm and the whole perimeter is
clamped.

5.2. FEM Model

All FEM models were prepared using the explicit non-linear transient dynamic
numerical code Ansys Autodyn v11.0 with 2D symmetry so only a half of all parts
were modelled. The simulation methodics is taken from [2] and [3]. The model of the
bullet was created upon the real geometry with equal dimensions. The density of the
lead core and gilding metal jacket was modified to achieve also equal weight of the
bullet. The bullet Scenar has a hollow in the front of the bullet and the incendiary in
this hollow is neglected. The geometry of both bullets was a little bit simplified in
respect with creating the suitable mesh. The character and discretization of the model
of the bullet Lock Base and Scenar both with the target plate are shown in Fig. 6.

a)
steel sheet metal HARDOX 450
jacket COPPER
core LEAD

b)
steel sheet metal HARDOX 450

jacket COPPER

core LEAD

Fig. 6 FEM model of Lock Base (a) and Scenar (b) bullets with target
All material models for the bullet and the plate were retrieved from the Autodyn
material libraries [4] due to the fact that there is still limited published data available
on the dynamic material properties of used materials. Material characteristics were
therefore a little bit modified to achieve desirable behaviour of the target and the
bullet. The material data are equal for the both bullets Lock Base and Scenar with
exceptions mentioned in the text below.
A shock equation of state and a Steinberg-Guinan constitutive model [5] were
used to simulate the material response to dynamic loading of the target plate. The
sheet metal HARDOX 450 is represented by the modified material model STEEL
V250 taken from Autodyn library using the following basic parameters: density
8 129 kg⋅m–3, Gruneisen coefficient 1.6, parameter C1 3 980 m⋅s–1, parameter S1 1.58,
reference temperature 300 K, specific heat capacity 408 J⋅kg–1⋅K–1, shear modulus
88 J. Hub and J. Komenda

71 800 MPa, yield stress 1 560 MPa, maximum yield stress 1 600 MPa, hardening
constant 1, hardening exponent 0.5, melting temperature 2310 K. A failure model
considers plastic strain of the value 0.5 for the bullet Lock Base and of the value 0.05
for the bullet Scenar. Erosion geometric instantaneous strain is 1.1.
The lead core is represented by Autodyn model LEAD and uses a shock equation
of state and the Steinberg-Guinan constitutive model. The lead material uses the
following modified basic parameters: modified density 11 360 kg⋅m–3, Gruneisen
coefficient 2.74, parameter C1 2 006 m⋅s–1, parameter S1 1.429, reference temperature
300 K, specific heat capacity 124 J⋅kg–1⋅K–1, shear modulus 8 600 MPa, yield stress
8 MPa, maximum yield stress 10 MPa, hardening constant 27 MPa, hardening
exponent 0.52, melting temperature 760 K, no failure model, erosion geometric
instantaneous strain 4.
The jacket made of gilding material uses the COPPER Autodyn material model
with shock equation of state and a Piecewise Johnson-Cook constitutive model. The
jacket modified basic parameters are as follows: density 8 800 kg⋅m–3, Gruneisen
coefficient 2, parameter C1 3 958 m⋅s–1, parameter S1 1.497, reference temperature
300 K, shear modulus 46 400 MPa, yield stress 1 200 MPa, effective plastic strains 0.3
and 1, thermal softening exponent 1. A failure model considers plastic strain of the
value 0.4 and erosion geometric instantaneous strain is 2.
The actual bullet speed before the impact of the target is not known, so therefore
the value 880 m⋅s–1 is considered for FEM simulation upon the Tab. 1 for both kinds
of the bullet. The initial gap between the bullet and the target is 0.1 mm due to the
simulation requirements.
The evaluating parameter of correlation between experiment and simulation is the
character of penetration, the size of cut out in target material and dimensions of the
bullet residue and the target fragment.

5.3. Results of Simulation

During the dynamic process of bullet impact, the bullet penetrates the sheet metal and
a large target deformation and material fragment occurs for both bullets in FEM
simulations. The bullet penetrates the plate with massive change of its shape and the
jacket is stripped off from the core. Exemplary simulation penetrations are presented
in Fig. 7 for the HARDOX 450 target and both kind of bullets, see also [6].
Both bullets have a little bit different process of penetration. The bullet Lock
Base has a whole solid core and therefore the penetration is focused more in the
middle of travelling trajectory. On the other hand, the bullet Scenar is of expansive
sort with the cavity in the tip so the bullet jacket expresses much larger deformation in
this tip. The larger deformation on the tip makes the face of the bullet more flat,
therefore a larger cut out occurs. In spite of this, the bullet has a surplus of energy to
penetrate the target. The shear occurs with target material at the end of the penetration
process and a target fragment is pushed outside of the hole by the residual of the
bullet.
During the penetration process a loss of bullet and target materials occur caused
by using the erosion option for this purpose in the simulation.

5.4. Comparison with Experiments and Discussion

The character of penetrating process is similar to experiments for both the bullets. The
bullets penetrate the target with a surplus of energy. The character of deformed bullet
 89 Ballistic Resistance of Steel Plate Hardox upon Impact 89
of Non-Penetrating Projectiles

and the plate is similar as well. The planar deformation of the face side of the sheet
metal is neglected.
a) steel sheet metal HARDOX 450

debris

jacket COPPER
core LEAD

b) steel sheet metal HARDOX 450

debris

jacket COPPER

core LEAD

Fig. 7 The target and the bullet after penetration for Lock Base (a) and Scenar (b)

The evaluating parameter is the diameter of the hole made by bullet. The results show
very good consensus in terms of diameter of the hole in HARDOX sheet metal plate
and not so good consensus with the bullet residue and the target fragment. The results
are shown in the Tab. 2.
Tab. 2 A comparison of the parameters of the experiment and the simulation
Bullet Lock Base (FMJ) Scenar (HP)
exp sim exp sim
Parameter [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
hole in target diameter 12.5 12.5 20.4-19.0 15.1-20.0
bullet residue mean diameter 12.7 14.1 – up to 15.5
mean length 5.6 5.9 – 10.0
target fragment mean diameter 12.5 11.8 19.2 4.2
mean length 10.4 4.7 10.2 4.2

The experimental and simulation diameter of the hole in the target is consistent
with the bullet Lock Base (the value 12.5 mm, experimental value is in accordance to
Fig. 1, point 2). The penetration of the bullet Scenar is more complex. The experiment
reports in Fig. 1, point 3 a creation of conical hole with the mean diameter of the inlet
20.4 mm with unilateral narrowing to 19 mm. The simulation shows the opposite
direction of the conical hole and much smaller input diameter. Also the chamfer was
not achieved in simulation that occurs for both experimental input holes shown in
90 J. Hub and J. Komenda

Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, both left. More precise simulation results require a deeper
investigation of actual material characteristics.
The bullet residue is consistent with Lock Base in terms of the mean diameter
and the mean length. The Scenar bullet residue was not found, so comparison to the
simulation is not possible.
Regarding to the target fragment, the comparison of the experiment and the
simulation shows only partial agreement. The mean diameter of the Lock Base target
fragment is consistent, the rest of the comparing parameters is not consistent.
According to authors’ opinion, the numerical model is acceptable, but material
characteristics should be modified. The difference between the experimental and
numerical results is also due to some of the uncertainties that exist with the numerical
model. For example, chosen models are supposed to be similar to the actual material
used in experiments. Next influencing factor is neglecting the drag of the air for
travelling bullet and the void is considered. For numerical purposes is initial gap
between the bullet and the target is considered to be of the value 0.1 mm without
experimental distance 10 m. Next influencing factor is boundary conditions. In the
simulation the target perimeter is clamped. On the other hand, mounting plate for the
experiment may have some flexibility. Next factor is the speed of fired bullets on
experiments. Their actual value before and after penetration can help to precise the
results. And finally, the actual experimental shape of penetrated plate was rectangular
and the shape used in simulations is circular. Also the location of the bullet impacts of
the experimental plates was different with regard to the simulation.

6. Conclusion
The experiments carried out in the field of terminal ballistics have found out that the
sheet metal plate HARDOX 450 of the thickness of 10 mm does not meet ballistic
resistance to impact of non penetrating bullets with impact energy of 6500 J in the
perpendicular line and slightly sloping direction of the impact (up to about 25 degrees
from perpendicular line to the plane of sheet). The plate of mentioned thickness is able
to safely stop non penetrating bullets with impact energy 3 000 J to 4 000 J (depending
on calibre) and non penetrating bullets even with the impact energy to 6 500 J in
sloping direction. However, the plate is not capable of withstanding the impact energy
of 3 000 J and more using armour piercing bullets.
Next a numerical model has been developed that simulates the penetration and
subsequent perforation of the sheet metal HARDOX 450. The Autodyn material
library contains suitable alternate material models and some modification is needed to
achieve a better correspondence between experimental and simulation results. It is
necessary to conduct required dynamic testing of materials of interest to provide
correct inputs for constitutive material models. Nevertheless, used models can still
provide a useful insight into the penetration mechanisms and they provide a tool for
the analysis of the armour structures with bullet impact.

References
[1] KOMENDA, J. Terminal ballistics of steel sheet metal HARDOX 450 (in
Czech) [Research Report]. Brno : University of Defence, 2007, 27 p.
 91 Ballistic Resistance of Steel Plate Hardox upon Impact 91
of Non-Penetrating Projectiles

[2] HUB, J. Contribution to the FEM Simulation of 7.62-59 Bullet Penetration of

the Aluminium Alloy Sheet Metal. In Proceedings of 9th Symposium on Weapon
Systems. Brno, 2009, p. 50-53. ISBN 978-80-7231-654-0.
[3] HAZELL, P. J. Numerical Simulations and Experimental Observations of the
5.56-mm L2A2 Bullet Perforating Steel Targets of Two Hardness Values.
Journal of Battlefield Technology, 2003, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 1-4. ISSN 1440-5113.
[4] Autodyn Training Course. Autodyn Workbench release 11.0. Ansys, 2006.
[5] STEINBERG, D. J. Equation of State and Strength Properties of Selected
Materials [Research Report]. Livermore : Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, 1996.
[6] Hands up (in Czech) [on line]. [cited 2009-06-25]. Available from:
<http://www.rucevzhuru.cz/index.php/poradna/technika.html>.