PEER-REVIEWED CORROSION

A hundred years of corrosion in

the pulp and paper industry
MAX MOSKAL

ABSTRACT: Through the decades, the pulp and paper industry greatly expanded production capacity to meet
increasing demands. Correspondingly, the cost of corrosion damage soared. The most serious corrosion control
challenges were researched and met by university and governmental researchers, and by task groups within the
TAPPI Engineering Division’s Corrosion and Materials Engineering Committee. Today, thanks to material and process
advances, mills encounter less corrosion than in the past. This overview takes a historical look back, covering many
decades, at how corrosion problems have been managed in the pulp and paper industry. Yet, corrosion keeps on
going, and today mills appear less able to manage corrosion problems for which known solutions are available. This
paper also addresses the significant yet underrated task of optimizing corrosion control management in the present
and into the future. Discussion is provided on best practices needed to mitigate new and ongoing corrosion
problems.
Application: This review should help mills better realize the importance and benefits of systematic corrosion
management.

A long with documenting notable corrosion events,

this historical look at corrosion problems reveals
how changes in paper and paperboard processing meth-
good control are already known. By using best practices in
corrosion control, and avoiding actions that involve doing
things wrong, 50% or more of all corrosion costs might be
ods have influenced corrosion and its related costs. avoided [2].
Additionally, advances over the years in materials technol-
ogy, fabrication methods, and testing and analysis tech- THE EARLY YEARS — 1900 TO THE 1950s
niques have shaped what is perceived today as corrosion From 1900 to the 1950s, the U.S. paper industry expanded
control in the industry. Past lessons can provide insights production from 2 million tons/year to near 34 million tons/
toward ways to anticipate and control corrosion events year [4]. Interestingly, growth in production was not made by
of the future. Aside from documenting the most notable building more paper machines, but rather by speeding up ex-
events over the decades, this paper also addresses current isting machines, and replacing machines with wider ones that
advances in corrosion management technology that are produced more tonnage. From 1914 to 1940, the total paper-
being adopted by other corrosion-intensive industries, and making capacity doubled, but the number of paper machines
why similar approaches have been so difficult to imple- in the United States remained nearly constant at about 1500
ment in the pulp and paper industry. machines. Thus, the average machine capacity also doubled
during that time. Along the way, the most significant factors
THE COST OF CORROSION influencing corrosion were process changes, such as the type
According to the 2016 NACE International IMPACT study, the of paper produced. Because of the increased demand for
global direct cost of corrosion across all industries is estimat- stronger paper, kraft production surpassed sulfite after 1939.
ed to be 3.4% of gross domestic product [1]. Other studies From a corrosion viewpoint, this change was more favorable
have shown that within the pulp and paper industry, which because the kraft process has proved to be less costly from a
is among the highest of capital intensive industries, the cost corrosion standpoint than sulfite.
of corrosion is estimated to be near that in petroleum refining Corrosion control was not a priority from 1900 up to 1930
and chemical industries combined; between 1.2% and 6% of or 1940. Rather, the industry considered corrosion to be more
pulp and paper sales, depending on product and process [2]. of a maintenance issue, and mill management focused on in-
Today, there are about 500 paper mills in the United States, creasing paper production rather than on corrosion control.
with production capacity of about 79,000,000 metric tons/
year of paper and paperboard [3]. Thus, the annual cost of Equipment and materials
corrosion to the paper industry is estimated to be 2.7 to 4.7 Until the 1920s, the materials generally available for equip-
million metric tons of paper and paperboard. ment manufacture were cast iron, wrought iron, steel, brass,
Pulp and paper manufacturers can benefit from better cor- bronze, some Monel nickel alloys, and aluminum. Acid-resis-
rosion control practices because in most cases the paths to tant brick and mortar were used to line towers, tanks, and
MAY 2018 | VOL. 17 NO. 5 | TAPPI JOURNAL 253
CORROSION
chests. Paper machine frames were made from gray cast iron, was founded in 1943. During the 1930s, a TAPPI Materials of
and suction rolls were made from either cast iron or bronze. Construction Committee set up specifications for stainless
Nickel and chromium plating were also used to protect steel steel casting alloys [5]. The first field and laboratory studies
from corrosion and wear. Because copper, bronze, and brass on the metallurgical and electrochemical aspects of kraft li-
were used for sulfite pulping, frequent replacement was re- quor corrosion were made in the 1950s by Walter Mueller at
quired, at considerable cost. Lead lining was effective for acid PAPRICAN [6]. The TAPPI Digester Corrosion Subcommittee
production in the sulfite process. Wood was widely used for (later becoming the Corrosion Committee) was started in
corrosion resistant tanks and pipes. Batch digesters were about 1950, and its first major task was to survey the extent
made from riveted carbon steel with brick lining; a few of of corrosion in kraft digesters. The committee published re-
these early digesters were still in use 100 years later. ports on digester corrosion every year for 10 years. From the
In just 15 years, from 1915 to 1930, design engineers found 1950s on, corrosion became a far more important and costly
a wider choice of materials for corrosion control. Stainless burden to the paper industry.
steels became available, and so did 14%–30% nickel cast iron
(Ni-Resist). Some applications for Ni-Resist castings during this Notable corrosion events in the early years
period included paper machine fourdrinier frames, dryer During 1930, a kraft digester catastrophically failed at Berlin,
rolls, pumps, and pipe fittings. By 1930, carbon steel welding NH, USA. Until that time, carbon steel kraft digesters were not
was much better developed and welding was included in the expected to corrode because they operated in an alkaline envi-
pressure vessel code. However, weldability of the new stain- ronment. Digester corrosion surveys during the 1930s into the
less steels was poor because better gas shielding was still 1950s showed wide variations in the corrosivity of liquors. Ulti-
needed to control porosity and embrittlement problems. Car- mately, study of the effects of varying liquor sulfidity on corro-
bon control in the production of early stainless steels also was sion rates in carbon steel was published by Wensley et al. [7].
difficult. Nevertheless, by the mid-1930s, 18-8 chromium-nick- Significant corrosion pitting of stainless steel bleach wash-
el with 3% molybdenum (similar to Type 316), and 27Cr-4.5Ni- ers, winding wire, and cloth was reported during the 1930s,
1.5Mo duplex stainless steels (similar to Type 329 duplex stain- and nickel-based materials such as Hastelloy-C, Hastelloy-A,
less steel) were becoming widely used [5]. and Monel were tested to resist corrosion from free chlorine
In the 1930s, the Tomlinson recovery boiler for kraft paper in the pulp [5].
production was invented, and so was the Kamyr continuous Probably the most important process change contributing
digester. However, the continuous digester did not become to corrosion for decades to come was during the 1950s when
fully developed and used until about 1950. Paper machine water reuse began. Recycled water contributed to a buildup
speeds were increasing – up to 1500 ft/min – double that from of chemicals in water systems, especially chlorides and potas-
just a few years earlier. Multi-stage bleaching with direct treat- sium. Water temperatures also were boosted. All of this in-
ment with chlorine was well developed by the 1940s. creased the corrosivity of water and process systems.
During World War II, gas-tungsten arc-welding was devel- A process change contributing to corrosivity of paper ma-
oped, and welding of stainless steel could be reliably per- chine whitewater was the use of hydrosulfite as a brightening
formed. After the war, a wide variety of materials for resisting agent. Unknown at the time (1940s), hydrosulfite would break
corrosion became more readily available. These included high down and produce thiosulfate ions in whitewater, which would
alloy stainless steels, and wider ranges of nickel-based and be found to pit Type 304 stainless steel. The cause for the thio-
copper-based alloys. Flame spraying of corrosion resistant sulfate corrosion would not be discovered until 1978 [8].
coatings, although available for decades, became more prom- High-pressure recovery boilers were introduced during the
inent, but plasma and high velocity oxyfuel coatings would 1950s, with design pressures increasing from about 700–800
not be available until the 1960s. Better materials testing meth- psig up to 1250–1650 psig. The higher temperatures resulted
ods also became widely available, such as ultrasonic testing in unacceptable corrosion rates in carbon steel tubes, and a
for thickness and flaw detection. decades-long search for optimum tube materials began [9,10].
The first high pressure recovery boilers, 1200 psi and
above, introduced to increase energy efficiency, were built CORROSION EVENTS OF THE 1960s–1970s
during the 1950s. The paper industry was in full swing in the 1960s, and the
period into the 1970s was considered the “wave of the good
Associations and research times.” In just five years, from 1965 to 1970, more than a 100
The Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry continuous Kamyr digesters were built and put into produc-
(TAPPI) was founded in 1915, and the Institute of Paper tion in dozens of mills across North America [11]. During the
Chemistry (now the Renewable Bioproducts Institute at 1970s, 70 new recovery boilers were built in the United
Georgia Institute of Technology) was established in 1920. The States, and most were of the high pressure type, averaging
Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Canada (PAPRICAN, above 950 psi in steam pressure [12]. Larger and faster paper
now FPInovations) was established in 1925, and the National machines were built, including the so-called 10 m (390+ in.)
Society of Corrosion Engineers (now NACE International) width machines.
254 TAPPI JOURNAL | VOL. 17 NO. 5 | MAY 2018
 CORROSION
On the debit side, cast CA-15 and austenitic stainless steel first successful operation of electrochemical protection in a
suction rolls had poor corrosion fatigue strength and a terrible bleach washer in Canada, and there were about 100 installa-
lifespan, some failing in less than a year. The first cast duplex tions by 1989 [16].
stainless steel (DSS) suction roll material (1963), Alloy 63, had
good strength and excellent corrosion resistance, but still Associations and research
cracked prematurely and unpredictably. In the following The greatly increased cost of corrosion during the period from
years, more than 30 different stainless steel alloys were devel- 1961 to 1980 prompted several companies, consultants, insti-
oped and put in service in suction rolls, some at the cost of tutions, and researchers to increase efforts to combat corrosion
more than a million dollars per roll. Respectable suction roll problems. TAPPI’s Corrosion Committee (changed to the Cor-
life was eventually achieved when machine builders recog- rosion and Materials Engineering Committee during the 1970s)
nized the need to design the rolls more conservatively, and greatly increased its activity and projects, beginning in around
shell producers developed stainless alloys with a compromise 1972. A series of 11 pulp and paper corrosion forums, spon-
of good corrosion fatigue strength and low residual stresses. sored by TAPPI, the Canadian Pulp and Paper Association
Low residual stress in suction roll shells could only be ob- (CPPA), the Swedish Corrosion Institute, the Finnish Paper
tained by slower and more uniform cooling during heat treat- Engineer’s Association, and NACE were held at 3-year intervals
ment, but at the same time, the stainless metal chemistry had between 1974 and 2004. The Institute of Paper Chemistry es-
to be formulated to avoid precipitation of undesirable inter- tablished a corrosion department about 1975. Likewise, PAPRI-
metallic phases during the slow cooling process. CAN increased research on corrosion problems.
Another problem of the times was recovery boiler explo-
sions; first a few explosions, then many. The Black Liquor Re- CORROSION EVENTS OF THE 1980s TO 2000
cover Boiler Advisory Committee (BLRBAC) was established SA 210/304L composite tubes were first installed in a recovery
in 1961 for the purpose of sharing knowledge and generating boiler in 1980, and in many more high pressure boilers in the
and maintaining guidelines to facilitate the safe, reliable op- United States and Canada afterward. In just a few years, prob-
eration of recovery boilers. In the 20-year period ending in lems with corrosion and cracking of these tubes emerged [17].
1980, BLRBAC documented 99 recovery boiler explosions, an During the period from 1983 to 1984, localized corrosion of
average of five per year. Lower furnace waterwall tube corro- the outer layer of 304L at air ports was reported. The problem
sion and cracking was a contributor to boiler smelt water ex- persisted for years until better-designed, well-sealed casting
plosions, particularly in boilers with operational pressure over inserts helped to minimize the air port problem [18]. During
about 900 psi. To address the problem, the first composite the early 1990s, cracking of the 304L stainless steel layer of
stainless steel boiler tubes were installed in a new recovery composite tubes was found at air ports and on the boiler floor
boiler in Scandinavia in 1971, but the first composite tube re- [19]. During this period, mills experimented with the use of
covery boiler built in North America was at Continental Can nickel alloy composite tubes and weld overlaid tubes (Alloys
Company, Hopewell, VA, USA, in 1980. 825 and 625). Causes of the composite tube cracking mecha-
During this period, and into the 1990s, recovery boilers nisms were not well defined until 1999 and later [20,21].
were fired with changes in air distribution and increasing Another dilemma in recovery boilers during the 1980s was
black liquor solids to increase boiler efficiency and reduce near-drum corrosion of generating tubes resulting from in-
total reduced sulfur (TRS), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon creased throughput [22]. A mechanism of waterside cracking
monoxide emissions, resulting in greater corrosion of mid- was identified in 1987 as stress-assisted corrosion (SAC), also
furnace and upper furnace tubes [13]. known as waterside corrosion fatigue cracking [23]. The SAC
Bleach plant corrosion also became a serious problem dur- damage mechanism was later found to be widespread, up to
ing the 1960s and 1970s, largely because of the combination about 50%, in boilers older than 15 years [24].
of bleach filtrate recycling, higher temperatures, and difficul- In 1980, a Kamyr continuous digester ruptured at Pine Hill,
ties in controlling carryover of unused chlorine and chlorine AL, USA. Analysis showed the damage mechanism to be hy-
dioxide. Where Types 316L and 317L stainless steels were pre- droxide stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). After the event,
viously resistant to pitting corrosion, the stronger bleach envi- many continuous digesters were found to have similar crack-
ronments of C and C/D stages required the use of higher mo- ing. Research on the causes of SCC and methods to mitigate
lybdenum stainless steel alloys or titanium. In the late 1970s, cracking were initiated by a TAPPI task group chaired by
into the 1980s, a TAPPI task group, headed by Arthur Tuthill, David Bennett [25].
conducted numerous plant tests on the performance of stain- In 1983 a catastrophic explosion of a feedwater deaerator
less steels (including welded coupons) used for piping in storage tank occurred, also at the Pine Hill, AL, paper mill. A
bleach plants [14,15]. Ultimately, 6% molybdenum stainless NACE task group (T-7H-7) was established to study causes and
steel alloys became standard in the most severe bleach stage provide recommendations for mitigation of deaerator cracking
environments. Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP), although used [26]. Ultimately, 38% to 46% of operating deaerators and de-
for bleach plants since the 1950s, got a boost in bleach plant aerator storage tanks were found to have corrosion fatigue
equipment during this period. The year 1978 also marked the cracking severe enough to require weld repairs.
MAY 2018 | VOL. 17 NO. 5 | TAPPI JOURNAL 255
CORROSION
During the early 1990s, elemental chlorine bleaching was Service Code for post-construction of pressure equipment
completely phased out to reduce toxic dioxins. Substitution that contained flaws and corrosion damage. The risk-based
with near-neutral chlorine dioxide became the norm. With codes can potentially extend the life of critical equipment.
the combination of recycled filtrate and higher temperatures, However, as with risk-based examination, the FFS analysis
the bleach environment continued to be highly corrosive. technology seems to be only minimally used by pulp and
“Superaustenitic” stainless steel alloys (6% molybdenum) and paper manufacturers.
titanium were largely specified for areas subject to the most
aggressive corrosion, including chlorine dioxide washer vats, LESSONS FROM PAST EXPERIENCES
drums, and piping. Alternate bleaching processes of the Research and engineering analysis after the events identified
1990s, such as substituting oxygen and peroxide for chlorine almost all of the major corrosion failures, catastrophic events,
and chlorine dioxide, allowed use of lesser alloys, such as 316L and their damage mechanisms. In almost every case, the
and 317L, for washer equipment. events were triggered by changes in process methods, local
Another notable event during the 1990s was the introduc- chemistry changes, or the rush to apply new construction
tion to North America of second-generation DSS for digesters materials. Notable observations include the following:
and liquor tanks. DSS alloys had already been used for years • Carbon steel rapidly corroded in kraft (alkaline) cooking
in pulp and paper mills in New Zealand, Australia, and Scan- – 1930s-1940s
dinavia, but the alloys were slow to be adopted by U.S. mills. • Hydrosulfite brightening agent contributed to corrosion
The first DSS batch digester built in North America was in- by thiosulfate ions in whitewater – 1950s
stalled at Abitibi Consolidated, Fort Frances, ON, Canada, in • Water reuse contributed to corrosivity of water process
1997 [27]. The motivation for movement into DSS for batch streams – 1950s-2000s
digesters was prompted in part by a catastrophic carbon steel • H igh pressure recovery boilers suffered excessive
digester explosion in Panama City, FL, USA, in April 1994. sulfidation corrosion of carbon steel tubes – 1950s
• Increased paper machine width caused excessive stress-
CORROSION — 2001 TO PRESENT es and corrosion fatigue failure of press rolls – 1970s
Process stream effects • Increased load on chlorine bleach plants and carryover
There seems to have been little change in mill processes that of oxidants caused rapid pitting failures – 1960s-1980s
have caused or accelerated corrosion in nearly two decades. • Introduction of carbon steel continuous digesters with-
Bleaching processes have gradually become less corrosive and out stress relieving caused stress corrosion cracking –
lower cost materials have been used for washers, vats, and 1960s-1970s
piping. Pulping and papermaking processes have remained • High solids firing of recovery boilers resulted in tube
similar to pre-2000 times, although uncontrolled oxidant car- corrosion higher in the furnace – 1980s-2000s
ryover, such as chlorine dioxide from bleaching, has increased • Type 304L/SA210 composite tubing in recovery boilers
corrosivity affecting paper machine wet-end rolls and exhaust is susceptible to stress corrosion and thermal fatigue
equipment. Recovery processes and the Tomlinson recovery cracking – 1980s-1990s
boiler have not changed significantly. The benefits of raising • Older boilers are susceptible to waterside SAC – 1980s
the temperature of superheated steam has been limited by • Near-drum tube corrosion of recovery boilers – 1980s
poor resistance of available superheater tube alloys to corro-
sion in molten salt deposits. FUTURE CHALLENGES
Corrosion engineering resources
Materials In 2009, Sandy Sharp gave an informal presentation to the TAPPI
DSS alloys have gradually been accepted for use in digesters Corrosion and Materials Engineering Committee titled “The rise
and liquor tanks. However, the economical use of DSS grades and fall of corrosion engineering in the pulp and paper industry”
throughout the mill has continued to be vexed by spotty avail- [28]. Sharp stated that the increase in corrosion engineers em-
ability of lean, more economical DSS grades and volatility of ployed by pulp and paper companies started in the late 1970s,
nickel prices and surcharges. Fabricators also have introduced and that it continued for about two decades. At the same time,
up-charges for DSS weld fabrication. the number of corrosion research projects grew in North Amer-
ican institutions (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, PAPRICAN,
Fitness-for-service and risk-based inspection IPST), with project funding mainly by industry consortiums and
Risk-based inspection methodology was introduced as API the U.S. Department of Energy. The approximate number of full-
580 and API 581 from 1996 to 2002. The purpose was to use time corrosion personnel working in pulp and paper in the
risk-based concepts for optimizing examination of pressure 1980s and 1990s was a maximum of about 35 in paper compa-
vessels and tanks. nies and 12 in research institutions, totaling some 47 full-time
During 2007, the Joint American Society of Mechanical people. Within 10 years, by 2009, this number was reduced to
Engineers (ASME)/American Petroleum Institute (API) Com- only about five corrosion personnel employed by pulp and paper
mittee published the first API 579-1/ASME FFS-1 Fitness-for- companies, and five at North American research institutions.
256 TAPPI JOURNAL | VOL. 17 NO. 5 | MAY 2018
 CORROSION
Sharp said that the fall in numbers of corrosion engineers and to three decades. Serious and catastrophic events over the
scientists probably occurred because research solutions had decades have already been studied; causes and their solutions
largely eliminated catastrophic failures, and that processes had to most serious corrosion problems are already known. New
not changed much, so the value of corrosion engineering was or unknown corrosion problems might not surface until sig-
not convincing. He also stated that much of the corrosion exper- nificant changes in operation are introduced.
tise had not been transferred to corrosion specialists in pulp and The 2016 NACE IMPACT study also provides models for
paper mills and that many mill technical positions were elimi- incorporation of corrosion management systems throughout
nated by profitability pressures in the low-profit years. This ex- the asset lifecycles. The study conclusions are that total buy-in
pertise in the industry also declined through attrition as experts from the top down is essential for effective corrosion control
and knowledgeable mill personnel retired. strategies to be realized. All levels of the organization—de-
Overall, current corrosion management in North Ameri- sign, construction, operations, and maintenance—must have
can pulp and paper is considered by the author to be poor, at a level of involvement when planning equipment replace-
best, partly because there are far fewer corrosion engineers ments and upgrades.
working in the industry today than in decades past. Most at- To be successful in recovering some of the annual costs of
tempts at corrosion control within organizations have been corrosion, higher management in the industry must recognize
reactive and “firefighting” by corrosion specialists or reliabil- that significant cost recovery and return on investment can
ity engineers, supplemented by a few aging corrosion consul- be achieved through establishment of a corrosion manage-
tants. In-mill project management by systematic means, such ment system within the organization. The potential reward
as risk-based inspection and fitness-for-service methodologies, for better corrosion management could be up to 6% of total
is generally beyond the capability of reliability engineers. Cor- product sales. TJ
rosion management methods are unfamiliar to decision mak-
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CORROSION
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19. Sharp, W.B.A., “Breakthroughs in corrosion control and materials 28. Sharp, W.B.A., “The rise and fall of corrosion engineering in the
engineering in the pulp and paper industry – lessons from history,” pulp and paper industry,” TAPPI PEERS Conf., TAPPI Press, Atlanta,
NACE CORROSION 2011 Conf. Expo, NACE International, Houston, 2011. 2009.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR whereas emphasis on corrosion

Corrosion costs have soared over the decades be- control is generally minimal in
cause of changes in pulp and paper industry pro- the pulp and paper industry.
cesses. This paper draws attention to how even Mills might better realize the
small process changes have time and again resulted importance and benefits of sys-
in catastrophic corrosion failures. tematic corrosion management
Notable corrosion events have been well docu- by reading the NACE 2016
mented by TAPPI work groups and researchers. This IMPACT study on corrosion,
is a systematic overview of the work of others, with available online at http://impact.
conclusions on how process changes over decades nace.org/documents/Nace- Moskal
have influenced corrosion. International-Report.pdf.
Literature searches on combating pulp and paper The next step is to continue
mill corrosion problems in early years, before the to promote the use of systematic corrosion manage-
1950s, were difficult because so little documentation ment methods in the pulp and paper industry.
exists. Instead, early emphasis was on production,
not corrosion.
Moskal is principal engineer, M&M Engineering
In preparing this review, I learned that researching
Associates, Division of Acuren Inspection Inc., Indian
historical corrosion events can be very interesting. It Head Park, IL, USA. Email Moskal at max_moskal@
was surprising that the petroleum and chemical mmengineering.com.
process industries have found systematic corrosion
management to be important and profitable,

258 TAPPI JOURNAL | VOL. 17 NO. 5 | MAY 2018