MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE IN UGANDA

ISSUES PAPER

NOVEMBER 2017

1
CONTENTS
PART ONE ........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4

1.1 BACKGROUND AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS .................................................. 5

1.2 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK ....................................................................................... 6

1.2.1 NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK............................................................ 6

1.2.2 INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS ....................................... 8

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................................................................................ 9

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY............................................................................... 11

1.5 GENERAL OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................ 13

1.5.1 SPECEFIC OBJECTIVES............................................................................................ 13

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................ 14

1.7 DURATION OF STUDY................................................................................................ 14

PART TWO ..................................................................................................................................... 15

2.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 15
2.1 THE CONCEPT OF MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE ........................................................ 15
2.2 THE NEED TO ADDRESS MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE ............................................ 16

2.2.1 TO PROVIDE COMPENSATIONS FOR INJURIES .............................................. 16

2.2.2 TO CREATE ACCOUNTABILITY FOR ACTIONS .............................................. 17

2.2.3 TO FOSTER PATIENT SAFETY AND QUALITY SERVICES ............................. 17
2.3 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE ................................... 18

2.3.1 DUTY OF CARE – ...................................................................................................... 18

2.3.2 STANDARD OF DUTY OF CARE........................................................................... 19

2.3.3 BREACH OF DUTY OF CARE ................................................................................. 20
2.3.4 NATURE OF DUTY OF CARE ................................................................................ 21
2.3.5 CAUSATION .............................................................................................................. 21

2.3.6 COMPENSATION ......................................................................................................... 23

2.4 WHO SHOULD BE ENTITLED TO SUE FOR RECOVERY .................................... 25

2.5 WHO IS LIABLE? ........................................................................................................... 25

2.6 LIMITATION OF ACTIONS UNDER MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE .................. 26
PART THREE.................................................................................................................................. 27

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3.0 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................... 27

3.1 THE STUDY DESIGN.................................................................................................... 27

3.2 SAMPLE SELECTION STUDY AREAS AND POPULATION ................................ 27

3.2.1 SAMPLE SELECTION ............................................................................................... 27

3.2.2. CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF STAKEHOLDERS................................... 28

3.2.3 STUDY POPULATION ............................................................................................. 29

3.3 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................... 29

3.3.1 KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEWS .......................................................................... 29

3.3.2 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS ........................................................................... 29

3.3.3 TASKFORCE GROUP ............................................................................................... 30

3.3.4 NATIONAL WORKSHOP ........................................................................................ 30

3.3.5 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 30

3.4 PLANNED ACTIVITIES ............................................................................................... 30

3.5 DELIVERABLES ............................................................................................................. 31

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................ 32

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 PART ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the medical world, patients consign their fate and life to doctors because they

blind-trust in the doctors’ knowledge and skills. And as such, society entrusts the

sacred duty of preserving the virtues of life and good health to the medical

professionals. Hence, only the most qualified individuals should engage in this

profession.1 Imbued with compelling, state interest, the licence to practice medicine

may at any time and for cause be revoked by the government.2’3 In addition to these

state checks and balances, doctors recognise and accept their great responsibility to

society and have time in memorial imposed upon themselves, self-regulating code of

discipline and ethical rules4 to govern their profession. As such, where a medical

professional fails to give due regard to the health and welfare of their patients as

governed by their oath and deviates from the normal practice of the profession,

causing injury, damage or death, may thus amount to medical negligence.

Medical negligence has been defined by case law5 as “the omission to do something

which a reasonable man would do or doing something which a reasonable man

would not do”. Black’s Law Dictionary 6 defines medical neglect as the failure to

provide medical, dental, or psychiatric care that is necessary to prevent or to treat

serious physical or emotional injury or illness. Cases of medical negligence have

become a common occurrence in Uganda causing damages, injury and death.7

1
Darwin P. Angeles, A Framework of Philippine Medical Malpractice Law, 85 PHIL. L.J. 895, p. 1 (2011)
2
ibid
3
Reyes vs. Sisters of Mercy Hospital, GR. No. 130547, 396 Phil. 87, 107, 2000
4
Hippocratic Oath
5
Blyth vs. Birmingham Water Works Co. 11 Ex 784
6 Bryan A. Garner, Eighth Edition, Thomson West, 2004, Page 1061
7 Centre for Health Human Rights and Development (CEHURD) & 4 Others Vs. Nakaseke District Local Government HCCS

No. 111 of 2012; Watsemwa & Anor. Vs. Attorney General Civil Suit No. 675 of 2006; Kayamugule & Anor. Vs. Attorney
General & 3 Others Civil Suit No. 285 of 2011

4
This study is intended to investigate medical negligence occurrences in Uganda and

propose legislative and non-legislative interventions to remedy the situation.

This part of the study covers the background and situational analysis of medical

negligence in Uganda, Legislative framework, the problem statement, the

justifications, the objectives, the scope and duration of the study.

1.1 BACKGROUND AND SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

The Government of Uganda is committed to promoting and providing medical care

and services8 at the same time ensuring the protection of patient’s safety with regard

to health care procedures and facilities. Uganda has taken a number of steps towards

the fulfilment of this commitment including the ratification of international treaties,

conventions and declarations; and the establishment of legal and institutional

frameworks that govern and protect peoples’ rights to health.

The Uganda’s health care system, aims at achieving and sustaining good health and

health services for its growing population. The health care system has been evolving

over the past 3 to 4 decades to handle emerging concerns and challenges within the

health sector countrywide. Uganda’s health care delivery is predominately through

modern and traditional9 practices. Modern health care delivery is done through a

decentralized framework comprising of Health Centre II; III; IV; regional referral

hospitals, national referral hospital, faith based health facilities and of late the

emerging private health facilities. The District health structure is responsible for all

government structures in the district with the exception of Regional Referral

Hospitals.

Despite the above initiatives, cases involving medical negligence are a frequent

occurrence in the health care system of Uganda leading to a number of undesirable

consequences such as death, injury and damage. For example, cases like Watsemwa

8 HEALTH SECTOR STRATEGIC & INVESTMENT PLAN 2010, Promoting People’s Health to Enhance Socio-economic
Development 2010/11 – 2014/15
9 This study will not make reference to traditional medical practitioners since they are not medical professional.

5
& Anor. vs. Attorney General10, Kayamugule & Anor. Vs. Attorney General & 3

Others 11 , Centre for Health Human Rights and Development (CEHURD) & 4

Others vs. Nakaseke District Local Government 12 , the media reported case

involving the famous Dr. Ssali, the director of the Women’s Hospital and Fertility

Centre with regards to the death of one Mercy Ayiru 13 and the death of Cecilia

Nambozo at Mbale Hospital14 among others.

As a result of such occurrences, this study is intended to establish the causes,

frequencies and nature of cases related to medical negligence, with the view of

establishing the gaps in the system in order to propose legislative and non-

legislative interventions.

1.2 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

1.2.1 NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

The legal framework relating to medical negligence is scattered in different laws and

policies. These include the 1995 Constitution15 of the Republic of Uganda; The Penal

Code Act, Cap 12016, The Allied Health Professionals Act, Cap 26817; The Uganda

10 Civil Suit No. 675 of 2006

11 Civil Suit No. 285 of 2011
12 HCCS No. 111 of 2012

13 The Daily Monitor Newspaper of June 13th 2013

14 Sunday Monitor Newspaper of April 23rd 2017

15 Article 20 of the Constitution provides for the fundamental rights and freedoms of all individuals as inherent and is to be

respected, upheld and promoted by all organs and agencies of the government and by all persons;
Article 21 of the Constitution bars any form of discrimination in the delivery of economic and social rights.
Article 22 of the Constitution provides for the right to life.
National Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy under Objective XIV, directs all organs of the state to fulfil the
fundamental rights of all Ugandans to social justice including access to health services that is to say basic minimum standards be put in
place for the enjoyment of health care.
16 Section 224 provides that a person is not criminally responsible for performing in good faith and with reasonable care and skill a surgical

operation upon any person for his or her benefit, or upon an unborn child for the preservation of the mother’s life, if the performance of the
operation is reasonable, having regard to the patient’s state at the time, and to all the circumstances of the case.
Sections 227 – 229 provide for criminal recklessness and negligence; that is to say, that any person who by rash or negligent act not
amounting to manslaughter, causes the death of another person is liable to imprisonment for a term not less than seven years or a fine not
exceeding seventy thousand shillings or both such imprisonment and fine; that any person who, in a manner so rash or negligent as to
endanger human life or to be likely to cause harm to another person gives medicine or surgical treatment to any person whom he or she has
undertaken to treat or dispenses, supplies, sells, administers or gives away any medicine or poisonous or dangerous matter commits a
misdemeanour.
17 Section 38 (1) provides that where the council receives an allegation which, if proved, would constitute a professional misconduct on the

part of a person registered under this Act, it may refer the matter to the disciplinary committee to hold an inquiry into the alleged
misconduct.

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Medical and Dental Practitioners Act, Cap 27218; The Nurses and Midwives Act Cap

27419; The Pharmacy and Drugs Act Cap 28020 and The Uganda Medical and Dental

Practitioners Council Code of Professional Ethics [2013].

In addition to the existing legal framework, the government of Uganda has put in

place national strategies to guide policies and legislation formations on health care to

include National Development Plan (NDP), 21 from which the Second National

Health Policy (NHP II) 22 was informed. The process of reviewing policies and

legislation has been slow due to inadequate and limited financial and human

resources allocated towards these processes.23 Structures mandated to enforce the

health regulatory framework such as the Health Professional Councils and the

National Drug Authority have limited capacity leaving enforcement of both

legislation and policies at a cross road of serious challenge and thus contributing to

major gaps that lead to medical negligence.

This study intends to identify and establish the lacuna in the existing legislative and

non-legislative framework that contributes to medical negligence with a view of

formulating proposals and recommendations to address and reduce them.

18 Section 33 of the Medical and Dental Practitioners Act provides that the council shall hold an inquiry where it receives an allegation
which, if proved, would constitute professional misconduct on the part of the registered practitioner under the Act and Section 47 (f)
provides that on conviction, a medical professional is liable to a fine of not less than three hundred thousand shillings and not more than
three million shillings or to imprisonment for not less than three months and not more than one year or to both.
19 Section 1 (i) of The Nurse and Midwives Act defines a midwife to mean a person who is trained and qualified in the care of women in
relation to childbirth and in the care of infants and who is registered or enrolled under the Act. Section 1 (k) further defines a nurse as a
person who is trained and qualified in the promotion of health, the prevention of diseases and the care of the sick and who is registered or
enrolled under the Act.
Section 28 (1) (c) The Act provides for the removal from the register or roll, after an inquiry, the name of any person, who is found guilty of
professional misconduct by the council19 or who is suspended from practice.
20 Section 15 of the Pharmacy and Drug Act provides for a disciplinary committee empowered to take disciplinary measure with regards to

the conduct of pharmacists. Section 16 (1) (b) of the Pharmacy and Drug Act specifically provides for disciplinary proceedings where a
registered complaint, is made against a pharmacist has been guilty of professional misconduct specified in the second schedule of the Act
which among many include knowingly supplying of addictive drugs contrary to Schedule 2 (10) and supply of substance ordinarily
requiring a prescription of a medical professional contrary to Schedule 2(13).
21
2010/11-2014/15
22
The Second National Health Policy, 2010, will provide direction for the Health Sector in the next medium to long term
period.
23
THE SECOND NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY; Promoting People’s Health to Enhance Socio-economic Development 2010,
Page 7

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1.2.2 INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS

In addition to national legislation and policies, Uganda has ratified a number of

international and regional treaties and declarations addressing issues relating to

human rights to which the right to health care is imbedded. These include the

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Right24; The Convention

on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)25;

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)26; The Convention on the Rights

of Person with Disability (CRPD) 27 ; African Charter on Human and Peoples’

Rights (ACHPR)28; Treaty for the establishment of the East African Community29;

United Nation Declaration on Human Rights (UNDHR) 30

and the Abuja

Declaration.31

These covenants and declarations list down the steps to be taken by the state parties

to the maximum of available resources and with financial and technical assistance

from development partners, with a view of progressively achieving the full

realization of the right to health. The ratification of these international conventions

and declarations creates an obligation upon Uganda and her development partners

to ensure that legal and institutional frameworks are in place to provide healthcare

within the minimum standards so as to protect its citizens against any acts that may

24Article 12(1) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights provides for the right to the highest attainable
standard of physical and mental health. UN DOC A/6316, 993 UNTS 3, entered into force 3 January 1976 and Uganda is a signatory.
25 Article 12 of the Convention provides that state parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in

the field of health care in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, access to health care services, including those related to
family planning.
26 Article 24 (1) of the Convention provides that State Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable

standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health.
27 Article 25 of the Convention provides for the rights of persons with disabilities to health, including access to gender-sensitive health

services.
28 Article 16 (1) and (2) provides for the right to enjoyment of the best attainable state of physical and mental health and puts an obligation

and duty on State parties to the Charter to take the necessary measures to protect the health of their people and to ensure that they receive
medical attention when they are sick respectively.
29 Article 118 (b) of the Treaty enjoins partner states to cooperate in the area of health, in the management of health systems, drug policies,

harmonization of national health policies and exchange of information and promotion of research.
30 Article 25 (1) states that everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself or herself and of

his or her family, including ….and medical care and necessary social services.
31
The Declaration 31 reaffirms the commitment undertaken by the member states to reallocate 15 % of the national revenues toward
progressive achievement of access to health care in their respective countries. Adopted from the 11th Annual Report of The Uganda Human
Rights Commission Report of Parliament the Republic of Uganda Pg. 96

8
infringe their enjoyment of the right to health including incidence of medical

negligence.

However, all the above mentioned provisions places an obligation upon Uganda as a

member state to provide medical healthcare that meet the basic minimum standards

as a right for the citizens to enjoy the right to health and the breach of these

minimum standards are leading to the increase in reported medical negligence cases.

This study is intended to explore how these gaps can be addressed in the law by

developing legislation and non-legislative proposals to govern medical negligence in

Uganda. In addition such measures would be in line with and also further Uganda’s

obligations as a state party under the international conventions and treaties.

ISSUES

1. Whether the existing legal framework is sufficient to address medical

negligence in Uganda?

2. Whether there is need for a specific and comprehensive legislation to cater for

medical negligence in Uganda?

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Medical negligence contributes to death, damage and injury of patient in Uganda.

Although the legal framework provides for redress in form of civil and criminal,

these laws are inadequate. For example, it is very difficult for a victim to prove

medical negligence against a medical professional let alone extract payment of

damages from the government. Statistics show that there exist incidence of wrongful

death, wrong diagnosis and surgery as a result of medical negligence go

unreported.32

32 The Independent Reported on June 7, 2015. https://www.indepedent.co.ug/medicalnegligence/

9
Under funding and staffing of health facilities has led to incidences of medical

negligence. 33 This is attributes to the low ratio of medical professional to patients.

This low ration34 has led medical professionals to work long hours and attend to

high numbers of patients which subjects them to fatigue and prone to errors that

may be regarded as negligent.

In addition inadequate funding of health facilities to provide the minimum

standards for health care services has led to incidence of death, injury and damage

as a result of medical negligence. For instance, the growing number of cases before

the courts and the Medical councils are proof of this.35

The Uganda Medical and Dental Practitioner Council records over fifty complaints

against medical practitioners annually 36 and this goes to show that medical

negligence is a reality in Uganda and that the number of cases are increasing. There

are no known statistics of people who die resulting from incidences of wrongful

death, wrong diagnosis and surgery which may all be attributed to medical

negligence.37

There is lack of information as to the procedure to follow and the forum to lodge a

medical negligence complaint immediately it happens within the health facilities.

The governing and monitoring medical bodies exist however their feasibility is

lacking as opposed to the traditional legal avenue of reporting to police authority or

seeking justice through courts of law.

There are increasing concerns in both medical and governmental circles over the

growing incidences of personal injury actions against doctors and over the cost to

33 Uganda Human Rights Commission, 14th Annual Report 2011 To the Parliament of the Republic of Uganda
34 The ratio of doctor to patient is 1:24,000; of nurse to patient is 1: 1,700; of midwives to patient is 1: 9,000; of dentists to patient is 1:
77,000; of lab technician to patient is 1: 16,000; of occupational therapist to patient is 1: 433,000; and of environmental health officer to
patient is 1: 27,OOO. Adopted from http://www.worldpolicy.org/blog/2016/02/09/uganda%E2%80%99s-sick-health-sector
35 Supra FN. 29

36 As per Dr. Katumba Sentongo, the Registrar of the Uganda Medical and Dental Practitioner

37 The Independent Reported on June 7, 2015. https://www.indepedent.co.ug/medicalnegligence/

10
the health system of compensation of the victims. 38 According to a study conducted

in 2015, 2/10 hospital managers had received notification of intention to sue, 3/10 had

cases in court, 5/10 were before the Medical and Dental Professional Council 39.

Under funding and staffing of government health facilities are some of the key

attributes to acts and increasing incidences that lead to medical negligence. 40 The

projections as reflected in the Budget Framework Paper of Financial Year 2016/2017

(and previous years)41 to the health sector of 8.7 per cent are far below the Abuja

Declaration commitments that require member countries to allocate at least 15 per

cent of their national budget to the health sector.42

Under the Abuja Declaration, 2001, the government of Uganda is in default of its

commitments to allocating 15% of the national revenue to the health sector. This has

led to challenges of lack of skilled health professional in public facilities, inadequate

remuneration and welfare in the health facilities and limited health professionals at

the health units thus contributing to the increasing cases of medical negligence.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

There are three social goals of medical negligence legislation and litigation to wit

include: - to deter unsafe practices by fostering patient safety and quality of medical

service delivery, to compensate persons injured through negligence by providing

compensation for injury, and to exact corrective justice by creating accountability for

actions.43

38 Law and Medical Ethics, JK Mason, RA McCall Smith, GT Laurie, Sixth Edition, Butterworths 2002, pg. 271
39 www.openscienceonline.com/author/download accessed on 29th September 2017
40
Uganda Human Rights Commission, 14th Annual Report 2011 To the Parliament of the Republic of Uganda
41 Uganda Human Rights Commission 11th Report to Parliament of the Republic of Uganda, Pg. 96

42 Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, (Uganda) National Budget Framework Paper FY 2014/15 – FY

2018/19
43 Keeton WP, Dobbs DB, Keeton RE, Owens DG. Prosser and Keeton on the law of torts. 5 th ed. St. Paul, Minn.: West

Publishing, 1984

11
The Second National Development Plan (UNDP II)44 sets key four objectives to be

attained during the five year period of 2015/2020 of which enhancing human capital

development and strengthening mechanisms for quality, effective and efficient

service delivery are mentioned. The UNDP has set interventions upon which

quality of care and patient safety can be achieved. Among these are: - establishing

dynamic interactions and feedback mechanisms between health care providers and

consumers; strengthen national and subnational capacity to implement quality

improvement interventions. 45 This study seeks to explore legislative interventions

that will provide quality of health care and patient safety.

The Uganda Human Rights Commission (UHRC) reported that most patients who

visited government hospitals complained of negligence and harassment from staff.

The UHRC recommended that Parliament should make laws that are compliant with

international standards on the rights to health as well as protect and promote

citizens’ economic, social and cultural rights.46 The study seeks to explore legislative

interventions that will address negligence and harassment of patients in health

facilities.

The inadequacies in the current legal framework, has left victims of medical

negligence with no streamlined redress. The tort of negligence derived from

Common Law upon which a victim may recovery compensation for medical

negligence is a long, tedious, cumbersome and expensive litigation process of which

impacts upon each victim differently depending on their circumstances. This study

is intended to establish specific legislation that will provide for certainty and

predictability for seeking redress for compensation.

44 SECOND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (NDPII) 2015/16 – 2019/20. Uganda Vision 2040 “A Transformed Ugandan
Society from a Peasant to a Modern and Prosperous Country within 30 years”
45 Ibid

46 Uganda Human Rights Commission, 11 th Annual Report to the Parliament of the Republic of Uganda, Pg. 99

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Medical negligence has far reaching implications on health care facilities,

government and the patient. Medical negligence increases the cost of medical care,

the cost spent on compensations by government and heath cares facilities, and

generally erodes patient confidence in the health sector. The study will seek to

explore interventions that will address these challenges and build confidence among

patients.

Objective XX under the National Objectives and Directive Principles of state Policy,

as stipulated in the 1995 Constitution enjoins the state to take all practical measures

to ensure the provision of basic medical services to the population. Conducting this

study and formulating relevant policy and legislative proposals will contribute to

the achievement of this objective.

Uganda is a signatory to various international and regional instruments. These

instruments oblige Uganda to conform to international human rights standards with

regard to health care. Therefore developing proposals for legislation for medical

negligence would provide clarity and certainty for the medical professionals and the

public at large.

1.5 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

To develop a specific legislation to address medical negligence in Uganda.

1.5.1 SPECEFIC OBJECTIVES

(i) To establish the frequency, nature and extent of medical negligence in

Uganda;

(ii) To identify and establish best practices in other jurisdictions; and

(iii) To develop legislative and non-legislative interventions for medical

negligence in Uganda.

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1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study will investigate issues relating to medical negligence in Uganda and will

draw best practices from other jurisdictions for purposes of making comparative

analysis to inform the legislative process.

The study will consider principles of medical negligence; medical ethics; medical

consent; duties of the state; duties of medical professionals; rights of patients; civil

and criminal liabilities of medical professional; case law and jurisprudence;

compensation and the impact of penalties on medical practitioners for medical

negligence.

This is a national study and it will be conducted in the four geographical regions of

Uganda; Eastern (Jinja), Western (Mbarara), Central (Mityana, Mpigi, Luweero,

Kayunga) and Northern (Lira). The selection of these study districts has been guided

by reported cases in the media.

1.7 DURATION OF STUDY

The study shall be carried out within a period of one year.

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 PART TWO
2.0 INTRODUCTION

This part of the paper will discuss the various aspects of medical negligence with a

view of identifying the key issues for determination by the medical negligence

taskforce and other actors. These issues will subsequently inform the policy and

legislative initiatives and interventions. This chapter provides an insight into: - the

concept of medical negligence; the need to address medical negligence; factors that

determine medical negligence (i)- the doctor patient relationship ; how medical

negligence occurs (ii) the breach of the specific duty of care and standard of care; (iii)

liabilities under medical negligence, (a) personal liability (b) vicarious liability,

causation, compensation, categories of damages, limitation of actions. In all

instances, the key issues for discussion will be highlighted.

2.1 THE CONCEPT OF MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE

The concept of negligence developed from the English Common Law of Tort which

aims at compensating a claimant who has suffered pain and or financial loss by

suing the wrongdoer. The tort of Negligence was developed by the House of Lords

in Donoghue vs. Stevenson where court affirmed the neighbour principle. Lord

Atkin stated the principle to be that;

"The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law you must not injure

your neighbour; and the lawyer's question “Who is my neighbour?" receives a

restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you

can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who then in law is

my neighbour? The answer seems to be persons who are so closely and directly

affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so

affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in

question."

15
Case law has defined medical negligence as, the omission to do something which a

reasonable man would do, or doing something which a reasonable man would not

do.47 Medical Negligence therefore relates to the failure or deviation from medical

professional duty of care or the failure to exercise an accepted standard of care in

medical professional skills or knowledge, resulting in injury, damage or loss. 48

Medical negligence is built and premised on this principle of the tort of negligence

generally, save that the standards of proof is higher than in other ordinary cases of

negligence.

Medical negligence occurs where a medical professional (1) owes a duty of care to a

patient, (2) that duty of care is breached (3) the breach caused injury, damage or

death, and (4) that injury, damage or death is as a result of the breach of that duty.

The patient has a duty to prove fault on the part of the medical professional

throughout the case for a claim in medical negligence.

2.2 THE NEED TO ADDRESS MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE

In principle, the need to address medical negligence is premised on the social aims of
the tort systems in medical negligence and it’s intended to serve the following
purposes: -49 compensation for injury, accountability for action and foster patient
safety and quality.

2.2.1 TO PROVIDE COMPENSATIONS FOR INJURIES

The principle of compensation is underlined by reasons of fairness and efficiency
which dictates that the party at fault for an injury should bear the associated costs,
including lost earnings, medical bills and pain and suffering caused. Health facilities
are well placed to bear the costs of injury due to their ability to pool risks and
resources through insurance indemnity. In developed countries, “experience rating”
which is linked to the history of a healthcare facility determines the costs of
insurance rating whereas in medical professionals it’s based on whether one has a
history of being sued.

47 Blyth Vs. Birmingham Water Works Co. (1856) 11 Ex 781; 156 ER 1047
48 Indian case
49 Dr T. Thirumoorthy, Understanding Medical Negligence and Litigation – Basics for the Medical Professional

16
2.2.2 TO CREATE ACCOUNTABILITY FOR ACTIONS
Research indicates that a patient’s prime decision to sue is largely based on patient
dissatisfaction50and medical professional communication and interpersonal skills. 51
Theoretically, lawsuits deter medical professional from negligent acts and omissions
in the performance of their tasks by serving as a reminder to those who wish to
avoid the emotional and financial costs of litigation that they must take care.52

However, there has been less empirical scrutiny of the performance of the
malpractice system as a means of deterring substandard care than there has been of
its record as a mechanism for proving compensation. 53 Legal deterrence is a
notoriously difficult phenomenon to measure 54 and as such, legislative measure
alone may not necessarily deter medical negligence.

2.2.3 TO FOSTER PATIENT SAFETY AND QUALITY SERVICES

Specific medical negligence legislation ensures that medical professional take the

necessary precautions to provide safety and quality services for the patients. A study

conducted on medical litigation revealed that malpractice suits have contributed to

improving clinical practice, as the health workers become more attentive to the

quality of care offered;55 this has improved the quality of healthcare by making the

providers more careful.56

However it is noted that lawsuits sometimes bring emotional stress and

demotivation to managers and health workers.57 The compromise between medical

practitioners liability and the rights of patients with regards to ensuring safety and

quality of medical services is echoed by Lord Denning in Roe vs. Minister of

Health58 that:

50Hickson GB, Frederspiel CF, Pichert JW, Miller CS, Gauld-Jaeger J, Bost P. Patient complaint and malpractice risks. JAMA
2002; 287:2951-7
51
Levinson W, Roter DL, Mullooly JP, Dull VT, Frankel RM. Physicians-patient communication: The relationship with
malpractice claims among primary care physicians and surgeons. JAMA 1997;277:553-9
52 Shavell S. Ecomonic Analysis of Accident Law. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987

53 David M. Studdert, LL.B., Sc.D., M.P.H., Michelle M. Mello, J.D., Ph.D and Troyen A. Brennan, M.D., J.D., M.P.H. Medical

Malpractice. Health Policy Report: The New England Journal of Medicine, 2004
54 Schwartz GT. Reality in the economic analysis of tort law: does tort law really deter? UCLA Law Rev 1994; 42:377-444.

55 Eva Gakumba Kadimba, Simon Peter Katongole, Everd Maniple Bikaitwoha. Medical Litigation in Hospital in Kampala,

Uganda. International Journal of Public Health Research. Vol. 3, No.5, pp. 204-208.
56 ibid

57 ibid

58 (1954) 2 All ER 131; (1954) 2 QB 66

17
 “It is so easy to be wise after the event and to condemn as negligence that which was

only a misadventure. We ought always to be on our guard against it, especially in the

cases against the hospital and doctors. Medical science has conferred great benefit on

mankind, but these benefits are attended by considerable risks. We cannot take the

benefits without taking the risks. Every advance in technology is also attended by the

risks. Doctors, like the rest of us, have to learn by experience; and experience often

teaches in a hard way. Something goes wrong and shows up a weakness and then it is

put right”.59

Therefore, having a law in Uganda which separates meritorious from unpromising

medical negligence claims, where the courts of law step in to provide compensation

and deterrence in cases in which self-regulation has failed to prevent a breach of

accepted standards of care and a liability coverage to ensure that healthcare

providers are not bankrupted by a single large pay-out and thus resources are

available to compensate patients/victims is merited.

The purpose of this study, is merited that a medical negligence legislation would

promote professionalism within the medical profession which would in turn

improve medical standards, doctor patient relationship and health service delivery

systems thus meeting the patient’s expectations within the medical profession in

Uganda.

2.3 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE

2.3.1 DUTY OF CARE –

The relationship between a doctor and a patient is a special one, when a patient is

admitted to any health facility; a relationship based on the duty of care principles is

created. Duty refers to the standard of behaviour which imposes restrictions on ones’

59 Ibid at p. 137

18
conduct60. In the medical professional-patient relationship, a duty is imposed on the

medical professional to use the same level of care that any reasonable competent

medical professional would use to treat a condition under the same circumstances. 61

Therefore any patient that a medical professional comes across in a professional

environment is owed a duty of care.

A patient generally approaches a doctor or health facility with expectations; that a

doctor or the health facility is expected to provide medical treatment with all the

knowledge and skill at their command and that they will not do anything to harm the

patient in any manner either because of their negligence, carelessness or reckless

attitude to either them or their staff. Through a doctor may not be in position to save

a patient’s life at all times, he is expected to use his special knowledge and skill in

the most appropriate manner keeping in mind the interest of the patient who has

been entrusted to him.62

Therefore once a doctor voluntarily decided to treat a person or come to their aid, he

or she becomes liable for any damage, injury or loss that results from any negligence

during that assistance. Once the medical professional-patient relationship is

established, the doctor owes the patients a duty of care and treatment with that

degree of skill, care and diligence as possessed by or expected of a reasonably

competent doctor under similar circumstances.

2.3.2 STANDARD OF DUTY OF CARE

The standard of duty of care expected of a reasonably skilful doctor (medical

professional) has been discussed in case law going back as far as 1838 where Tindall

CJ in the case of Lanphier V Phipos63 states that “every person who enters into a

learned profession undertakes to bring to the exercise of it a reasonable degree of skill and

60 Flores Vs. Pineda, G.R. No. 158996, 571SCRA 83, Republic of the Philippines
SUPREME COURT, 2008
61 Cayao-Lasam, 574 SCRA 439, 454, December 18, 2008

62 Medical Negligence: Coverage of the profession, duties, ethics, case law and enlightened defence: Legal Perspective.

M.S.Pandit and Shobla Pandit- Indiana Journal 2009 July-Sep

63 (1838) 8 C&P 475 AT 478

19
care. He does not undertake, if he is an attorney that at all events you shall gain your case,

nor does a surgeon undertake that he will perform a cure nor does he undertake to use the

highest possible degree of skill. Hence if a person holds himself out as possessing special skill

and knowledge, by and on behalf of a patient, he owes a duty to the patient to use due caution

in undertaking the treatment.64”

A medical professional is not expected to be a miracle-performer guaranteeing a cure

or a man of high skill in his calling. McNair J discussed the standard of duty of care

in the case of Bolam Vs Friern Management Committee65 stating that

“the test is the standard of the ordinary skilled man exercising and professing to have

that special skill. A man need not possesses the highest expert skill at the risk of being

found negligent. It is well established law that it is sufficient if he exercises the

ordinary skill of an ordinary man exercising that particular art.” Hence in the case

of a medical professional, negligence means the failure to act in accordance with

the standards of reasonably competent medical professional at the time.

Therefore a doctor can only be held guilty of medical negligence only when he falls

short of the standard of reasonable care.66

Thus a medical professional having that degree of competence expected of the

ordinary skilful medical professional sets the standard. He or she is a practitioner

who follows the standard practice of his or her profession or at least follows

practices that would not be disapproved of by responsible opinion within the

profession.67

2.3.3 BREACH OF DUTY OF CARE

For a breach of duty to occur, it must have been the direct or proximate cause (which

is a natural and continuous sequence, unbroken by any intervening event) of the

64 (1925) 94 LJKB 791 at 794,CCA

65 (1957) 2 ALL ER 118 at 121
66 Dr. Subramanyam and Anor Vs. Dr. B.Krishna Rao and Anor II (1996) 233 (NC)

67 Law and Medical Ethics, Mason &McCall Smith Fourth Edition Butterworths pg.199

20
loss, injury or damage. To show deviation from duty of care, one must prove the

following; that there was a usual and normal practice, that the medical professional

has not adopted that practice, that the medical professional instead adopted a

practice that no professional or ordinary skilled person would have taken68 and as a

result, has led to the loss, injury or damage complained about.

2.3.4 NATURE OF DUTY OF CARE

In the Indian case of Dr Laxman Balkrishnajoshi vs. Dr Trimbark Babu Godbole &

Anor.69 court laid down three medical legal principles on duties that govern doctor-

patient relationships; stating that when a doctor is consulted by a patient, the duty of

care includes: a) a duty of care in deciding whether to take the case, b) a duty of care

in deciding what treatment to give, c) duty of care in the administration of that

treatment. The breach of any of these duties may give rise to a cause of action for

medical negligence.

However, a medical professional is not negligent if he or she has acted in accordance

with the practice accepted as proper by a responsible body of medical men and

women skilled in that particular art and neither can he or she be held negligent if he

or she is acting in accordance with such a practice merely because there is a body of

opinion who would take a contrary view70.

2.3.5 CAUSATION

Causation is the relationship that must be found to exist between the acts of the

doctor and the damage, injury or loss to the patient in order to justify a cause of

action for negligence and meriting compensation. The breach of the duty of care

must have materially contributed to the injury, damage or loss and or it is more

likely that the damage, injury or loss was due to the negligence than any other cause.

68 Supra at FN. 44
69 AIR 1969 SC 128 and AIR 1989 SC 1570
70 Bolam Vs. Friern Hospital Management Committee [1957] 1 WLR 582

21
The patient therefore must prove that the breach of duty on part of the doctor caused

the patient to suffer damage injury or loss which he or she otherwise could not have

suffered. In other words the patients could not have suffered the damage, injury or

loss if the doctor had provided the correct standard of care based on the skills of that

profession. It will do the patient no good to establish negligence on the part of a

doctor unless he is able to prove that the damage, injury or loss he or she has

suffered was caused by that negligence.71

Courts have consistently reaffirmed that the general test for causation is that, which

requires the injured party to show that the damage, injury or loss would not have

occurred “but for” the negligence of the doctor. Court in the case of McGhee vs

National Coal Board72 stated that liability will be imposed if it can be established

that the negligence of the defendant materially increased the risk of the plaintiff

being damaged in the way in question.

To be successful under this test, the plaintiff is required to establish on a balance of

probabilities that the defendants act was a necessary cause of his or her damage,

injuries or loss and the onus of proof lies on the plaintiff or one who claims to be

injured.73

However sometimes in the absence of any reasonable explanation for a

phenomenon, the principle of “res ipsa loquitor” a Latin phrase which means “the

facts speak for itself”, applies. Such a situation would apply to procedures performed

on the wrong limb or side and if damage occurs from that, then causation is assumed

to have been established unless the defendant can show that there is another

reasonable explanation.

71 Ibid page 210

72 (1972) 3 ALL ER 1008 At 1011
73 Wilshire Vs. Essex Area Health Authority (1988) 2 WLR 557

22
ISSUES

1. Whether an appropriate definition for the act/omission resulting in medical

negligence is feasible?

2.3.6 COMPENSATION

Claim for damages is based on the principle that if a person has committed a civil

wrong, he must pay compensation by way of damages to the person wronged. A

plaintiff74 who has suffered injury is entitled to damages for pain and suffering and

loss of expectation. 75 The general objective for the award of damages is to

compensate the plaintiff for the losses, by either awarding pecuniary and non-

pecuniary damages as compensation for the defendant’s tort. More specifically, the

assessment process is said to aim firstly at restitution, punitive and deterrent

respectively.

The general principle as derived from the words of Lord Blackburn76 in Livingstone

Vs Rawyards Coal Co. “that the sum of money which will put the party who has been

injured or who has suffered in the same position as he would have been in if he had not

sustained the wrong for he is now getting his compensation or reparation”.

In cases of personal injury, the concept of restitution is clearly inappropriate since

the principles apply to losses which are capable of reasonably precise calculation in

monetary terms. 77 Compensation in cases of personal injuries is understood in a

sense of providing the plaintiff with some solace for his or her misfortune. 78 As such

the guiding principle can be expressed only in such vague terms as awarding what is

“fair” and “proper”.

2.3.6.1 CATEGORIES OF DAMAGES

74 Black’s Law Dictionary defines a plaintiff to mean a party who brings a civil suit in a court of law. Page 1188
75 Winfield and Jolowiz on Tort 11th Edition at page 600
76 (1880) 5 App. CAS 25,29

77 Clerk and Lindsell on Tort,16th Edition at pg

78 Per Harman L.J in Warren Vs. King (1964)1 WLR 10

23
Special damages; are particular damages which results from specific circumstances

of the case and of the plaintiff’s claim to be compensated for, which the plaintiff

ought to plead for them in his pleadings so as not to raise surprise claims at the

trial.79 Hence special damages must be specifically pleaded and proved. They must

be explicitly claimed on the pleadings and at the trial, it must be proved by evidence

both that the loss incurred and that it was the direct result of the defendant’s

conduct. 80 Matters pertaining to hospitalization, treatment and management, the

need for further medical care, the disabilities, and pecuniary losses (past and future)

are special damages which must be pleaded.81 As such the guiding principle can be

expressed only in such vague terms as awarding what is “fair” and “proper”.

General damages; for general damages, the law presumes to flow from the wrong

complained of and which need not be specifically pleaded though they should be

averred that such a person has suffered damage.82 General damages are awarded on

the notion that there is no medium exchange of happiness and no market for

expectation of life. The monetary evaluation on non-pecuniary losses is

philosophical and policy exercises more than a legal or logical one. The award must

be fair and reasonable, fairness being gauged by earlier court decisions. Money

cannot provide true restitution, however it can provide for proper care and this is

the paramount concern of the courts while awarding damages for personal injury as

there must be adequate future care. The sheer fact is that there is no objective

yardstick for translating non pecuniary losses such as pain and suffering and loss of

amenities into monetary terms. There general damages are awarded at the discretion

of the court.

ISSUES:

1. Whether damages can be paid in instalments over a given period of time?

79 Supra FN. 63 at page 253

80 Joseph Musoke Vs Departed Asian Property Custodian Board and Anor Civil Appeal (1990-1994) 1 EA 416
81 Pereshello Vs United Paint (1969) 1

82 Clerk and Lindsell on Tort, Sweet & Maxwell, 16 th Edition, Page 253

24
2. Whether the current compensation system can accommodate instalments

payments to claimants?

3. Whether the current compensation system through the Ministry of Justice and

Constitutional Affairs is just, fair and feasible.

4. Whether there should be classification of claims vis-à-vis compensations.

2.4 WHO SHOULD BE ENTITLED TO SUE FOR RECOVERY

Medical negligence has the potential of causing harm, injury or even death to a

person. As a result if a person suffers any of its impact, the person affected should be

in position to claim and recover from the person/ health facility which is responsible.

In instances of injury, harm or damage to a minor, the minor can be able to sue and

recover through a next friend.83

In cases of death of the victim, the administrators or executors can sue and recover.84

2.5 WHO IS LIABLE?

Liability under medical negligence can either be personal liability or vicarious

liability. Personal liability is the liability for damage caused to others by the breach

of one’s duty of care.85 Thus where a medical professional breaches his duty of care

to the patient and damage is caused, that medical professional is liable.

Vicarious liability is when the law holds one person responsible for the misconduct

of another. 86 This does not mean that that person is deemed to have done the

wrongful act; it only means that the person is answerable in law for the wrong of the

other. At present, vicarious liability is only recognised in employment situations. In

an employer/employee relationship, the employer is vicariously liable for the

wrongs of an employee committed in the course of employment.87 Therefore any

83 Order 32(1) of the Civil Procedure Rules SI 71-1

84
Civil Procedure Rules SI 71 – 1, Order 31
85
Vicarious Liability Discussion paper; Queensland Law Reform Commission, Page 7
86
Professor Fleming, Fleming at 366
87
Vicarious Liability Discussion paper; Queensland Law Reform Commission

25
employer through guilt of no fault himself is liable for damage done by the fault or

negligence of his servant acting in the course of his employment.88

ISSUES

1. Who should be held liable for medical negligence?

2. Should an employer always remain vicariously liable for the negligence of

an employee?

3. Whether the apportioning of liability under medical negligence should be

between the medical professional and the employer.

4. Whether medical professionals should have indemnity insurance covers?

2.6 LIMITATION OF ACTIONS UNDER MEDICAL NEGLIGENCE

Limitation period refers to the time within which a person or their representative

may start a legal claim for compensation. It has been public policy that where a

wrong has been done to another, there should be a period after which the alleged

wrongdoer ought to be free from the threat being made against him.89 It would be

wrong to allow such a threat to hang over a medical professional forever as no one

should remain under threat of being sued indefinitely 90 because the law likes

certainty. It is therefore very important that liability should be limited to a

reasonable length of time.

ISSUES

1. Whether claims for medical negligence should be subject to a limitation

period?

2. What period may a victim institute a claim to recover under medical

negligence?

3. When does the limitation period start to count under medical negligence?

88
Lord Reid in Staveley Iron& Chemical Co Vs. Jones Ltd (1956) 1 ALLER 403 at 409
89
Mills and Reeve, Briefing on Medical Malpractice and the Limitation Act 1980, October, 2013.
90
Clerk and Lindsell on Tort 16th Edition, Sweet and Maxwell page 141.

26
 PART THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 THE STUDY DESIGN

The study will largely apply qualitative methods of data collection. This

method has specifically been chosen to solicit views, perceptions and

opinions. In particular, key informant interviews, and participant observation

will be used. Taskforce group meetings composed of technical persons

dealing with medical issues will also be used to generate technical

information. A National workshop constituting of key stakeholders will be

held in Kampala. In addition, related literature will be reviewed. Statistical

information and surveys conducted by other relevant institutions and

individuals on this study will be used to supplement qualitative information

collected. To complement the above information, a benchmarking exercise

will be conducted with identified institutions and individuals from

progressive commonwealth developing country (South Africa) and or a

developed country (England) to enable the commission develop realistic

proposals.

3.2 SAMPLE SELECTION STUDY AREAS AND POPULATION

3.2.1 SAMPLE SELECTION

The study population will comprise various stakeholders including: medical

practitioners, judicial officers including Judges, Magistrates and prosecutors,

legal practitioners, hospital administrators from public and private hospitals,

health workers, patients, representatives from government and non-

governmental institutions such as the Ministry of Health, Ministry of internal

Affairs (Police), Health service Commission, Makerere University Medical

School, Health Policy Advisory Committee, Civil Society Organizations,

Uganda National Health Users/ Consumers Organization, , Uganda Catholic

Medical Bureau, Health Initiative for the Private Sector, patients, patient

27
carers and any other selected duty bearers including media practitioners,

community leaders, lower local government administrative leaders that may

be relevant to the study.

Respondents for the qualitative data collection will be purposively selected

due to the uniqueness of this study. While for quantitative data will be done

randomly. The use of random sampling will aid the study in the collection of

general views that have a bearing on the subject matter. In addition, the

unbiased nature of random sampling will guarantee representativeness of the

study population.

3.2.2. CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF STAKEHOLDERS

The selection criteria of the various stakeholders mentioned above is based on

one or more of the following factors:

i. Some of these organizations/institutions were specifically chosen

because they represent the different actors involved in the provision of

quality health care.

ii. Both individuals and institutions are directly involved in handling

cases of medical negligence in their day to day undertakings.

iii. Medical practitioners especially those in the areas of anaesthesia,

obstetrics and gynaecology constitutes the many cases of medical

negligence reported

iv. The media are specifically targeted because there are a number of

medical negligence cases that are being reported in the newspapers

especially the monitor and new vision papers by their reporters.

v. Individuals for example hospital administrators will be able to provide

detailed information related to reasons for medico-legal actions taken

against their hospitals, the files of medico- legal cases reviewed and the

28
 fate of the patients, health workers and effects of litigation on the

hospitals.

3.2.3 STUDY POPULATION

A total of 500 respondents are targeted for this study. These will either be

directly or indirectly consulted

3.3 DATA COLLECTION

Basically qualitative data will be largely collected thought some quantitative

data too will be collected. Qualitative data will be collected using individual

interviews, key informant interviews, participant observation, taskforce

meetings, workshop and documentary review (literature review) while the

quantitative data will be collected using the survey method.

3.3.1 KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEWS

These are in-depth interviews with people who know what is going on in the

community regarding the issue understudy. Interviewers are able to interact

with the interviewees. The purpose is to allow the researcher to probe their

attitudes, beliefs, desires, and experiences with people who are equipped with

information in relation to the subject matter so as to get a deeper

understanding. These interviews can take the form of face-to-face interaction,

by telephone or video conference, or via instant messaging system. These

interviews will be conducted using a checklist.

3.3.2 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS

This refers to the constant watching and noting of phenomenon with regard

to the cause and effect. The use of this approach will enable the researchers to

describe existing situations. As a process of data collection, it enables

researchers to learn about the activities of the people and can tell whether or

not what they are collecting are facts or not. Hence the researchers will be

expected to note down all phenomena observed that their judgments will add

value to the study.

29
3.3.3 TASKFORCE GROUP
This will constitute a selected a group of persons with subject matter expertise

and knowledge. Their role is to provide valuable expert opinion and technical

assistance; to help the team in terms of exploring new dimensions as well to

providing guidance to the Commission. Their choice of selection was based

on the fact that they have relevant subject matter expertise, and time and

interest to participate fully.

3.3.4 NATIONAL WORKSHOP

In this consensus building and feedback workshop feedback will be given to

the participants on the field findings and consensus will be built on the

content and proposals recommended regarding medical negligence.

3.3.5 LITERATURE REVIEW

Both primary and secondary sources for the purpose of this study will be

reviewed and documented. Primary sources will include Uganda laws,

decided court cases both from common law countries and other jurisdictions

in relation to medical negligence causing injury or death. Secondary sources

will include academic books by various authors, journal articles, dissertations

and other materials relevant to the subject.

In addition there shall be a national consensus building and feedback

workshop with diverse stakeholders and experts on the subject

3.4 PLANNED ACTIVITIES

The following activities are planned to be undertaken

i. Desk / Literature review.

ii. Working group meetings for preparations of concept paper, issues

paper and field instruments.

iii. Peer review meetings.

iv. Holding of Technical working group meetings.

v. National preliminary consultations.

30
 vi. Benchmarking consultations

vii. Team meeting to update the commissioner in-charge

viii. National consensus building and feedback workshop

ix. Final report writing and drafting of the Bill retreat

3.5 DELIVERABLES
i. Concept and Issues papers

ii. Minutes/briefs

iii. Final report

iv. Draft Bill.

31
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
LEGISLATION

1. Constitution of the Republic of Uganda.

2. The Penal Code, Cap. 120

3. Allied Health Professionals Act, Cap. 268

4. Medical and Dental Practitioners Act, Cap. 272

5. The Nurse and Midwives Act, Cap. 274

6. The Pharmacy and Drug Act, Cap. 280

7. The Civil Procedure Rules SI 71-1

INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS

1. United Nation Declaration on Human Rights

2. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

3. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against

Women

4. The Convention on the Rights of the Child

5. The Convention on the Rights of Person with Disability

6. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights

7. The Abuja Declaration

8. Treaty for the establishment of the East African Community

TEXTBOOKS

1. Black’s Law Dictionary Bryan. A. Garner 8th Edition, Thomson West, 2004.

2. Clerk & Lindsell on Tort, sweet & Maxwell, 16th Edition.

32
3. Winfield and Jolowicz on Tort, 11th Edition. Sweet and Maxwell.

4. Law and Medical Ethics, Mason & McCall Smith, 4th Edition, Butterworths 2002.

5. Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Tort, 5th Edition.

6. Fundamentals of Health Law in Uganda: Twinomugisha BK (2015), Pretoria

University Law Press.

ARTICLES AND JOURNALS

1. Medical Negligence Fact sheet: An Essential Guide to Medical Negligence. Clarke

Willmott.

2. Mills and Reeve, Briefing on Medical Malpractice and the Limitation Act 1980

October 2013.

3. Medical Negligence: Coverage of the profession, duties, ethics, case law and

enlightened defence: Legal prospective M.s Pandit and Shobla Pandit, Indiana

Journal 2009.

4. Eva Gakumba Kadimba, Simon Peter Katongole, Everd Maniple Bikaitwoha.

‘Medical Litigation in Hospitals in Kampala, Uganda.’ International Journal of

Public Health Research. Vol. 3, No. 5, 2015.

5. Dr. Sylvester Onzivua’s Article reported in the Sunday Monitor dated April
23rd 2017.
6. Dr. Sylvester Onzivua’s Article in the Sunday Monitor Newspaper dated May

14th

7. The Daily Monitor Newspaper of June 13th 2013

8. Sunday Monitor Newspaper of April 23rd 2017

REPORTS

1. HEALTH SECTOR STRATEGIC & INVESTMENT PLAN 2010, Promoting

People’s Health to Enhance Socio-economic Development 2010/11 – 2014/15

2. THE SECOND NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY; Promoting People’s Health to

Enhance Socio-economic Development 2010

33
3. Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (Uganda) National

Budget Framework Paper FY 2014/2015-FY 2018/2019.

4. SECOND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN (NDPII) 2015/16 – 2019/20.

Uganda Vision 2040 “A Transformed Ugandan Society from a Peasant to a

Modern and Prosperous Country within 30 years”

5. Uganda Human Rights Commission 11th Annual Report to the Parliament of the

Republic of Uganda.

6. Uganda Human Rights Commission 14th Annual Report to the Parliament of the

Republic of Uganda.

7. Vicarious Liability Discussion Paper: Queensland Law Reform Commission

CASE LAW
1. Donoghue Vs Stevenson (1932) AC.

2. Bolam Vs Friern Hospital Managment Committee (1957) WLR 582.

3. Blyth Vs Birmingham Water Works co.11 Ex 784.

4. Dr. Laxman Balkrishnasoshi Vs Dr. Trimbark Baba Godbole & Anor AIR 1969

SC 128 and AIR 1989 SC 1570.

5. Dr. Subramanyam and Anor Vs Dr. B.Krishna Rao and Anor II (1996) 233

(NC)

6. Lanphier Vs Phipos (1838) 8 C & P 47.

7. Mcghee Vs National Coal Board (1972) 3 ALLER 1008.

8. Wilshere Vs Essex Area Health Authority (1988)2 WLR 557.

9. Livingstone Vs Raywards Coal co (1880) 5 App-CAS, 25.

10. Warren Vs King (1964) 1 WLR 10.

11. Pereschellos Vs United Paint (1969) 1.

12. Watsemwa & Anor Vs Attorney General Civil Suit No.675 of 2006.

13. Kayamugule & Anor. Vs. Attorney General & 3 Others Civil Suit No. 285 of

2011.

34
14. Centre for Health Human Rights and Development (CEHURD) & 4 others Vs

Nakaseke District Local Goverment HCCS No.111 of 2012.

15. Centre for Health Human Rights and Development (CEHURD) Vs The

Executive Director Mulago Hopsital.

16. Joseph Musoke Vs Departed Asian Property Custodian Board & Anor Civil

Appeal (1990-1994) 1 EA 418.

17. Stavelley Iron & Chemical Co Vs Jones LTD (1956) 1 ALL ER 403.

18. Flores Vs. Pineda, G.R. No. 158996, 571SCRA 83, Republic of the Philippines

SUPREME COURT, 2008

19. Cayao-Lasam, 574 SCRA 439, 454, Republic of the Philippines SUPREME

COURT, December 18, 2008

INTERNET SOURCES
1. http://www.worldpolicy.org/blog/2016/02/09/uganda%E2%80%99s-sick-

health-sector

2. https://www.indepedent.co.ug/medicalnegligence/

3. www.openscienceonline.com/author/download accessed on 29th September

2017

4. https://www.cehurd.org/2011/10/the-sick-hospital-system-in-uganda accessed

on 13th September 2017

5. http://lawbrain.com/wiki/Negligence

6. www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/law/law/negligence

7. https://www.cehurd.org/2011/10/the-sick-hospital-system-in-uganda accessed

on 13th September 2017.

8. http://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Dr-Ssali-acquitted-of-patient-s-

death/688334-2346338-f8ybs5z/index.html accessed as on 4th October 2017.

9. http://www.alllaw.com/articles/nolo/medical-malpractice/negligence.html as

at September 2017

10. www.alllaw.com/articles/nolo/medical-malpractice/negligence.html

35