D EVELOPMENT OF M ATHEMATICS IN I NDIA

K. Ramasubramanian
IIT Bombay

Course: HS 636
Vedas and Sulbasūtras - Part 2
Outline
Mathematics in the Antiquity: Vedas and Śulbasūtras – Part 2

I Sum of unequal squares & implication of the procedure?

I A note on the terminology employed (karanı̄)
I Applications of Śulba theorem
I Constructing a square that is difference of two squares
I Transforming a rectangle into a square
I To construct a square that is n times a given square
I To transform a square into a circle (approx. measure preserving)
√
I Approximation for 2

I Citi – Fire altar (types, shapes, etc)

I Fabrication of bricks, Constructional details
I General observations
I References
Constructing a square that is sum of unequal squares
An application of the Śulba-theorem

na.a:na.a:.ca:tua.=;(rea .sa:ma:~ya:n,a k+.na.a:ya:saH k+=;Nya.a va:Sa.Ra:ya:sa.ea vxa:Dra:mua:a.Œ+.Kea:t,a Á vxa:Dra:~ya

A:[Na:ya.a.=:ê
*.uaH
êÁ .sa:ma:~ya:ta.eaH :pa.a.(õ;Ra:ma.a:na.a Ba:va: a.ta Á (BSS I.50)

Desirous of combining different squares, may you mark the rectangular

portion of the larger [square] with a side (karan. yā) of the smaller one
(kanı̄yasah.). The diagonal of this rectangle (vr.ddhra) is the side of the
sum of the two [squares].

K
I The term vr.dhra in the above sūtra
refers to the rectangle ABEF.
F I Asking us to mark this rectangle, the text
A D
states that the cord AE aks.n
. ayārajjuh.
gives the side of the sum of the squares.
I In other words,
I
J H
AE 2 = ABCD + CGHI
= AB 2 + CG2
B E C G = AB 2 + BE 2 .
Implication of the above construction ?
The contruction described clearly proves that Śulbakāras knew the proof

I Scholars trained in the Euclidean tradition, puzzled by the mere

statement of theorem, without the so called ‘proofs’ always wondered
whether the Śulbakāras knew the proof of Śulba-theorem, or was it
purely based on empirical guess work?
I Though Śulvakāras do not give “explicit” proofs, it is quite implicit in the
procedures described by them. In fact, the prescription for combining
squares given in the previous sūtra clearly forms an example of that.

K I In the figure, ABCD and CGHI are the

two squares to be combined. E is a point
on BC such that CG = BE.
F I ABEF is the rectangle that is formed.
A D
Now the sum of the two squares may be
expressed as

ABCD + CGHI = ABE + AEF + EHJ + HEG + FDIJ

I
J H = ADK + AEF + EHJ + HKI + FDIJ
= AEHK ,

B E C G which unambigously proves the

theorem.
A note on the terminology employed
I Before introducing Śulva-theorem, Kātyāyana has exclusively
devoted one sūtra to clarify the different terminologies that
would be employed to refer to cords in different contexts.

k+=;Na.a, ta:tk+=;Na.a, ; a.ta:yRa.ñÍ*+;.

íéÁÁ a:na.a, :pa.a.(õ;Ra:ma.a:na.a, A:[Na:ya.a . cea: a.ta .=:*.êêÁa:vaH Á
. ı̄, tatkaran.ı̄ . . . all refer to cords.
karan (KSS 2.3)

I The commentary by Mahı̄dhara (c. 1589 CE)—explaining the

origin of the five names given in the above sūtra—is quite
edifying.
k+=;Na.a ;a.kÒ+.ya:tea [ea.ˆa:pa:a=;.cCe +dH A:na:yea: a.ta k+=;Na.a Á
That which limits or produces the length or area is
karan. ı̄ (producer).
ta:tk+=;Na.a ta:t[ea.ˆMa ;dõE:gua:Nya.a:a.d ;a.kÒ+.ya:tea A:na:ya.a .sa.a ta:tk+=;Na.a, ;a.dõ:k+=;Na.a,
;aˆa:k+=;Na.a, . ca:tuaHk+=;Nya.a:a.dH Á
That which produces an area that is twice etc. is called
tatkaran . ı̄ (that-producer); For example, dvikaran
. ı̄,
trikaran.ı̄, catuh.karan. ı̄, and so on.
A note on the terminology employed (contd.)

; a.ta:yRa.ñÍ*+;.
íéÁ a:na.a ; a.ta:yRa:k, (ra.ea:NyMa:Za:~va.+pMa ma.a:ya:teaY:na:yea: a.ta .sa.a ; a.ta:yRa.ñÍ*+;.
íéÁ a:na.a,
ê
:pra.a:.ca.a:sUa.ˆa.a:nta:ya.eaH ; a.ta:yRa:gva:tRa:ma.a:nMa .=:êÁ*.au:dõ:ya:m,a Á
That by which . . . is measured is called tiryaṅmānı̄
(transverse-measurer) . . .
:pa.a.(õ;Ra:ma.a:na.a :pa.a.(õ;a ma.a:ya:teaY:na:ya.a .sa.a :pa.a.(õ;Ra:ma.a:na.a, :pa.a.(õ;Ra:ya.ea:vRa:tRa:ma.a:nMa :pUa:va.Ra:pa.=:a:ya:tMa
.=:êêÁ*.au:dõ:ya:m,a Á
That by which the sides are measured is called pārśvamānı̄
(side-measurer); It refers to the cords on either sides that is
stretched along the east-west direction.
A:[Na:ya.a A:a.[a:va:t,a [ea.ˆMa na:ya:ta.a: a.ta A:[Na:ya.a, k+ea:Na:sUa.ˆa:BUa:ta.a ma:Dya.=:êêÁ*.uaH , ta:~ya.Ma
d.†a.a:ya.Ma . ca:tua.=;~å:Maò A:a.[a:dõ:ya:sa:dx:ZMa Ba:va: a.ta, ta:ta.ea:[Na:yea: a.ta k+ea:Na:sUa.ˆa.=:*.êêÁuaH Á
That which makes the area look like eyes [i.e., splits into two]
is called aks.n
. ayā (diagonal); The mid-cord that connects the
corners. Once it is fixed, the square looks like an eye, and
hence the term aks.n.ayā is used to refer to the diagonal.
Different connotations of the word karan.ı̄

1. k+=;Na.a = side of a square

k+.na.a:ya:saH k+=;Nya.a va:Sa.Ra:ya:sa.ea vxa:Dra:mua:a.Œ+.Kea:t,a Á

By the side of the smaller [square] . . . (BSS 2.1)

2. k+=;Na.a = square root

ñÍ êaH
íéÁÁ a:na.a ;aˆa:pa:d.a :pa.a.(õ;Ra:ma.a:na.a ta:~ya A:[Na:ya.a.=:*.
:pa:dM ; a.ta:yRa.*+;. êÁu d:Za:k+=;Na.a Á

[In a rectangle] with

√ upright one pada and base three padas, the
diagonal-rope is 10. (KSS 2.4)

3. k+=;Na.a = a certain unit of measure

k+=;Na.Ma txa:ta.a:yea:na va:DRa:yea:t,a , ,
ta:ƒa:tua:TeRa:na A.a:tma:.ca:tua:a.~ ,
/:Ma:Zea:na.ea:nea:na .sa:a.va:Zea:SaH

I+ a.ta ;a.va:Zea:SaH Á (KSS 2.9)

Note: Though karan . ı̄ seems to have ‘different’ connotations, on taking a
closer look, it becomes evident that some of these meanings converge to the
√
same thing—that which makes a square of area a. Obviously ‘that 0 = a.
Examples dvikaran . ı̄, and so on.
. ı̄, trikaran.ı̄, daśakaran
Constructing a square that is difference of two squares
. ca:tua.=;(ra.a:ƒa:tua.=;(rMa ;
a.na:ajRa:h.a:SRa:n,a ya.a:va:a.Ša:ajRa:h.a:SeRa:t,a ta:~ya k+=;Nya.a va:Sa.Ra:ya:sa.ea

vxa:Dra:mua:a.Œ+.Kea:t,a Á vxa:Dra:~ya :pa.a.(õ;Ra:ma.a:na.a:m,a A:[Nya.a I+ta.=;t,a :pa.a.(õ;a o+pa:sMa:h:=e;t,a Á .sa.a ya.ˆa

;
a.na:pa:tea:t,a ta:d:pa:a..c C+ndùÅ;a.a:t,a Á ;
a.C+Ša:ya.a ;
a.na.=;~ta:m,a Á
/ / [BSS 2.2]
Desirous of subtracting a square from another square, may you mark the
rectangular portion of the larger [square] with a side (karan . yā) of the
smaller one that you want to remove. With the [cord corresponding to the
larger] side of the rectangle turned into a diagonal (aks.n
. ayā) touch the
other side. Wherever that intersects, chop off that portion. Whatever
remains after chopping, gives the measure of the difference.

I Problem: Find the side of square which is the

F
111
000
000
111 difference of the squares ABCD and AEGH.
D C

000
111 I Solution: Obtain the vr.dhra (rectangle) AEFD,
P
000
111
000
111 and with radius EF mark a point P on AD. AP
000
111
G
H gives the desired measure.
000
111
000
111
I It is evident from the figure
000
111
000
111
000
111 AP 2 = EP 2 − AE 2
A x E B = AD 2 − AE 2 . (EP = AD)
= ABCD − AEGH
Transforming a rectangle into a square
Sequel to finding the sum and difference of squares
ñÍ
d.a:GRa:.ca:tua.=;(rMa .sa:ma:.ca:tua.=;(rMa ;
a. ca:k +a:SRa:n,a ; a.ta:yRa.*+;. x +.tva.a Zea:SMa ;a.d
íéÁÁ a:na.Ma k+=;Na.Ma k õ :Da.a ;a.va:Ba.$ya ,
:pa.a.(õ;Ra:ya.ea.+.pa:d:Dya.a:t,a Á Ka:Nq+m,a A.a:va.a:pea:na ta:tsMa:pUa.=;yea:t,a , ta:~ya ;
a.na:h.Ra.= o+€H Á
[BSS 2.5]

terms in sūtra correspondence with figure It is evident from the figure

d.a:GRa:.ca:tua.=;(rMa rectangle ABCD
ñÍ
; a.ta:yRa.*+;.
íéÁÁ a:na.a east-west cord (AD) DP 2 = EP 2 − DE 2
Zea:Sa:m,a the portion XYCB = AE 2 − RS 2 .
Ka:Nq+m,a square RSNM = AENF − RSNM
A.a:va.a:pea:na by placing = HIJK
B C N

M N E
F
P K J

X Y S
R

H I
A D A D E
To construct a square that is n times a given square
I Kātyāyana gives an ingenious method to construct a square whose
area is n times the area of a given square.
A

ya.a:va:tpra:ma.a:Na.a:
a.na .sa:ma:.ca:tua.=;(ra.a:a.Na O;:k +a:k+.tua ;
a. ca:k +a:SeRa:t,a

O;:k+ea:na.a:
a.na ta.a:
a.na Ba:va:a.n
/ta ; a.ta:yRa:k, ;a.d
õ :gua:Na.a:nyea:k+.ta

åò
O;:k+a: a.Da:k+a:
a.na ˆya: a.~:a:BR a:va: a.ta Á ta:~yea:SuaH ta:tk+=:ea: a.ta Á [KSS 6.7]
(n+1
1)a
(n+

2
)a

a n
2

As much . . . one less than that forms the base . . . the

arrow of √
that [triangle] makes that (gives the required
number n).
B
D
C Note: Here O;:k+.taH (= )
O;:k+.pa.a.(õ;Ra:ga:ta.a:
a.na ;a.d
õ :gua:Na.a:
a.na Á
(n−1)a

F
I In the figure BD = 1
2
BC = ( n−1
2
)a. Considering 4ABD,
 2  2
n+1 n−1
AD 2 = AB 2 − BD 2 = a2 − a2
2 2
a2 a2
= [(n + 1)2 − (n − 1)2 ] = × 4n = na2
4 4
Corollary of Kātyāyana’s prescription

I Some scholars opine that the statement of “Pythagorean”

theorem, could simply be based on empirical knowledge, as the
Śulbakāras have not given any proof.
I Can the geometrical construction given by Kātyāyana simply
arise out of mere empirical knowledge?
I The succinct description only means that the Śulbakāras could
do fairly ‘sophisticated’ mathematics—of turning an algebraic
equation into a beautiful geometrical construction.
I In other words, an “unstated” algebraic principle, has been
cleverly applied
√ to solve a very practical problem – of finding the
value of n – by resorting to constructive geometry.
I This is indeed sophisticated considering the fact that genesis of
algebra was yet to take place in a formal way centuries later.
I Bottomline: Validity of ‘Pythagorean theorem’! Did they know?
To transform a square into a circle
E
. ca:tua.=;(rMa ma:Nq+lM ;
a. ca:k +a:SRa:n,a A:[Na:ya.a:Da ma:Dya.a:t,a :pra.a:.ca.a:m,a
P
D A:Bya:pa.a:ta:yea:t,a ya:dùÅ;a:d: a.ta:a.Za:Sya:tea ta:~ya .sa:h txa:ta.a:yea:na ma:Nq+lM
C
M
:pa:a=;
a.l+Kea:t,a Á [BSS 2.9]

A:[Na:ya.a:Da = semi-diagonal (OD)

O
= from centre to the east
ma:Dya.a:t,a :pra.a:.ca.a:m,a

ya:dùÅ;a:d: a.ta:a.Za:Sya:tea = whatever [portion] remains

W ta:~ya .sa:h txa:ta.a:yea:na = with one-third of that
A B
As per the prescription given,

AB = 2a (given) 1
Radius OP = r = a + ME
3
OP = r (to find)
1 √
 
√
OD = 2a = a 1 + ( 2 − 1)
3
ME = OE − OM a √
√ = (2 + 2).
= 2a−a 3
√
= a( 2 − 1) √
How to find 2?
 √
How did Śulvakāras specify the value of 2?
√
I The following sūtra gives an approximation to 2:

,
:pra:ma.a:NMa txa:ta.a:yea:na va:DRa:yea:t,a ,
ta:ƒa:tua:TeRa:na A.a:tma:.ca:tua:a.~:M ,
/a:Zea:na.ea:nea:na

.sa:a.va:Zea:SaH Á [BSS 2.12]

√
 
1 1 1
2 ≈ 1+ + 1− (1)
3 3×4 34
577
=
408
= 1.414215686

I What is noteworthy here is the use of the word .sa:a.va:Zea:SaH in the

sūtra, which literally means ‘that which has some speciality’
(speciality ≡ being approximate)
I How did the Śulvakāras arrive at (1)?
I Several explanations have been offered by scholars. Here we
will discuss the geometrical construction approach.
 √
Approximation for √ 2
1 1 1
Rationale for the expression 2=1+ 3
+ 3.4
− 3.4.34
by Geometrical Construction
I Consider two squares ABCD and BEFC (sides of unit length).
I The second square BEFC is divided into three strips.
I The third strip is further divided into many parts, and these parts
are rearranged (as shown) with a void at Q.
1 1
I Now, each side of the new square APQR = 1 + 3 + 3.4 .

R Q void that
remains

II III 1

D F
C
III 1

S I II III 2

III 3

A E
B P
 √
Approximation for 2
Rationale for the expression (contd.)
1 2


I The area of the void at Q is 3.4 .
I Suppose we were to strip off a segment of breadth b from either
side of this square, such that the area of the stripped off portion
is exactly equal to that of the void at Q, then we have,
   2
1 1 2 1
2b 1 + + −b = .
3 3.4 3.4

I Neglecting b2 (as it is too small), we get

 2
1 3.4 1
b= × = .
3.4 34 3.4.34

I Hence the side of the resulting square

1 1 1 √
1+ + − ≈ 2
3 3.4 3.4.34
Approximate value of π
An estimate of the value of π used by Śulvakāras
I If 2a is the side of the square, then we saw that the prescription
given in the text amounts to taking the radius of the circle to be
1 √
 
r = a 1 + ( 2 − 1) (2)
3

I If we were to impose the constraint that the transformation has

to be measure preserving, then it translates to the condition
πr 2 = 4a2 .
I From the relation given above we have,
√ 2
 
1
π (2 + 2) ≈ 4. (3)
3
√
I Using the value of 2 given in the text we get
π ≈ 3.0883, (4)
which is correct only to one decimal place.
 √
Value of 3 (trikaran
. ı̄)
Geometrical construction described by Datta

I Each side of the new larger

2 1
square APQR = 1 + 3
+ 3.5
R 1
0 I To obtain a better
0Q
1
0
1
IV’ V’ VI’1 void that remains approximation, let the side of
1
to the filled the new square be diminished
III’ V’2 VI’2
H
by an amount y , such that
G
D C
V1 VI 1
   2
2 1 1
S I II III IV V2 VI 2 2y 1+ + −y 2 = .
3 3.5 3.5
V3 VI 3

F
Neglecting y 2 as too small,
A B P E 1
we get y = 3.5.52 , nearly.
I Thus we get
√ 2 1 1
3=1+ 3
+ 3.5
− 3.5.52
Problem of squaring a circle
x +.tva.a
1
ma:Nq+lM ..ca.ˆua.=;(rMa ;
a..ca:k +a:SRa:n,a ;a.va:Sk+.}Ba:m,a A:.Ea Ba.a:ga.a:n,a k Ba.a:gMa

O;:k+ea:na:aˆMa:Za.;d
Äâ .a ;a.va:Ba.$ya A:.a:a.vMa:Za: a.ta:Ba.a:ga.a:n,a o;;d ,
Äâ :=e;d
, Ba.a:ga:~ya ..ca

2 3
:Sa:ŽM A::ma:Ba.a:ga.ea:na:m,a Á [BSS 2.10]

With the desire of turning a circle into a square [with the same area]
dividing the diameter into 8 parts . . .
   
7d d 28d d d
2a = + − + − (5)
8 8 8.29 8.29.6 8.29.6.8

This may be rewritten as

 
1 1 1 1
2a = d 1 − + − + (6)
8 8.29 8.29.6 8.29.6.8

1
Ba.a:ga:mua.;Ädâ :=e;t,a,
2
:Sa:Ž;Ba.a:ga.ea yaH , .saH ta:d::ma:Ba.a:ga.ea:naH k+a:yRaH Á ta:m,a o;;d
Äâ :=e;t,a Á
3
(:pUa:vRa:sma.a:t,a) Ba.a:ga.a:t,a o;;dÄâ:=e;t,a – I+tya:nua:Sa.$ya:tea Á
Citi: Fire altar

I ;
a. ca: a.taH – Platform constructed of burnt bircks and mud mortar.
I . ca.a:ya:tea A:~ya.a:m,a I+ a.ta ;
a. ca: a.taH : [the locus] unto which things are brought
into [and arranged].
I ;
a. ca (.sMa:vxa:tya.a:d.a:na:ya.eaH )= assembling or fetching together
I Fire altars are of two types. The ones used for

I ;
a.na:tya:k+.mRa —daily ritual.
I k+a:}ya:k+.mRa —intended for specific wish fulfilment.
I The fire altars are of different shapes. They include :pra.Ea:ga:
a. ca: a.ta (isosceles
triangle), o+Ba:ya:taH :pra.Ea:ga:
a. ca: a.ta (rhombus), .=;Ta:.ca:kÒ+.
a. ca: a.ta (chariot wheel),
dÒ:ea:Na:
a. ca: a.ta (a particular type of vessel/water jar), kU+.mRa:
a. ca: a.ta (tortoise),
Zyea:na:
a. ca: a.ta (bird, falcon type), etc.
I Number of bricks used is 1000 (.sa.a:h:~å:òMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta ...), 2000, and 3000.
I Altar has multiples of five layers, with 200 bricks in each layer.
Types of Fire altars (representative list)
I Different types of wish-fulfilling fire-altars are described in Vedas.

C+nd:a.ã(Éa:tMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta :pa:Zua:k+a:maH :pa:Za:va.ea ;vEa C+nd.a>+a.sa :pa:Zua:ma.a:nea:va
Ba:va: a.ta, Zyea:na:
a. ca:tMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta .~va:gRa:k+a:maH Zyea:na.ea ;vEa va:ya:sa.Ma :pra: a.ta:Ž:a
Zyea:na O;:va BUa:tva.a .~va:ga :pa:ta: a.ta . . . :pra.Ea:ga:
a. ca:tMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta Bra.a:txa:v.ya:va.a:n,a ;prEa:va
Bra.a:txa:v.ya.a:n,a nua:d:tea, . . . .=;Ta:.ca:kÒ+.
a. ca:tMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta g{a.a:ma:k+a:maH . . .

I The table below presents a list some of them, along with the
shapes and the purpose as stated in the text.

Name of the citi Its shape Who has to perfom

ãÉa: a.ta
C+nd:a.( Form of a bird Desirous of cattle
ñÍ
,
Zyea:na:
a..ca: a.ta k+.*:+

öÐÅ a..ca: a.ta Form of bird Desirous of heaven

:pra.Ea:ga:
a..ca: a.ta Isoceles triangle Annihilation of rivals
.=;Ta:.ca:kÒ +.
a..ca: a.ta Chariot wheel Desirous of region
dÒ:ea:Na:
a..ca: a.ta Form of a trough Abundance in food
Table : Different citis, their shapes and purpose.
On the height and the shape of citis
Measurements were case-based (based on the performer) and not ‘standardized’

4
I . hitā, prescribing the height of the citi observes:
Taittirı̄ya-sam

.ja.a:nua:d*+ÈîåMÁ ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta :pra:Ta:mMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:naH , ga.a:ya:aˆa:yEa:vea:mMa l;ea:k+.ma:Bya.a.=:ea:h: a.ta,
na.a:a.Ba:d*+ ÈîåMÁ ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta ;a.dõ:ta.a:yMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:naH ;aˆa:u:BEa:va.a:nta:a=;[a:ma:Bya.a.=:ea:h: a.ta,
È
g{a.a:va.a:d*+îåMÁ ;
a. ca:nva.a:ta txa:ta.a:yMa ;
a. ca:nva.a:naH , .ja:ga:tyEa:va.a:mMua l;ea:k+.ma:Bya.a.=:ea:h: a.ta Á
Knee-deep should he pile when he piles for the first time,
and indeed he mounts this world with gāyatrı̄, naval-deep
should he pile when he piles the second time, . . . neck-deep
should he pile when he piles the third time . . .

I Elsewhere (5.5.3) observing on the shape of the fire-altar it is

said that it should be akin to the shadow cast by the bird.
çÉ ú ú 5
va:ya:sa.Ma va.a O;:Sa :pra: a.ta:ma:ya.a ..ca.a:ya:tea ya:d: a.îå
+;aH Á ya:nya.*.a:

ãÁ a*.a:nu
ãÁ a:ya.a:t,a

4
. hitā 5.6.8.
Taittirı̄ya-sam
5
va:ya:sa.Ma va.a O;:Sa :pra: a.ta:ma:ya.a . ca.a:ya:tea o+tpa:ta:ta.Ma C;a:ya:yea:tya:TRaH (BSS.8.5)
Śyenaciti—Falcon-shaped fire-altars
I The origin of Śyenaciti can be traced back to vedas.

I For instance in .sad.vim . śa brāhman.a belonging to sāmaveda,

. . . ya:Ta.a Zyea:na A.a:d:Da.a:ta O;:va:mea:va O;:na:mea:tea:na A.a:d.†ea Á6
A:TEa:Sa Zyea:na

I Another version of the same statement perhaps on another

Brāhman.a which is more popular goes as
ya:Ta.a ;vEa Zyea:na.ea ;
a.na:pa:tya A.a:d.†ea O;:va:mea:va.a:yMa ;a.d
õ :Sa:ntMa Bra.a:txa:v.yMa ;
a.na:pa:tya

A.a:d.†ea Á

I These sentences are cited in the Mı̄mām

. sā text in connection
with the discussion on deciding the meaning of the word śyena
that appears in the vidhi (injunction)

Zyea:nea:na.a:a.Ba:.ca.=;n,a ya.jea:ta Á

6
. śa-brāhman.a 4.2.3.
S.ad.vim
Measurement units used in construction
ñÍ Å
A:Ta.a:*:
ç Åu +l+pra:ma.a:Na:m,a Á ..ca:tua:dR:Za.a:Na:vaH Á ..ca:tua:a.~:M
/a:Za:a†a:l;aH :pxa:Tua:sMa:
a( É
ì;;.a I+tya:pa.=;m,a Á

ñÍ ú
d:Za.a:ç
*:Å +lM [ua:dÒ;pa:d:m,a Á d
õ .a:d:Za :pra.a:de:ZaH Á :pa:dM :pa.ã
*.a:d:Za
Á Á ;a.d
õ :pa:dH :pra:k
Ò +.maH Á d
õ .Ea
u
ú 7
*.a.a.=:a:
:pra.a:de:Za.a:va.=;a.‡aH Á :pa.ã Á a.‡aH :pua.+.SaH Á ..ca:tua.=:=;a.‡a:v.ya.Ra:ya.a:maH Á

= 14 an.u or 34 tila
aṅgula
ks.udrapada = 10aṅgula
prādeśa = 12aṅgula
pada = 15aṅgula
prakrama = 30aṅgula
aratni = 2prādeśa = 24aṅgula
vyāyāma = 4aratni
purus.a = 5aratni

7
Baudhāyana-śulbasūtra,1.3
Construction of Śyenaciti (Type 1)
Types of bricks: 1, 2 and 3

I Bricks of geometrical shapes other than rectilinear are needed.

I The five types of bricks used:
1. B1 —one-fourth brick (caturthı̄)—30 × 30 aṅgulas; i.e., a
square whose side is 14 pu.
2. B2 —half brick (ardhā)—obtained by cutting the one-fourth
square brick diagonally;
√ each of 2 sides equals aṅgulas and
the hypotenuse 30 30 2 aṅgulas
3. B3 —quarter brick (pādyā)—obtained by
√ cutting B1
diagonally; each of 2 sides equals 15 2 aṅgulas and
hypotenuse 30 aṅg.
30 30
A D A D A D

30 2
2
30
15
B C B C B C
30
B1 B2 B3
Types of bricks: 4 and 5

15 2
I B4 —four-sided quarter 15

brick (caturaśra-pādyā)—of E D
sides equal to 22 21 , 15, 7 12 72
✑
√ B C
and 15 2 aṅg. The area is 15

B4
15 × 15 aṅg, the same as
that of B3 . A

I B5 —(ham . samukhı̄)- half 15 2

brick obtained by joining

two B4 s, along their B E
1
common longest side. 7
2
C F D
30
B5
Outline of body and head of Śyena

E F 45
A D

A 30 D

L G
30

1
82
2
240

K
H C
B 60
45

B C
J I
150
Śyenaciti: Falcon-shape

000
111
000
111
000
111 000
111
000
111 111
000
000
111
111
000
000
111 000
111
000
111
00
11
00
11
000
111
000
111 000
111
00
11
00
11
000
111
00
11
00
11
000
111
00
11
000
111
000
111 00
11
000
111
00
11
000
111 000
111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
Number of bricks used

æ
Å
O;:vMa :Sa.*:+tva.a:
ãÅ a=M;Za:d.a:tma:
a.na Á ;a.Za.=;a.sa . ca:tua:dR:Za Á d
õ .a:aˆMa:Za:tpua:.cCe Á :pa:[a:ya.ea.=;:Za:ta:m,a Á
ú
A:a.sma:n,
/////// a :pra:~ta.a:=e ãÉa:tua:TyRaH Á
na:va:Sa:a.:( A:Da.Ra d
õ .a:sa:‹a: a.taH :pa.a:dù;a.a
Å ;a.d
õ :pa.*.a.a:Za:t,
ãÁ a Á

:Sa:f
, ..ca:tua.=;(ra:pa.a:dù;a.a
Å Á O;:k+a hM:sa:mua:Ka.a Á

Parts of the citi B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 Total

Head 1 6 6 1 14
Body 30 6 10 46
Wings 30 62 16 108
Tail 8 4 20 32
Total 69 72 52 6 1 200
Śyenaciti: second layer
Number of bricks used in the second layer

Parts B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 Total
Head 10 10
Body 12 28 4 4 48
Wings 48 28 34 110
Tail 8 4 18 2 32
Total 68 70 56 6 200
Fabrication of bricks
Ingredients to be added to the mixture of clay employed in manufacting the bricks

ëÐÅ å
I :pa:NRa:k+.Sa.a:ya:
a.na:Spa:*:+a
ëÐÁ // Á .~Tea:}î:ae nvea:va Á
O;:ta.a A.a:pa.ea Ba:va:a.nta ...
I Extracts of gum from certain trees (palāśa)
å
I A:Ta A.ja:l;ea:mEaH .sMa:sxa.ja: a.ta Á .~Tea:}î:ae nvea:va Á
...
I Hair of the goat, of a bullock, horse, etc.
å 8
I Za:kR +=:a:Zma.a:h.ea .=;saH .tea:na .sMa:sxa.ja: a.ta Á .~Tea:}î:ae nvea:va Á

I Fine powder of burnt bricks ..

I o+K.ya:Ba:sma:na.a .sMa:sxa.$ya I+:k+aH k+a.=;yea:a.d: a.ta Á .sMa:va:tsa.=;Bxa:taH O;:va

9
Å a Á na .=:a:aˆa:Bxa:taH Á
u :pa:pa:dù;a:te
O;:ta:d
The above process of strengthening is in practice till date.10

8
Śatapatha brāhman.a, 6.5.1.1–6.
9
Baudhāyana Śulbasūtra, 2.78–79
10
The addition of fly ash as well as pozzuolana is well known in the
manufacture of cement.
Fabrication of bricks
Handling the contraction in size of the brick (Sun’s heat + Burning in the kiln)

I There will be reduction in the size of the moulded bricks:

I I+:k+a Za.ea:Sa:pa.a:k+a:Bya.Ma ;aˆMa:Za:n}å.a.a:na.a.†ua h.a:ya:tea Á 11

I Different Śulbasūtra texts suggest different measures to

handle this problem of contraction

I .sa:d.a ..ca ;aˆMa:Za:kM Ba.a:gMa I+:k+a :h:sa:tea kx +.ta.a Á

ò
12
ta.a:va:t,a .sa:ma: a.Da:kM k+a:ya k+=;NMa .sa:ma:a.ma:.cC+ta.a Á Á
I Appropriately increase the size of the mould.
I ya:.cC;ea:Sa:pa.a:k+a:Bya.Ma :pra: a.ta:h:sea:t,a :pua.=:a:Sea:Na ta:t,a .sMa:pUa.=;yea:t,a
ò
, :pua.=:a:Sa:~ya
13
A:
a.na:ya:ta:pa:a=;ma.a:Na:tva.a:t,a Á
I Compensate the loss with the mortar.

11
Mānava Śulbasūtra, 10.3.4.17
12
Mānava Śulbasūtra, 10.2.5.2
13
Baudhāyana Śulbasūtra, 2.60
Constructional Details
Specifications regarding the arrangement of bricks in different layers

I Bea:d.a:n,a va.jRa:yea:t,a Á
I Here the word “bheda” does not simply mean
difference/distinction (in fact, this has to be maintained).
I What is meant is a clear segregation between two rows
across all the layers. This is to be avoided.
I Joints should be disjoint! (not continuous)
I A:Da.=:ea.†a.=;ya.eaH :pa.a.(õ;Ra:sa:nDa.a:nMa Bea:d.a I+ a.ta o+pa:a.d:Za:a.n
/
14
ta Á

I The etymology could be: Bea:d:he:tua:BUa:ta:tva.a:t,a Bea:dH Á

å ñÍ
I A:mxa:n}.a:ya.a:a.BaH A:
a.na::k+a:a.BaH É +;a.
na .sa:*
Ë ù Ma :pUa.=;yea:t,a Á
Á
I (Arbitrary) foreign material should not be employed to fill
the gaps.
The above-mentioned are very important principles from the
view point of civil engineering.

14
BSS. 2.22–23. (RPK’s Book)
General observations
I The purpose for which the geometry got developed in the Indian context
is construction and transformation of planar figures.
I We saw that Bodhāyana (prior to 800 BCE) not merely listed the
so-called ‘Pythagorean’ triplets, but also gave the theorem in the form of
an explicit statement.
I Extensive applications of the theorem in the context of scaling and
transformation of geometrical figures was also discussed.
I Though Śulbakāras did not explicitly give proofs—which anyway was
NOT a part of their “oral” tradition (of the antiquity)—it is evident from
several applications discussed, that the proof is implicit.
I From the view point of history it may also be worth recalling:

Antiquity? Though the Babylonians of 2nd millenium BCE had

listed triplets in cuneiform tablets, there is no general
statement in the form of a theorem.
Pythagorean? Since there is hardly any evidence to show Pythagoras
himself was the discoverer of the theorem, some of the
careful historians call it Pythagorean theorem.
General observations
I It may be reiterated that Śulbasūtra texts were primarily meant for
assisting the Vedic priest in the construction of altars designed for the
performance of a variety of sacrifices.
I However, these texts shed a lot of light from the view point of
development of mathematics in the antiquity, particularly the use of
arithmetic and albegra, besides geometry.
Use of fractions The expressions used by the Śulvakāras for expressing
surds—in terms of sums of fractions, leading to a
remarkable accuracy15 —is quite interesting.
Use of algebra The rules and operations described by them in the
context of scaling geometrical figures unambiguously
demonstrate the use of algebraic equation.
I The different citis not only speak of the aesthetic sense, but also of the
creativity and ingenuity of Śulvakāras to work with several constraints
imposed—both in terms of area and volume.
I The archaeological excavations at Kausambi (UP) seems to have
revealed a Śyenaciti constructed around 200 BCE .

15
√
Five decimal places in the case of 2.
References

I Kātyāyana-śulbasūtram, with the comm. of Karka and

Mahı̄dhara, Kashi Sanskrit Series, No. 120. (1900?)
[digital version from Univ. of Toronto].
I B. B. Datta and A. N. Singh, ‘Hindu Geometry’, Indian
Journal of History of Science, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1979,
pp. 121–188.
I S. N. Sen and A. K. Bag, The Śulbasūtras, INSA, New
Delhi 1983.
I Bibhutibhushan Datta, Ancient Hindu Geometry, The
Science of Śulba, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi 1993.
I T. A. Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medieval
India, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1979; Rep. 2007.
Thanks!

T HANK YOU