HYAP 322 – INTRODUCTION  Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and

HYDROLOGY Astronomical Services Administration

ENGR. JESSA MAE A. GOMEZ, CE  The agency concerned with weather conditions.
PART I - DESCRIPTIVE HYDROLOGY
Meteorology and Climatology are related to Hydrology
OUTLINE
since weather of a region governs many of its hydrologic
o HYDROLOGY (DEFINITION & IMPORTANCE)
features through rain, snow, evaporation, heat, cold
o SCIENCE ALLIED TO HYDROLOGY
and wind.
o HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
HYDROLOGY
• Hydrology is affected materially by the physical
o The science that treats of the waters of the features of the earth’s surface.
earth, their occurrence, circulation and
• From Geography, knowledge is obtained of
distribution, their chemical and physical
mountains that may increase or obstruct
properties, their reaction to environment,
precipitation, of steep slopes that may increase
including their relation to the living things.
run-off, and of lakes and swamps that may store
o Hydrology is an extremely important field of and retard run-off.
study, dealing with one of the most valuable
AGRONOMY AND FORESTRY
resources on Earth: water. All aspects of the
Earth’s available water are studied by experts  Hydrology is also concerned with the character
from many disciplines, and distribution of vegetable cover in a locality.
from geologists to engineers, to obtain the  Vegetation has an important effect on the rate
information needed to manage this vital of run-off, the amount of water evaporated,
resource. and the ability of the soil cover two infiltrate
water.
Hydrology is dependent on some Allied Sciences such as
the following: GEOLOGY AND SOIL SCIENCE
1. Meteorology and Climatology • The distribution of water on and within the
2. Physical Geography earth’s surface is greatly affected by the
3. Agronomy and Forestry composition of the earth’s crust.
4. Geology and Soil Sciences
5. Oceanography OCEANOGRAPHY
6. Hydraulics  Oceans and great inland bodies are nature’s
reservoirs from which moisture is brought to
METEOROLOGY land surface by way of the atmosphere.
• The Science which deals with the atmospheric HYDRAULICS
phenomenon and the basic laws that produce
atmosphere, the agent through which many of  The Sciences (Hydrology & Hydraulics) overlap
the hydrologic characteristics are brought to such extent that it becomes a matter of
about. opinion which procedure can be called purely
hydrology, and which purely hydraulic.
CLIMATOLOGY  The steady flow of water in river channels, the
 The subdivision of Meteorology which deals transmission of flood waves, the infiltration of
with the means and extremes of weather water into the ground, etc. involve hydraulics
phenomenon. principles.

PAG-ASA HYDROLOGY AND ITS RELATION TO WATER

RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
The most important use of Hydrology in Water 5. Interception – the suspension of a portion of the
Resources Engineering is in the structural and hydraulic precipitation by vegetation.
design of water control structures, municipal and
6. Run-off – the flow of water on the earth’s surface due
industrial water supply, irrigation structures, power
to the action of gravity.
development, flood control, river navigation, erosion
control and in pollution abatement. 7. Percolation – the downward movement of water into
the ground.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
8. Infiltration – the underground movement of water to
The hydrologic cycle is the unending circulation of water
the deeper zone to join groundwater.
from the seas to the atmosphere, to the ground surface
back to the seas again. 9. Transpiration – the process wherein moisture is
released into the air by the leaves of the plants.
The process of water circulation may be discussed in the
following steps: 10. Storage – the accumulation of water in the oceans,
seas or in man-made reservoirs.
o Evaporation of water from the surface of seas
and oceans, lakes, swamps; from the surface of PART II – PRECIPITATION
the soil, and from the leaves of plants through
OUTLINE
transpiration.
o FORMS & KINDS OF PRECIPITATION
o Lifting of the moisture to the atmosphere and
o OCCURENCES & DISPOSAL OF PRECIPITATION
its condensation. Lifting may be orographic,
cyclonic or convective. o RAINFALL MEASUREMENTS
o COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL
o Falling of water to the earth’s surface as
precipitation. PRECIPITATION
o Includes all water which fall from the
o Part of precipitation after interception of the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface.
foliage evaporates to the atmosphere.
o It is always expressed as the depth of liquid
o Part of precipitation runs-off the ground water on a horizontal surface in a day, in a
surface going to the rivers and streams. month, or a year, and so designated as daily,
monthly or annual precipitation.
o Part of precipitation soaks into the ground,
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
some infiltrates to the deeper zones which may
Depending upon meteorological conditions,
join the groundwater, while some may flow as
precipitation occurs mainly in two forms:
spring to streams and eventually lead back the
1. Liquid precipitation - which runs-off to the
water to the seas and oceans from it originated.
streams soon after it reaches the ground. It is
To summarize, the following are the processes that the cause of most floods.
composed the Hydrologic Cycle: 2. Frozen precipitation - that remains where it
falls for a long time before it melts.
1. Evaporation – the transfer of water from liquid to
vapor state. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF
2. Lifting – the process of bringing to the atmosphere PRECIPITATION ARE AS FOLLOWS:
the evaporated water. 1. Rain – when the water droplets are over 0.5
mm in diameter.
3. Condensation – the change of moisture from vapor 2. Drizzle – when the water droplets are under 0.5
to liquid state. mm in diameter and of intensity less than 1 mm
4. Precipitation – the fall of moisture from the per hour.
atmosphere to the earth’s surface. 3. Dew – it is found by the condensation of water
vapor present in the air due to the cooling of
the ground surface and of the air immediately
 above it. Dew are tiny drops of water that form the influence of coastal mountain ranges the
on cool surfaces at night, when atmospheric cooling and condensation processes take place
vapor condenses. and precipitation occurs at the windward slopes
4. Fog – consists of water droplets so small and of the mountains.
with negligible fall velocities that they stay in • Precipitation is heavier on the windward slopes
the atmosphere at or near the earth’s surface than on the leeward sides. Orographic
which obscures or restricts visibility. Fog precipitation is ordinarily of low intensity unless
particles which come in contact with vegetation it is associated with cyclonic or convective
may adhere and coalesce with other droplets action.
that they eventually form a large drop to fall on
the ground and is called fog drips. 3. Cyclonic Precipitation
5. Glaze – it is drizzle or rain frozen as it comes in • It is the precipitation associated with the
contact with cold objects at water surface. passages of depressions or cyclones. It results
6. Sleet – it is frozen raindrops cooled to ice stage from the lifting of air converging into a low-
while falling through air at sub-freezing pressure area, or cyclones (circular are of low
temperature. atmospheric pressure in which the wind blow
7. Snow – it is precipitation from the atmosphere counterclockwise).
in the form of branched hexagonal crystals, • Intense cyclonic circulation causes a
often mixed with simple ice crystals, which fall concentration or converge of moisture-bearing
more or less continuously from a solid clout air which may result in heavy and prolonged
sheet. precipitation.
PRECIPITATION OCCURENCE
8. Snow Flakes – it is the form of a number of ice
• Water vapor, from which precipitation is
crystals fused together.
derived, is present in the atmosphere as a gas,
KINDS OF PRECIPITATION in varying amount at all times.
Precipitation is often classified according to the • About one-half of the total moisture in the
factor responsible for the lifting of air masses, as the atmosphere is located below an altitude of 2000
following: meters. The moisture content decreases with
the altitude.
1. Convective Precipitation • The amount of water vapor which a given
• It results from the upward movement of the air quantity of air can hold varies with
that is warmer than its surroundings. The effect temperature. Warm air can retain a large
maybe caused by the difference between hot amount of moisture without this moisture
bare fields and cool woods; between land and tending to condense, bit if the temperature is
lake; or between streets and roofs of the city lowered, a certain point is reached when the
that is warmer than the surrounding moisture tends to separate out, generally in the
countryside. form of cloud or condensed particles of vapor.
• Convective precipitation is spotty, and its • Air at this temperature, called the dew point,
intensity varies from light showers to cloud the air is said to be saturated.
burst, depending on the temperature and • The wetness of the air under any condition is
moisture condition. This process accounts for known as the relative humidity.
the formation of most thunderstorms. •
2. Orographic Precipitation DISPOSAL OF PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation caused by dynamic cooling of air
Precipitation that reaches the surface of the earth is
as an air current rises over a mountain barrier is
disposed off by the following processes:
termed as orographic or mountain type
1. Run-off
precipitation.
2. Evaporation
• When moisture-bearing winds, usually blowing
3. Percolation
from oceans to land surface are forced up by
 percolation, and run-off is affected by
the condition of the land surface such
THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE DISPOSAL OF
as whether it is bare, vegetated or
PRECIPITATION ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
cultivated.
1. Meteorological Conditions
3. Storage Characteristics
o Precipitation. Precipitation disposal
Lakes, artificial reservoirs, swamps, etc.,
depends on the amount, intensity,
tend to increase water losses due to greater
occurrence, on the area covered and
evaporation from water areas compared to land
seasonal distribution of precipitation
areas.
throughout the year.
Water losses comprise the difference
o Temperature. The disposal of
between run-off and precipitation. They take
precipitation is affected by the place from water surface as well as land areas.
temperature because evaporation and
transpiration losses increased with Evaporation from water areas is the process
temperature, being the minimum under which a portion of water near its surface
during winter and maximum during is changed to gaseous state or water vapor. This
summer. changed is affected by the following factors:

o Relative Humidity. It also affects 1. Vapor pressure difference

evaporation which is more less inversely 2. Temperature of the air and water
proportional to humidity. 3. Relative humidity
4. Atmospheric pressure
o Wind. Wind velocity affects the amount 5. Wind velocity
of evaporation and interception losses. 6. Water depth
2. Drainage-area Characteristics 7. Water surface area
8. Water quality
Drainage area, or river basin, or The water losses on account of the evaporation of
catchment, or watershed is the area tributary rainfall at or just below the ground surface is termed
to a given point of a stream and is separated soil evaporation. It depends upon the following:
from adjacent basin by a divide or ridge. 1. Land surface condition
Some of its characteristics that affect disposal of 2. Soil & subsoil characteristics
precipitation are: 3. Temperature
4. Relative humidity
 Topography. The disposal of 5. Wind velocity
precipitation is greatly affected by the 6. Slope of the ground
slopes of the land surface.

 Size and Shape of catchment. The size

and shape of the drainage area also
determine the rate of disposal of
precipitation.

 Geology. The disposal of precipitation is

influenced by the character of the
surface and subsurface conditions such
as perviousness, depth of strata,
presence of faults, fissures, etc.
Water losses per annum due to evaporation of rainfall
 Conditions of surface area. The rate of
caught and held in suspension by vegetation which is
disposal of precipitation by evaporation,
evaporated before reaching the ground is known as 3. Self-recording Rain Gauge - These are used to
interception. determine rates of rainfall over short period of
time.
It varies with the kind of storm and the kind of
vegetation. - They give continuous records of rainfall in the form of
a pen trace on a clock-driven chart.
The percentage of interception losses is highest, nearly
100% in light showers and about25% under heavy rains. THE KINDS OF RECORDING RAIN GAGE ARE:

Interception is measured by instruments called a). Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge – the most common
interceptometers. type. It has a bucket supported by a spring or lever
balance.

- Movement of the bucket is transmitted to a pen which

traces a record of the increasing weight of the bucket
and its content on a clock driven chart.

b) Tipping Bucket Rain Gage – consists of a pair of

bucket pivoted under a funnel in such a way that when
Potometer one bucket receives 0.25 mm (0.01”) of rain, it tips
discharging its contents into a reservoir and bringing the
other bucket under the funnel. A recording mechanism
RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
indicates the time of occurrence of its tip.
• Rainfall is described as the total liquid product
- Consists of 30 cm dia. sharp edge receiver.
or condensation from the atmosphere as
received and measured in a rain gage (the - At the end of receiver funnel is provided.
instrument used for measuring rainfall).
- Under the funnel a pair of buckets are pivoted (the
• The amount of precipitation is expressed as the central point which balances) in such away that when
depth in inches or millimeters which falls on a one bucket receives 0.25 mm (0.01”) of rainfall it tips (to
level surface. fall or turn over), discharging its contents into reservoir
bringing another bucket under funnel.
The following causes are favorable to abundant rainfall
- Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing
1. Proximity to the ocean or large areas of water
the movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving
2. Mountain formations
drum which carries a record sheet.
3. Winds
4. Location on or near the tract of cyclones c) Float type Rain Gauge – it has 127 mm funnel, a
rectangular float chamber containing at its bottom a
TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES light, hollow float. As the water level rises, in the
1. Standard rain gauge. - It consists of a funnel chamber, the float also rises. The movement is
200 mm (8”) in diameter and discharging into a transmitted through a suitable mechanism to a pen
tube having an area of one-tenth of the funnel when moves a revolving chart to give a mass diagram of
and a measuring stick used to determine the the rainfall.
height of water in the tube. The reading divided
by 10, is the rainfall. Precipitation in excess of ADVANTAGES OF SELF-RECORDING RAIN GAUGE
50 mm (2”) overtops the inner tube and collects 1. Automatic recording of rainfall obviates he
in the overflow can. necessity of attendant.
2. Storage gauge - These are large rain gages used 2. It indicates intensity as well as the total amount
in remote areas to catch and store rain fall for of rainfall.
periods of 30 days or more. 3. Very useful in obtaining the data from the
inaccessible places.
4. The elements of human error is eliminated.
 5. The capacity of the gages is big.
6. It also measures the time duration of rainfall.

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL BY RADAR

 Radars are versatile instruments for measuring
rainfall.
 Estimations are made by photographic or
electronic integration of echoes ware then
correlated with the measured rainfall. The
amount reflected is dependent on the raindrop
size and the distance from the transmitter.
 One radar is capable of measuring rainfall to a
range of about 100 km with the accuracy as is
obtainable with 100 rain gages with network
commonly used for climatological purposes.
Thiessen polygon method
COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN - It is also called the weighted mean method. It
• The rainfall measurements, recorded at various consists of constructing a Thiessen Network by
rain gauge stations are then converted into connecting adjacent stations on a map by
aerial area. straight lines and erecting perpendicular to each
• If one rain gauge is used, the rainfall is applied connecting line.
over the area. - The polygon formed by the perpendicular
• Where more than one rain gauge is used, the bisectors around a station encloses area which
following methods may be employed to is everywhere closer to that station than to any
determine the average rainfall over a basin: other station.
 Arithmetic Unweighted mean Method - This area is assumed to be best represented by
 Thiessen Polygon Method the precipitation at the enclosed station, often a
 Isohyetal Method reasonable assumption, but may not always be
correct.
Arithmetic Unweighted Mean Method
- It is the simplest method of working out the - To compute the average rainfall, multiply the
equivalent average depth of rainfall over the area of each polygon by the rain gage value of
catchment area by taking simple arithmetic the station enclosed, find the total area of the
mean of the rainfall records at various gage watershed, and determine the average rainfall
stations irrespective of the area covered by from the equation:
each station. A 1 P1 + A 2 P2 + A 3 P 3 … … .+ A n Pn
- The results obtained by this method involve - Pav =
A1 + A2 +… … .. A n
large errors if the rain gages are not distributed
uniformly over the area and if there are
differences of topography or rainfall rates also
in actual storm situation.
P 1+ P2 + P3 +… … ..+ Pn
Pav =
n
Continuation:
Sample problem

In a catchment area with given boundaries, area (km 2)

covered by each station and precipitations (cm) for
every station, determine the average precipitation by
Thiessen method by completing the table.

Isohyetal method

- It is perhaps the most accurate method of

determining the average depth of precipitation.
- This method consists of preparing isohyetal map
of the area using the rainfall reading at various
rain gauge stations, finding the areas enclosed
between successive isohyets (lines connecting
points of equal rainfall) by means of a
planimeter or graphing paper, and multiplying
these areas by the average precipitation
between the isohyets.
- The sum of these products divided by the total
area is the average precipitation over the basin.